Notified iu G>0> dated 31st July, 1942.
NOT TO BE PUBLISHED*
AUSTRALIAN MILITARY FORCES
Volunteer Defence Corps Manual
PAMPHLET No. 12.
ANTI-AIRCRAFT
(INCLUDING AIRCRAFT RECOGNITION)
1942
(Amended to June, 1942)
Crown Copyright Reserved
1588B.
By authority: Ramsay. Ware Publishing Pty. Ltd., 117-129 King Street. Melbourne.
CONTENTS
Introductory ........................................... 1
PART I.	Anti-aircpaft Defence
Section	1.	Air, Attack versus	Ground	Defence ....	2
Section	2.	Training.................................... 4
Section	’J.	When to Fire................................ 7
Section	4.	Tracer Ammunition........................... 8
Section	5.	Anti-aircraft Practice	Firing............... 9
PART II.	Aircraft Recognition
Section 6.
Section 7.
Section 8.
Section 9.
Section 10.
Section 11.
Section 12.
A Word to Instructors....................... 10
Method That is Not a “System”............... 11
Parts of an Aircraft........................ 12
Classification of Aircraft.................. 15
Ways and Means of Instruction............... 20
Codes You Can Quickly De-code............... 22
Aircraft of First Importance to be Taught
and Brief Descriptions...................... 25
Plates I.	Description of Aircraft................ 14
II.	Wing Types............................. 16
III.	Tail Fin Types......................... 17
IV.	Tail Plane Types....................... 18
V.	Nose Types............................. 19
VI.	Simple “Shadowgraph”................... 64
Appendix “A” Notes on Construction of Solid Scale
Models.................................................. 59
“B” Glossary of R.A.A.F. Slang................ 63
VOLUNTEER DEFENCE CORPS MANUAL.
Sec. XVII.—Ser. 93.
Distribution.
L.H.Q.
“G” Branch................................. 10
“A” Branch................................. 10
“Q” Branch.................................. 5
“O” Branch.................................. 5
V.D.C................................Scale	“C”
Prepared by the General Staff, L.H.Q. (Aust.)
and issued under the direction of the
Chief of the General Staff.
1
PRELIMINARY INTRODUCTION.
All Commanders must realise and appreciate the difference
between passive and active anti-aircraft defence. They must
explain it to their men, giving clear reasoning for each method.
As a general rule, passive defence is the better of the two,
unless the aircraft is definitely attacking you or troops in
your vicinity.
The best range at which to engage aircraft is about 1,000
feet, NOT 1,000 yards.
The closer the plane is to you the more chance you have of
hitting it. Aircraft should not be engaged unless they are
definitely attacking you or your neighbouring units.
INTRODUCTORY
1.	The general principles of anti-aircraft defence have been
described in Field Service Regulations and Infantry Training.
Since the outbreak of the present war, certain additions and
amendments have been recorded in various Army Training
Memoranda (British and Australian).
To assist Commanders and Instructors, this information is
now embodied in this pamphlet together with relative extracts
from Infantry Training 1937 and F.S.R. Volume II 1938, which
are summarized and brought up to date.
2.	The subject matter has been grouped in two parts.
Part I contains information obtained from various sources, in-
cluding the Royal Air Force and Royal Australian Air Force,
providing essential training notes not included in the above-
mentioned text-books, but which are under present day con-
ditions a vital part of the syllabus in anti-aircraft defensive
and offensive training.
Part II concerns training in Recognition of Aircraft. It must
be clear that the key to all successful anti-aircraft training
is early recognition of aircraft and the principle that “offence
is the best means of defence” applies equally in the cases of
aircraft as in the case of ground forces. In presenting the
subject of Recognition separately therefore, it is emphasised
that this is not a subject which can be approached in a hap-
hazard manner; nor is it a subject which can be mastered by
committing a number of facts to memory.
To learn to be able to recognise different types of aircraft
is difficult enough; it is even a harder task to teach others how
to acquire the art of swift and accurate recognition. It is
essential therefore that the principles of Aircraft Recognition
2
should be soundly taught in the initial stages of training. If
they are not taught properly at the start, the task of adding
to this first knowledge is made even more difficult. The notes
in Part II are compiled with a view to assisting instructors in
this subject. Some instructors may feel that their methods are
better, others may be grateful for them.
3.	The “aids” referred to in Part II are suggestions only.
Some are in process of production for distribution to units.
The enthusiastic instructor will invent others.
PART I.
Section 1—AIR ATTACK VERSUS GROUND
DEFENCE.
4.	OUT OF THE BLUE.
Aircraft attack and reconnoitre ground targets from various
heights. Many aircraft are well out of range of Small Arms
fire and must be dealt with in other ways, such as by fighters,
heavy and light anti-aircraft guns, etc.
Others, such as low level bombing and reconnaissance, dive
bombing and machine-gunning aircraft, operate at lower heights
and, if at under 2,000 ft., present very suitable targets for
Small Arms anti-aircraft fire.
Hostile aircraft, when making low level attacks, frequently
present themselves “head-on/’ where recognition is most diffi-
cult.
5.	THE VISITORS’ COLOURS.
National markings offer a means of identification, but it
must be remembered that such markings are only recognis-
able at close range, and should therefore serve only as con-
firmation.
National markings are difficult to recognise much over
1,000 ft. even in clear weather and at 2,000 ft. (the critical
height), the existence of markings is discernible, but details
cannot be recognised except by the use of field glasses. This
subject of recognition is elaborated in Part II of the pamphlet.
6.	HOW SURPRISING!
It will invariably be the aim of hostile aircraft to effect
surprise; this may be obtained by three methods:
(i)	An attack OUT OF THE SUN.
(ii)	Use of LOW-LYING CLOUDS.
(iii)	Sudden appearance over WOODED HILLS.
If anti-aircraft defence is to be effective, speed in the giving
ff warning and immediate action is necessary. Attacks may
be made by a single machine or by numbers of machines all
converging from different directions. Constant vigilance and
quick movement must at all times be the watchword.
Strict fire discipline is a decisive factor and must be prac-
tised over and over again, until a high state of efficiency is
shown by all officers, and other ranks, in all units.
7.	CONTROL OF THE TEAM.
All available small arms weapons will open tire on attack-
ing aircraft within their range, for the very good reason that
enemy airmen dislike being fired at by Heavy and Light A.A.
as much as the ground defences dislike being bombed. But
fire against aircraft must, under no consideration, be allowed
to be indiscriminate; it will always be controlled, preferably by
platoon commanders, but sometimes owing to wide deployment,
this duty will rest with Section Commanders.
ON NO ACCOUNT MUST TROOPS BE ALLOWED TO
TAKE COVER AND DO NOTHING.
Captured documents reveal that the Germans have issued
this same instruction to their own troops.
8.	LOW CUNNING.
Against “air” targets, as on the ground, fire opened too
soon is usually ineffective, and gives away your own position
to the enemy.
Regarding your own “position.” Remember that with Small
Arms and Light A.A. defence the dive bomber attacks what
he sees at the time. It may be dust, it may be a gun flash,
genuine or otherwise, but he is not relying on photographic
reconnaissance solely. This lesson has been learned in the
Middle East and in the near North of Australia. Camouflage
with anti-aircraft defence is the art of misleading the enemy
as to which A.A. position is occupied, rather than hiding the
A.A. from air observation.
9.	ON THE MOVE.
In the case of direct air attack on a column on the move,
the column should continue its move, and the attacking air-
craft should be engaged by L.M.G.’s mounted on vehicles at in-
tervals down the column (provided the aircraft comes within
range, unless, in the opinion of the Commander, to do so would
entail heavy casualties. Guiding factors will be—
(i)	The nature of the country.
(ii)	The density of the column.
(iii)	The scale of the enemy attack.
The Commander, when appreciating the situation, must con-
sider, whether his object is to arrive at his destination at an
appointed time, in which case he should be prepared to accept
4
some casualties to attain that object. The Commander’s inten-
tion in this respect will be made known and responsibility for
suitable action delegated to junior commanders as necessary.
Should dispersion be considered necessary, it should be
IMMEDIATE and effected down to the fire unit. When move-
ment has been stopped, it must be resumed at the earliest
moment.
10.	WHO’S WHO.
It must be emphasised to all ranks that care must be taken
not to interfere with the activities of our own army co-opera-
tion aircraft. At the present time these may be of several
types and their role is an essential part of any successful opera-
tion. They form a means of communication between comman-
ders and staff officers for observing and directing the move-
ments of forward troops, and in consequence often fly low
and well within range of small arms fire.
11.	COOL HEADS COUNT.
Personnel detailed for anti-aircraft defence must not allow
themselves to be distracted from their primary role. This is
a polite way of saying that personal bravery is very necessary
when gun detachments are face to face with an enemy air-
craft who is machine-gunning them. The A.A. gunner must,
if he is going to survive, shoot fast enough and straight enough
to make the enemy pilot take avoiding action. This requires
a high standard of morale and courage.
L.M.G.’s with a primary role of A.A. defence must remain
in that role as long as the situation on the ground permits.
Vice versa in the case of L.M.G.’s with a primary role of ground
defence.
12.	HUMAN CARGOES.
A.A. personnel must be on the alert for descending enemy
parachute troops, and for the aircraft which carry them. Para-
chute troops generally leave their aeroplane at heights under
1,000 ft. (usually 300-500 ft.) using parachutes opened by a
line attached to the aeroplane. This low height gives them
added opportunities for surprise and the time of descent will
be little more than 15 seconds. During the descent they are
vulnerable and for about three minutes afterwards while they
are getting clear of their parachutes and collecting weapons
and containers. They usually descend in larger numbers than
six at one time. Less than six are probably crews of damaged
aircraft who jump from greater heights to give their para-
chutes time to open.
5
Section 2—TRAINING.
13.	MORALE IS BUILT, NOT BORN.
The foregoing Section dealt with certain facts and principles
which must be taken into account in training. The obvious dif-
ficulty in training for anti-aircraft combat by ground forces is
that of getting realism into the work. Being bombed or
machine-gunned, like having a baby, is not an experience for
which completely realistic rehearsals are possible; but train-
ing must go on to build up morale and the spirit of offensive
action against the day when morale will be the deciding factor
in this form of action.
All forms of air attack — high level and dive bombing,
machine-gunning by fighters, machine-gunning by bombers—are
disconcerting and alarming; and all forms are surprisingly in-
effective in inflicting casualties. It is probably no exaggera-
tion to say that, in forward areas, it has taken the Luftwaffe,
even when completely unopposed in the air, anything between
50 and 100 bombs to kill one man. Do troops know these things?
The moral effect of air action is, however, out of all pro-
portion to the damage it does. This moral effect cannot, even
in seasoned troops, be completely nullified; but it can, and
should, be reduced substantially by imaginative training.
14.	SUMMARISING.
Here are the principles. Observe them in training:—
(i)	Although the section or corresponding sub-unit is the
normal fire unit, dispersion may, in a heavy hostile air
attack, have to be extended down to groups of 3 or 4 men.
Whatever the dispersion, fire will always be controlled
by the senior officer, N.C.O., or man.
(ii)	Concentrated air attack can, at the most, only delay
movement. Dive bombing is effective against material
targets and may have considerable moral effects against
inexperienced troops, but the casualties inflicted on per-
sonnel are surprisingly few when all ranks understand
the principles of anti-aircraft defence, and realise that
small arms fire, when controlled, is effective, not only
in bringing down aircraft, but in raising the morale of
the firer and imposing caution on enemy pilots.
(iii)	Personnel below ground level rarely suffer casualties
from air attack. The question of digging slit trenches
on arrival in new positions will depend upon the situa-
tion at the time and the decision will rest with Com-
manders. When siting such trenches, cover from air
observation is essential. The subsequent widening and
inclusion of a fire step for ground defence she aid always
be borne in mind.
6
(iv)	Where anti-aircraft L.M.G. posts have to be established,
the use of natural camouflage with frequent change of
position is preferable to ’weapon pits or slit trenches.
Dummy positions should be erected wherever possible,
not so well camouflaged, and some device that may simu-
late gunflash and dust included.
It cannot be emphasised too often that successful anti-air-
craft action depends on:—
(a)	Early recognition of the type of aircraft approaching
and whether enemy or friendly.
(b)	Measures to ensure that all weapons detailed for A.A.
purposes are able to open fire in a matter of seconds.
(c)	Strict control of the maximum volume of fire, so that
fire is opened only when the target is in the easiest posi-
tion.
(v)	Small arms fire is not effective against aircraft at a
range beyond 2,000 ft. To be able to judge whether air-
craft is within range is of vital importance, and effi-
ciency can alone be obtained by constant practice by all
ranks. No opportunity should be lost, whenever our
own machines are in the air, of estimating the range.
(Only in certain circumstances is it possible at pre-
sent to arrange for demonstration flights by the
R.A.A.F. Such demonstrations are invaluable in the
training of air sentries and gunners, and for practice by
all ranks in the estimation of ranges.)
(vi)	Vehicles, when halted, should be as widely dispersed as
possible and should be well concealed in small groups of
from five to two. Camouflage nets should be opened up
whenever vehicles are halted, and fire should not be
opened unless there is some certainty that the vehicles
have been spotted. As in all other cases of anti-aircraft
defence, fire must be rigidly controlled and should be
withheld until the last moment.
(vii)	In the case of troops at the halt having the advantage of
concealed position, this advantage must not be sacrificed
by unnecessary movement or by premature opening of
fire. Definite orders must be given as to the circum-
stances under which fire is to be opened.
(viii)	The principle of anti-aircraft protection as applied to
troops on the move is that marching troops will dis-
perse on the order of the Commander and only by so
doing to bring a maximum of controlled rifle and small
arms fire to bear on attacking aircraft within range.
Mot *r transport whether carrying troops or not, mov-
ing on roads or in the open, will continue to move at
ordered speed and with distances as ordered between
7
vehicles until, in the opinion of the O.C., an attack that
will mean heavy casualties is imminent, when dispersion
may be necessary. Halting and allowing troops to dis-
pel se does not keep them from being fired on or bombed,
and means long- 'delay in re-assembling.
(ix)	When billets or bivouacs are to be protected in the fire
plan for A.A. L.M G. defence guns should be disposed
in a series of equilateral triangles. The guns should
be approximately 500 yards apart with SELECTED
ALTERNATE POSITIONS. Dummy positions have
proved their value. Where possible, in particularly vul-
nerable areas, L.M.G.’s should be mounted in pairs.
(x)	The importance of AIR SENTRIES and WARNINGS
cannot be over emphasised. The air sentry has a similar
role in attack from the air as the scout has on the
ground.
It is his duty to gi/e due warning of enemy movement,
so as to allow the Commander to effect his dispositions.
In the selection of air sentries FITNESS must be a first
consideration, the work is exhausting and the consider
able strain on the eyes calls for frequent reliefs. Ex-
perience in recognition of aircraft is essential, as is the
ability to appreciate the most likely direction, such as
“Out of the sun,” from which a hostile attack may
develop.
With the most efficient system of warning, time avail-
able for action will seldom be more than a FEW
SECONDS. Fire discipline training must be so practised
by all ranks that its immediate application is instinctive.
Practise troops in recognition, warning signals, both
visual and whistle.
(xi)	The absence of the Bren Tripod need not prevent hostile
aircraft from being engaged with this gun. Very effi-
cient shooting is possible with the Bren L.M.G., when fired
in either of the following ways:—
(a)	With the butt of the gun on the shoulder, left hand
grasping the carrying handle adjusted into the anti-
aircraft position.
(b)	With the butt of the gun on the hip or under the
armpit, the left hand grasping the carrying handle.
(Hos'* pipe method using tracer.)
With practice, either of these methods will produce ef-
fective results and all ranks should receive the necessary
instruction in these methods.
Section 3—WHEN TO FIRE
15.	It will not always be possible to open fire on enemy
aircraft at the moment they present the easiest target. But
8
attacking aircraft should be engaged at the narrowest possible
angle of approach. For these reasons:—
(i)	The head-on shot is the easiest target. (In some respects
the position is akin to tiger shooting, provided the tiger
is charging.)
(ii)	An aeroplane is more vulnerable in front.
(iii)	When tracer is used, the pilot may see the tracer coming
up towards him. Even if this does not turn him away
from his target, it will certainly distract him, possibly
putting him off his course and missing his target.
(iv)	Penetration is increased if the aircraft is flying INTO
rather than away from the bullet.
16.	The “going-away” shot is not so satisfactory because:—
(i)	All operational planes are now armoured against attack
from the rear.
(ii)	More casualties are often inflicted by the rear gunner
as the aircraft is climbing away rather than by the
release of bombs and forward firing guns in the attack.
(iii)	The penetrative power of a bullet fired at a receding
aircraft is considerably reduced owing to the speed at
which the aircraft is flying.
17.	The wide deflection shot at a crossing plane is not so
satisfactory because:—
(i)	The wider the angle of deflection the greater the margin
for error. If tracer is available, and being used, the
greater will the difficulty be of observing fire correctly.
(ii)	The largest part of the target with a crossing shot will
consist of the fuselage, which is the least vulnerable
part of the aircraft.
Section 4—TRACER AMMUNITION
18.	When available, tracer ammunition can help to improve
the results' of anti-aircraft L.M.G. fire, by making use of the
hosepipe method of directing fire on to the target. In this, the
sights are not used except for the initial aim, and the eyes are
focussed on the target, allowing the arrival of the tracer near
the target to indicate the corrections of aim necessary.
The appearance of tracer should be carefully studied. The
appearance to the eye, when following an aircraft, of a
successive number of rounds fired from a swinging L.M.G. is
that of a curve.
9
This is because the eye is seeing, perhaps, six separate
tracer bullets, and thinks it is seeing the flight path of a
single one. It is therefore MISLEADING TO FOCUS ON
THE TRACER AT ANY PART OF ITS FLIGHT, because
every bullet, of course, follows a straight line path and there-
fore no help in aiming is possible from an illusory curve.
Once the necessary lead has been gauged, the eyes must be
trained—and this will take practice—TO FOCUS AT ONCE
AND ONLY ON THE AIRCRAFT, the tracer being taken
notice of only as it passes the target, when it will aid any
correction of aim necessary.
19.	The .303 tracer bullet is a lighter bullet than the Mark
VII and a shot or two may ricochet when striking a metal
plane at an oblique angle. When this is observed, the firer
should not be discouraged, because it shows him that he is
hitting the aircraft and many of his bullets will penetrate.
Though the effect of small arms fire on an aircraft may not
be fatal and the percentage of hits that will cause an imme-
diate crash are very small, hits will certainly keep a plane in
the workshops for some time, and a flat tyre or a damaged
control may cause it to crash on landing.
Section 5—ANTI-AIRCRAFT PRACTICE FIRING
1. Practice firing may be carried out on anti-aircraft hose-
pipe ranges, out to sea, or on suitable areas of moorland where
a 90-degree arc, with a radius of 3,500 yards are available as
a danger area, free from roads, buildings or land under agri-
cultural cultivation.
Two types of practice target are suitable:—
(i) Sleeve target towed by aircraft.
(ii) Balloons filled with hydrogen.
Target (i) is, of course, the ideal, but when it is not available,
hydrogen-filled balloons give useful practice.
THE FOLLOWING POINTS SHOULD BE OBSERVED
when anti-aircraft practices are fired on open ranges, and it
should be constantlv in the firer’s mind that, at a wide deflection
angle, aircraft actually move at 150-200 yards per second, and
not at 100 yards per second in the case of a towed drogue, or
at greatly decreased speeds in the case of balloons.
(a)	Note and mark clearly the limits of the area, and the
points at which fire may be opened, and at which it
must cease. If a 90-degree arc is being used as the
danger area, fire should start and finish 10 degrees
inside each flank limit.
(b)	Judge the speed and direction of the wind, and arrange
to release balloons accordingly.
10
(c)	Balloons should be released at a point outside the
danger area for safety, and so as to allow the balloons
to reach a reasonable height before entering the
firing arc.
(d)	Balloons may be released singly or in twos or threes,
tied together, with one sometimes filled with air, as a
check on very windy days.
(e)	A code of signals between the officer in charge of the
firing point and those releasing the balloons is, of
course, necessary.
(f)	Riflemen may be practised in a similar manner to A.A.
L.M.G. teams, the section, or its equivalent, being the
firing point detail. Magazines should be charged with
ten rounds, sights set at 500 yards. Fire discipline
training should be observed.
PART II.
RECOGNITION
Section 6—A WORD TO INSTRUCTORS.
1.	The subject of “recognition” is of primary importance and
one that has not previously received the attention it deserves.
The task of making up leeway in this regard must be under-
taken by Commanders and Instructors. It is an urgent task and
it is within the capacity of Instructors. But it calls for study
of the subject, patience, and an enthusiasm that will spread
among the men under instruction; imagination and resource in
the use of teaching “aids.”
The Instructor who asks himself “Why am I teaching this
subject?” is face J with only one answer. That answer is that
one day, as a result of his teaching, an air sentry or an A.A.
gunner is going to r&ve his life or the lives of his comrades
by a swift decision between friend and foe. The ability to
arrive at that decision ’ i the short time allowance permitted
in combat with enemy aircraft depends upon the solid founda-
tion of initial training given to the soldier on the ground (as
with the pilot in the air) and upon which foundation the men
themselves, during their subsequent careers, have built up their
knowledge and ability in aircraft recognition.
2.	The notes contained in Part II, therefore, are intended
mainly as a guide to Instructors. They represent an attempt
to present the subject of aircraft recognition methodically
without strict adherence to any one cumbersome “system.”
11
The end to be aimed at is the instant and instinctive recog-
nition of aircraft at one glance in a similar way as the make
of a car is recognized at a glance. An obvious way of attaining
this end would be to let all necessary personnel see the actual
aircraft in flight, until the required standard was reached.
This, however, is ob iously impossible, as, even if we could
collect a complete set of all our own aircraft types in one
place, the provision of hostile types for practice would present
some difficulty.
Such a disadvantage can be overcome by intelligent use of
scale models. If a scale model is made so that it is accurate
for appearance in outline at any angle from a short distance
(small details are not necessary), then it can be used for train-
ing in a very satisfactory manner. Actually, a l/72nd scale
model viewed at a distance of 100 yards is equivalent to seeing
the real aircraft at a range of 7,200 yards or 21,600 feet.
Section 7—METHOD THAT IS NOT A “SYSTEM”
It should be stated at this stage that many people have
tried to introduce “analysis systems” to differentiate between
various aircraft types, and, although these have a certain value
for elementary training, it is most important that under no
circumstances must they be used for operational purposes. In
the first place, they will rarely produce an answer in a suffi-
ciently short time to satisfy the first essential. Secondly, such
“lists” of types (say, low-wing, mid-wing, high-wing mono-
planes having radial engines) have to be altered to include new
types which may have very far-reaching effects on the con-
clusions reached at the analysis. Lastly, and most important,
since the analysis consists of dividing aircraft into types by
means of constructional features, the whole system may easily
collapse in practice if the original dividing feature is not visible
in the first view obtained, e.g., split-up planes by means of
wing construction already mentioned, the first view of a par-
ticular aircraft may be a side view as it comes out of a cloud
a little above horizon level; in this case, the wing position may
not be visible and the “system” fails.
There is also the serious objection that the analysis system
gives the temptation to carry a reference sheet in the pocket.
This may leave the soldier concerned without help either during
poor visibility or when the sheet has been mislaid.
In succession to the analysis system it has been suggested
that aircraft should be viewed or inspected in a set sequence;
e.g., wings, engine, fuselage, tail. This may lead, where the
first feature is indistinct, to time being wasted on that feature,
when the aircraft could have been identified by its general
appearance, apart from the indistinct feature.
12
The method proposed in this pamphlet is none of the above.
The instruction must aim at producing among troops complete
familiarity with aircraft types most likely to be met with in
the Australian war zone. This “familiarity” will best be
achieved if the most outstanding points of interest and recog-
nition features are associated in their minds not necessarily to
the exclusion of other normal aspects of the aircraft, but which
when seen in conjunction with these other features immediately
recalls the type and nationality of that aircraft to the soldier.
Such a method is more or less subconsciously used by everyone
in recognition of people, motor cars, and places in the daily
round. Providing some special interest value can be assigned
to each aircraft taught, the same degree of “familiarity” will
be developed in this way. Not only shape, but sound and speed,
are factors which can be built into the mental picture—these
three, shape, sound and speed, are the vital constituents. Try
to bear each in mind when preparing a lesson.
Section 8—PARTS OF AN AIRCRAFT
If men under instruction are to grasp descriptions of air-
craft, they must have an elementary knowledge of the parts of
any aircraft and constructional terms. Since these are terms
instructors will be using throughout, here are the most
important:—
Fuselage.—The main structure or body of an aircraft which
encloses the pilot, crew and equipment, and to which the wings
and tail are attached.
Undercarriage (referred to colloquially as the “undercart”).—
The landing unit of an aircraft, including the wheels, axles and
attachments to the wings or fuselage and the tail wheel. In
most modern aircraft this undercarriage folds up partially or
completely when the aircraft is in flight. The undercarriage
is then termed “retractable.”
Engines.—May be air-cooled and referred to as RADIAL,
or water- or liquid-cooled, when they are referred to as IN-
LINE. The “radial” engine has a blunt appearance, while the
“in-line” engine presents a stream-lined, pointed appearance.
Nacelles.—The engine housing of an aircraft when not
forming part of the fuselage, e.g., when the engines are
mounted in the wings.
Cabin or Cockpit.—The portion of the fuselage which houses
the pilot and controls.
Wings.—The main planes of an aircraft.
Tail Planes and Elevators.—Horizontal planes which may
be fixed on the centre or at the top or bottom of the tail of
the fuselage. They may also be mounted above the fuselage
and supported by struts.
13
Fin and Rudder.—Vertical planes which may be of the single
type mounted on the centre line of the tail of the fuselage, or
the twin type mounted at or near the outside edges of the tail
plane. For instruction in aircraft recognition the rudder should
be considered as part of the fin.
Struts.—Wooden or metal supports between the planes of
a biplane. A monoplane may have struts between the fuselage
and the underside of the wings or between the fuselage and
the tail planes.
Turrets.—When the housing of a gun position is dome-
shaped and can be made to rotate, it is called a “turret.” In
order to overcome air resistance, gun turrets are usually power
driven.
CONSTRUCTIONAL TERMS.
“Leading” and “Trailing” Edge.—The front and rear edges
of the wings, respectively.
Wing Tips.—The outer end of the wings.
Wing Root.—That portion of the wing which is attached to
the fuselage.
Wing Span.—The distance from wing tip to wing tip.
Taper.—The angle the wing edges (leading or trailing)
make with the fuselage.
Chord.—The average horizontal width of the wing.
Aspect Ratio.—The ratio of wing span to chord. Thus, an
aircraft with “high aspect ratio” is one with a large wing span
with narrow or tapered wings, e.g., the Japanese “Kawanisi”
Flying Boat Bomber. An aircraft with “low aspect ratio” has
short wing span with broad wings, e.g., the Brewster Buffalo.
Dihedral.—Is the inclination of the wings or tail fins from
the horizontal when the aircraft is viewed from front to rear.
Stagger.—Is said to exist in a biplane when one wing is
set in advance of another.
Sweep-Back.—A term applied to wings when the wing tips
are on a line nearer the tail than the wing root (e.g., the
DeHavilland Tiger Moth).
Underslung Engines (used for monoplanes)—Means that
the engines are wholly below the upper surface of the wings.
Here is a composite diagram of an aircraft with most of
the above terms marked on it. (Plate I.)
(Note the “in-line” engines which are not normal on a
twin-engined monoplane.)
DESCRIPTION OF AIRCRAFT
WING TIP
TURRET \
OBSERVERS
POSITION -
COCKPIT
ENCLOSURE
RUDDER
FIN
-TAIL WHEEL
TAIL
FUSELAGE
NOSE^
RADIATOR
TAIL
PLANE
LEADING
EDGE
NOTE г UNDERCARRIAGE NOT SHOWN
PLATE I
TRAILING EDGES
г,
Section 9—CLASSIFICATION OF AIRCRAFT
For Army purpose it is necessary only to divide aircraft
into monoplanes and biplanes, disregarding sub-classification
into high-wing, mid-wing, low-wing, etc., and then proceed to
differentiate the following:—
1.	Fighters.—Usually single-engined monoplanes (there are
a few exceptions, e.g., Beaufighter and P.38).
2.	Bombers.—Two, three, or four-engined monoplanes.
3.	Seaplanes—
(a)	Flying Boats—i.e., hulls sit in the water;
(b)	Float Planes—i.e., hull does not sit in water. Air-
craft supported on floats.
(c)	Amphibians—i.e., Flying Boats with wheeled land-
ing gear in addition.
4.	Reconnaissance and Army Co-op. Aircraft. — Usually
medium sized, single, or twin engine, with special
facilities for observation, photography, etc., e.g.,
Anson.
5.	Troop Carriers and Transport.—Usually converted Civil
Aircraft, e.g., JU52.
The following plates show examples of—
Wings
Tail Fins
Tail Planes
Noses
These drawings do not exhaust the possible types of these
features that may be met with in the course of Aircraft Recog-
nition, but they are the main ones.
WINGS
ALL THE TAPER ALL THE TAPER
ON TRAIL'G EDGE ON LEAD'C EDGE
BITE OUT OF WING
LOW ASPECT
RATIO
ROOT
HIGH ASPECT RATIO. CRANKED WINGS. DIHEDRAL. NO DIHEDRAL
TAIL FINS
PLATE Ш
OVAL FIN	D.H.FIN
OR TWIN FINS
FIN FORWARD
OF TAILPLANE
TAILPLANE F'D ANGULAR FIN
OF FIN
TALL VERTICAL FIN
TAILPLANES
PLATE IS
OVAL TAILPLANE
WITH CQTOUT
DIAMOND
SHAPED
TAILPLANE
RECTANGULAR
TAILPLANE
PROJECTING
ELEVATORS
FISHTAIL
TAILPLANE
ROUNDED LEADING
EDGE
AVERAGE TAPERED
TAILPLANE
NOSES
PLATE з
THE STREAMLINED NOSE
CONFERRED BY AN IN-LINE
ENGINE. (EG SPITFIRE)
THE TYPICAL BLUNT
APPEARANCE OF A RADIAL
ENGINE. (EG. WIRRAWAY)
PROMINENT RADIATOR	TRANSPARENT ROUNDED SQUARE NOSE.
UNDER THE NOSE.	NOSE	(EG. WHITLEY
(EG. CURTISS P40E KITTYHAWK) (EG. LOCKHEED LODESTAR) BOMBER.)
20
Section 10—WAYS AND MEANS OF INSTRUCTION
Instruction in Aircraft Recognition falls naturally into
three parts:—
(1)	You must make your class familiar with the names of the
various parts of an aircraft so that they can understand
your descriptions;
(2)	You must then describe each aircraft to the class;
(3)	You must provide your class with some means of absorbing
and learning the characteristic shape of each aircraft.
Before discussing these three stages any further, it is
well to remember the importance of the following five rules
which should operate right through all your instruction:—
(a) Always show the class something when describing an air-
craft. Never give a description only in words. Even if
you have no models or photographs or pictures, a card-
board outline will do—but show them SOMETHING!
(b)	Try to make some permanent display. Aircraft Recognition
is so difficult that only by seeing shapes frequently will
your men succeed. In this connection, a series of plain
cardboard cutouts hung permanently outside a hut or in
a canteen, etc., would be of more value than the best
lantern projector, which only allows a short glimpse.
(c)	Never allow your men to forget the importance of sound
and speed for recognition purposes. Never let an oppor-
tunity pass during a lesson of leaving the lecture hut or
wherever your class is situated to view aircraft actually
flying in the vicinity.
(d)	As regards shape, always remember that the shape of the
parts of an aircraft helps in recognition, but the shape of
the whole plane is the chief thing.
(e)	Always allot most of your time as learning time.
A TYP7JAL COURSE OF INSTRUCTION—
Here is a suggested sequence of instruction beginning at
the beginning—
1.	Introduction
(a)	Say what Aircraft Recognition is.
(b)	Say something about its importance—if possible give some
examples of the consequence of failure to recognise aircraft
in this war to date.
(c)	Describe an aircraft and explain the names and positions
of the following parts:—
(i)	Fuselage (body)—nose, tail, cockpit, engine, radiator,
turrets, nacelles.
21
(ii)	Wings—tip, root, span, chord, aspect ratio, leading
and trailing edges, dihedral, sweep back and crank.
(iii)	Tail unit—fin and tail plane.
(iv)	Engines—in line and radial.
(v)	Undercarriage—fixed or retracted.
(d)	Show the national markings, but state their limited use in
Aircraft Recognition.
(e)	If possible, then show some chart or drawings to illustrate
the variation in shape of all the parts previously men-
tioned (vide Plate I-V). This helps troops to know what
to look for.
A reasonable allocation of time for the above would be—
(a)	2 minutes.
(b)	3-5 minutes.
(c)	15 minutes.
(d)	2 minutes.
(e)	30 minutes.
2.	DESCRIPTIONS
(a)	First, obtain some representation of each of the aircraft
to be described. A model is best, but failing that, a large
photograph, a silhouette, small photograph or blackboard
sketch.
(b)	Show this to the class and state the name of the aircraft.
(c)	If you know anything of general interest about the air-
craft, mention this briefly to stimulate interest.
(d)	While the class is looking at it, talk about its chief pecu-
liarities of shape.
Remember that each man may describe an aircraft in his
own particular way and some will prefer one type of aid to
another.
3.	THE LEARNING
This is the most important stage. It should occupy at least
half of your lesson time. If troops are to learn what you have
described, obviously they must have something to learn from.
There are many alternatives—
(i)	Scrapbook—one photograph per page, no name.
N.B.: More than one photo per page may lead to waste
if the pages become multilated.
An index may be added at the back or, better still,
somewhere on the wall.
(ii)	Photographs on cardboard.
(iii)	Models.
(iv)	Paper silhouettes on the walls and, if possible, under-
neath view silhouettes on the ceiling.
22
(v)	Large cardboard or three-ply silhouettes.
(vi)	R.A.A.F. Wall Diagrams, “Silhouettes of Australian,
American, N.E.I. and Japanese Aircraft,” 250 Series.
(vii)	Small booklets on Aircraft Recognition—on sale at book-
stalls.
(viii)	Old and current copies of “Flight,” “Aeroplane,” “Air
Log,” “Aeronautics,” “The Motor and Flying in Aus-
tralia,” “Life,” “Home,” “The Australasian,” and news-
papers, etc.
DO IT NOW
It is stated again that the efficiency of your unit, however
small, in recognizing aircraft will depend on the enthusiasm and
resource displayed by instructors in making suitable aids
to sustain interest.
In this respect, instructors should enlist the help of rank
and file in collection of information from periodicals, the mak-
ing of scale models, etc., and strive to foster a spirit of sub-
unit and unit competition for efficiency in the subject.
Dont wait for supplies of models, charts, etc., to come
“through usual channels.” Make your own charts, using this
pamphlet as a guide.
Make scrapbooks. Photos of aircraft not included in the
list given below are still of value if your instruction is not
allowed to wander into discussions on unimportant aircraft.
Run “hut competitions,” and, above all, know your subject,
be definite, invite information from the troops, and aim to in-
stil the notion that “aircraft recognition is a form of life insur-
ance.”
Section 11—CODES YOU CAN QUICKLY DE CODE.
(a)	JAPANESE
Japan has two air services—Army and Navy—of which the
Army is the larger. The two services are formally under the
control of the Emperor as Head of the State.
Classification is made somewhat difficult when we note that
each service may have a similarly numbered “type”—e.g., a
Type 97 SSF might belong to either Army or Navy. Further,
the maker of these may be the same, e.g., Mitsubishi or
Nakajima.
Thus, if it were necessary to report on an aircraft identified,
it would be necessary to name it—Naval (or Army) Type 97
S.S.F. Nakajima (or Mitsubishi) or whatever it was.
23
To overcome this possible ambiguity the R.A.A.F. have
allotted “serial” numbers to each Japanese aircraft type. These
serial numbers appear underneath each of the aircraft sil-
houettes depicted in the R.A.A.F. 250 sheets (i.e., R.A.A.F.
Diags. 250A, Sheets 1 and 2). If these serial numbers
are always mentioned when the aircraft are being learnt they
will become “part of the aircraft” in time and much confusion
will have been obviated.
With Australian and most American aircraft names are
given, hence no serial numbers are required as in the case
of the Japanese.
Actually, the Japanese “Type” number (e.g., T.97) refers to
the year in the Japanese calendar in which the type came into
service. The Japanese calendar is 660 years ahead of ours!
That means that 1935 aircraft came into service in 2595 to
earn the abbreviated title of Type 95! Similarly the Type “0”
(Zero) indicates the Japanese year 2,600 and our year 1940.
(b)	AMERICAN
Our Allies, the United States of America, also have separ-
ate Army and Naval Air Services. Each Service has its own
designation code to distinguish its aircraft. Although many of
the code names are becoming better known by single names,
such as “Flying Fortress” (Boeing B-17E), “Kittyhawk”
(P40E), etc., until such time as these names become household
words to all Service personnel, the following explanation of the
codes is given:—
U.S. Navy Designation.—Aircraft in the U.S. Navy are
classified in detail by their code letters and numbers. These
reference letters and figures are divided into five separate
“tell-tales.” The first indicates “experimental,” or is omitted;
the second indicates the “purpose” (bomber, transport, etc.);
the third is the design number; the fourth the maker’s code
number; and the fifth is the modification number of the type.
Thus, XSB2C—1 is:—
X	SB
Experimental Purpose
(Scout-
Bomber)
2
Design
Second SB
by Curtiss
to be
adopted
by Navy.
C	1
Maker’s Code Modification
Name. Number
(C=Curtiss) (First Model)
The letters indicating the purpose of the particular air-
craft in service with the U.S. Navy are as under. Americans
refer to them as Mission Symbols. They are represented by
the first letter before the first figure in the designation. There
are nineteen different missions in the U.S. Navy. They are:—
24
В	—	Bomber
BF	=	Bomber-Fighter
F	=	Fighter
G	=	Transport (Single Motor)
J	=	Utility (General Purpose)
JR	—	Utility Transport
M	—	Miscellaneous
N	—	Training
О	—	Observation
OS	—	Observation Scout
P	—	Patrol Plane
PB	—	Patrol Bomber
PT	=	Patrol Torpedo Plane
R	—	Transport
S	=	Scout
SB	—	Scout-Bomber
SO	—	Scout-Observation
T	—	Torpedo Plane
ТВ	=	Torpedo Bomber
In each case where an aircraft has more than one letter,
the first letter indicates the primary purpose. Thus there are
both “O.S.” and “S.O ”
After the first figure in the designation — a figure which
indicates how many designs of aircraft for the particular pur-
pose have been adopted by the Navy from the company which
made the aircraft. Some American makers’ code names are:—
A	=	Brewster
В	=	Boeing
C	=	Curtiss
D	—	Douglas
E	=	Bellanca
F	—	Grumman
M	=	Martin
N — Naval Aircraft Factory
О	=	Lockheed
Q	—	Stinson
T	=	Northrop
U	=	Vought Sikorsky
Y	=	Consolidated
Some further examples—
PBY-1—The first patrol bomber to be produced by Con-
solidated.
PBY-5—The fifth model of the first patrol bomber to be
produced by Consolidated.
OS2U-1—The first model of the second type of observation
scout aircraft to be produced by Vought Sikorsky.
SBC-4—The fourth model of the first scout bomber to be
produced by Curtiss.
25
U.S. ARMY IDENTIFICATION.
The U.S. Army symbol system is less complicated than that
of the Navy. Reference letters and figures are divided into
only four separate “tell-tales.” Omitting “X” for Experimental,
first comes the Purpose, next a figure which indicates Specifica-
tion numbers, and, finally, a Modification letter.
In Army designations the name of the maker is used in
full in front of the symbols.
The letters indicating “purpose” are:—
A	=	Attack
В	=	Bomber
C	—	Cargo
F	=	Photographic
FM = Fighter (multi-seat)
О	—	Observation
P	—	Pursuit
PB	—	Pursuit (two seater fighter)
Thus the Boeing—B17E (Flying Fortress)—can be seen to
be the 17th specification of a bomber built for the Army by
Boeing, the “E” representing the fifth revision or modification
of the original.
Section 12—AIRCRAFT OF FIRST IMPORTANCE
TO BE TAUGHT AND BRIEF DESCRIPTIONS
AUSTRALIAN—
R.A.A.F. Diagram
Sheet No.
250B
NAME.
FAIREY BATTLE
AIRSPEED OXFORD
SHORT “EMPIRE”
LOCKHEED HUDSON
SEAGULL (WALRUS)
DOUGLAS DC-2
DOUGLAS DC-3
WIRRAWAY
AVRO ANSON
BRISTOL BEAUFORT
CATALINA
VULTEE VENGEANCE
D.H. TIGER MOTH
BEAUFIGHTER
WACKETT TRAINER
26
AMERICAN—
R.A.A.F. Diagram Sheet No.	NAME.
250D Fighters (Pursuit or Attack)	P-38 LOCKHEED LIGHTNING SBC-4 CURTISS CLEVELAND (HELLDIVER) P-40E CURTISS KITTYHAWK P-39 BELL AIRACOBRA F2A2 BREWSTER BUFFALO F4F GRUMMAN MARTLETT
Bombers, Scouts, etc.	CONSOLIDATED B-24 (LIBERA- TOR) DOUGLAS A-24 (DAUNTLESS) DOUGLAS B-18A (DIGBY) BOEING B17D and B17E (FORT- RESS) CONSOLIDATED PB2Y-2 (F/BOAT BOMBER) NORTH AMERICAN B-25 MARTIN B-26 (MARAUDER) DOUGLAS A20-A (BOSTON) DOUGLAS TBD-1 (DEVASTA- TOR) VOUGHT SIKORSKY OS2U-1 (KINGFISHER) VOUGHT SB2U-1 (DIVE BOMBER) CONSOLIDATED PBY-5 (CATALINA; see Aust, list) CURTISS SOC-1, 2, 3 (SEAGULL) NORTH AMERICAN O-47A
27
JAPANESE R.A.A.F. Diag. 250A.					Serial No.	Name.
(a)	Naval	Fighters	Sheet	1	48	Type “O” Mitsubishi S.S.F. (Zero)
			Sheet	1	35	Type 96 Mitsubishi S.S.F.
			Sheet	1	39	Type 97 Mitsubishi S.S.F.
			Sheet	1	39A	Type 97 Nakajima S.S.F.
			Sheet	2	45	Type 97 Nakajima Naka 93—Floatplane Fighter
(b)	Army	Fighters	Sheet	1	3	Type 97 Nakajima S.S.F.
			—		11	M.E. 109E (Messer- schmitt)
			—		—	JU88 (Junkers Fighter- Bomber)
			—		—	M.E. 110 (sold to Japan by Germany)
			—		—	JU87B (Stuka) (sold to Japan by Germany)
			—		—	M.E.109F (latest Mes- serschmitt)
(c)	Naval	Bomber	Sheet	2	43	Type 97 Kawanisi Fly- ing Boat
			Sheet	2	49	Type 95 — Mitsubishi Mitsu 95—F/Boat Bomber
			Sheet	2	37	Type 96 Mitsubishi Heavy Bomber
		(Not yet printed)			50	Type 99 Aichi — Dive Bomber
			Sheet	2	41	Type 97 (—) Twin En- gine Flying Boat
			Sheet	1	40	Type 97 Mitsubishi Torpedo Bomber
(a)	Army	Bomber	Sheet	2	5	Type 97 Mitsubishi Heavy Bomber
28
R.A.A.F. SHEET 250В.
FAIREY BATTLE
Country of Origin—Britain.
Type—Two-seat Bomber and Trainer.
Used a great deal in France in the early days of the War.
Later, with the Bomber and Coastal Commands, British and
Polish “Battle” squadrons played their part in the destruction
of the invasion fleets and bases.
Now used as Trainers both at home and in Canada.
Engine—Single Rolls Royce Merlin, liquid cooled engine.
Speed—Maximum of 257 m.p.h.
Dimensions—Span, 54 ft.; length, 42 ft. 4 in.
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Low-wing monoplane. Tapered wings (more pronounced
on trailing edge) with rounded tips and slight dihedral.
2.	Single in-line engine.
3.	Long, narrow, streamlined fuselage with pointed nose.
Large glass “conservatory.” Enclosed cockpits in tandem.
4.	Big upstanding fin and rudder. The fin is somewhat
forward of the tailplane. Tailplane has full taper on leading
edge only, rounded tips, and mounted low on fuselage.
5.	Undercarriage retracts backwards into the wings, leaving
lower half of each wheel exposed.
6.	Fixed tail wheel. Radiator centrally placed forward of
leading edge.
R.A.A.F. SHEET 250B.
AIRSPEED OXFORD
Country of Origin—Britain.
Type—Trainer.
Before taking over the controls of a high-speed, twin-engine
bomber or fighter, the pilot and crew must be thoroughly
trained in the handling of a two-motor aircraft in navigation,
photography, gunnery, etc. The “Oxford” is specially designed
for this purpose, and is the standard twin-engine advanced
trainer of the Air Force. Large numbers are in service in
Canada. Carries a crew of four, and is fitted with dual control,
and modifications of equipment provide for training in bomb-
aiming, gunnery, aerial photography, radio communication,
blind flying and navigation.
Engines—Twin air-cooled radial motors.
Speed—Maximum of 197 m.p.h.
Ceiling—23,000 ft. (service).
29
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Low-wing monoplane, tapered wings with rounded tips
and full dihedral.
2.	Two radial engines mounted two-thirds above wings.
Engine nacelles project aft of trailing edge.
3.	Slab-sided fuselage with control cabin forward. Gun
turret on top of fuselage behind wings.
4.	Single fin and rudder and rounded tailplane.
5.	Undercarriage retracts backwards into engine nacelles.
Wheels partially exposed when retracted.
6.	Fixed tail wheel.
R.A.A.F. SHEET 250B.
SHORT “EMPIRE”
Country of Origin—Britain.
Type—Converted Civil Transport.
The fleet of Short “Empire” boats were ordered by Imperial
Airways Ltd. for operation over the Empire routes. Two of
these aircraft—“Caledonia” and “Cambria”—were provided
with special fuel tanks for the experimental flights across the
Atlantic in 1937. These two boats completed five scheduled
trans-Atlantic return trips, the “Cambria” making the fastest
crossing, averaging approximately 190 m.p.h. over the 2,000
miles from Botwood, Newfoundland, to Foynes, Eire.
Carry 17 passengers and two tons of mail.
Type of machine—Four-engined flying boat.
Engines—Four radial (air-cooled) engines.
Speed—Maximum of 200 m.p.h.
Ceiling—20,000 ft. (absolute).
Dimensions—Span, 114 ft.; length, 88 ft.
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	High-wing monoplane flying boat. Tapered wings with
sharply rounded tips.
2.	Four radial engines mounted centrally in the wing.
3.	Deep two-step hull with forward cockpit.
4.	Single tail fin and rudder. Tapered tailplane carried
high on fuselage.
5.	Two fixed, strutted and traced wim* "^ats.
R.A.A.F. SHEET 250B.
LOCKHEED HUDSON
Country of Origin—America.
Type—Bomber.
First of the American machines to be delivered in quantity
to the R.A.F. and the R.A.A.F., the “Hudson” is the military
version of the well-known Lockheed 14 trans-Continental air
30
liner, big brother of the Lockheed “Electra” which carried Mr.
Chamberlain and his umbrella to the ill-starred conference with
Hitler. Hudsons have already been active from Australian
bases against the Japanese.
Speed—Maximum of 284 m.p.h.
Range—2,160 miles at 255 m.p.h. at 10,000 ft.
Ceiling—24,500 ft. (service).
Dimensions—Span, 65 ft. 6 in.; length, 44 ft. 4 in.
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Low mid-wing monoplane, wings fully tapered to semi-
pointed tips with full dihedral.
2.	Two radial engines with nacelles, two kinds, underslung.
3.	Rounded glazed nose. Short deep fuselage. Large domed
turret on top of fuselage, well aft.
4.	Oval twin fins and rudders mounted just inboard of tail-
plane tips. Tailplane tapered chiefly on leading edge has
rounded tips and unusually large span and is set high on the
fuselage.
5.	Undercarriage retracts backward into engine nacelles.
Wheels are partially exposed when retracted.
6.	Flap guides project at trailing edge of wings—fixed tail
wheel.
R.A.A.F. SHEET 250B.
VICKERS’ SUPERMARINE WALRUS (SEAGULL)
Country of Origin—Britain.
Type—Fleet Spotter.
The Supermarine Company, designers of the Schneider
Trophy winner, and of the “Spitfire,” fastest fighter in the
R.A.F., produced the “Walrus,” which is probably the slowest
aircraft, excluding initial trainers, operating with the R.A.F.
In service with the Fleet Air Arm since 1935, its chief
functions are reconnaissance and submarine spotting, for which
high cruising speeds are unnecessary. The retractable wheeled
undercarriage, which enables these flying boats to operate over
land or sea, greatly increases their utility. Designed for cata-
pult service, it is the first amphibian to be catapulted with
service lead. As “Seagull V” it has been in service with the
R.A.A.F. for some years.
Engines—Single Bristol Pegasus VI pusher motor.
Speed—Maximum of 135 m.p.h.
Range—600 miles at 95 m.p.h. at 3,500 ft.
Ceiling—18,500 ft. (service).
Dimensions—Span, 45 ft. 10 in.; length, 37 ft. 7 in.
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Equal span, biplane flying boat (amphibian). Rectangular
shaped wings swept Ьэск to wide rounded tips. Moderate
dihedral.
31
2.	Single, uncowled radial engine, driving a pusher air-
screw and slung between the biplane wings.
3.	Single step flying boat hull. Enclosed cockpit.
4.	Single large fin and rudder with wide rounded top.
Braced tailplane of roughly rectangular plan is mounted near
the top of the fin.
5.	Fixed wing tip floats. Land undercarriage wheels retract
into wells under the wings, 'leaving undercarriage struts
visible.
R.A.A.F. SHEET 250B.
DOUGLAS DC-2
Country of Origin—America.
Type—Civil Transport.
A highly successful commercial transport. A military
adaptation is the DB-1. First flew in 1934. Crew, 3. Pas-
senger seats, 14.
Engines—Twin radial motors.
Speed—Maximum, 212 m.p.h.
Range—1,085 miles at 200 m.p.h. at 14,000 ft.
Ceiling—22,450 ft. (service).
Dimensions—Span, 85 ft.; length, 62 ft.
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Low-wing monoplane with straight trailing edge and
pronounced sweep back to leading edge. Full dihedral from
centre section outwards.
2.	Two radial engines.
3.	Streamlined deep fuselage with low rounded nose and
forward cockpit enclosure. Nose projects well ahead of engines.
4.	Single tail fin and rudder. Vertical trailing edge to
rudder. Almost triangular tailplane with tapered leading edge
and semi-rounded tips.
5.	Retractable undercarriage. The wheels move upward ana
forward into the engine nacelles, leaving a small portion pro-
truding.
6.	Fixed tail wheel.
R.A.A.F. SHEET 250B.
DOUGLAS DC-3
Country of Origin—America.
Type—Civil Transport.
First flew in 1936 with a crew of 3 and 21 passengers. One
thousand DC-3’s were ordered by the U.S. Army for the train-
ing and transport of parachute troops. In Australia, these air-
32
yhave been converted for service with the R.A.A.F.
crap ^gines—Two 1,100 h.p. radial motors.
cfeed—Maximum, 219 m.p.h.
PP*nge—1,620 miles.
Piling—21,400 ft. (service).
Declensions—Span, 95 ft.; length, 64 ft. 5i in.
POIN/TS 0F RECOGNITION.
.. Low-wing monoplane with straight trailing edge and
* /meed sweep back to leading edge. Full dihedral from
centrJ section outward-
2 Two radial engines mounted centrally in the wing.
« Streamlined fuselage of almost circular section with
roundr^ nose and forward cockpit enclosure.
4 Single fin and rudder. Straight trailing edge to rudder,
rp . ’/gular shaped tailplane with a tapered leading edge and
s^minfoun^e<^ tips’
_ Retractable undercarriage. The wheels moving forward
pward into the engine nacelles.
аП a Fixed tail wheel.
o.
„ . *.F. SHEET 250B.
K.A.A
WIRRAWAY
Country of Origin—America and Australia.
Type—Trainer-Fighter.
Modified version of the North American Harvard. The
Tj ;ird II is being delivered in large quantities to the Can-
centres of the Empire Air Training Scheme. It is
aaJ, mely noisy and can be recognized from a distance by its
?xu g note, caused by the high tip speed of the airscrew. Has
been *n ac^on againsf the Japanese in Northern Australia.
pfigine—Single “Wasp” nine-cylinder, radial, air-cooled
engine.
Qz)eed—206 m.p.h. (maximum).
P^nge—720 miles at 180 m.p.h.
piling—22,000 ft. (service).
Dimensions—Span, 43 ft.; length, 27 ft. 9i in.
POINTS 0F RECOGNITION.
1	Low-wing monoplane. Wings tapered on leading edge
i with rounded tips. Full dihedral.
only, .	,. .	.
2	Single radial engine.
« Fuselage of circular section with a blunt, short nose and
a lol'^’ ra*sed, two-seat, glazed cockpit.
4	Single fin and rudder. High tailplane is fully tapered
rounded elevators.
33
5.	Undercarriage retracts inward and folds under centre
section of wings.
6.	Fixed tail wheel.
R.A.A.F. SHEET 250B.
AVRO ANSON
Country of Origin—Britain.
Type—General Reconnaissance, Bomber and Training.
It has been in service for many years and is still doing
excellent work. On occasions it has successfully dealt with
attacking fighters.
Engines—Twin, air-cooled, radial engines.
Speed—Maximum, 188 m.p.h.
Range—790 miles at 158 m.p.h.
Ceiling—19,000 ft. (service).
Dimensions—Span, 56 ft. 6 in.; length, 42 ft. 3 in.
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Low-wing monoplane, uniformly tapered wings with
rounded tips and moderate dihedral.
2.	Twin radial engines mounted centrally in the wing, long,
narrow engine nacelles.
3.	Wide fuselage with large, glassed “conservatory” aft
of which is mounted a glazed, rotatable gun turret. Rounded
nose of fuselage projects slightly forward of engines with
glazed underside.
4.	Single, wide, well-rounded fin and rudder. The tailplane
mounted low on the fuselage has a swept forward trailing edge.
5.	Undercarriage partially retracts forward into the engine
nacelles.
6.	Fixed tail wheel.
R.A.A.F. SHEET 250B.
BRISTOL BEAUFORT
Country of Origin—Britain and Australia.
Type—General Reconnaissance Torpedo Bomber.
Has many points of resemblance to the famous Blenheim
series, but is a faster aircraft. Flew from Melbourne to Bris-
bane in 3 hours 12 minutes. On return from Cairns, averaged
200 m.p.h. over a distance of 1,460 miles.
Engine—1,250 h.p. Pratt and Whitney Twin Row Wasp.
Speed—295 m.p.h. (approximately).
Range—1,900 miles at 220 m.p.h. (approximately).
Ceiling—27,000 ft. (service) (approximately).
Dimensions—Span, 57 ft. 10 in.; length, 44 ft. 2 in.
34
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Mid-wing monoplane with straight tapered wings and
rounded tips. Moderate dihedral.
2.	Two radial engines, three-quarters underslung.
3.	Long, rounded, glazed nose. Forward half of fuselage
is deep and slab-sided. High, glazed control cabin. Gun turret
mounted on top of fuselage aft of wings. Distinct step in fuse-
lage after gun turret.
4.	Single fin and rudder. Leading edge of tailplane prac-
tically straight with tapered elevator and cutaway “V.”
5.	Undercarriage retracts backwards into engine nacelles.
6.	Retractable tail wheel.
R.A.A.F. SHEET 250B.
CATALINA (Consolidated PBY-5)
Country of Origin—America.
Type—Reconnaissance.
In 1939, a Catalina, purchased for R.A.F. tests, was flown
5,700 miles from California to the Experimental Station at
Felixstowe, with only one stop for refuelling at Botwood, New-
foundland, thus completing the first delivery flight across the
Atlantic. It was later sunk through a heavy landing in rough
water. They are now playing an important part in several of
the main theatres of war. A number have flown from U.S.A,
to Australia. The Catalina carries a crew of six. The absence
of fixed wing floats distinguishes the PBY series from British
flying boats. Catalinas are already in service with the R.A.A.F
Engines—Twin radial, air-cooled engines.
Speed—Maximum of 19n m.p.h.
Range—4,000 miles.
Ceiling—25,700 ft. (service).
Armament—Contained in two blister mountings aft of the
wings and gun position in the nose.
Dimensions—Span, 104 ft.; length, 65 ft. 1 in.
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	High-wing, braced, monoplane flying boat. Wings, which
are stalked into fuselage by a neck, have an unusually large span
with a rectangular centre section and uniformly tapered outer
section. Square cut tips and negligible dihedral. Wing mounted
well above hull on streamlined superstructure, and braced to
hull by parallel struts.
2.	Two radial engines mounted on their centre lines close
together on centre section of wing.
35
3.	Long, shallow, two-step, flying boat hull. Enclosed for-
ward cockpit. Large gun blisters on each side of hull behind
wing.
4.	Single fin and large rudder. Tailplane mounted high
on fin.
5.	Wing tip floats retract upwards and outwards, and in
retracted positions form the wing tips.
R.A.A.F. SHEET 250B.
VULTEE “VENGEANCE”
Country of Origin—America.
Type—Dive Bomber.
Developed from the Vultee Valiant A-19 Bomber. Reputed
to outclass the Stuka (JU87B). Crew, 2.
Engines—Twin air-cooled, radial engines.
Dimensions—Span, 48 ft.; length, 38 ft.
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Mid-wing monoplane. Swept back leading edge to centre
section, abruptly changing to straight for the outer section.
Straight trailing edge to centre section, then sharply tapering
to rounded tips. Dihedral on outer sections of wings only.
2.	One radial engine.
3.	Blunt nose and streamlined fuselage with raised, glazed,
cockpit enclosure.
4.	Single tail fin and rudder. Tapered tailplane with
rounded tips.
5.	Retractable undercarriage.
6.	Retractable tail wheel.
R.A.A.F. SHEET 250B.
TIGER MOTH
Country of Origin—Great Britain.
Type—Trainer.
This is one of the most popular trainers for British pilots.
The first de Havilland “Moth” type, D.H.60, introduced about
1925, became the most popular light biplane for private owners
and the standard training machine of British flying clubs.
The Tiger Moth (D.H.82A) was brought into service with
the R.A.F. It is fitted with dual control and may be equipped
with hood and instruments for training in “blind flying.” It
is extremely manoeuvrable, is fully stressed for aerobatics,
and the low stalling speed of 43 m.p.h. provides a high factor
of safety.
A twin float version is used as a seaplane trainer.
Skis may be substituted for the normal undercarriage.
36
Forming part of the Malayan Air Forces, they were difficult
targets for the Japanese Navy “Zero” Fighters, just banking
away at the critical moment whilst the fighter sped past.
Engine—Gypsy “Major” inverted, air-cooled, in-line engine,
developing 130 h.p.
Speed—Maximum, 109 m.p.h. Cruising, 93 m.p.h.
Range—300 miles at 93 m.p.h.
Ceiling—13,600 ft. (service).
Dimensions—Span, 29 ft. 4 in.; length, 23 ft. 11 in.
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Single bay strutted biplane. Wings of equal span with
marked stagger, are swept back without taper to the tips,
which are rounded off and swept out to the trailing edge.
Slight dihedral.
2.	Single air-cooled engine.
3.	Fuselage roughly oval in section with two seats in
tandem. Open cockpit.
4.	Single fin and rudder. Characteristic de Havilland tail
unit. Braced tailplane is mounted on top of the fuselage.
5.	Fixed undercarriage. Short, compact, and without spats.
6.	Fixed tail skid. Aerofoil section fuel tank in centre
section of top wing.
R.A.A.F. DIAGRAM 250B.
BRISTOL BEAUFIGHTER
Country of Origin—Great Britain.
Type—Night Fighter.
Over the North Sea, Beaufighters have shown that they can
now give to our forces the air support which was lacking dur-
ing the Norwegian campaign. Navy shipping raids owe their
success to the protective work of the Beaufighters. They have
shot down numerous Heinkel bombers and beaten off deter-
mined attacks by Messerschmitt fighters. The Beaufighter is
not intended as a dog-fighter; its function is to destroy
bombers or attack ground targets, and yet the Messerschmitts
find it a very difficult opponent. On one occasion they destroyed
30 Macchi-200 Italian fighters without loss.
Engine—Two Bristol Hercules.
Speed—Maximum greater than 330 m.p.h.
Range—1,500 miles.
Ceiling—28,900 ft. (service).
Armament—Four cannon grouped under the nose; six
machine guns mounted in the wings.
Dimensions—Span, 57 ft. 10 in,; length, 41 ft. 4 in.
37
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Mid-wing monoplane. Straight tapered wings with
rounded tips. Dihedral outboard of engines only.
2.	Two large radial engines.
3.	Deep rectangular fuselage with short rounded nose.
Turret on top of fuselage aft of wings.
4.	Single fin and rudder. Leading edge of tailplane prac-
tically straight with tapered elevators and cutaway “V.”
5.	Undercarriage retracts backwards into engine nacelles.
6.	Retractable tail wheel.
R.A.A.F. DIAGRAM 250B.
C.A.C. TRAINER—WACKETT
(Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation)
Country of Origin—Australia.
Type—Trainer.
Engine—Warner Super Scarab radial engine.
Speed—Maximum, about 110 m.p.h. at sea level.
Ceiling—4,000 ft. (critical).
Dimensions—Span, 37 ft.; length, 26 ft.
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Low-wing monoplane. Tapered wings with full taper on
the trailing edge and rounded tips. Full dihedral.
2.	Single radial engine.
3.	Fuselage of circular section with a blunt, fairly long
nose and a long, raised, glazed cockpit.
4.	Single fin and rudder. High, fully tapered tailplane and
a cutaway “V” in the elevators.
5.	Fixed undercarriage and wheels without spats.
6.	Fixed tail wheel.
NOT LISTED ON
R.A.A.F. SHEET 250D.
LOCKHEED LIGHTNING (P38)
Country of Origin—U.S.A.
Type—Army Pursuit.
This fighter has still to make history. Large numbers were
ordered by the British Af Ministry for use in the R.A.F. The
first order being for 800 It was first seen in 1939, when the
prototype crashed near Mitchell Field, Long Island, after flying
across the American Continent in 7 hours 4 minutes flying at
an average speed of 340 m.p.h.
38
It should prove to be one of the best of modern fighters,
being heavily armed, of long range, and pleasant to fly.
A two-seater version for the U.S. Army, designated the
P-38E, is in production.
Engines—Two 1,090 h.p. Allison engines with turbo super-
chargers.
Speed—Maximum »f 404 m.p.h.
Range—Maximum of 1,070 miles at 350 m.p.h. Normal
range, 600 miles.
Ceiling—39,000 ft. (service).
Dimensions—Span, 52 ft.; length, 37 ft. 10 in.
Armament—Four machine guns and one cannon, all
mounted in nose of nacelle.
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Mid-wing monoplane with symmetrically tapered wings
and semi-pointed tips. Moderate dihedral.
2.	Two engines mounted in extensions of booms.
3.	Central nacelle projects well forward of twin tail booms.
Raised cockpit enclosure in central nacelle.
4.	Twin fins and rudders, which are egg-shaped and set
above and below the tailplane, inset from the ends. Rectangular
tailplane with rounded tips.
5.	Tricycle undercarriage retracts backwards. Nose wheel
retracts into central nacelle and main landing wheels retract
into booms.
R.A.A.F. SHEET 250D.
CURTISS SBC-4
Country of Origin—America.
Type—Scout Bomber and Dive Bomber (Helldiver).
Engines—Single 1,000 h.p. air-cooled engine.
Speed—240 m.p.h.
Ceiling—24,700 ft. (service).
Dimensions—Span, 34 ft.; length, 27 ft. 7 in.
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Single bay staggered biplane. Top wing swept back
from centre section to rounded tips and braced to fuselage.
Bottom wing of approximately equal span, rectangular with
rounded tips. Slight dihedral.
2.	Single radial engine.
3.	Long, blunt nose and deep fuselage with a glazed cockpit
enclosure.
4.	Single, well-rounded fin and udder. Tailplane swept
back to elliptical elevators with a large “V” cut out. Set fairly
high on fuselage.
5.	Retractable undercarriage.
6.	Retractable tail wheel.
39
R.A.A.F. SHEET 250D.
CURTISS P.40.E (KITTYHAWK)
Country of Origin—America,
Type—Single Seat Fighter.
The Kittyhawk is a development of the Tomahawk and is
in production for the R.A.A.F. It is identical with the Toma-
hawk except for the redesigned cockpit enclosure and slightly
altered nose. Also the opening of the radiator duct has been
moved farther forward and made deeper. Gills are still fitted
at the outlet to the radiator. Very manoeuvrable. Has rendered
good service in action to date.
Engines—Single in-line.
Speed—Maximum, probably about 380 m.p.h.
Dimensions—Span, 37 ft. 3i in.; length, 31 ft. 83 in.
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Low-wing monoplane with straight leading edge.
Rounded tips. Slight dihedral from fuselage outwards. Char-
acteristic Curtiss “knuckles” in the leading edge near the wing
roots, which house mountings of undercarriage.
2.	Single liquid-cooled in-line engine with pointed prop. hub.
3.	Streamlined fuselage with glassed-in cockpit.
4.	Single fin and rudder. Rounded trailing edge to rudder.
Tapered leading edge and rounded trailing edge to tailplane
with rounded tips.
5.	Retractable undercarriage folding backwards and
upwards with wheels inset in wings when retracted.
6.	Retractable tail wheel.
R.A.A.F. SHEET No. 250D.
BELL P-39 (AIRACOBRY)
Country of Oi "in -America.
Type—Single Seat Fighter.
Prototype first flew in 1939. One of the most unorthodox
single seater fighters now in production. Engine is mounted in
the middle of the fuselage behind the pilot and drives the air-
screw through a shaft 8 ft. 6 in. long passing between the
pilot’s knees.
Advantages claimed are centralization of weight and the
reduction in the width of the nose to give improved view.
Disadvantages are the weight and vulnerability of the shaft,
the possibility of the pilot being crushed by the engine in a
crash, the need for a greater weight of armour in the
nose, and the vulnerability of the motor itself. Tricycle
landing gear.
40
Engines—Single liquid-cooled engine.
Speed—Maximum of 358 m.p.h.
Range—965 miles.
Ceiling—36,000 ft. (service).
Dimensions—Span, 34 ft.; length, 29 ft. 9 in.
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Low-wing monoplane. Moderate dihedral. Leading edge
tapered to rounded tips and elliptical trailing edge fairing into
fuselage.
2.	One liquid-cooled engine set in the middle of the fuse-
lage behind the pilot.
3.	Long, pointed nose. Streamlined fuselage of oval sec-
tion. Raised, glazed cockpit enclosure with air-scoop hump
immediately behind.
4.	Single fin and rudder. Tapered tailplane with rounded
tips cut out for rudder and set high on fuselage.
5.	Tricycle undercarriage, the two main wheels midway
between the nose and tail, and the third a small wheel beneath
the airscrew. Small wheel retracts immediately plane is off
the ground and the others retract sideways and inwards into
fuselage.
R.A.A.F. SHEET 250D.
THE BREWSTER BUFFALO F2A-2
Country of Origin—U.S.A.
Type—Single Seat Fighter.
Originally designed as a naval shipboard fighter for U.S.
Navy and known as Brewster F2A, fitted with radio equipment,
deck arrester hook (the arrester gear used in British aircraft
carriers was first designed in America for U.S. carriers. It
was exchanged with Britain for the British catapult design).
With a few minor modifications the aircraft was ordered for
the R.A.F. as a land fighter and called the Buffalo by the
British Air Ministry. The Belgian Government ordered a num-
ber of the model supplied to the U.S. Navy; after Dunkirk,
this contract was transferred to the British Government.
It has seen service in nearly all the main theatres of the
war.
Engine—One 1,200 h.p. radial.
Speed—Maximum of 330 m.p.h.
Range—Normal, 650 miles. Extra fuel tanks, 2,500 miles.
Ceiling—24,500 ft. (service).
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Low mid-wing monoplane. Moderate dihedral. Almost
untapered wings with rounded tips.
2.	Single radial engine.
3.	Blunt nose with a large spinner. Tubby fuselage with a
long, transparent cockpit enclosure.
41
4.	Single rounded fin and rudder with a large base.
Elliptical tailplane with semi-pointed tips and cut-out for
rudder.
5.	Undercarriage retracts inwards, partly into the wings
and partly into the fuselage.
6.	Non-retractable tail wheel.
R.A.A.F. SHEET 250D.
GRUMMAN F4F (MARTLETT)
Country of Origin—America.
Type—Single Seat Navy Fighter.
First flew in 1937. Probably the fastest aeroplane in service
with the British Royal Navy. It has done well in action against
the German Air Force. The fuselage is rather slimmer than
the Buffalo, which it somewhat resembles.
Engines—One 1,200 h.p. radial engine.
Speed—Maximum of 325 m.p.h.
Range—1,150 miles.
Ceiling—28,000 ft. (service).
Dimensions—Span, 38 ft.; length, 28 ft. 10 in.
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Mid-wing monoplane. Marked dihedral. Straight tapered
wings with square-cut tips.
2.	One radial engine.
3.	Blunt nose. Rather tubby fuselage. Raised cockpit with
straight line running down to tail. Two windows in bottom of
cabin.
4.	Straight sided single fin and rudder. Tapered tailplane
with square tips and cut-out in elevators for rudder.
5.	Wheels retract into fuselage.
6.	Fixed tail wheel.
R.A.A.F. SHEET 250D.
CONSOLIDATED “LIBERATOR” B.24
Country of Origin—America.
Type—Heavy Bomber.
First flew in 1940. Crew of six. Ferried across the Atlantic
to Britain. Numbers are in service in Australia.
Engines—Four twin Wasp radial engines.
Speed—Maximum of 320 m.p.h.
Range—3,000 miles.
Ceiling—36,000 ft. (service).
Armament—Gun turrets in nose and tail. Gun positions in
fuselage. Carries a bomb load of more than 4,000 lbs.
Dimensions—Span, 110 ft.; length, 64 ft.
42
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Shoulder wing monoplane. Slight dihedral. Tapered
wings of unusually high aspect ratio.
2.	Four radial engines, two-thirds underslung.
3.	Pointed nose and rather short, tubby fuselage. Glazed
nose and cockpit. Gun turrets amidships and in the tail.
4.	Big, oval, twin fins and rudders set at the end of the
cantilever tailplane, above and below. Rectangular tailplane
with rear corners taken off the elevators.
5.	Tricycle undercarriage. The main wheels retract out-
wards into the wings and the nose wheel forwards into the
fuselage.
R.A.A.F. SHEET 250D.
DOUGLAS A.24 (DAUNTLESS)
Country of Origin—America.
Гуре—Dive Bomber.
Crew of 2.
Dimensions—Span, 42 ft.; length, 32 ft.
Further details not yet available.
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Low-wing monoplane with slightly tapered leading edge
and trailing edge. Full dihedral from centre section outwards.
2.	One radial engine.
3.	Well-tapered fuselage leading to a “fish” tail. Glassed-in,
two-seat cockpit enclosure.
4.	Single fin and rudder, straight trailing edge to rudder.
Tapered leading edge and straight trailing edge to tailplane.
5.	Retractable undercarriage with wheels folding inwards
and under fuselage in retracted position.
6.	Fixed tail wheel.
R.A.A.F. SHEET No. 250D.
DOUGLAS B.18.A (DIGBY)
Country of Origin—America.
Type—Bomber or Troop Carrier.
Prototype first flew in 1937. The Digby is one of the older
American bombers now in service with the R.A.F., and is, in
fact, a military version of the Douglas DC-3 transport. Useful
as a troop carrier, carrying up to 17 troops. It is, therefore,
suitable for carrying parachute troops. B.18 is an earlier model.
Engines—Twin 1,200 h.p. Wright Cyclone engines.
Speed—Maximum of 225 m.p.h.
Range—1,200 miles.
Ceiling—25,000 ft. (service).
Dimensions—Span, 90 ft.; length, 56 ft. 9 ii .
43
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Mid-wing monoplane. Dihedral outwards from centre
section. All the taper on the leading edge, straight trailing
edge and semi-pointed tips.
2.	Two radial engines set on their centre lines.
3.	Pointed nose forward of the engines. Deep-bellied fuse-
lage with a straight back and curved lines underneath. Glazed
nose, enclosed cockpit and gun position set well to the rear.
Observation windows at intervals.
4.	Big, single fin and rudder with swept-back leading edge
and almost vertical trailing edge. Tailplane with swept-back
leading edge, rounded tips and straight trailing edge.
5.	Wheels retract forward and are semi-enclosed in the
humped engine nacelles.
6.	Fixed tail wheel.
R.A.A.F. SHEET 250D.
BOEING B-17D (FLYING FORTRESS)
Country of Origin—America.
Type—Heavy Bomber.
Crew of 7 to 9 — commanding officer, pilot, co-pilot, navi-
gator, bomb aimer, radio operator, and three gunners.
A further model with newer developments in armament
(the B-17E) is now in quantity production. Prototype first flew
in 1935.
Engines—Four 1,200 h.p. air-cooled, Wright Cyclone motors.
Speed—Maximum of 320 m.p.h. at 25,000 ft.
Range—3,000 miles.
Ceiling—36,000 ft. (service).
Dimensions—Span, 103 ft. 9 in.; length, 67 ft. 10J in.
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Low mid-wing monoplane with equal taper on leading and
trailing edges. Rounded tips. Dihedral from roots.
2.	Four radial engines mounted on their centre lines.
3.	Streamlined fuselage of almost circular section with
glazed, rounded nose. Fuselage merges sharply with the fin.
Gun blisters.
4.	Single, very high fin and rudder with rounded trailing
edge. Tapered leading edge and straight trailing edge to tail-
plane with slightly rounded tips.
5.	Retractable undercarriage with wheels folding upward
into engine nacelles.
6.	Retractable tail wheel.
BOEING B-17E
Country of Origin—America.
Type—Heavy Bomber.
Many modifications have been made to the Boeing B-17
Bombers since the prototype first flew in 1935. The most
44
extensive modifications yet made appear in the 17th version,
the B-17E of the U.S. Army Air Force and the Fortress II of
the R.A.F.
This type differs from its earlier versions in its armament
of three power-operated gun turrets, in the long fin extended
forward along the top of the fuselage to give stability at great
heights, in the greatly increased span and area of the tailplane
(re-designed), and in the greatly increased weight of internal
armour. It made its first flight on September 6, 1941, and is in
large-scale production by the Boeing, Douglas and Lockheed-
Vega aircraft companies. The cost is about £70,000 each.
Crew of 7 to 9.
Engines — Four 1,600 h.p. 14-cylinder Cyclones (super-
charged).
Speed—Probably a maximum of 305 m.p.h.
Ceiling—Around 40,000 ft. (service). Cruises at 35,000 ft.
Armament—Includes power-operated turrets in the fuselage
and a gun position in the extreme tail.
Dimensions—Span, 103 ft. 9 in.; length, 76 ft.
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Low mid-wing monoplane. Equal taper on leading edges
and trailing edges. Rounded tips, dihedral from roots.
2.	Four radial engines mounted on their centre lines.
3.	Rounded, glazed nose and long, streamlined fuselage.
Gun turrets in the fuselage and gun position in the extreme
tail.
4.	Tail, single fin and rudder. The fin extends forward half
the length of the fuselage. Large tailplane with tapered leading
edge, rounded tips and straight trailing edge.
5.	Retractable undercarriage.
6.	Retractable tail wheel.
R.A.A.F. SHEET 250D.
CONSOLIDATED PB2Y-2
Country of Origin—U.S.A.
Type—Patrol bomber flying boat.
First flew in 1938. Crew of 10.
The tail unit in this design has undergone many changes,
and in the PB2Y-2 it is practically identical with the Liberator.
The hull has also been improved in form. It is more than 6
tons heavier than the Sunderland, and may be considered as an
enlarged four motor version of the Catalina.
Engines—Four 1,200 h.p. Twin Wasp, air cooled.
Speed—Maximum of 220 m.p.h.
Range—5,200 miles.
Ceiling—18,000 feet (Service).
Armament—Gun turret in nose, on top of hull and in tail.
Dimensions—Span 115 ft.; length 79 ft. 3 in. Loaded weight,
65,000 lbs.
45
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	High wing monoplane flying boat. Large span wings
with tapered leading edges, square cut tips and straight
trailing edges.
2.	Four radial engines mounted in their centre lines.
3.	Deep two step hull with rounded gunner’s cockpit in the
nose and dorsal pilot’s cockpit.
4.	Twin circular fins and rudders, set both above and below,
and at the ends of the tailplane. Full dihedral tailplane, almost
rectangular in plan, with slight taper on the leading edge.
5.	Wing tip floats fold outwards to form the wing tips.
NOT LISTED ON
R.A.A.F. SHEET 250D.
NORTH AMERICAN B-25
Country of Origin—U.S.A.
Type—Attack-bomber.
Bears some resemblance to the Douglas Boston. It is, how-
ever, a much bigger aircraft, its loaded weight being some two
tons greater. Crew normally 5.
Engines—Two 1,700 h.p. air-cooled engines.
Speed—Maximum 305 m.p.h.
Range—1,728 miles.
Ceiling—25,500 feet (Service).
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Mid wing monoplane. Tapered wings with sharply
rounded tips. Full dihedral.
2.	Two radial engines mounted in underslung nacelles,
which project behind the trailing edge of the wings.
3.	Long, pointed glazed nose and glazed cockpit enclosure.
Fairly deep fuselage.
4.	Tall, angular twin fins and rudders. These are set at
the ends of, and about two-thirds above, the tailplane.
5.	Tricycle undercarriage.
NOT LISTED ON
R.A.A.F. SHEET 250D.
MARTIN B-26 (MARAUDER)
Country of Origin—U.S.A.
Type—Attack-Bomber.
The Marauder is designated the Glenn Martin B.26 by the
U.S. Army. It is one of the first aeroplanes designed since
the war began, to go into production. It is a completely new
design and owes little to any previous conception. The
method of construction will make possible a future version
equipped with a pressure cabin for high flying. Crew of 5.
46
Engines—Two 1,850 h.p. Pratt & Whitney Double Wasp
radials.
Speed—Maximum of 346 m.p.h.
Range—2,400 miles.
Ceiling—34,500 feet (Service).
Armament—Single gun in nose, another in the tail and
several guns in the top turret. The bomb load of 2,460 lbs. is in
the centre section entirely enclosed in vertical bomb racks.
Dimensions—Span, 65 ft.; length 58 ft. 3 in.
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Shoulder wing monoplane with symmetrically tapered
wings with rounded tips. Very slight dihedral.
2.	Two radial engines, underslung and with the nacelles
projecting behind the trailing edge.
3.	Circular section fuselage, highly streamlined. Pointed
glazed nose, forward cockpit and glazed section in the tail.
Gun turret aft of wings.
4.	Single well-curved fin and rudder. Tapered tailplane
set high in the fuselage with rounded tips and full dihedral.
5.	Tricycle undercarriage.
NOT LISTED ON
R.A.A.F. SHEET 250D.
THE DOUGLAS BOSTON A-20A
U.S. Army No. A-20A.
Maker’s No. DB-7B.
British name Boston III.
Country of Origin—U.S.A.
Type—Day-Bomber.
Designed as a high speed day-bomber, the Douglas Boston
in service with the R.A.F. is used for a variety of purposes. It
is a militarized version of the latest Douglas twin-engined
civil transport DC-5.
The prototype first flew in 1938 and was crashed when being
demonstrated to the French purchasing committee. A second
prototype was built with twin fins and rudders. Normally
carries a crew of 3. A bomb aimer in the transparent nose,
a single pilot in the narrow fuselage and a radio operator-
rear gunner in a position aft of the wings.
Engines—Two 1,600 h.p. Double Cyclone, air cooled.
Speed—Maximum of 350 m.p.h.
(The following figures and points of recognition are for
the Boston II).
Range—1,200 miles at 280 m.p.h.
Armament, etc.—A bomb load of 1,000 lbs for 1,000 miles
is quoted from America.
Dimensions—Span, 61 ft. 4 in.; length, 47 ft. 7 in.
47
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Shoulder wing monoplane. Straight leading edges and
sharply tapered trailing edge with semi-pointed tips. Moderate
dihedral.
2.	Two radial engines underslung in big nacelles which
project beyond the trailing edge.
3.	Narrow streamlined fuselage with a long glazed, pointed
nose. Cockpit enclosure raised above the wings.
4.	Single tall fin and rudder with a well rounded top.
Tapered tailplane with an elliptical trailing edge to elevators.
Tailplane has marked diahedral.
R.A.A.F. SHEET 250D.
DOUGLAS T.BD-1
Country of Origin—America.
Type—Torpedo-Bomber.
Crew of 3.
Engine—Single air cooled engine.
Dimensions—Span, 50 ft.; length, 25 ft.
No further details available.
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Low wing monoplane. Full dihedral. Tapered wings and
rounded tips and trailing edge fairing into fuselage.
2.	Single radial engine.
3.	Blunt nose with a long slender fuselage. Long glazed
cockpit enclosure.
4.	Single fin and rudder with rounded top and almost
straight trailing edge. Tapered tailplane with rounded tips
actually reverse shape of wings and cut out for rudder.
5.	Wheels retract partially into wings.
6.	Retractable tail wheel.
R.A.A.F. SHEET 250D.
VOUGHT-SIKORSKY OS2U-1 (KINGFISHER)
Country of Origin—America.
Type—Scouting Observation.
Designed for catapult operation in cruisers or battleships.
Wings capable of being folded. Provision is made for instal-
ling a fixed landing gear in place of the seaplane float. Crew
of 2.
Engine—Single 450 h.p. air-cooled engine. (No other details
available.)
Dimensions—Span, 36 ft.; length, 33 ft. 10 in.
48
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Low wing single wing float plane, with straight leading
and trailing edges. Slight dihedral from centre section.
2.	One radial engine.
3.	Streamlined fuselage forward of pilot’s cockpit and rear
glassed-in cockpit.
4.	Single fin and rudder. Tailplane elliptical.
5.	Single large stepped float projecting in front of engine.
Fixed wing-tip floats.
R.A.A.F. SHEET 250D.
VOUGHT SB 2U-1
Country of Origin—America.
Type—Scout-Bomber—Dive-Bomber.
Convertible land plane—float plane. Crew of 2. Used by
U.S. Naval Air Service.
Engine—Single air cooled engine.
Speed—Maximum of 257 m.p.h.
Range—1,000 miles.
Ceiling—28,200 ft. (Service).
Dimensions—Span, 42 ft.; length 34 ft.
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Low wing monoplane. Full dihedral from centre section
outwards. Rectangular centre section and tapered wings from
centre section outwards.
2.	Single radial engine.
3.	Blunt nose and fuselage of circular section. Raised
cockpit enclosure, with blacked-in middle portion.
4.	Tall single fin and rudder—symmetrical with rounded
top. Tapered tailplane with rounded tips.
5.	Backwards retracting undercarriage. Wheels turn
through 90 deg. to lie flat in the wing.
6.	Fixed tail wheel.
R.A.A.F. SHEET 250D.
CURTISS SOC-1, 2, 3
Country of Origin—America.
Type—Biplane Scouting Observation.
Used by the United States Naval Air Service. Wings may
be folded. It may be catapulted and is a convertible land
plane—seap lane.
Engine—Single air cooled engine.
Speed—165 miles per hour.
Ceiling—14,900 feet (Service).
Dimensions—Span, 36 ft.; length, 26 ft. 6 in.
49
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Single engined biplane floatplane. Wings slightly stag-
gered and slightly swept back.
2.	One radial engine.
3.	Short stubby fuselage with glassed-in cockpit.
4.	Single fin and rudder with straight trailing edge and
rounded on top. Tapered leading edge and rounded trailing
edge to tailplane.
5.	Large single stepped float projecting in front of engine.
Fixed wing tip float.
NOT LISTED IN
R.A.A.F. SHEET 250D.
NORTH AMERICAN O-47A
Country of Origin—U.S.A.
Type—Observation.
This is a new design of observation aeroplane which was
built from the viewpoint of the observer’s requirements and
was delivered to the U.S. Army Air Corps in 1938-1939. The
model was released for export in 1939 and is known as the
NA-25. Crew of 3.
Engines—Single, radial, air-cooled engine.
Speed—Maximum of 240 m.p.h. Cruising speed 218 m.p.h.
Range—Cruising range 853 miles.
Ceiling—28,000 feet (service).
Dimensions—Span, 46 ft. 4 in.; length, 33 ft. 3 in.
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Mid wing monoplane. Moderate dihedral and rounded
wing tips.
2.	Single radial engine.
3.	Deep fuselage with a blunt nose and long raised cockpit
enclosure.
4.	Single fin and rudder. Tailplane set fairly high on the
fuselage.
5.	Wheels retract outwards into wings. Fairing provided
to cover units when retracted into wing.
6.	Fixed tail wheel.
R.A.A.F. DIAGRAM 250A—SHEET 1.
SERIAL 48 TYPE “0” MITSUBISHI (“ZERO”)
Country of Origin—Japan.
Type—Single seat navy fighter.
The most outstanding Japanese fighter to date. It is highly
manoeuvrable and has a long range due to the carrying of
jettison fuel tanks. May be operated from aircraft carriers.
The extra fuel tank is made of laminated bamboo.
Very fast—max. speed over 300 m.p.h. (No accurate figure
available).
Dimensions—Span, 39 ft. 4 in.; length, 28 ft. 5 in.
50
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Low wing monoplane. Full dihedral, leading and trail-
ing edges fully tapered with rounded tips.
2.	One radial engine.
3.	Blunt nose, streamlined fuselage with a small enclosed
cockpit.
4.	Single triangular fin and rudder (above the fuselage
only) with rounded top and wide base. Tapered tailplane with
rounded edges.
5.	Retractable undercarriage.
6.	Retractable tail wheel. Provision made for a jettison-
able extra fuel tank.
R.A.A.F. DIAGRAM 250A.—SHEET 1.
SERIAL 35, TYPE 96, MITSUBISHI
Country of Origin—Japan.
Type—Single seat fighter (Naval Air Service).
This is contemporary with our eight gun machines. Borne
by aircraft carriers it performs the duties of fighting and
dive-bombing. It was one of these fighters, when operating in
China that had the major portion of one wing shot away and
yet got home safely.
Engines—Probably one 550 h.p. Kotobuka engine—radial—
air-cooled. This engine is the Bristol Jupiter built under
licence by Nakajima.
Speed—Maximum of 280 mp.n.
Ceiling—31,200 feet (Service).
Dimensions—Span, 36 ft.; length, 24 ft. 7 in.
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Low wing monoplane. Full dihedral from centre section
outwards. Extremely large root chord and elliptical plan form
with sharply rounded tips.
2.	One radial engine.
3.	Blunt nose. Open cockpit sloping to tail.
4.	Single rounded fin and unusually shaped rudder. Large
elliptical tailplane.
5.	Long fixed undercarriage with streamlined wheel spats.
6.	Fixed tail wheel.
R.A.A.F. DIAGRAM 250A—SHEET 1.
SERIAL 39, TYPE 97, MITSUBISHI
Country of Origin—Japan.
Type—Single seat fighter (Naval Air Service).
This is probably a T.96 S.S.F. Mitsubishi modified and with
a retractable undercarriage.
Dimensions—Span, 39 ft. 6 in.; length, 25 ft.
No performance figures available.
51
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Low wing monoplane. Full dihedral from centre section
outwards. Large root chord and elliptical plan form. Sharply
rounded tips.
2.	One radial engine.
3.	Blunt nose. Open cockpit sloping to the tail.
4.	Single fin and curved rudder with cutaway. Elliptical
tailplane.
5.	Undercarriage retracts into fuselage at angle to longi-
tudinal axis.
6.	Retractable tail wheel.
R.A.A.F. DIAGRAM 250A—SHEET 1.
SERIAL 39A, TYPE 97, NAKAJIMA NAKA 97
Country of Origin—Japan.
Type—Single seat fighter (Naval Air Service).
Speed—Maximum speed probably in vicinity of 250 m.p.h.
Dimensions—Span, 35 ft. 6 in.; length, 25 ft. 7 in.
No accurate performance figures available.
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Low-wing monoplane. Full dihedral from centre sec-
tion outwards. High aspect ratio. Leading edge tapered to
rounded tip. Trailing edge straight. Large bite out of wing
root.
2.	One radial engine.
3.	Blunt nose. Tapered fuselage open cockpit.
4.	Single rounded fin and rudder. Leading edge of tail-
plane fully tapered. Cut out in elevators.
5.	Long fixed undercarriage and spatted wheels.
6.	Fixed tail wheel.
R.A.A.F. DIAGRAM 250A—SHEET 2.
SERIAL 45, NAKAJIMA NAKA 93
Country of Origin—Japan
Type—Float plane fighter (Naval Air Service).
Dimensions—Span, 36 ft. 9 in.; length, 33 ft. 6 in.
No further details available.
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Mid-wing monoplane floatplane. Moderate dihedral.
Wings have some sweepback and rounded tips and a rectangular
plan form.
2.	Single radial engine.
3.	Streamlined fuselage with two open cockpits. Blunt
nose.
4.	Single fin and rudder. Braced tailplane with tapered
leading edge and rounded tips. Set high on the fuselage.
52
5.	Long twin braced floats with cross brace and projecting
well ahead of the nose of the fuselage.
R.A.A.F. DIAGRAM 250A—SHEET 1.
SERIAL 3, TYPE 97, NAKAJIMA
Country of Origin—Japan.
Type—Single seater fighter (Army Air Service).
Developed from Boeing P-26A.
(The following performance figures are probably an under-
estimation—they are quoted from “Aeroplane”).
Engine—One 550 h.p. Nakajima Jupiter.
Speed—Maximum of 241 m.p.h.
Dimensions—Span, 35 ft. 7 in.; length, 24 ft. 1 in.
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Low wing monoplane. Moderate dihedral. Tapered
wings with rounded tips.
2.	One radial engine.
3.	Blunt nose with raised cockpit fairing into fuselage.
4.	Single fin and rudder on a wide base. Elliptical tail-
plane.
5.	Fixed undercarriage with spatted wheels.
6.	Tail skid.
Provision is made for two jettisonable fuel tanks.
R.A.A.F. DIAGRAM 250A—SHEET 1.
SERIAL 11, MESSERSCHMITT ME 109E
Country of Origin—German (possibly used by Japanese).
Type—Single seat fighter (Army Air Service).
The brunt of the short range bomber escort work has been
borne around Britain by this plane. On occasion it has been
used as a light bomber.
Engines—Single 1,150 h.p. Daimler-Benz liquid cooled
engine.
Speed—Maximum of 354 m.p.h.
Range—560 miles.
Ceiling—36,000 feet (Service).
Armament—Two 20 mm. cannon, one in each wing and two
machine guns mounted on top of fuselage in front of the pilot.
Dimensions—Span, 32 ft. 5 in.; length, 28 ft. 3 in.
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Low wing monoplane. Full dihedral. Uniformly tapered
wings with almost square cut tips.
2.	One liquid cooled engine.
3.	Streamlined fuselage of oval section.
4.	Single fin and rudder. Braced tailplane, tapered with
rounded tips and mounted rather high.
53
5.	Outward retracting undercarriage.
6.	Central radiator forward of wings, retractable tail wheel.
NOT LISTED ON
R.A.A.F. DIAGRAM.
JU 88 Al
Country of Origin—Germany (will possibly be used by the
Japanese).
Type—Dive Bomber.
A Junkers 88 prototype, in March, 1939, created an inter-
national record, carrying a two-ton load 620 miles at an average
speed of 321 m.p.h. In July it carried a similar load 1,240
miles at 311 m.p.h.
The present version JU 88A1 has been modified by such
additions as enlarged cockpit, under gun emplacement, dive
brakes, external bomb racks, and a special device which syn-
chronised with the bomb release mechanism, automatically pulls
out of a dive attack when the pilot releases his bombs. Crew
of 4.
Engines—Two liquid cooled, with radial cbwling.
Speed—Maximum of 317 m.p.h.
Range—1,310 miles.
Ceiling—29,800 feet (Service).
Dimensions—Span, 59 ft.; length, 46 ft. 6 in.
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Low mid wing monoplane. Unsymmetrically tapered
wings, with rounded tips and moderate dihedral.
2.	Two liquid-cooled in-line engines with radiator in form
of radial cowlings. Engines underslung.
3.	Streamlined oval fuselage with short rounded glazed
nose and large high “conservatory” forward.
4.	Single rounded fin and rudder project well aft of the
tailplane. Uniformly tapered tailplane without cut-away “V.”
5.	Retractable undercarriage.
6.	Retractable tail wheel. Blister set off-centre under fuse-
lage and external bomb racks.
NOT LISTED ON
R.A.A.F. DIAGRAM.
MESSERSCHMITT ME 110
Country of Origin—Germany (possibly used by the Japanese).
Type—Two-three seat fighter.
Rudolph Hess used an ME 110 in his one way flight from
Bavaria to Scotland.
Engines—Two 1,150 h.p. Daimler-Benz liquid cooled engines.
Speed—Maximum of 365 m.p.h.
Range—1,500 miles.
Ceiling—35,000 feet (Service).
Dimensions—Span, 53 ft. 5 in.; length, 40 ft. 6 in.
54
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Low wing monoplane; wings uniformly tapered with high
aspect ratio and square cut tips. Slight dihedral.
2.	Two in line engines, slightly underslung.
3.	Slender fuselage with a long slim nose projecting
slightly forward of the engines. Large cockpit with glazed
“conservatory.”
4.	Twin fins and rudders mounted at extreme tips of tail-
plane projecting above and below. Tailplane is long and narrow
with a slight taper on the leading edge only.
5.	Retractable undercarriage.
6.	Fixed tailwheel. Radiators under the wings outboard
of the engine nacelles.
NOT LISTED ON
R.A.A.F. DIAGRAMS.
JUNKERS 87B (STUKA)
Country of Chigin—Germany (possibly used by Japanese).
Type—Two seat dive-bomber.
Can on occasion be destroyed by fighter planes, but their
capacity for flying slowly and near the ground gave them a
certain amount of protection. Ironically it was discovered that
one of the most effective counters to the dive-bomber was the
humble and largely discredited service rifle. By spreading
infantrymen out over large areas and having them concentrate
their rifle fire on one dive-bomber from as many directions as
possible, it was possible to score crippling hits.
It is immensely strong, flies well, and is especially designed
for ease of maintenance in the field. Most noteworthy feature
is the diving brakes, which reduce the terminal velocity from
435 to 248 m.p.h. The height to pull out of a dive is pro-
portional to the diving speed. Therefore, the slower the speed
the closer the plane can come to the target before releasing
the bomb. . The speed does not affect the pentration appreciably.
Prototype JU 87A used in Spain in 1938. JU 87B’s used in
aircraft carrier “Graf Zeppelin.”
Engines—1,200 h.p. Junkers Jumo liquid cooled engine.
Speed—Maximum of 242 m.p.h. at 13,800 feet.
Range—498 miles at 186 m.p.h.
Ceiling—27,900 feet (Service).
Armament—Two fixed machine guns in wings. Movable
machine gun in aft cockpit. 1,100 lb. bomb under fuselage and
four 110 lb. bombs under wings.
Dimensions—Span, 45 ft. 4 in.; length, 35 ft. 6 in.
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Low wing monoplane. Inverted “Gull” (i.e., “Cranked”)
wings, with slight taper on the leading edge, full taper on the
trailing edge and nearly square cut tips.
55
2.	Single in-line engine.
3.	Streamlined fuselage with a pointed nose and glazed,
raised cockpit enclosure.
4.	Large single fin and square cut rudder, together with
a long narrow rectangular braced tailplane form a most
characteristic tail unit.
5.	Fixed undercarriage with large streamlined wheel
“spats.”
6.	Fixed tail wheel. Junkers double wing flaps on trailing
edge of wings. Dive brakes under wings. Large radiator
placed centrally under the engine.
NOT LISTED ON
R.A.A F. DIAGRAM.
MESSERSCHMITT 109F
Country of Origin—Germany.
. Type—Single seat fighter.
The objects behind the modifications found with this model
are probably:—
1.	To increase the fire power.
2.	To increase performance at height.
3.	Tn increase power of manoeuvre.
Many have already been shot down.
Engine—One Mercedes-Benz 1,150 h.p.
Speed—Maximum of 380 m.p.h. at 21,000 feet.
Range—370 miles at 307 m.p.h. 600 miles at 262 m.p.h.
Ceiling—40,000 feet (Service).
Armament—20 mm. cannon firing through airscrew hub, 2
machine guns on motor cowling.
Dimensions—Span, 33 ft.; length, 29 ft. 8 in.
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Low wing monoplane with uniformly tapered wings with
rounded tips and full dihedral.
2.	One liquid cooled engine.
3.	Pointed nose and streamlined, oval section, fuselage,
with glazed cockpit.
4.	Single fin and rudder of characteristic shape and canti-
lever tailplane and tapered with rounded tips.
5.	Retractable undercarriage.
6.	Fixed tail wheel.
R.A.A.F. DIAGRAM 250A—Sheet 2.
SERIAL 43, KAWANISI
Country of Origin—Japan.
Type—Flying boat (Naval Air Service) Reconnaissance
and Bomber.
Based on the American design (Sikorsky) and the civil ver-
sion—which has been used on the run to Dilli (Timor), can
56
carry 25 passengers. This means that the military version pro-
bably carries a large bomb load and has considerable range.
The Company holds the licence to construct Short Flying
Boats in Japan and they are also the sole agents for Rolls
Royce engines.
Engines—Probably four engines of approximately 750 h.p.
Speed—Probably about 210 m.p.h.
Range—Probably about 3,000 miles.
Dimensions—Span, 131 ft.; length, 82 ft.
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Braced high wing monoplane flying boat. Slight di-
hedral. Wings swept back to rounded tips. Trailing edge
swept forwards toward the wing root. Large span.
2.	Four radial engines mounted on their centre lines.
3.	Long slender fuselage. Pointed nose projects well for-
ward of engines. Two-step hull braced by parallel struts from
wing.
4.	Twin angular fins and rudders mounted near the ends of
the tailplane. Braced, rectangular tailplane with rounded tips
and mounted on top of fuselage.
5.	Twin floats attached just outboard of outside motor.
6.	Tail gun turret.
R.A.A.F. DIAGRAM 250A—SHEET 2.
SERIAL 49, TYPE 97, MITSUBISHI MITSU 95
Country of Origin—Japan.
Type—Biplane flying boat (Naval Air Service).
No performance figures available, but the maximum speed
would probably be about 150 m.p.h. It is fairly heavily armed.
Dimensions—Span, 96 ft. 9 in.; length, 70 ft. 10 in.
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Braced biplane flying boat, with wings of unequal span
and large gap.
2.	Three liquid cooled engines mounted about half way
between the wings.
3.	Deep, two-step hull tapering to a slender stern.
4.	Single oval fin and rudder with almost rectangular tail-
plane set just above the lower wing.
5.	Two wing tip floats attached to tips of lower wing.
R.A.A.F. DIAGRAM 250A—SHEET 2.
SERIAL 37, TYPE 96 MITSUBISHI
Country of Origin—Japan.
Type—Heavy bomber (Naval Air Service).
Different versions of this type may have:—
(a)	single tail.
(b)	gun blisters.
57
Dimensions—Span 82 ft.; length 54 ft.
The following figures (performance) are for the Mitsubishi
96-2—four seat long range bomber.
Engines—Two 950 h.p. radial engines.
Speed—Maximum of 192 m.p.h.
Range—1,615 miles.
Developed from the Junkers JU 86K.
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Mid wing monoplane. Slight dihedral. Tapered wings
with full taper on trailing edge only. Almost square cut wing
tips.
2.	Two radial engines mounted on their centre lines.
3.	Long rounded nose and streamlined fuselage. Forward
glazed cockpit enclosure.
4.	Twin fins and large angular rudders with cutaway base
and set only above tailplane, inset from ends of tailplane. Large,
sharply tapered tailplane with almost square cut tips.
5.	Wheels retract into engine nacelles.
6.	Fixed tail wheel.
7.	Note—Modifications may be (a) single tail, (b) gun
blisters.
NOT LISTED ON
R.A.A.F. DIAGRAM 250A.
(NAVAL AIR SERVICE) TYPE 99, AICHI OR
MITSU (SERIAL 50)
Country of Origin—Japan.
Type—Dive-Bomber.
Dimensions—Span, 47 ft. 5 in.; length, 35 ft.
No further particulars available.
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Low wing monoplane. Plan form of wings—elliptical.
Dihedral outwards from the centre section.
2.	One radial engine.
3.	Blunt nose and slender, well shaped fuselage with a
raised cockpit enclosure.
4.	Single fin and rudder. Curved leading edge to tailplane
rounded tips and straight trailing edge—curved leading edge
to fin and straight trailing edge to rudder.
5.	Fixed undercarriage with spatted wheels.
6.	Fixed tail wheel. Diving brakes.
58
R.A.A.F. DIAGRAM 250A—SHEET 1.
SERIAL 40, TYPE 97, MITSUBISHI
Country of Origin—Japan.
Type—Torpedo-Bomber (Naval Air Service).
D.mensions—Span, 52 ft. 6 in.; length, 33 ft. 9 in.
Further particulars not yet available.
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Low wing monoplane. Full dihedral. Wings tapered to
rounded tips.
2.	One radial engine.
3.	Streamlined fuselage with long raised transparent cock-
pit.
4.	Single fin and rudder.
5.	Undercarriage retract inwards.
6.	Fixed tail wheel.
R.A.A.F. DIAGRAM 250A—SHEET 2.
SERIAL 5, TYPE 97, MITSUBISHI
Country of Origin—Japan.
Type—Heavy-Bomber (Army Air Service).
This is Japan’s chief bomber of more-or-less home made
design. It is about equal in size to the Wellington and was
probably used to bomb the Prince of Wales and the Repulse.
It traces its descent from the Martin 166 by way of the Douglas
DC-2, the HE 111, and the Wellington prototype, features from
all of which are incorporated in the design. Various features
from the earlier Mitsubishi 96 (developed from the JU 86) are
also built into it, thus it is an amazing mixture, but effective
none the less.
Engines—Two 870 h.p. Mitsubishi A-14 engines.
Speed—Maximum of about 224 m.p.h.
Dimensions—Span, 85 ft.; length, 61 ft.
Armament—One fixed machine gun firing forwards, a
machine gun on a movable mounting on the top of the fuselage
and another fixed in the extreme tail. (Not well armed by our
standards).
Range—About 1,000 miles carrying 2,000 lbs. of bombs.
POINTS OF RECOGNITION.
1.	Mid wing monoplane. Full dihedral from centre section
outwards. Tapered wings.
2.	Two radial engines with large nacelles centrally mounted.
3.	Long, narrow, well shaped fuselage, with “glass house”
over trailing edge of wing.
4.	Single tailfin and rudder with straight trailing edge and
rounded top. Tapered tailplane mounted beiow the fin and
rudder.
5.	Wheels retract into engine nacelles.
6.	Fixed tail wheel.
59
Appendix A.
SOLID SCALE MODEL AIRCRAFT
This description is an outline of the materials, tools and
simple construction requirements incorporated in the manufac-
ture of solid scale models of current fighting aircraft, which
are to be used in the teaching of aircraft recognition.
1.	GENERAL.
There are many ways of constructing scale model aircraft
both in method and material, but, for the purposes stated above,
a solid wooden type is recommended as being the simplest and
cheapest model. The main thing to be considered is the scale,
the essential details to be incorporated, and the manner in
which the models are to be built.
As regards scale, 1/72 scale, i.e., 1 in. equals 6 ft., appears
to be the most economical, besides being the scale adopted by
R.A.A.F. and Army, and therefore, this scale will be used
throughout this description.
Detail used need not be too complicated, and essential points
of recognition, such as cockpit enclosures, cabin windows, etc.,
should be painted on when model has been assembled, rather
than built up in detail.
Construction of models should follow a definite system so
that the building is controlled and not haphazard. If a system-
atic procedure is followed, the various training contres will
be able to construct models for their own use, and yet have
them comparable in scale and detail with those built elsewhere.
2.	MATERIALS.
Wood has been chosen as being the most suitable for this
work, as it is easily obtained, and readily worked with the
simplest and cheapest tools.
The two woods commonly used for model aircraft are:—
(i)	A softwood of the pine species.
(ii)	Balsa wood, a wood of extraordinary lightness.
The Australian balsa is quite good, as it is harder and
denser than the imported wood, and therefore it does not require
as much filling before the paint is applied.
In any case, whatever wood is used, care must be exercised
in its selection to be sure that it is straight, even grained and
free from knots or blemishes. If this is done, no trouble will
be had in forming it to the required shape, for the work can
be made very uninteresting and needlessly laborious if too
hard a wood is used.
Other materials may be mentioned from time to time, but
they will easily be obtained or even found in the home.
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3.	TOOLS.
Few tools are required for the construction of wooden
models and they may be divided into two groups:—
(a)	Roughing out tools.
(b)	Finishing tools and equipment.
(a)	Roughing out tools needed are:—
1.	Steel rule for drawing and cutting.
2.	Pencil and carbon paper for transferring plans to wood.
3.	lOin. dovetail saw’ and fretsaw.
4.	Chisels—iin. or iin. flat chisel and lin. semi-round chisel.
5.	Rasp, medium to fine for rough shaping.
(b)	Finishing tools required:—
1.	Long-bladed penknife for general carving.
2.	Small 4in.-5in. smoothing plane for flat surfaces.
3.	Fretwork hammer.
4.	Pointed nose pliers.
5.	Scissors for paper and card cutting.
6.	Hand drill with set of small bits.
7.	Sand paper or glass paper graded from coarse to extra
fine.
A soldering outfit may be needed, but not enough to war-
rant its inclusion in this list. It is possible that quite a number
of these tools may not be necessary, but to have them will
make the work less arduous.
When all the required tools are selected, a bench to work
on is necessary. A large, flat table would be satisfactory, and,
if fitted with a small vice, its value would be increased. A flat
surface is necessary for setting out and final assembly of the
model.
For the assembly of the model, glue will be necessary;
“Seccotine” is very good, but if balsa is used, then an acetone
cement is better. Finishing the model will require a collection
of paints and brushes and a tube of plastic wood or balsa—
plastic is a useful addition to the equipment, for a variety
of uses may be found for it; viz., wing root fillets, fairings,
and for filling holes, etc.
4. PLANS.
Plans will be drawn from information at hand regarding
wing span, height, etc., and from these tracings can be made
and transferred to the wood with pencil and carbon paper.
Plans should be a standard scale within the unit. Issue models
are all 1/72 scale.
It must be understood that essential detail is everything,
and adherence to plans and photographs very important. How-
ever, too much detail, besides being unnecessary, is a waste of
time on these models, for their use lies not in their detail, but
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in the accuracy of their silhouette form and size. This is
vital if they are to be used as an aid in studying aircraft
recognition.
Plans should carry footnotes to help in the work of con-
struction and assembly of the model, as each type of aircraft
embodies a slightly different procedure.
5. CONSTRUCTION.
A definite order of construction should be followed, and if
this is followed, the work is made more interesting and much
simpler. The order laid down follows, more or less, the way
in which a full-size aircraft is assembled and finished.
The procedure is to build the component parts and partly
finish them before assembly.
The order is:—
A—Fuselage.
В—Wings.
C—Tail unit.
D—Engine nacelles.
E—Undercarriage, struts, and other details.
F—Assembly, finishing, painting.
A—FUSELAGE.
Take overall size of the fuselage, and select a block of
timber. To the sides of this transfer, by means of carbon
paper, the side elevations of the model, and cut out roughly
with a fretsaw.
Do the same for the top and bottom elevations, and the
block is now ready for rough streamlining with knife and rasp.
Finishing should start with a medium sand paper, working
up to a fine sandpaper.
B—WING.
Transfer shape to the wood as already explained, cut out
roughly to size, and then sand paper it to shape. Dihedral
should be given to the wings by means of saw cuts, the wing
bent to the required angle, and the cut filled with glue and
plastic wood filling. The taper should be studied to see whether
it affects the top or bottom surface of the wings.
C—TAIL UNIT.
Trace on to wood, and cut them out, and sandpaper to shape.
Rudder may be slotted to take tail plane, but this depends on
the type of unit.
Rudder and tail plane fit into saw cuts in fuselage.
D—ENGINE NACELLES.
Construction is similar to that of fuselage. Radial motors
may be turned out of extra hard balsa or pine. Nacelles are
slotted to fit wing section, and care is needed in this operation.
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E—UNDERCARRIAGE.
Small wheels may be fitted if of the fixed type, but if under-
carriage retracts wheels and wheel wells may be painted on
to underside of wings when model is assembled and painted.
STRUTS.
These should be strong and fitted with wire pins each end
to give a strong joint to fuselage and wings, etc.
F—ASSEMBLY AND FINISHING.
When all parts are finished, smooth with sandpaper; as-
sembly can be started.
First the wings and then the tail plane should be fitted and
glued to the fuselage. The engine nacelles are next fitted, fol-
lowed by the undercarriage (if any).
The streamline fillets at the wing roots may be filled in with
plastic wood and sandpapered to shape.
When all is assembled and the glue has set, the first coat
of paint or fillers may be applied. When this is dry it should
be sanded until a smooth surface is obtained.
Two or more filling coats may be necessary before the
finishing coat is put on.
After the final coat of paint is dry, the ailerons, elevators
and rudder lines may be put in with black ink, and national
markings and cockpit enclosures painted on.
Details such as lettering and numbers are best left out.
for they serve no useful purpose and may sometimes spoil the
effect unless very well done.
7. CONCLUSION.
There are many parts and operations on a solid scale model
aircraft, and care must be taken to see that each part is cor-
rectly shaped and sanded before assembly, otherwise finishing
becomes difficult.
All the operations require time, but if patience is exercised,
the builder will be amply rewarded for his labours.
A well-constructed model requires that a great deal of
care be taken in its paint finish. Careless painting is quite
capable of ruining otherwise perfect workmanship. Remember
that the opposite is also true, for no matter how good the paint-
ing may be, it will not cover any defect to be found in the
construction.
Finally, it must be stressed that each model must contain
the same amount of detail so that, when placed together, the
comparison is not one of relative workmanship, but a compari-
son of different types of aircraft.
Too much detail is to be discouraged, for there is a definite
purpose for these models which is all-important—as an aid in
the easy and quick recognition of friendly and hostile aircraft.
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Appendix В.
GLOSSARY OF R.A.A.F. SLANG
BALE OUT—To take to one’s parachute.
BOGUS—Sham, spurious.
BRASSED OFF—Diminutive of “browned off.”
BROWNED OFF, TO BE—“Fed up.”
BUMPS AND CIRCUITS—Circuits and landings
BUS DRIVER—Bomber pilot.
BUTTONED UP—A job properly completed, “mastered.”
COPE—To accomplish, to deal with.
DECK, CRACK DOWN ON—To “pancake” an aircraft.
DOG FIGHT—Aerial scrap.
DRILL. THE RIGHT—Correct method of doing anything.
DRINK, IN THE—To come down into the sea.
DUD—Applied to weather when unfit to fly.
FLAK—Anti-aircraft fire.
FLAP—A disturbance, general excitement.
GEORGE—The automatic pilot.
GET CRACKING—Get going.
GONG, TO COLLECT A—Get a medal.
HEDGE HOPPING—Flying so low aircraft appears to be hop-
ping over hedges.
KITE (or CRATE)—An aeroplane.
MAE WEST—Life-saving stole or waistcoat, inflated if wearer
falls into sea.
MICKEY MOUSE—Bomb dropping mechanism.
PACK UP—Cease to function.
PEEL OFF, TO—Break formation, to engage enemy.
PLUG AWAY—Continue to fire, keep after target.
RANG THE BELL—Got good results.
RINGS—Rank, designation on officer’s tunic.
SNAKE ABOUT—Operational aerobatics.
SPUN IN—A bad mistake. Analogy from an aircraft spinning
out of control into the ground.
STOOGE—Deputy, i.e., second pilot or assistant.
TEAR OFF A STRIP—To reprimand; taken down a peg.
TEE UP—To prepare a job, to get ready.
TYPE—Classification—usually referring to people.
UNDERCART—Undercarriage of an aircraft.
VIEW—R.A.A.F. personnel always take a “view” of things.
Good view, poor view, dim view, lean view, etc.
WIZARD—Really first-class, superlative, ingenious.
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AMENDMENTS
Serial No.	Month of Issue	Initials	Serial No.	Month of Issue	Initials