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ДПГЛИИСКИИ язык ДЛЯ СТУДЕНТОВ БИОЛОГОВ
1985
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Д. 3. САИНОВА
АНГЛИЙСКИЙ язык
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ДЛЯ СТУДЕНТОВ-БИОЛОГОВ
ДОПУЩЕНО
Министерством высшего и среднего специального образования СССР в качестве учебника для студентов высших учебных заведений, обучающихся по специальности „Биология”
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ИЗДАТЕЛЬСТВО КАЗАНСКОГО УНИВЕРСИТЕТА 1 985
D.Z. SAINOVA
MN
for biologists
Textbook
Печатается по постановлению Редакционно-издательского совета Казанского университета
Научный редактор — кандидат исторических наук Сидоров Л. И.
Рецензенты: зав. кафедрой иностранных языков КХТИ, профессор Н. X. Мифтахова, член-корреспондент Академии педагогических наук СССР, профессор А. А. Миролюбов
В основу учебника положена идея взаимосвязанного и одновременного развития навыков чтения, перевода, устной речи. Уроки построены на материале жизни и деятельности известных ученых, основателей крупных направлений в биологии и их учений. Каждый урок состоит -из ряда текстов, содержащих новый информационный материал по теме с разным целевым назначением.
Учебник предназначен для студентов биолого-почвенных факультетов университетов.
4602010000—015
С 075(02)—85
34-84
© Издательство Казанского университета, 1985 г.
МЫ РЕКОМЕНДУЕМ
©Иностранные языки + Метод Мертнера g£HEZF*<>i|*i:s • :SKirr=;i^i<iigid«iii
Вы участник v
vk.com/mertner - Иностранные и национальные языки (литература, методики и т.п.)
vk.com/v_e_d_i - Веди (в): мудрость на Земле и Небесах ведаю множество, собранное воедино; определенность; направленность связующее звено между двумя системами (взаимосвязь);
наполненность; мудрость; знание (информация).
ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ
• Учебник предназначен для студентов биол ого-почвенных факультетов и рассчитан на первый этап обучения языку (210-240 учебных часов).
В соответствии с программой Минвуза СССР он ставит целью приобщить студентов с первых же занятий к литературе общебиологического характера и построен таким образом, чтобы к концу обучения подготовить их к чтению и переводу более сложных по содержанию и языку текстов.
Учебник состоит из четырех разделов: основного курса, литературы для самостоятельного домашнего чтения, дополнительного материала для комплексного повторения грамматики и краткого грамматического справочника.
Уроки основного курса состоят из текстов с •разными целевыми назначениями: обучить студентов чтению, переводу и развитию навыков разговорной речи.
Выбор темы уроков определяется содержанием учебных планов первых — вторых курсов по биологическим дисциплинам. Они посвящены отдельным вопросам из области общей биологии, ботаники и систематики растений, цитологии, микробиологии, биохимии, генетики, селекции, экологии, зоологии, физиологии растений, физиологии человека и животных н др. Тексты уроков не адаптированы, взяты из статей и книг научно-популярного характера, излагают истории крупных открытий в биологии, жизни и деятельности известных ученых. Они взаимосвязаны по содержанию, но каждый добавляет новый познавательный материал, интересен по сюжету; доступен для понимания и пересказов, ставит ряд вопросов для дискуссий по современным проблемам биологиии. В каждом уроке дается комлексное повторение грамматического материала и выделяется определенный лексический минимум, подлежащий усвоению. В конце урока предлагаются примеры учебных игровых ситуаций.
Через каждые два—три урока идут тексты для самостоятельного домашнего чтения, связанные по тематике с материалом проработанных уроков и дополняющие их.
Грамматические и лексические упражнения даны в каждом уроке. Кроме того, для повторения и контроля они вынесены в особый, тре; тий раздел учебника.
В конце имеется иллюстрированный таблицами и примерами краткий грамматический справочник, в котором представлен материал, изучаемый в уроках учебника.
МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЕ РЕКОМЕНДАЦИИ К РАБОТЕ С УЧЕБНИКОМ. Основной курс учебника состоит из 15-ти уроков-тем, каждый
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из них рассчитан на 6—8 аудиторных занятий в зависимости от уровня подготовки учащихся.
Тексты. Урок начинается с основного текста, предназначенного для изучения или повторения выделенного лексико-грамматического материала, и содержит новый материал для чтения и понимания. Необходимо с первых же занятий научить студентов читать не по словам, а по синтагмам, находить смысловые единицы, несущие информацию, просматривать текст целиком и находить важные для понимания детали. Этой главной цели обучения чтению подчинены все последующие тексты урока. Они дополняют основной, дают новую информацию по теме, но каждый имеет свою методическую цель. На базе этих текстов отрабатываются узнавание, восприятие, закрепление пройденного материала и развиваются навыки различных видов чтения.
Тексты, рассчитанные для просмотрового чтения, понимания на слух, пересказа содержания прочитанного на русском языке, рекомендуются для работы в аудитории, а тексты, имеющие цель научить студентов самостоятельному творческому осмыслению прочитанного (выделение основной мысли отрывка, постановка ключевых вопросов к тексту или ответы на них, разбивка на смысловые части, подбор заголовков, аннотирование, реферирование)—для самостоятельной работы. В каждом уроке имеются тексты для перевода с русского на английский йли с английского на русский и, обратно, на английский. Эти упражнения учат студентов наблюдательности, умению видеть структуру двух языков, сопоставлять и делать выводы и обобщения. Они же способствуют запоминанию и закреплению лексики. Их можно рекомендовать как для самостоятельных домашних заданий, так и для работы в аудитории, где под руководством преподавателя анализируются и сравниваются студенческие переводы с оригиналом, данным в учебнике.
Через каждые 2—3 урока, а в дальнейшем через 1~2, даются тексты для домашнего чтения, связанные с тематикой пройденных уроков. Кроме них, чтобы приобщить и приучить студентов к специфике текстов общественно-политического характера и расширить запас лексики, необходимо включать в планы работу с газетой ’’Moscow News”.
После проработки всех текстов, как аудиторных, так и внеаудиторных, студентам можно рекомендовать подготовить* небольшие сообщения и „сочинения”, основанные на пройденном материале. Примерные темы для такого рода сообщений даются в заданиях урока. Они могут быть предложены также по выбору преподавателя в соответствии с подготовкой и уровнем знания студентов. Такие задания стимулируют творческую активность, побуждают их искать новую дополнительную информацию для своих „сочинений” и являются переходным этапом от аудиторной работы к внеаудиторной. Лучшие сообщения можно заслушивать на объединенных занятиях 2—3 групп или научных студенческих конференциях потока, курса и т. д. Положительным моментом при этом является массовое вовлечение студентов в процессе подготовки к научным студенческим конференциям на иностранных языках.
Лексика. В учебнике предусмотрена специальная серия словообразовательных упражнений для обработки аффиксальных моделей. Этот так называемый „активный словарь”, выделенный для запоминания, дается в порядке их появления в основном тексте. Они даются сразу же после текста и предусматривают самостоятельную работу учащихся со словарем, направленную на овладение словообразовательными механизмами и умение пользоваться языковой догадкой для раскрытия значе
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ния ранее изученных слов по словообразовательным элементам, являются основой расширения потенциального запаса слов. Упражнения, направленные на активизацию и контроль лексики, а также работу с интернациональной лексикой, лучше проводить в аудитории под руководством преподавателя.
Устная речь. Задача обучения студентов навыкам разговорной речи выполняется путем использования тематического материала учебника для пересказов, составления диалогов, а также организации учебных игровых ситуаций, предложенных в конце каждого урока. Учебные игровые ситуации или деловые игры на базе тематики уроков создают условия для имитации естественной речи, стимулируют общение студентов друг с другом на иностранном языке, развивают спонтанную речевую активность. Они одновременно интенсифицируют усвоение лексического и грамматического материала, являются средством контроля лексики предыдущих уроков и навыков разговорной речи. Задания предусматривают как парную диалогическую работу, так и краткие сообщения, доклады, организации „научных конференций"’, „конкурсов”, которые проводятся под руководством преподавателя . Следует отметить, однако, что задания, предложеннные в учебнике, даются только как образцы, примеры возможных учебных игровых ситуаций. Имеется в виду, что преподаватель, в зависимости от уровня знаний и разговорных навыков студентов, в процессе работы сам будет создавать аналогичные проблемные ситуации, этюды и использовать их по своему усмотрению на различных этапах работы над уроком-темой. Такие аудиторные занятия в дальнейшем являются базой для внеклассной кружковой работы по развитию навыков устной речи.
Грамматика. Грамматический материал рекомендуется вводить при закреплении усвоенного на поелетекетовых упражнениях. Для дальнейшей самостоятельной работы над грамматикой предусмотрены справочник и дополнительные упражнения по грамматическим темам в третьем разделе учебника. Эти же упражнения используются как материал для контрольных работ и зачетов.
Автор выражает благодарность преподавателям кафедры английского языка Казанского государственного университета Л. Н. Сидорову, Г. К. Шимкиной, Н. Д. Затонской, Э. Р. Даминовой и Е. В. Боровской за советы и помощь в подготовке учебника к изданию, а также члену-корреспонденту Академии педагогических наук СССР, профессору А. А. Миролюбову и профессору Н. X Мифтаховой, взявшим на себя труд по рецензированию учебника.
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LESSON ONE
. Grammar: Indefinite, Continuous, Perfect Tenses.
Active Voice.
BIOLOGY
Biology is the science ol life and people who are engaged in it are called biologists. They study the secrets of living things. Their discoveries are of great- value to all mankind.
Biology tells us about our body: how it is constructed tand how it functions. It gives us important information about other living things and how their lives affect mankind? A knowledge of biology will help you to keep healthy, it will be your guide in solving many^of everyday living and scientific problems.	*	_
Biologists have made a great contribution to science. They have increased our food supply, they have developed new and better varieties of plants and animals. Scientific methods of farming have given us much more food. Biologists control many diseases. They have saved millions of lives by discovering the causes of these diseases and methods of prevention and cure. Vaccines, penicillin and sulfa are products of the biological laboratory.
Biologists have solved many mysteries of the body. They have discovered how blood circulates, how food is digested and many other secrets of life. They are now working in different fields of biology and their studies may lead to a solution of many problems.
A biologist's laboratory is a fascinating place. In it you may find a variety of plants and animals, some of which are invisible to the naked eye. There are powerful microscopes and other instruments. One of the most important
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tools of a scientist is his laboratory notebook. He always keeps very complete and accurate records of his observations and experiments.
In carrying out his work biologists use the scientific method that is:
1.	They find out everything that is known about the problem by reading or by discussing the matter with others. '
2.	They think of several possible explanations or solutions. Some of these will prove to be wrong. One or more of the others may be right.
3.	They, test all the possibilities by experiments. They repeat the experiment several times. They make every effort to prevent errors.
4.	When they have reached a conclusion, they inform other scientists who may repeat the work.
"Biology and Human Progress" by L. Eisman, C. Tanzer.
Notes to the text:
to be of great value — иметь большую ценность
to keep healthy —быть здоровым
to make a contribution — сделать вклад
to be acquainted with — быть знакомым according to — согласно, в соответствии to do one's best — стараться
Translate the following words bearing in mind the meaning of the. affixes and memorize them: _ ~
to engage (v), engagement (n)
to discover /v)), discoverer (n), discovery (n)
to value (v), value (n), valuable (adj)
to construct (v), construction (n), constructive (adj) importance (n), important (adj)
to know (v), knowledge (n)
to develop (v), developer (n), development (n)
to vary (v), variety (n)’, variation (n), various (adj), variable (adj)
to acquaint (v), acquaintance (n)
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mystery (n), mysterious (adj)
to observe (v), observer (n), observation (n) to specialize (v), specialist (n), speciality (n), special (adj)
EXERCISES
1.	Read the following words and guess their meaning:
secret [sfckrit], to construct [kan'strxkt], function ['Lmkjn], information [jnfa'meijn], problem ['problem], biology [bai'oladsi], contribution [,ko:ntri'bu:jn], method [’me0ad], control [kant'roul], million ['miljan], vaccine ['vaeksim], penicillin [.peni'silin], sulfa [’sxlfa], product ['pradakt], laboratory [la'baratari], result [ri'znlt], circulation [,sa;kju'leijn], experiment [iks'perimant], accurate [’aekjurit], discuss [dis'kxs], inform [inform], faculty ['fae-kalti], nature [’neitja], botany [’batani], anatomy [a’naeta-mi], microbiology ['maikrobai’alddsi], physiology [,fizi'a-ladsi], zoology [zou'oladji], philosophy [ fi'bsafi], genetics [dsi’netiks], museum [mjw'ziam], modern ['madan], mathematics [mae0i'maetiks], physics ['fiziks], specialization ['spej'al(a)i’zeij’(a)n]
II.	Supply the three forms of the following verbs: to tell, to say, to speak, to give, to keep, to make, to lead, to begin, to be, to do, to choose, to know
III.	State the parts of speech and underline the suf fixes:
science, information, to function, engagement, to circulate, biological, preventive, digestion, constructor, possibility, to repeat,. knowledge, various, specialize, to inform
IV.	Define the tense of the predicate and put the sentences into the interrogative and negative forms:
1. I am studying biology. 2. He has solved this difficult problem. 3. He is a good biologist. 4. My teacher developed a new plant. 5. These scientists work at a very interesting problem. 6. They began to investigate this problem last year. 7. Animals and plants live under .different conditions. 8. Life exists in many places on the earth. 9. Some
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animals can exist under the immense pressure of the deep seas. 10. Biologists have solved many mysteries of the body. 11. Students of the biological faculty study different subjects.
V.	Read and translate the text and reproduce it:
I am a student of the biological faculty. Our faculty is one of the largest faculties of the University. We study different subjects: Botany, Anatomy, Microbiology and many others. Besides these subjects we study Political Economy, Philosophy and English. We study English to be able to read scientific books on biology.
There are many departments in our faculty: of botany, of zoology, of microbiology, of physiology of man and animals, of physiology, of plants, of genetics, of soil science, of conservation of nature, of bionics, etc. Besides there are research laboratories and museums. Every student has an opportunity to work in modern, well-equipped laboratories, where different problems of biology are under investigation.
Students are acquainted with all branches of biology. They are lectured in various subjects of natural science, namely botany, zoology, anatomy, microbiology, biophysics, biochemistry, soil science, bionics, genetics.
During the first two years they attend lectures on mathematics, physics, chemistry, political subjects and foreign languages. In the third year more narrow specialization begins. They have several specialized courses and additional practical and. research work in the subject they have chosen as their future speciality. Besides attending lectures they may join some scientific circle and choose a problem to work on according to their bents. All of them know that biology is the science of glorious past and great future. They do their best to acquire as much knowledge as possible:
Graduates of the biological faculty are assigned to work at laboratories, schools, research institutes. Those who have a bent for research work may apply for a postgraduate course of study.
VI.	Translate the text without a dictionary trying to
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guess the meaning of the unfamiliar words from the context:
Biology gives us an acquaintance with the world of living things and an understanding of some of the great fundamental laws and processes of nature. There are many special fields of knowledge and many phases and principles to which. elementary training in general biology is essential.
These include medicine, physiology, agriculture, horticulture, forestry, sanitation, hygiene and many others. Because man is an organism subject to the same laws which govern all living things ana is built according to the same plan as other higher animals, an elementary knowledge of biology gives us a basis for an understanding of our own body.
VII.	Translate the following into English:
Биология — наука о живых организмах. Она изучает тайны живой природы: как устроены живые организмы, как они функционируют. Результаты исследований биологов имеют большое значение для развития многих отраслей науки. Исследования биологов помогают решить многие проблемы современной науки. Они помогают понять взаимосвязь между всеми организмами и окружающей средой (environment). Определение сущности жизни (essence of life) — одна из основных задач общей биологии.
VIII.	Compose short dialogues for the following imaginary situations:
1.	You are discussing hobbies and professional interests with your friends. Tell your new friends about your hobby groups, clubs and circles of your institute.
2.	Your friend works or studies at the faculty of Chemistry. He urges you to transfer to this faculty. Reject his proposal and tell him that biology is your dream.
3.	You have noticed that your friend has a special liking for research work. Persuade him to go to work at a research institute after graduation.
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4.	Next year you graduate. Tell your friend what you would like to do in the new year. Recollect how interesting it was to study at the University, Say you will do everything depending on you to make your work as interesting.
5.	You are the Dean of the biological faculty. Tomorrow you are to speak to the firgt-year students. What would you tell them1? What would you wish your future students?
6.	Students of various faculties meet at a tourist camp. Everybody speaks about the importance of the science he studies. Prove that biology is the most vital of all the sciences.
7.	You are to write a report about the work of the biologists of your faculty. You have written a little. Ring your friends up,- tell them what you have already written and ask them what can be added.
LESSON TWO
Grammar: Indefinite, Continuous, Perfect Tenses. Active Voice. Modal Verbs.
BIOLOGY
Biology is the science of living things. The word "biology” comes from two Greek words: bio — "life” and logos—’’discourse” or ’’study”. Biology includes ail the facts and principles which have been derived from a scientific study of living things. The special study of plants, called Botany, and of animals, called Zoology, are the two great subdivisions of the science of biology. Plants and animals are called'organisms, so biology may a so be defined as the science of organisms.
Life exists in many places on the earth, often in spite of very difficult conditions. In the Arctic regions, the temperature may fall to 60 degrees below zero, while in deserts it may climb to over 120 degrees. Some animals live under the immense pressure of the deep seas, and others live near the tops of the highest mountains. But no
matter where they exist, all living things must have certain necessary conditions. Let us see what these are: living things need oxygen, living things must have the right amount of pressure, living things must have water, living things need the proper temperature, living things must have food.
Most people think that plants are not alive in the same sense that animals are, or that there is some fundamental difference between plant and animal life. But this is not so. Plants and animals have much in common. Their more important points of resemblance are: I) The living substance of plants and animals is organized into protoplasm. Protoplasm is the basic material of all living systems and its general properties are fundamentally the same in each system both in plants and animals. 2) The living matter is organized in both plants and animals into microscopic units called cells. 3) Certain vital processes take place in plant bodies in the same manner as in animal bodies. These processes are respiration, digestion, assimilation, growth and reproduction. 4) Both animals and plants cannot live without water, air, food, light and moderate amount of heat. They both are of different shapes, sizes and colours. In fact, the differences are not so many as the likenesses although they are more apparent, for only three are important, namely: plants are not conscious, they are unable to move about, they make their own food.
"Biology and Human Progress" by L. Eisman, C. Tanzer.
Notes to the text:
In the same sense— в том же смысле, что и ... of the same kind— того же вида, сорта to be certain — быть уверенным
неважно, безразлично несмотря на
no matter in spite of
Translate the following words bearing in mind the meaning of the affixes and memorize them:
to specialise (v), specialist (n), speciality (n), special (adj) specialization (n), especially (adv)
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science (n), scientist (n), scientific (adj), scientifically (adv)
to include (v), to exclude (v), inclusion (n), inclusive
to derive (v), derivation (n), derivative (adj)
to divide (v), division (n), divisor (n), divisible (adj)
to define (v), definition (n), definite (adj)
to differ (v), difference (n), different (adj), differently (adv)
indifference (n), indifferent (adj), indifferently (adv)
to resemble (v), resemblance (n)
EXERCISES
1.	Read the following words and guess their meaning: special [’spejal], zoology [zou'aladsi], organize 'aganaiz], fundamental [Jnnda'mentl], microscope 'maikraskoup], accumulate [a'kjwmjuleit], basic 'beisik], oxygen [’aksid3an], principle [’prinsapl], respiration [.respa'reijn], fact [faekt], reproduction [jrpra'dxkjn], process [’prouses], temperature ['tem-pritja], region f'rcdjan], manner [’maena]
II.	Supply the Infinitives of the following verbs:
told, gave, known, made, led, came, thought, taken, called, climbed, put, written, included, defined, saw
III.	Form adverbs from the following adjectives and translate them:
inclusive, scientific, definite, different, special, certain, common, fundamental, apparent
IV.	Give synonyms for the following words:
to exist, immense, to form, to need, same, fundamental, some, common, vital, manner, to call, certain, main, likeness, right, basic, high, to resemble, general
V.	Translate the sentences into Russian:
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1. I like both of these plants. 2. I like both the flowers and the leaves of this plant. 3. Both functions of this organ are important. 4. Both water and air are necessary for the living organisms. 5. General properties of protoplasm are the same both in plants and animals. 6. Both plants and animals cannot live without water. 7. Both these plants are of the same shape and size.
VI. Translate the following sentences into Russian, paying attention to the various meanings of ”to have”, ”to be”:
a)	We are selecting seeds. These plants are improved by us. Variation in plants are-the basis for plant improvement. They are at the University now but they are to meet here. The crop yields are to be increased this year.
b)	He has made a very good report. He has a lot of literature on ,this subject. He has to translate a new article so he will have to work the whole evening.
c)	You must read this book. You have to read this book. You should read this book. You are to read this book. You ought to read this book.
We have to develop new varieties of plants. We had to adapt the plants to new conditions. We shall have to create suitable conditions for this experiment. Our teacher is to be here at 9 o’clock. The principle of isotope analysis can also be applied in cases where a greater number of substances are . to be determined. This plant-has to be treated with cold. We have to read much to become good specialists.' These fruits are to be crossed. The structure of this soil had to be improved. You ought to plant this seed in spring. The grain had to pass through a low temperature stage.
VII.	Answer the following questions:
1)	What is biology? Define it.
2)	What do you call the science of living organisms?
3)	What elements does living matter consist of?
4)	Are plants and animals similar in their fundamental composition? What are the differences and similarities?
5)	How can biology be difined?
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6)	What does the word ’’biology” mean?
7)	Do plants and animals depend upon one another? 8) How do plants or animals differ from lifeless things?
VI11.	Find the subject and the predicate and put questions to all parts of the sentence:
1.	Most of the animals have great importance for man.
2.	Bodies of plants and animals contain inorganic substances.
3.	We shall consider plants and animal together.
4.	Biology has become more dependent on other sciences.
5.	Certain vital processes take "place in plant body every season.
6.	These plants differ greatly in size.
IX.	Translate the text into Russian; say what new information about plants and animals you have got from it:
Biology is the study of living things. In studying them we learn the relations of plants and animals to one another, with the world about them and how we can control them. Biology is commonly divided into two branches — botany and zoology. Both animal and plant life is conti-. nually changing and there are great differences and likenesses between them.
All organisms are capable of responding to changes in the environment by reacting to external stimuli.
In animals this coordination and response to stimuli are accomplished by sense organs and the endocrine and nervous systems.
Plants lack a nervous system, and specific sense organs, but they respond to external stimuli and their chemical coordination in somewhat analogous to that regulated by-the endocrine system of animals.
Both plants and animals have hormones. Thus substances are produced in one part, of the organism and in very small amounts, influence specific physiological processes when transported to another part of the organism. Plant hormones, however, are not produced in specific glands as animal hormones are, and they differ chemically from the
2 Б-614
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hormones of animals, being in general simpler substances. Other substances which act like horipones but are not known to be produced by the plant are called plant regulators. The study of plant hormones and these synthetic substances is one of active fields of plant physiological research and their use in agriculture has become very important.
’’Principles of Biology” by W. Gardon.
X.	Read, the text; guess the meaning of the unfamiliar words from the context:
In external appearance, plants are usually green. Some plants have varied and colourful flowers and others have no apparent blossoms. Among animals there is great variety of sizes, shapes and colours. The basic difference between plants and animals lies in the unit of structure and.function of each, namely, the cell. Plant cells have a cell wall which is actually non-living in chemical nature. Animal cells do not have this.
XI.	Translate into English:
Живые организмы могут жить в различных условиях. Некоторые живут при очень высоких температурных условиях, а другие легко переносят сильные морозы. Все они должны были приспособиться к окружающей среде.
Биология изучает жизненные процессы как у животных, так и у растений. Эти два больших подразделения в биологиии называются ботаникой и зоологией. Как растения, так и животные должны иметь определенные условия для существования. Как животные, так и растения не могут жить без воздуха, воды, пищи и света. Одинаковые жизненные процессы имеют место как у животных, так и у растений. Эти процессы называются дыханием, пищеварением, ростом и размножением. Очень важный принцип живых организмов — это способность реагировать на внешние раздражения. Животные реагируют на внешние раздражения через нервную систему и органы чувств. Растения также приспосабливаются к окружающей среде и реагируют на внешние воздействия.
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Однако механизм ответной реакции раздражения у растений сильно отличается от животных.
XII.	Give the main points of all the texts in Russian.
Write a breif summary of the texts in English. Be prepared to speak on the topic ’’Differences and Similarities between plants and animals”.
XIII.	Compose short dialogues for the following imaginary situations:
1.	The boy next door is in the fifth form. He states that he studies botany but not biology. Explain his mistake to him..
2.	One of your friends believes that only animals are living organisms, another one thinks that both animals and plants are alive with no difference whatsoever. Are they right? Why? Discuss the ways in which living things differ from lifeless objects.
3.	Your friend alleges that there is no life on the bottom of deep seas. Prove that life exists nearly everywhere on earth. What evidence can you give to prove this?
4.	You are.working at a biological laboratory. Suddenly the door opens and a man comes in. ”It's a chemical laboratory, isn't it?”, he asks. Tell him about your laboratory and its peeularities.
LESSON THREE
Grammar: Perfect .Continuous Tenses.
ANIMALS AND PLANTS
No one knows how many different kinds of plants and animals there are. Some scientists estimate the number at three million. Many of them provide us with food, clothing, shelter and medicines. Some, including several kinds of insects, pierce our skin and feed on the blood.
2*
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Others, both plants and animals, even live and grow inside our bodies. In this way they may cause disease. You can see why scientists study living things with great care. Our lives may depend on: how much we*have learned about the living things around us.	j
Because there are so many different kinds of plants and animals, the task of the biologists is not an easy one. Up to the present time it was named and described more than 840,000 kinds of animals .and 345,000 kinds of plants. To keep track of this great number of living things a system of classification has been set up. Plants and animals are sorted into groups according to the way they are built. For example, the tiger, the leopard, and the lion will be all grouped together. All of them belong to the cat family. All the members of the cat family, in turn, belong to a larger group that includes such meat-eating animals as the dog, the bear. They have teeth that are built for tearing and cutting flesh. Their sharp claws help them to capture and eat their prey. In this way, all plants and animals werd classified by their structure. All living plants and animals were divided into two kingdoms: the animal kingdom and the plant kingdom.
Among the smallest and simplest living things there are some that are difficult to classify. There are tiny, plant-like cells that can swim about actively in the water. In some cases, the classification of these is still in doubt.
The animal kingdom, as we have seen, includes many thousands of different animals. Scientists classify them further as follows:
Animal kingdom:
A.	Invertebrates
(Animals without backbones)
1.	One-celled animals
2.	Sponges
3.	Cup animals (jelly-fishes and corals)
4.	Spiny-skinned animals (starfishes and their relatives)
5.	Worms
6.	Molusks (oysters, snails, squids)
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7., Jointed-legged animals (lobster?, spiders, insects)
B.	Vertebrates
(Animals with backbones)
1. Fishes
2. Amphibians
(frogs,-toads, salamanders)
' 3. Reptiles
(snakes, lizards and turtles)
4. Birds
5. Mammals
The plant kingdom includes tiny one-celled plants that can be seen only with a powerful microscope and the great redwood and seqUoia trees of the Pacific coast, the oldest and the largest living things on earth.
Down through the ages, man has relied upon plants for many of his needs. The beauty of plants enriches our lives. Most important of all is the fact, that the other living things in our world could not exist very long without their plant neighbours.
Some plants have no roots, stems or leaves. Some of them consist of only one cell. Others, like the giant seaweeds may be more, than 100 feet long. They are divided into two main groups. The algae ('aeldsi] have green chlorophyll. They can make their own food. The fungi [’fAngai] have no chlorophyll. They must get their food from other plants and animals.
’’Biology and Human Progress” by L. Eisman, C. Tanzer.
Notes to the text:
in this way — таким образом in turn — в свою очередь up to the present moment — до настоящего времени to take care — заботиться
for example — например
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Translate the following words bearing in mind the meaning of the affixes and memorize them:
to estimate (v), estimation (n), estimate (n) to provide (v), provider (n)
care (n), careful (adj), careless (adj), carefully (adv) . to depend (v), dependent (n), independence (n), depen-. dent (adj)
to describe (y), description (n), descriptive (adj)
to classify (vj, class (n)5 classification (n)
to act (v), actor (n), actress (n), action (n), active (adj) power (n), powerful (adj), powerless (adj) beauty (n), to beautify (v), beautiful (adj)
EXERCISES
I.	Read the following words and guess their meaning:
number ['nnmba], medicine ['medsin], classification [.klaesifi'keijn], sort [sot], tiger ['taiga], group [grwp], leopard ['lepad], structure ['strnktfa] , actively [’aektivli], moluska [’molaska], effect [i'fekt], matter ['maeta], detail ['dbteilj., family ['faemili], utilize [’judilaiz], foundation-(Jaun’deijn], million ['miljan], microorganism ['mai-kro'aganizm], type (taip], cultural ('knltjaral], contribution [,kontri'bju:Jn]
II.	Supply the nouns corresponding to the following verbs:
to construct, to engage, to develop, to include, to estimate, to differ, to resemble, to provide, to know, to divide, to derive, to depend, to discover, to vary, to acquaint, to define, to value, to specialize, to describe, to classify, to act
III.	Translate the following word-combinations- into Russian and use them in the sentences of your own:
to do one’s best, to be certain, in spite of, to -keep track, in common, no matter, in turn, according to, in this way, to take care, to be of great value, to keep healthy, to make a contribution, of the same sense
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IV.	Give another word or phrase of similar meaning to the following:
substance, to be similar to, to study, to consider, to construct, discovery, important, resemble, minute, earth, century
V.	Answer the questions:
1.	How many different kinds of animals and plants exist in the world?	• ч
2.	Why is the classification of living things necessary?
3.	How are living things sorted into groups?
4.	What ?re the differences between animal and plant kingdoms?
5.	How do men use plants and animals?
VI. Define the tenses to be used in the following sentences:
1.	— Что делает твой брат?
— Он работает на -заводе.
— А что он сейчас'делает?
— Читает газету. Я всегда приношу ему газету, когда прихожу домой.
2.	Не приходите ко мне завтра в два часа. В это время я буду заниматься со своим учеником и не смогу с Вами поговорить.
3.	— Где ваш друг?
— Он в читальном зале. Он уже сидит там в течение двух часов.
— Я забыл, как его зовут, вот уже полчаса, как пытаюсь вспомнить его имя и никак не могу.
4.	Он сказал мне: ”Мы уже работаем вместе два месяца, а я не' показал Вам ещё ни одного опыта,” .
5.	— Что Вы будете делать завтра в 8 часов вечера? —
— Завтра в 8 уже закончу все свои дела и буду переводить новую статью, которую только что получил. Я изучаю английский и ежедневно что-нибудь перевожу.
VII. Translate the text into Russian and then back into English, compare your version with the original:
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a)	In this rich varied world there are large plants, like trees, some of which are the largest living -things. There are plants, thousands of which can live in a sigall drop of water. There are helpful plants that man cultivates, and harmful ones. Plants that live in water, and those that live only on land; plants that produce flowers and fruit, and others that do not; plants that live for hundreds of years and plants that.live for only a few hours.
Green plants are so common that you may never stop to think how wonderful and how important they are. A good way to begin our general study of plants is to compare them with animals.
b)	What Life Functions are. As we study more about plants and animals and how they live, we shall see that all of them perform several functions in common. These are called life functions. One way of studying animals and plants is to begin with their life functions. These life functions are: sensation (irritability), motion, food-taking, nutrition (digestion, absorption, circulation, assimilation), respiration, excretion and reproduction.
. VIII. Translate into English:
Ученые утверждают, что существует более миллиона различных видов растений и животных. Растения и животные сильно отличаются друг от друга размерами, видом, цветом и т. д. Эти различия хорошо видны, если сравнивать растения, травы, деревья, цветы или различных насекомых, птиц, рыб, людей. Несмотря на все различия, живые организмы имеют много общего. Как растения, так и животные зависят друг от друга в поддержании жизненных функций.
IX.	Read the following passages without a dictionary and reproduce them in Russian to your classmates. Work in pairs:
a)	Visitors to Khosta, a resort on the Black Sea Coast, always go to see the great silver poplar, that grows there. Ten people with joined hands can just encircle the tremendous tree, rising sixty five metres above the ground. The unique plant is at least 160 years old.
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b)	Deep in the sea it is always dark,, for sunlight cannot reach down more than about a half mile. The only light in all this vast darkness is made by‘animals themselves. Certain squid which are cousins of octopuses, swim in schools and keep together by means of coded flashing lights. Many kinds of deepsea fish have lights on their bodies. It is believed that this, beaming of light helps them to recognize their own kind.
c)	Scientists know that all living organisms are luminous. But why? Hundreds of guesses were made and thousands of experiments staged. Now Moscow scientists, supervised by Academician N. Semyonov, have established that luminosity of living organisms is their mode of jettisoning excessive energy, of ’’letting off steam”, so to speak.
Is there any practical use to be had from the discovery? Yes. It was established that the luminosity of the organisms is connected with their general condition. Cells affected- by cancer, for example, are less luminous than healthy ones. Thus one more method of discovering the presence of that illness has been found.
d)	Plants are sensitive to sound. Indian botanists have proved that by subjecting plants to sound of definite pitch, it is possible4 to stimulate or hinder their growth. A seven-year experiment showed that rice and tobacco are the most ’’musical” plants.	'
X.	Compose short dialogues for the following imaginary situations:
I.	You are going to be a guide for a group of schoolchildren who have come to visit your faculty. Tell them about the biological museum and what they will see there..
2.	Many people like to keep pets at home. Your friend is no exception. Ask him what animals he keeps. Tell him about plants and animals.
3.	Your younger brother asked you what a coral is. Tell him what you know about it and other sea inhabitants.
4.	Your friend says that not only animals cannot live without plants. What is your opinion?
5.	Address the T. V. with a request to tell about the study of the. dolphins in our country and abroad. Ask each
25
other what branches of. science treat this- problem and discuss it.
6.	You have been to a circus show. Please describe the tricks that the trained dolphins did.
XI.	Tell your fellow students what you, have read about dolphins.	'
Write a report on:
a)	The friendship of dolphins and men;
b)	Dolphins at the service of man.
XII.	Read the text „The World of the Dolphin” (pp. 153—157 and be ready to give the main points of it.)
LESSON FOUR
**J
Grammar: Passive Voice.
LINNEAN SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION
Carolus Linneus was born in Sweden in a small wooden house painted red with a roof of live turf. It was like many other houses in the village. But the house had a garden around it, so that Linneus used to say later that it was a good place for a naturalist to be born.
All the boy’s teachers at school thought him stupid. But one of his father’s friends observed that Carl took an unusual interest in plants and that he could identify a great many. He suggested sending. Carl to study natural history. Nis father, could give him only about forty dollars for his education, but it was thought that he could work his way. So he set off for the University of Lund. After a year he transferred to the University of Uppsala, since Uppsala had a very fine course of botany. His professor there soon grew very fond of him and saw a great promise in his work. After Linneus had finished his studies at the University with jiis professor’s encouragement he made application to the Royal Society of Sweden to send him
26
on a scientific expedition to Lapland. The Royal Society agreed to the commission. So on May 12, 1732 Linneus set out on foot on the. road leading north. He travelled mostly on foot over bad roads and through wild country for nearly a thousand miles. When he got back to Uppsala he gave a careful account of the things hetrad seen. The main thing among them was his new system of classification for plants and animals which he had worked out on his journey. Three years later this system was published under the title „Systema Naturae”. This system has brought ~ order out of confusion. It was the systen\of nomenclature that has been used ever since.
According to Linneus system, -every plant and every animal was given a double Latin name. The first word whose initial letter was capitalized would indicate to what ’’genus” or general class it belongfed, the second word indicate a particular species. The naming of plants and animals in this way was a fascinating task. Linneus announced that, everything in nature should be classified.. So science as orderly classified knowledge was coming into its own. The first edition of ’’Systema Naturae" was published in 1735. It contained only twelve pages, but its influence was enormous. Linneus is therefore considered the founder of taxonomy — the study of the classification. All the known animal species were.grouped into six classes: mammals, birds, reptiles, fishes, insects and worms. The shortcomings were patched up easily enough'later on. This form of binominal nomenclature has given the biologist an international language for life forms that has eliminated incalculable amounts of confusion. He even supplied the human species with an official name; one that it has retained ever since — homo sapiens.
* "'Man, Microscopes and Living Things" by К. B. Shippen.
Notes to the text: to be like smb. — быть похожим на to come into one’s own — возникнуть, появиться на свет to take interest in — интересоваться to identify a great many plants — распознавать многие растения to set off for the University — отправиться в университет to set out on foot — оправиться пешком to be fond of smb., smth. — любить кого-либо, что-либо
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/ *
to see promise in his work — увидеть перспективу в работе
to agree to a commission — согласиться на командировку to give account of smth.— дать отчет, рассказать о чем„ либо
to work out — разрабатывать
Translate the following words bearing in mind the meaning of the affixes and memorize them:
nature (n), naturalist (n), natural (adj), unnatural (adj) to observe (v), observer (n), observation (n) to suggest (v), suggestion (n), suggestive (adj) to transfer (v), transference (n)
to apply (v),-application (n), applicant (n)
to identify (v), identification (n), identity (n)
to encourage (v), encouragement (n), courage (n)
to agree (v), agreement (n), agreeable (adj), agreeably’ (adv)
to lead (v), leader (n), leadership (n)
to announce (v), announcer (n), announcement (n)
EXERCISES
• 1. Read, the following words and guess their meaning:' interest ['intrist], course [kas], application [,aepli'-keifn], expedition [,ekspi'difn], commission [ka'mijn], mile [mail], north [na0], system [’sistim], publish [’p^blij], form [fam], capital ['kaepitl], species ['spkjrz], taxonomy [taek’sonami], reptiles [’reptailz], nomenclature [nou’menklatja]
II.	Arrange the following in pairs of synonyms:
vital processes, to estimate, main, country, enormous, to like, village, great, to think, to provide, living processes, to supply, principle, to account, help, to consider, to be fond of smb.
III.	Form nouns using the following suffixes and translate them into Russian:
—	er: to publish, to research, to speak;
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—	or: to invent, to investigate, to translate, to visit;
-	ant (ent): to study, to assist;
-	ist: natural, special, Marx, Lenin.
IV.	Give English equivalents for the following phrases:
Он интересовался растениями и мог отличать их друг от друга. Он имел обыкновение вставать по утрам в 6 часов. Он мне очень нравится. Он подал заявление в аспирантуру., Я разработала план работы. Несмотря на плохую погоду, он пошел пешком. Он сделал все, что от него зависело. Согласно его квалификации, все живые организмы делятся на две группы. -
V.	Put as many questions as possible to the text and be ready to answer them.
VI.	State the tense of the following verbs and translate Игёт:
it is planted, he plants, they are being planted, they are to plant, i have planted, i had to plant, i had planted, it has been planted, he .will plant, it will be planted, he is planting
VI	t. Define the tense and translate the sentences into Russian:
1. They are planting a new sort of a tree. 2. He is being asked to follow his sister. 3. He will be given every assistance in his work. 4. We are being waited for downstairs: 5. I am being asked about the system of classification. 6. I am often asked about this system.
* * *
1.	They were told to go home. 2. I was brought a telegram. 3. The children are taught English at school.
4. The teacher is listening to the students. 5. The teacher is listened to. 6. We were looking at this picture. 7. We *
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were looked at. 8. The doctor was sgnt for. 9. The doctor sent for the medicine. 10. We have bought new equipment for our laboratory. 11. New equipment was bought for our laboratory. 12. Our laboratory has bought new equipment. 13". This question must be looked upon from another point of view.
VIII.	Translate the following sentenses, into English using the passive constructions:
1. Вчера мне дали интересную книгу. 2. Нам показали несколько новых радиоприемников. 3. Вам поможет наш инженер. 4. Ему предложили подумать о вашем изобретении. 5. Его сейчас ждут в институте. 6. Его поблагодарили за эту работу. 7. На их вопрос только что ответили. 8. За этим изобретением последуют другие. 9. Вас сейчас попросят- ответить на несколько вопросов. 10. Вам ответят.
IX.	Read and translate the text with a dictionary:
. The present-day science of taxonomy or systematics has been recognized as a specialized branch of biology for over 200 years. During the century, a Swedish doctor and botanist Carl von Linneus travelled over most of Western Europe and England, collecting and studying the plants and animals of the region. He had a passion for classification and a genius for minute and accurate observation and' for detaching the important from the trivial. His standards for describing and naming plants and animals and the criteria by which he estimated relationships and affinities were innovations for his time. His method of classification and the system he used for the comparatively limited number of organisms that were known to him are the foundations upon which the modern systematic groupings of biological systems have been built.
Linnean system of classification was founded oh the concept of a basic natural -grouping of like individuals, called a species. He conceived of the species as a fixed and unchangeable grouping of similar individuals. He' based his comparisons principally on morphological fea
30
tures and species was characterized, named, and filed away as an immutable entity. Such a system is essentially static and does not recognize the possibility of change. With the development of theories of evolution, the concept of species has changed. In the constant change and evolution, a species cannot be regarded as absolutely fixed.
X.	Translate the text into Russian and then back into English, compare your version with the original:
Living things are all about ys. More than a million different kinds of plants and animals inhabit the earth. Some are our friends, others are our enemies. Some are-very large and some are very small. Yet each is a distinct organism, and each has its own way of living.
Suppose you were asked to learn the names of all the
. living things on the earth. Try to do it. No, you couldn’t do it; no one could. Fortunately, there are groups .of animals and groups of plants that greatly resemble each other. Because of. this tact living things may be classified into large groups.
To study living things, it is necessary io sort them into groups. About a million and a half different kinds of plants and animals have already been studied, identified and named. In fact, for people who haw not studied bio ogy, the living world is a hopeless conglomeration of individual plants and animals.
XI.	Write a report on C. Linneus’s life and work using additional literature.
Give the main points of all the texts of the lesson and be ready Jo speak on the topic "The History of the Science of Taxonomy".
XII.	Compose short dialogues for the following imaginary situations:-
I.	You’ve come to a botanical museum and see a portrait of C. Linneus. Ask the guide about this scientist.
2.	You saw a picture of a tiger with a sign "Panthera Tigris”. Ask your friend to explain what it means.
3.	You are to prepare a story оц the system of classi-
31
fication, but you don’t know what sources to use. Ask your friend for advice. What Russian book on Linneus can he recommend?
4.	The teacher points to the tree and asks what it is. One student says that it is a common birch, the other — that it is Betula verrucosa. Each insists that he is right. How will you settle their argument?
LESSON FIVE
Grammar: indefinite, Continuous, Perfect, Perfect Continuous Tenses.
Active and Passive.
THE MICROSCOPE
Even the ancients had known that curved mirrors and hollow glass spheres filled with water had a magnifying effect. In the opening decades of the XVII th century men began to experiment with lenses in order to increase this magnification as far as possible. In this, they were inspired by the great success of that other lensed instrument, the telescope, first put to astronomical use by Galileo in 1609.
Gradually, enlarging instruments, or microscopes (from Greek words meaning "to view the small") came into use. For the first time the science of biology was broadened and extended by device that carried the human sense of vision beyond the limit. It enables naturalists to describe small creatures with detail that would have been impossible without it, and it enabled anatomists to find structures that could not otherwise have been seen.
The first man, who made and used microscope was Anthony van Leeuwenhoek. He was not a professional scientist. In fact, he was a janitor in the city hall in Delft, Holland. He made more than 200 different microscopes, most of which had only one carefully polished lens. With his homemade lenses, lie explored all sorts of things and discovered a world never before seen by'the eyes of man. He examined milk, water, insects, the thin tail of a tadpole, and many other objects. His discoveries of bacteria, blood capillaries, blood cells, and sperm cells made
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him famous. In 1675, he wrote the first description of the microscopic animals that live in water. Leeuwenhoek’s microscopes were simple. But his great patience and keen powers of observation brought to light many new facts about living things.
THE MODERN MICROSCOPE. The microscopes of today are far more complicated than those of Leeuwenhoek’s time. They are called compound microscopes because they contain more than one lens. At the top there is an eyepiece which has two lenses in it. Then there is a long tube with more lenses at the bottom. These are called objectives. You can choose different magnifying powers by swinging different objectives into position. The usual high school microscope has a choice of two powers. With the low power, you can magnify an object about 100 times. The high power objective with the usual eyepiece can enlarge things-up to 500 times.
If you wish to examine an object under the microscope you must pass a beam of light through it. As the light passes through the lenses, it is bent in such a way that a magnified image appears. For this reason, anything you wish to see -must be very thin. If it is too thick, the light will not go through it. Most microscopes have a mirror at the base. This can be moved in any direction. It reflects light up through the object and the lenses. The object, mounted on a piece of glass, is placed on a flat platform called the stage. Then the microscope is adjusted by moving the tube up or down. This places the objective at the correct height above the object. Unless you focus carefully in this way, you can not get a "dear picture.
THE ELECTRON MICROSCOPE. There is a limit to the magnifying power of the compound microscope. The very best of them can enlarge an object up to 4000 times. In recent years, a new type of microscope has been invented that does not use light. Instead, beams of electrons are passed through the object and a picture is made on film. The electron microscope can give us an image 25,000 times larger than the object. This development illustrates an important principle of science: when a new instrument is invented, it may speed up discoveries in the'laboratory. Already, the electron microscope has made it. possible to see things never dreamed of by Leeuwenhoek. We
3 «Б-614
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may be sure that in the futurejt will continue to reveal many new secrets of nature.
Biology and Human Progress" by L. Eisman, Ch. Tanzer.
Notes to the text:
to graduate from — оканчивать учебное заведение .
a graduate — выпускник
to a certain extent — в известной мере
to a great extent — в большой степени
to a full extent — в полной мере
in all appearance — по всей видимости
Translate the following words bearing .in mind the meaning of the affixes and memorize them:
to magnify (v), magnifier (n), magnification (n)
to increase (v), increase (n), increasing (adj), increasingly (adv)
to decrease (v), decrease (n)
to inspire (v), inspiration (n)
to graduate ((v), gradual (adj), gradually (adv)
to extend (v), extention (n), extensive (adj), extensive-
ly (adv)
to explore (v), explorer (n), exploration (n), explorative (adj)
vision (n), visionary (n) (adj), visibility (n), visible (adj) to observe (v), observer (n), observatory (n), observant (adj), observance (n)
to complicate (v), complication (n)
to reflect (v), reflector (n), reflection (n), reflective (adj)
to frivent (v), inventor (n), invention (n), inventive (adj)
to appear (v), appearance (n)
to disappear (v), disappearance (n)
EXERCISES
1.	Read the following words and guess their meaning: sphere [sfia], decade ['dekeid], lens [lenz], position
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[pa'zijn], telescope [’teliskoup], astronomy [as'tronami], fact [faekt], visual ['visual], professional [pra'fejanl], limit [’limit], object ['obdsikt], bacteria [baek'tiaria] (pl.), cappilary [ka’pilari], sperm [spam], instrument [’instrument], reflector [ri'flekta], platform [’plaetfam], illustrate [’ilastreit], film [film]
II.	State to what part of the speech the word's belong and translate them into Russian; form the corresponding verbs: '
difference, assimilation, respiration, reproduction, organization, movement, magnification, resemblance, relation
III.	Form the nouns corresponding to the following verbs:
to discover, to construct, to affect, to know, to develop, to vary, to divide, do differ, to resemble, to observe, to suggest, to apply, to encourage, to agree, to magnify, to appear
IV.	Underline the prefixes in the following words and translate them:
to discover, invisible, unknown, to exclude,, indifferent, unnatural^ to mislead, impossible, independent, irregular, nonliving, disorder; illegal
V.	Translate the .following sentences into Russian paying attention 'to the emphatic construction ”it is... that”:
1.	It was the electron microscope that finally reyealed them as objects that could be seen.
2.	It is the absence of vitamins that brings on diseases.
3.	It is very important to begin the experiment in time.
4.	It is the magnifying power of lenses that made it possible to see tiny things.
5.	It was Carolous Linneus who suggested the first system of classification of living things.
6.	It is necessary to use only very thin objects to see them under the microscope.
. 3*	35
7.	It was the new method of investigation that helped to finish the work so successfully.
8.	Anton von Leeuwenhoek was the first man who penetrated through his lenses into'the world of the microscope.
VI.	Translate the text into Russian and, then back into English, compare your version with the original:
In science one of the'most important discoveries having a great influence on the development of science was the fact that microscope has come into common use among * scientists. The microscope gave scientists new power. Now they could see things that had been hidden. The first microscopes were very simple. They had otily single lenses, sdme had double lenses with a tube between them. Anton von Leeuwenhoek was the first man who penetrated through these lenses into the mysterious world of the microbe. No one before his time had guessed that such tiny organisms existed.
VII.	Listen to the recording of the following text and be ready to answer questions about it:
By examining water from a lake or stream we will find that it is full of life. If you look carefully, you may find there the simplest animal, the ameba. It is a tiny mass of jelly usually about 1/50 of an inch long. The ameba is surrounded by a very thin cell membrane, which is quite elastic. At times, a part of the membrane will push out, forming a false foot. The rest of the ameba will then flow into it. In this way, the little animal moves slowly about in its watery world.
VIII.	In the picture you see a modern compound microscope. Speak about it and- answer the questions:
1)	Explain how a microscope is used.
2)	What is a compound microscope?
3)	How does the electron microscope differ from the compound microscope?
4)	Why are m°st compound microscopes more powerful than simple microscopes?
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5)	How will you examine an object under a compound microscope and an’ electron microscope? What is the difference?
6)	Why can't you see cells or protoplasm when you put your finger under the microscope?
7.	What kinds- of microscope do you know?
IX.	Read and translate the following text:
Anton von Leeuwenhoek lived all his life in Delft. He had hardly any education and never learnt Latin, which in those days was the mark of an educated man. He Wor- _ ked when a boy as a clerk in a dry-goods shop. Part of his duty there was to examine textiles with a fine hand lens. Sometimes he placed the lens over other substances besides cloth — the skin of his own hand, the fiber of the wood on the table. Later on in his spare time he used to go to the spectacle makers and he learnt from them how to polish lenses. Afterwards he began making lenses himself. The lenses he made were precise and beautiful. Altogether he made 247 instruments and some of them would increase the size of a minute object as much as 270 times. After he had learned something about metalwork he could . mount them. When he was about forty he became so interested in everything seen through his lenses, that he spent much of his time looking through his microscopes.
One day he had focused his microscope on a drop of water from a rain barrel and had found in it to his great astonishment "little beasties” as he called them, swimming about. He had found these little creatures not only in rain water, but in pond wdter, in the secretions of various animals, even in the saliva of his own mouth. Examining different objects he continued to find all manner of strange little organisms, although he did not realize, that they might have any connection with diseases. Only in the 19th century Louis Pasteur developed and demonstrated by his experiments the germ theory. But it was Anton von Leeuwenhoek’s discovery of microbes that started a new field of scientific investigation.
X.	Reproduce in your, own words:
В России выдающиеся работы по усовершенствова
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нию микроскопа'были осуществлены М. В. Ломоносовым, Л. Эйлером и др. В XIX веке собственного производства микроскопа еще не было, лишь во время мировой войны в Петербурге были сделаны попытки создания своего оптического производства.
Развитие микроскопической промышленности в больших масштабах началось лишь после Октябрьской революции при участии выдающихся советских оптиков Д. С. Рождественского и С. И. Вавилова. Были созданы заводы как чпо изготовлению микроскопов различного типа, так и по изготовлению оптического стекла. В настоящее время советские биологические, поляризационные и электронные, микроскопы изготовляются в количестве, полностью покрывающем потребности огромного множества научных и практических лабораторий СССР.
БМЭ, т. 18, стр. 419.
XI.	Compose short dialogues for the following imaginary situations:
1.	You know that Leeuwenhoek was not a professional scientist. Yet he corresponded with the Royal Society in London, where he sent his descriptions of what he had seen through his microscope. One day he was visited by / one of the members of the Royal Academy. Try to imagine the conversation that might have taken place.
2.	Two schoolboys discuss which microscope is better: the electron microscope or the light one. From their conversation it becomes clear they don’t quite understand the difference between the two. Ask them questions in order to help them comprehend what the difference is.
3.	You- are a teacher of zoology. This is your first lesson on the use of microscope. Instruct the students in its use.	'
4.	Your younger sister comes up to you and asks what a microscope is. Tell her what instrument it is, how it is constructed and what it is used for.
5.	You are going to make a report ’’From Leeuwenhoek to the present”. What will you include in it?
6.	You are given a microscope without a mirror and asked to examine a leaf of an apple-tree. Will you be able to do it? Discuss it with your friend.
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LESSON SIX
Grammar: Direct and Indirect Speech. Sequence of Tenses.
CHARLES DARWIN
Gharles Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, England. In those days schools did not teach science as they do today. Twelve-year old Darwin, who wanted to spend his time out of doors collecting plants and watching animals, had to stay inside and learn how to write poetry. He was very bad, at it — so bad, in fact, that his father once wrote him angrily — "You care for nothing, but shooting dogs and rat-catching and you will be a disgrace to yourself and all our family”.
Charles’s father then decided that he should be a doctor and sent him to a medical school. But it soon became obvious that young Darwin was not at all interested in medicine. So his father tried to make-a clergyman out of him and sent him to the University of Cambridge. Still Darwin couldn’t make himself care for anything but hunting and natural history. As soon as he graduated, one of Darwin’s professors, a scientist, who understood him better than his father urged him to apply for the job of naturalist aboard of the H. M. S. Beagle. The ship was to make a voyage around the world, surveying trade routes and looking for ways to improve trade for British merchants in the far-off corners of the earth. The captain was willing to give up part of his own cabin to any young man who would go without pay as naturalist. Today no one remembers how much the Beagle helped British merchants. The information the trip yielded about trade was far less important than the knowledge that was to change people’s way of thinking. It was during his trip on the Beagle that Darwin first began to, develop his theory of evolution. Everywhere he sailed he collected facts about rocks, plants and animals. The more facts he gathered from different parts of the world, the more he became convinced that things he observed in nature could not be explained by the old idea that each species had been separately created.
The more he wandered and observed, the more he
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began to realize there was only one possible answer to the puzzle. If all these species of plants and animals had developed from common ancestors, then it was.easy to understand their similarities and differences. At some time, Darwin thought, the common ancestors of both the island and mainland species must have travelled from the mainland to the inlands. Later, all the species in both places, through sloyv changes, became different from each other.
After the Beagle returned to England, Darwin began his first notebook on the origin of species. During the next twenty years he filled notebook after notebook with still more facts that he and others discovered about the world of living things. These facts all led to one conclusion, that all living things are descended from common ancestors.
Darwin proved the truth of evolution, the descent with change .of one species from another. Where others before him have failed, Darwin succeeded in convincing the world that he was right about evolution. He succeeded for two reasons. He collected an enormous number of facts and put them together so that they told the whole story. And he not only declared that evolution occured but he also explained how it worked and what caused it. This he called .the theory of natural selection.
Nearly a hundred years have passed since Darwin’s great book, "The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection”, was published. People have found out new facts about evolution, and especially about inheritance. These facts have made more precise our ideas of how natural selection works. This does not mean the theory was wrong. On the contrary, a true theory is alive; like everything else in the world it changes and grows. Only a dead, useless theory stays the same down to the last detail.
, "Men, Microscopes and Living Things1’ by К. B. Shippen.
Notes to the text:
to fail — недоставать, не удаваться; ослабевать his heart <vas failing — его сердце слабело he failed, his exams — он провалился на экзаменах
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he failed to appear — он не появился
he managed to come — ему удаЛось прийти . without fail — непременно, обязательно
I succeeded in 4- Gerund — мне удалось...	„
care — забота, попечение to take care of — заботиться
1 don’t care — мне все равно
he cared for nothing but —он ни о чем не думал, кроме to look — смотреть, выглядеть to look for — искать
to look after — присматривать за кем-то
to look at — смотреть на, обращать внимание to look like — походить на
Translate the following words bearing in mind the meaning of the affixes and memorize them:
to inform (v), informer (n), information (n), informative (adj)
to select (v), selector (n), selection (n), selective (adj) to collect (v), collector (n), collection (n), collective (adj) to explain (v), explanation (n), explanatory (adj) to fail (v), failure (n)
to succeed (v), success (n), successful (adj), succession (n)
evolution (n), evolutional (adj), evolutionalism (n)
EXERCISES
I.	Read the following words and guess their meaning:-
collection [ka'lekfn], history ['histari], doctor [*dokta], naturalist ('naetjralist], voyage ('voids], captain ['kaeptinj, cabin f'kaebin], theory [’Oiari , evolution [,i:va'lu:jn], idea (ai'diaj, reason [’rrzn], publication [.рлЬП'кеИп], detail [’di:teil],selection [si'lekjn], poetry[’pouitri], interest ('intrist], realise ['rialaiz], especially [is'pejali]
II.	Give the derivatives of the following words:
collect, assimilate, microscope,' include, division, product, differ, direct, care, possible, publish, observer, evolution
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111.	Form the antonyms of the following words by using the prefixes — dis, mis,' un, im, ex, non, de, il, ir:
possible, regular, living, organic, legal, natural, like, compose, understand, necessary, pleasant, appear, able, dependent, conscious, approval, liberate, belief, calculate, countable, variability, valuable
* IV. Write out from the text all sentences containing the sequence of tenses."
V. Put the following sentences into the indirect speech:
1) Йе said: ”1’11 teach you natural science; I like to collect different plants and watch the behaviour of these animals day and night; I have caught a tortoise today; I am reading about different species of animals.”
2) He asked: ’’Has he decided to publish the materials of his voyage? Does he like to go on a sea voyage? Did he explain the origin of different species in his book? What conclusion did you tome to after reading this book? Will you return this book in time? Do you like it? Have you made a report about it?”
VI. Translate the following sentences into Russian:
a)	1. He wrote in his letter that he would come. 2л I thought that you knew about it. 3. I heard that he had worked at this problem. 4. 1 remembered that you had those magazines. 5. He says that he lived in Moscow. 6. He said that he lived in Moscow. 7. He said that he had lived in Moscow. 8. He said that his son would be a doctor.
b)	1. Darwin’s father thought that his son would be a doctor. 2. Darwin knew that his father wanted him to be a doctor. 3. His father wrote in his letter that Darwirf cared for nothing, that he was shooting and hunting instead of studying. 4. He knew that his father’s friend understood him better than his father. 5. He urged him that he should graduate some school. 6. He decided that he would go on a sea trip.
VII. Translate into English*
1. Они говорят, .что работали на этом заводе. 2. Он
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сказал,.что работал на этом заводе. 3. Он сказал, что будет работать на этом заводе. 4. Он сказал, что знает, где мы работаем. 5. Он сказал, что понял этот вопрос. 6. Он спросил меня, поняла ли я вопрос. 7. Он спросил меня, что я делала вчера. 8. Он спросил меня, пойду ли я в кино. 9. Он спросил меня, где находится мой институт.
VIII.	Translate the following sentences into Russian:
a)	1. He had to learn poetry instead of collecting plants. 2. He was to go on a sea trip. 3. In the late summer -of 1831 ’’The Beagle*' was to make a cruise around the world. 4. Though ’’The Beagle” was-to push on across the Pacific, the greater part of her voyage was spent along the coast of South America. 5. In a small town in Kent he was to live and work for the rest of his life.
b)	1. The more he saw the more he thought. -2. The more he worked the better he understood the importance of his discovery. 3. The earlier we shall begin the work, the sooner we shall finish it. 4. The more you read English books the easier it becomes for you to understand them.
c)	1. It was Charles Darwin who proposed the theory of evolution. 2. It was under the influence of his friend Henslow tha't Darwin began to read the works of great naturalists. 3. It was after a profound study of historical facts that he formulated his theory of evolution.
d)	1. He asked his son to think of some other occupation, but he could, think of nothing but his going on the sea trip. 2. Nobody objected to it but his father. 3. Who but he could do such a thing?
IX.	Answer the following questions:
1.	What do you know of Darwin’s childhood?
2.	What kind of sport was he fond of?
. 3. Why was he sent to Cambridge?
4.	Who urged him to apply for a job of a naturalist?
. 5. What was the opinion of his father about his voyage?
6.	What was the purpose of the “Beagle’s” sail?
7.	What puzzled Darwin during his sail?
8.	What countries and islands did the ’’Beagle” visit?
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9.	When did Darwin be^in to think about' his theory of evolution?
10.	What in Darwin’s opinion led to a constant fight for life?
11.	Did his book „The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection” cause a sensation and why?
12.	What other books by Charles Darwin do you know? Have you read them?
13.	Do you know where Charles Darwin is buried?
14.	There were differences between animals and plants on the mainland and those on the island. What did Darwin think about it?
15.	Say what you know about the biography of other biologists.
16.	Speak about your hobby. What are you interested in?
X.	Listen to the recording of the following text and be ready to answer questions about it.
.Darwin and evolution
A hundred years ago people believed that plants and animals had always been as they are how. They thought that all the different sorts of living things, including men and women, had been put here by some mysterious power, a few thousand years ago.
It was Charles Darwin, born at Shrewsbury on February 12, 1809, who showed that this was just a legend. As a boy Darwin loved to walk about the countryside collecting insects, flowers and minerals. He enjoyed helping his elder brother at chemical experiments in a shed at the far end of their garden.
Because of this, his school friends called him ’’Gas”. These hobbies interested him much more than Greek and Latin, which were his main lessons at school. His father, himself a doctor, sent Charles to Edinburgh University to-study medicine. But Charles disliked this work. He spent a lot of time with a zoologist friend, watching birds and other animals, and collecting insects in the surrounding countryside.
Then his father sent him to Cambridge to be trained as
44
a clergyman. Darwin didn’t want to be a doctor or a clergyman. He wanted to be a biologist.
XI.	Translate the text and be prepared to speak_ on the topic "The Origin of Men”
Since the days when men climbed down out of the trees, he has spread out all over the earth in hot countries and cold, in mountains, jungle swamps and fertile valleys.
Wherever men went they lived in ways that suited the climate and geography of the particular place where they settled. For a long time they continued to look pretty mucn alike. Then there developed differences — in their skin colour, in the shape of their heads and in other minor physical features. In Africa, the isolated group developed darker skins; in Asia, yellow skins and slanting eyes; in Europe — fair or ’’white” skins.
The feature most .used to distinguish the mankind is the colour of their skin. All three races — black, white, and yellow — are very much the same in other physical features. In each race ihere are some people who are tall and some who are short; some are long-headed, some round-headed. In each race there are some people who belong to blood group A, some to group B, some to AB and some to O. But all races are members of the same species. And wherever and whenever any group of any colour had the chance, they did their part in forwarding the march of human progress. History does not belong exclusively to any one race; it is shared by all. No race is more generous than any other race. You can make an important invention or write a great book or become a hero whatever the colour'of 'your skin or the shape of your head may be.
"Climbing our Family Tree” by A. Novikoff.
XII.	Translate the following into English:
Любимым занятием Дарвина было собирать растения и наблюдать за животными. Он ничего не любил делать, кроме коллекционирования разных растений. Дарвин должен был стать доктором, но совершенно не
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интересовался медициной. Однажды он услышал, что корабль должен был совершить поездку вокруг света. Именно на этом корабле Дарвин начал думать о теории эволюции. Чем больше видел разные виды растений и животных, тем больше убеждался, что он прав. Когда вернулся, из путешествия, начал писать книгу о результатах своей поездки. Дарвин ничем не интересовался, кроме своей книги. Он продолжал собирать новые факты, и чем больше работал, тем яснее видел связь в происхождении разных видов животных. После длительной работы и наблюдений написал свою знаменитую книгу „Происхождение ридов”, а в 1859 году описал, как и почему один вид произошел от другого. Чарлз Дарвин умер в 1882 году.
XIII.	Reproduce the text in your own words:
[Из автобиографии Ч. Дарвина]
Вернувшись домой из своей непродолжительной геологической экскурсии по северному Уэльсу, я нашел письмо от Генсли, извещавшее меня, что капитан Фиц-рой согласен уступить часть своей собственной каюты молодому человеку, который отправлялся-бесплатно на „Бигле” в качестве натуралиста. Я, кажется, рассказал в своем журнале путешествия все обстоятельства, сопровождавшие мой отъезд. Скажу только, что я, не думая ни минуту, готов был принять предложение; отец же отказал мне наотрез, но, к счастью, добавил в заключение; „Я соглашусь, если хоть один здравомыслящий человек посоветует тебе ехать!!!” Я в тот же вечер ответил отказом. На следующее утро я поехал, чтобы под; готовиться к началу охоты 1 сентября. Но пока я был на охоте, за мной приехал мой дядя, предлагал мне подвезти меня в Шрюсбери, и переговорить с моим отцом, так как дяде представлялось, что я поступил бы благоразумно, приняв предложение. Отей мой всегда считал дядю за одного из умнейших людей, каких когда-либо он знал, и неизменно дал свое согласие в самых ласковых выражениях.
Ч. Дарвин. Происхождение видов.
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XIV.	Give the main points of all the texts of the lesson in writing.
XV.	Compose short dialogues for the following imaginary situations:
l.	You are to write an article about Charles Darwin’s voyage around the world. Make up a plan of your article. Which points of his voyage are the most important and why?
2.	An acquaintance of yours is going to make a voyage around the world. Advise him to follow Darwin’s route, what places to visit and what to take note of.
3.	A group of schoolchildren have come to visit our faculty. They have seen our wall-newspaper ’’The Beagle” and got interested in its title. Tell them what this title means.
4.	Your friend’s grandmother is religious. She believes man was created by God. Try to fnake her change her mind. (Don’t forget about ”The Descent of Man” by Ch. Darwin).
5.	Your friend doesn’t believe in evolution. With the help of a time-machine you have managed to take him to the primitive age (several million years back). You see only amphibians and primitive scorpions around. Trace the development of life on earth. Discuss it.
XVI.	Read the text "Charles Darwin" (p.	) and
be readyto give the main points of it.
LESSON SEVEN
Grammar: Participles. Forms and Functions.
THE CELL
The unit of protoplasmatic organization is the cell. The word ’’cell” is not a very good choice in this conriec-
47
tion, 'but it has significance in the history of biology. The name was given by Robert Hooke, one of the first scientists having used a newly developed biological tool, the microscope, to the tiny divisions that he saw in thin slices of cork. The cork slice, through his microscope, appeared to be made up of many small compartments, arranged in rows, and reminded him of the tiers of monks’ cells in English monasteries. He therefore called each compartment a cell and the name has survived, although it does not accurately convey the picture of a living unit. Wjiat Hooke actually saw in the nonliving wall which had once surrounded the living protoplasm, was not the protoplasm itself. His microscopic studies of some other materials, such as feathers, fish scales, molds, snow crystals and fabrics, brought him closer to the sight of living.cells but not close enough to see the living substance.
Observations of the classical microscopists and those of their successors on individual cells as parts of organisms, both plant and animal, led to one of the greatest and for a time most useful of biological generalizations, the cell theory. This concept was first brought to general attention in 1838.
It was a natural outcome of the many observations that had been made during the early part of the nineteenth and the preceding centuries. Briefly, it states that all organisms ace composed of cells or of a single cell and that all cells, and hence all organisms, arise from the division of pre-existing cells. This theory was to biology, at that stage of its development, what Dalton’s atomic . theory was to chemistry.
"Biology and Human Progress” by L. Eis man and Ch. Tanzer.
Translate the following words bearing in mind the meaning of the affixes and memorize them:
" * to signify (v), significance (n), significant (adj) to decompose (v), composer (n), composition (n), decom-- position (n)
to connect (v), connection (n), connective (adj) to organize (v), organizer (n), organization (n) to arrange (v), arrangement (n)
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to generalize (v), generalization (n), generality (n), general (adj)
concept (n), conception (n)
accurate (adj), accuracy (n), accurately (adv)
to actualize,(v), actuality (n), actual (adj), actually (adv) attention (n), .attentive (adj), attentively (adv)1
to brief (v), brief (n), brief (adj), briefly (adv) '
л	EXERCISES
I.	Read the following words and guess their meaning:
protoplasmatic [.proutaplaez'maefik], organization [,o:ganai'zeij"(d>n], substance ['sxbst(3)ns],r individual [Jndi'vidjualJ, general ('d3en(a)r(a)lj, division fdi'vi-3(a)n], chemistry [’kemistri], accurate [’aekjurit], material [ma'tiarial], crystal ['kristlj, classical: [’klaesik (a) Ij, concept ('konsept], chemicals (’kemik(a)iz], membrane ['membreinj, region ('rids(a)nJ, population (.popju'leh J(a)n], mixture [’mikstja]
11.	Underline prefixes and suffixes having the negative meaning and translate the words:
inconvenient, unfavourable, inorganic, invisible, countless, unpleasant disintegration, helpless, deformation, useless, irregularity, insoluble
III.	Find a word or a phrase with a medrung similar to the following words:
Investigation, period, to situate, small, piece, instrument, idea, result, short, importance, precisely
IV.	Arrange the following in pairs of synonyms:
exact, concept, brief, result, immense, to exist,, fundamental, tiny, sort, disease, idea, shortly, conclusion, great, to live, basic, kind, illness, similarity, to make a voyage, likeness, precise, to travel, tool, instruipent, small
V.	Form verbs from the following nouns:
4 Б-614	49
classification, organization, - development, division, change, use, appearance, usefulness, observation, composer
VI.	Replace the subordinate clauses by participles:
 1. While he was walking in the street he met his friend.
2.	When I rest after - my work I read a newspaper.
3.	The books were returned to the library when they had been read by the students.
4»	The instruments will be spoiled if they are left in the open air.
5.	After the student had been examined he went home.
VII.	Translate into English using participles:
1.	Читая английский текст, мы переводили каждое слово.
2.	Прочитав текст, мы записали новые слова.
3.	Переводя статью, мы пользовались словарем.
4.	Переводя статно, он показал ее преподавателю.
VIII.	Translate into Russian paying attention to participles:
a)	1. He is doing research in the field of biology. .2, While doing research he suggested a new theory. 3. The leading scientists of the world doing research in this field-came to the conference. 4. The technology applied improved the quality of the experiment. 5. The result obtained showed that I was right. 6. The invited delegates ijvere told about the work of our institute. 7. The data collected helped me in my work. 8. He was invited to this conference. 9. When invited I always came. 10 Having been invited beforehand he had a.lot of time to prepare his report 11. Having come into the room the lecturer began his lesson. 12. Having used a new "method scientists obtained good results. 13. Scientists must concentrate their efforts on the aspects of science having the greatest promise for the future. 14. The results being obtained at this laboratory are of great importance. 15. Being asked to give the material and some pictures for publication he did it with pleasure.
50	“
b)	1. The exercises having been written in pencil, we had to rewrite them. 2. The problem having been solved, we could carry on the necessary experiment. 3. Having returned from the expedition he began preparing a report about his, work. 4. My friend having returned from the expedition, we shall see him in our laboratory in\a few days. & He was asked a great many questions, some of them being very difficult to answer-. 6. The first part of the work having been finished, the results were published in a scientific journal. 7. Having been shown the journal,. he asked his friend if he could lend him the book for a few days. 8. Being well written, the article was short and clear. 9. The article being well written, he read it with pleasure. 10. Our work having been completed, he made a report at the scientific conference of the students. 11. The problem having been approached from different points of view, its practical significance was stressed again. 12. The report having aroused a great interest both among the students andi the specialists, the latter took part in the discussion too.
IX.	Read and translate the following text without a dictionary and guess the meaning of the unfamiliar words:
Very little can be seen in living cells with the ordinary light microscope. 'The structure of the cells has been hiade visible by various procedures: killing .the cells, fixing their components in a stable condition, and staining these components so that their structural details may be observed. Cell material was embedded in a substance, which can be cut in very thin sections for viewing. The development of the light microscope has been paralleled by the development of method for preparing cells for study. By 1920 all the major components of cell which can be demonstrated with the light microscope- have been described.
X.	Draw up a plan of the text "The Cell" Using sentences from the paragraphs or putting questions to each paragraph.
f
XI.	Listen to the recording of the following text and be ready to answer questions about it:	'
4*,
51
What can you see when you examine different organs under the microscope? One thing will quickly stand out. No matter what part of the body you examine, you will find cel|s.. They are the smallest living units of the body, just as bricks are the smallest units of a brick wall. Like other animal cells, each has cytoplasm, a nucleus and a thin cell membrane. The cells of the body are built in such a way that they can do their special work best. For example, muscle cells are long and elastic. Nerve cells are very sensitive. They have many ^ranches which connect with other nerve cells or with muscles -or glands.
Cells are so tiny that countless numbers of them gffin-. to the formation of our bodies. Our body consists ofmany different kinds of cells. These cells make up our tissues, which make up the organs. A tissue is'nothing more than a group of similar cells all doing the same job. We have nerve, muscle, bone and blood tissues among others.
XI i. Translate the following passages and entitle them:
1.	Cells, as seen under the light microscope or the electron microscope, are exceedingly complex structures. We find that these cellular arrangements have a functional significance and that specific cellular structures are associated with specific chemical components and specific biochemical properties.
Surrounding'the nucleus of the cell is the cytoplasm. Embeddecfwithin the cytoplasmic sap may be distinguished such structures as mitochondria, a network of partitions from which microsomes are derived, secretory granules, and other inclusions, each being with a complex internal structure of its own. The cell is surrounded by a cell membrane.
2.	The cell membrane is the ’’surface of separation” between the cell and its surrounding fluid; it may or not be differentiated histologically. In the region of the surface, or in the membrane itself, are complex enzyme systems, maintained from within the- cell, actively transfer-ing substances from the environment into the cell, actively extruding substances out of the cell.
3.	The cell -nucleus is the largest and densest of the
52
structures isolated from ah animal cell. A' surrounding membrane regulates the exchange of materials be|ween the nucleus and the cytoplasm. .Within the nucleus can be seen spherical nucleoli, and the chromatin threads which carry genes. The units of hereditary control are arranged along them. The characteristic compounds of nuclei is desoxyribonucleic acid.DNA carrying by virtue of their chemical structure, the genetically inherited information required for the maintenance of the whole cell.
"Applied Physiology” by Samson Wrights.
XIII.	Translate the text into Russian and then back into English, compare your version with the original:
Robert Hooke, an English scientist, who lived at the same time as Leeuwenhoek also made and used microscopes. One day, he cut a very thin s|ice of cork and put it under his lenses. He noticed that it was made of ”a great many little boxes” separated by walls. He compared these to the cells of honey comb. All of the cells were filled with air. This explained why cork was light and why it floated so easily.
The piece of cork that Hook examined was not alive. At one time, each ’’cell" .had contained living matter, but the living material had died. As scientists continued to exarhine living things under the microscope, they slowly came to realize, that both plants and animals were made up of cells. One can easily see living plant cells in a very thin strip of onion. These cells fit together much like the bricks in a house. They have a cell wall made of non-living woody matter.
XIV.	Translate the text into Russian in writing paying attention to the Participles:
Cells, Tissues, Organs, and Systems
With few exceptions, protoplasm is organized into microscopically visible units called cells. Cells are'the smallest living units (except for the viruses). They are variously shaped, have a considerable range of size, and are associated in different ways. They all have structural features in common.
5.3
In some instances single cells constitute entire organisms, each such cell carrying, on all the life processes. Or small numbers of cells may be associated in colonies. In these colonial groups all cells appear similar and have . the salne function. In other aggregation of cells there is often division of labour, particular cells being more concerned with some life functions than with others. This division of labour becomes increasingly important in the higher forms of life-which have great structural complexity. In these higher plants and animals the cells are organized into tissues, or groups of cells with similar structure and functions. Combinations of tissues make up organs with more or less distinct functions, in the animals, which are functionally more complicated than plants, the organs are associated in systems, or.groups of organs that are collectively respqnsible for certain functions.
XV.	Reproduce the text in your own words:
Клетка — элементарная живая система, состоящая из двух основных частей — цитоплазмы и ядра. Она является основой строения, развития жизнедеятельности всех животных и растительных организмов. Клеточное строение обнаруживается на различных уровнях организации живой природы. Итак, клетки, составляющие тело бактерий и простейших, являются самостоятельными организмами; в отличие от этого, клетки, входящие в состав тканей многоклеточных организмов, представляют собой элементы, полностью подчиненные целостному организму. Основной план строения животных и растительных клеток сходен, однако последние отличаются некоторыми особыми чертами. У животных, например, нет микроскопически видимых оболочек, а все растительные клетки окружены хорошо выраженными целлюлозными оболочками, которые могут иметь сложное строение и включать различные органические и неорганические вещества. Клетка, как живая система, поддерживает и восстанавливает свою целостность, адаптируется к условиям среды и выполняет различные функции за счет энергии вещества, пополняемой из окружающей среды. Любая клетка, являясь сравнительно высокоорганизованной формой живой материи, имеет сложный химический сос-
54
dae. Именно внутренняя структура клетки обеспечивает взаимодействие одних ферментов и разобщенность дру-’ ги^с, благодаря чему биохимические реакции протекают согласованно и в определенной последовательности.
I Описание особенностей, присущих большинству тканевых клеток и клеток простейших, составляет задачу общей цитологии. Частная цитология изучает отдельные морфологические типы клеток.
БМЭ, т. 13, стр. 10.
XVI.	Give the mean points of all the texts of .the lesson and write a report on "Cell Structure";	 .
XVII.	Compose short dialogues for the following imaginary situations:
1.	Ask your friend if there is any difference between a green plant cell and an animal cell, and between a cell membrane and a cell wall. Discuss his answer.
2.	A new student joined your group..He had studied at .the Physical faculty. He doesn’t know anything
about the cell theory. Tell him all you know about it.
3.	A space ship carried some substance to the Earth from another planet. Examining it under the microscope you saw a cell. What conclusion can you draw from this fact?
4.	When the cells are placed under the microscope they will die, if they become dry. From your knowledge of protoplasm Explain the reason for this.
5.	Some old scholars were convinced that protoplasm has a nucleus structure, others said it is fibrillar, the third group tried to prove that it is cellular. All of them were mistaken. Why so?
LESSON EIGHT
Grammar: Participles. Forms and Functions.
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THE STUFF OF LIFE •'
In their attempts to solve.the mysteries of life, scien^ tists have given much attention to the jellylike living material of the cell. This substance is called protoplasm. They have studied it under high-powered microscopes; broken it down into its basic chemicals; treated it with dyes and electric currents; and dissected it with microscopic needles. Yet no one has succeeded in making any protoplasm. It is one of the most complicated of all substances. We have learned many facts about it, but there are still many secrets to be discovered. Scientific research goes on, because protoplasm is the key to a real understanding of life-.	
Under the microscope, protoplasm is an almost colourless substance. At times it is quite liquid, but it can easily change to a more solid jelly. All the living parts of the cell, including-the cell membrane, the cytoplasm, and the nucleus are made of protoplasm. With a high-powered microscope we can see many small particles and bubbles floating in the jelly. These are often in rapid motion.
The chemical nature of- protoplasm .is not exactly known. Unfortunately,- when chemists begin to analyse it, it usually dies. This brings about changes in the material they are studying. We do know that protoplasm is usually more than 75 per cent water. There are also salts and food materials such as sugars, fats, and-. proteins. Four chemical elements make up 98 per cent , of protoplasm. These are carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, More than 15 other elements have been found. All of these are the common elements of which our earth is composed. There are no special elements that are found only in protoplasm. But such rare elements as strontium (Sr), rubidium (Rb), tin (Sn), nickel (Ni), gold (Au) and mercury (Hg) may enter into the composition of protoplasm as well. Where the soil is especially "rich in certain minerals, the plants growing there may incorporate them, and they may /ind their way into the tissues or hard parts of animals that feed upon the plants. In some parts of the world gold is particularly abundant in the soil, and the hoofs, horns and’ hair of the deer living on the vegetation in these regions show relatively large accumulations of it: Radioactive elements in some regions are accumulated in the mosses and in vegetation of the region. These 56	'	.
plants are the food for many animals and analysis shows hat these animals are also accumulating radioactive particles in their tissues, The food chain is extended to people iving in these regions who feed upon these animals and in turn incorporate the particles in their own tissues. As a result their bodies contain a relatively high account of radioactive particles as compared with the population in general.
As a summary it should be noted that protoplasm is a very complicated mixture of many kinds of substances. These are in constant activity, carrying on the processes of Hfe. When the activity stops, life comes to an end.
"Biology and Human Progress" by L. Eisman, Ch. Tanzer.
Notes to the text:
to go on — продолжать
I am going to go on — Я собираюсь продолжать
at times — временами
• to treat — подвергать действию, лечить
good fortune — удача
bad fortune — неудача
Translate the following words bearing in mind the meaning of the affixes and memorize them:
to solve (v), solution (n), soluble (adj), solubility (n)
to solidify (v), solid (n), solidity (n), solidification (n)
to treat (v), treatment (n), treaty (n)
to dissect (v), dissection (n)
fortune (n), fortunate (adj), fortunately (adv), unfortunately (adv)
to relate (v)\ relation ((n), relationship (n), relativity '(n) to accumulate (v), accumulator (n), accumulation (n) to contain (v), container (n)
to compare (v), comparison (n), comparative (adj), comparable (adj)
Remember the following nouns in the plural:
man —men [maen] — (men] -
57
woman — women ('wuman] — [’wimin] child —children [tjaild] — [’tfildran] foot — feet [fu=t] — [ftt] tooth —teeth [tu;0j — (ti:0] goose — geese igu=s] — [gi:s] mouse — mice [maus] — [mais] ox —oxen [oks] — ['oksan] wolf —wolves [wulf] — [wulvz] calf — calves [kcuf] — [kctvz] sheep — sheep [ftp] — [ftp] fish —fish [fifl — [ftf]
The Plural of nouns of Latin and Greek origin:
species — species — вид, род, разновидность analysis — analyses — анализ nucleus — nuclei — ядро
stimulus — stimuli — возбудитель, стимул
genus — genera — род, сорт, вид
phenomenon — phenomena — явление datum — data — данное
maximum — maxima — максимальная величина
alga — algae—водоросли (морские)
bacteridm — bacteria — бактерия
medium — media.— среда
stoma — stomata — устьице
bacillus — bacilli — бацилла
EXERCISES
1.	Form adjectives from the following nouns by adding'the suffix ”al” and translate them into Russian:
function, origin, condition, centre, structure, practice, logic, nature, evolution, addition
II.	Find the derivatives of the following words in the text and state what parts of speech they are:.
abundance, mysterious, attentive, microscopic, treat* 5b
ment, success, complication, solidity, exclude, fortune, exchange, usually, comparative	* x
III.	Form adjectives from the following verbs by adding the suffix "able” and translate them into Russian:
to desire, to move, to manage, to consider, to distinguish, to compare, to favour, to. observe, to change, to question
IV.	Form the plural of the fallowing nouns:
stimulus, nucleus, century, woman, goose, city, fish, toy, property, phenomenon, tooth, activity,genus, datum, nucleus, alga, bacterium, process, theory, box, medium, boundary
V.	Form, synonyms of the following words:
research, substance, learn, to make up, to enter, certain, hard, enormous, to supply, rapid, occur, cause
VI.	Translate into Russian, paying attention to the meaning of "some”, "same", and "one":
1.	They made some experiments to prove their theory.
2.	They repeated the same experiment severdT times.
3.	One should not forget it.
4.	The ideal potato soil is one that is rich in hfimus.
5.	One must know that salts are formed when basic . and acid oxides combine together.
VU.^Translate the following sentences into Russian and substitute the Absolute Participle Construction by clauses and vice versa.
a)	1. The temperature and air conditions being favourable, the plant begins to grow. 2. The supply of food provided by wild plants and animals having become insufficient, primitive man began to grow plants. 3. Good ' storage conditions having been provided, the seeds retained their good quality wnd viability.
b)	1. After more favourable conditions had been created, the plants grew to a greater size. i. Nowadays people know a great number of plant species and the best known among them are the, most useful to man. 3. As the day was warm we decided to plant some fruit trees.
VIII.	Translate into Russian;
1. The chemists have developed new polymers, some of them having a high degree of strength. 2. The conversation was interesting, many students taking part in it. 3. Medium temperature between 200° and 250° C having been maintained, a new artificial substance was obtained. 4. In the cells there is often division of labour, particular cells being more concerned with some life functions tha’n with others. 5. Already about 350,000 different kinds of plants have been studied and named' new kinds being discovered each year. 6. The temperature of the tissue rising dangerously, water will evaporate through the me-sophill cells. 7. Conifers being beautiful trees, many people like to have them around their houses to decorate the landscape. 8. The botany-zoology system grew up naturally as biological science developed, the emphasis during its early years being placed on structure and relationships;
IX.	Read and translate the text into Russian and then back into English, compare your version with the original:
The phenomena of life are associated with a particular substance called protoplasm, which has definite and specific characteristics. .Physically, protoplasm is a grayish jelly-like substance. Its consistency- varies with different internal and external conditions from a fluid to a firm jelly. Protoplasm is found within the cells of living organisms. They are the smallest microscopic structural units of life. Chemically it is a complex mixture of many different combinations of elements. Analysis of the protoplasm of different kinds of organisms show that thirty-four elements may enter into its composition..
\ - *
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X.	Listen, to the recording of the following text and reproduce it in Russian:
b) The living substance of plants and animals is organized into protoplasm. Protoplasm is the basic material of all living systems and its general properties are fundamentally the same in each system, plant or animal. It does, however, differ somehow from one phnt species 'to another, from one animal species to another. Protoplasm has a complex physicochemical structure.. Common anayltical procedures cause the death of protoplasm and thus bring about instantaneous changes in its structure. Nevertheless, a reasonably informative, picture of protoplasm is now available.
XI.	Translate the text with a dictionary in writing:
The nucleus is a fairly large, generally spherical body located more or less centrally in the cell. It stains in a distinctive manner and includes one or more dense, heavily staining bodies, the nucleoli.
The nucleus is the controlling center of the cell. An enucleated cell, or a cell fragment Witfiout a nucleus, can 'carry on some of its functions for a short period, but its ability to grow is limited and reproduction can not occur. On the other hand, fragments containing-a nucleus may grow and may eventually divide. Correlation of observations on inheritance with details of cell structure shows clearly that, with a few exceptions, the factors .that control heredity are located in the chromosomes, which lie in the nucleus and make up most of its bulk. The chief components of these hereditary factors, the genes, appears to be DNA. To a great extent DNA controls cell growth and cell function. RNA performs a function outside the nucleus related to the nuclear activity of the chromosomal DNA.
XII.	Translate the text without a dictionary and guess the meaning of the unfamiliar words:
Cell components
Extensive knowledge of the cell and its parts has been \
A
61
gained from the highly developed techniques of microscopy and ceil 'chemistry. The cell is bounded by a cell membrane and may also be bounded by a cell wall. All living components within this cell membrane are often referred to as the protoplasm. The. protoplasm includes a nucleus and a mass of substance surrounding it, the cytoplasm. The cytoplasm may contain small differentiated areas or small organs known as organelles and non-living material, such as excretory products or reserve food. The cell, these organelles, and the nucleus are membrane bound. The membranes are usually composed of associated layers of. lipid and protein. They are important not only as boundaries of the cell and cell components but also as surfaces on which metabolic reactions take place.
XIII.	Translate the text into English:
Изучение составных частей клеток и протоплазмы было начато после открытия микроскопа. Под микроскопом ученые увидели маленькие ячейки, которые были названы клетками. Позднее обнаружили протоплазму. Все основные жизненные функции организма заключены в протоплазме. Она - состоит из ядра, окруженного веществом, названным цитоплазмой. Химический состав протоплазмы сложный, ученые долго не могли ее изу- ' чить. Когда ученые начинают исследовать ее, она меняет свою структуру и умирает. Но исследования продолжаются, и в настоящее время очень много уже известно о свойствах, структуре и составе протоплазмы.
XIV.	Reproduce in your own words:
До конца прошлого века характерны теории строения ' протоплазмы, исходившие из представления об ее неизменной морфологической структуре. С развитием физической и коллоидной химии стала ясной ошибочность упомянутых выше морфологических теорий строения протоплазмы. Было показано, что протоплазма находится в коллоидном состоянии, основой которой является вода с растворенными в ней солями и углеводами. Вопрос о состоянии воды в протоплазме исследователями решается различно. Одни признают наличие в протоплазме сво
62
бодной воды; другие считают, что большая часть воды находится в связанном состоянии и становится свободной лишь при разрушении протоплазмы. Сейчас в протоплазме открыто более 60 элементов, но, вероятно, й другие химические элементы в том или ином количестве могут встречаться у различных организмов. Из химических соединений ведущая роль в протоплазме принадлежит белкам. Большое значение имеют комплексные соедине-. ния белков с липоидами, углеводами, нуклеиновыми кислотами и солями. Современные методы химического изучения протоплазмы пополнились рядом новых способов. Эти методы существенно расширили наши знания о химических особенностях протоплазмы, о распределении и взаимодействии ее химических компонентов.
Именно при помощи этих методов удалось получить четыре фракции протоплазмы: ядра, митохондрии, микросомы и гиалоплазму, подвергнув каждую из них химическому исследованию.
Именно при помощи этих методов стало возможным выяснить .особенности распределения ферментов в структурах протоплазмы и опровергнуть распространенное раньше мнение о том, что большинство ферментов протоплазмы связано с клеточными ядрами. Оказалось, что важнейшие ферменты связаны не с ядрами, а с цитоплазмой.
БМЭ, т. 26, стр. 1223.
XV.	Compose short dialogues for the following imaginary situations:
1.	A student of your group is to examine protoplasm, but he doesn’t know how to do it. Help him.
2.	An acquaintance of yours has heard something.about protoplasm and says that it resembles water. Describe the appearance of protoplasm and explain the difference.
3.	Your friend declares that protoplasm is the most important substance in living things. Your point of 4 view is that it is the nucleus that carries life functions. Try to prove it.
4.	Your friend says that the words ’’protoplasm” and ’’cytoplasm’ are synonyms. Explain the difference and prove that.
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5.	Is protoplasm an element, a compound or a mixture?
6.	We have examined the'chemicai composition of protoplasm. Now we are to make account of our work at a conference. Let us do it together. '
XVI.	Give the main points of all the texts of the lesson and write a short report about it.
LESSON NINE
Grammar: Gerund. Forms and Functions.
FOOD FACTORS
In the Dutch East Indies in 1897 men on the plantations were falling sick with a strange nerve disease. They were unable to eat-or hold their food. Their arms and legs became paralysed and shrunken. So many were sick, that the hospitals had no more room for the victims of this disease, known as ^beriberi. The Dutch physician Dr. Christian Eijkman was sent from Holland to try to find out how to prevent and cure this disease. Eijkman was immersed in germ theory. He was sure that beriberi was a bacterial disease. He brought chickens with him and hoped to cultivate the germ in. them. Buf in this he failed. However during the course of 1896 these, chickens came down spontaneously with a disease very much like beriberi. Before Eijkman could do much about It, the disease vanished.
Searching' for causes, he found out that a certain period of time the chicken had been fed on polished rice from the hospital stores and it >vas after that they sickened. Put back on commercial chicken food, they recovered.
Dr. Eijkman also learnt that the favourite food of the people was white-polished rice. This was prepared by rubbing off the brown outer coating of the rice grains. Dr. Eijkman decided to try an experiment. He fed a number of hens with polished rice until they became paralysed. The hens were then divided into two groups. One group, the control, was kept on the usual polished diet. The other group was given not only, polished rice, but the.
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outer brown rice skins as well. In a short-time, the control-group which ate nothing but white rice died of. beriberi,"' The test group that received the brown rice pdlishlngsj was cured.
This was the first carefully controlled experiment sho- -wing that there was something in a food that could prevent a dangerous disease. Eijkman did not appreciate the true meaning of this at first. He thought there 'Wfls a toxin’ of some sort in rice grains and that-this was’neutralized by something in the hulls. The hulls were removed when rice was polished, leaving the toxin in the.polished rice unneutralized.
However, why assume the presence of two ‘different unknown substances, a toxin and an antitoxin,; whew ft was only necessary to assume one: some food factor required in traces? The outstanding exponents- of this latter view were Hopkins and a Polish-born biocheinist Casimir Funk. Each suggested that not only beriberi, but also such diseases as scurvy, rickets were caused by the absence of trace of food factors.
Under the impression that these food factors belonged to the class of compounds known asr ’’amines’’ _ Funk suggested these factors be named vitamines (life'amines) and ever since the name was adopted. 4	.	.
"Biology and Human Progress'' by L. Els man, Ch.,Tanzer.
Notes to the text:
to fall ill — заболеть
to catch cold — простудиться
to have no room — не иметь места	. ( ,,
before he could do much —до того, как он что-либо еде--' лал
prevention of accidents — техника безопасности .
mean — 1) середина; the golden mean — зол'от ая середина	•	‘ t 
means 2) средство, by means of this —посредствен ' этого	1
способ; by all means — во что 6Ы то ни стало	,	,
by no means — никоим образом
5	Б-614
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3)	средства; private -means — личные средства
4)	значить, It means that — Это значит что...
думать; I mean — Я имею в виду, думаю
5)	плохой; a mean man —подлый человек
Translate the following words bearing in mind the meaning of the affixes and memorize them:
to plant (v), plant (n), plantation (n) to prevent (v), prevention (n), preventive (n), (adj) to prepare (v), preparation (n), preparatory (adj), preparative (adj) to cultivate (v), cultivation (n), cultivator (h) to appreciate (v), appreciation (n)), appreciable (adj) to mean (v), mean (adj), meaning (n), meaningless (adj)
Remember the pronunciation of the following words, paying special attention to the stress in the noun and the corresponding verb: nouns	verbs
contact	.to	con'tact
tontrast	to	contrast~
'increase	to	in'crease
'decrease	to	dec'rease
'object x to ob'ject	'
'subject	to subject
'process	to'process
EXERCISES
I.	Read the following words and state what Russian words help to guess their meaning:
effect [i'fekt], evolution [Jwa'lwfan], protein [proutim], original [a'ridsanl], formal ('formal] .reason ['ri;zn], companion [ka’mpaenjan], ordinary ['ordnri], stable [s'teibl], principal ['prinsapl], subject'['sxbdsikt], special [s'pejal], to combine [kam'bain], to accompany [з'клтраш], reser
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ves [ri'za:vz], person ['pa;sn], balance ['baelans], comments ['koments], foundation [faun'deijan], detail ['dfc-teil], matter ['maetaj, modern ['msdan], surprise [sap'-raiz] to utilize ['judilaiz]
II.	State what part of speech the following words belong to and give their derivatives:
naturally, originator, prevention, to cultivate, founder, researcher, favourable, preparation, division, usually, actually, arrangement, significance, solvent, solidification, relatives, accumulation, comparable
III.	Remove-the suffixes and prefixes in the following words and say what part of speech they belong to:
growth, unlucky, accomplishment, density, usefulness, illegal, occurence, to mislead, failure, explorer, investigator, various, differential, indefinite, basic, careless, relatively,- considerable, meaningless, invariable, appreciation, decomposition, irresponsible
IV.	Add negative prefixes to the following words:
a) variable, convenient, direct, definite;
. b) appreciated, favourable, natural, necessary, pleasant;
c) composition, formation, increase, compose, advantage, cover, approval
V. Arrange the following words in pairs of synonyms and antonyms:
a)	disease, to eat, to find out, to cure, spontaneously, to treat, to be cured, illness, to feed, to appraise, true, to search, grower, to discover, suddenly, to appreciate, to suppose, real, to fall ill, reason, to look for, to sicken, to catch cold, to recover, cause, plantator;
b)	former, to fall ill, to be цпаЫе, careless, sick, to fail, presence, to be able; latter, antitoxin, to recover, healthy, to manage, spontaneously, absence, careful, continually, toxin
5*
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VI. Translate the following sentences into Russian, paying attention to the word "mean”:
1. We have all means to produce good results in our . work. 2. We improve soil structure by means of proper crop rotation. 3. By no means do all parts of a plant'develop at the same time. 4. What does this word mean? 5. If the lecture takes place I shall come by all means. 6. Like some people you didn’t understand the meaning of this work.
VII. Translate the following into Russian (Gerund):
a), 1. The friends spoke of going together to the country. 2. Г did not hear of their staying in Leningrad during the blocade. 3. Listening to music gives much pleasure. 4. She cannot read without consulting the dictionary. 5. His being stopped by a stranger surprised him very much. 6. I remember my having told him about the meeting. 7. We did not know about his having been taken to the hospital. 8. The teacher was pleased at our having written the exercises so well. 9. His having asked this question shows that he does not understand the article.
10. We know of many experiments being made at our Research Institute. 11. They are speaking about his being sent to Moscow. 12. His having been seen there caused a great sensation. 13. Your having been sent with the expedition was known to everybody.
b) 1. His having studied principles of this device helped him greatly in his work. 2. Using radioactive isotopes opens up new possibilities for medicine and agriculture. 3. The Curies’ having discovered radium gave them the possibility of discovering other radioactive'elements. 4. By assuming the existence of molecules and atoms the scientists were able to explain a great mass of chemical and physical phenomena. 5. We know of Michurin’s having found a brilliant solution .to the problem of selection. 6. After the scientists’ having discovered the secrets of the atom, they began looking for the ways of applying atomic energy for industia) purposes. 7. Did you hear about Professor Ivanov’s having taken part in the conference? 8. After his report having been discussed at the conference it was published in a scientific magazine.
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VIII. Translate the following sentences, paying attention to the "ing" forms:
a)	1. He got off a moving tram. 2. The professor was making an experiment. 3. Instead of going to the cinema he went to the club. 4. Having come into the room, the teacher began the lesson. 5. The engineer was glad at our having made the machine parts so well. 6. The teacher objects to our translating such an easy text with a dictionary. 7. Translating this text I made many mistakes. 8. We shall do some reading today. 9. He went away after having been examined. 10. Having studied for five years, he became an engineer. 11. Being told the news he ran off at once to tell his friend. 12. Look at the falling snow! 13. The trunk having been packed, they went to the station. 14. The tourists had many talks with Russian workers, two of them speaking Russian well.
b)	1. Using radioactive isotopes, biologists are able to carry out new kinds of research. 2. Using radioactive isotopes opens up new possibilities in various fields of science, industry and agriculture. 3. The range of scientific problems being discussed at the conference was very extensive. 4. I did not know of his having visited this laboratory. 5. For black tea, the leaves are fermented before being dried. 6. The plaht metabolism differs from that of the animal in having the additional synthetic process of photosynthesis. 7. If nerve is stimulated by being pinched by an electric current, or by some other means, the galvanometer will register a flow of current. 8. Before being planted, potatoes are cut into several pieces, each piece having at least one eye. 9. Jhe type of complex reaction having been the object of numerous investigations will be discussed. 10. The grasshopper jumps, the leap being several times the length of the body. 11. Plants and animals are alike in having protoplasmic basis.
IX.	Translate the text without a dictionary. Guess the meaning of the unfamiliar words:
The term ’’vitamin” has undergone important changes in meaning since it was first introduced; as a result it carries with it some imprints of all its different mea
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nings. Forty years ago it was believed that the essential constituents of a diet were protein, carbohydrate and fat (these three foodstuffs together must be present in sufficient amounts to yield the full calorie requirements), certain minerals (inorganic ions) and water. But later when л-chemically pure diet of this kind had been prepared and administered, the animals died; natural food therefore, contains other, non-calorie-providing, but nevertheless essential, constituents for growth, health arid liferln rats, addition of small amounts of milk to a diet which according to the theories then current was adequate, preserved health and restored growth; the unknown essential fac-'tors in milk were called "accessory food factors” by Hopkins. The accessory food factors or vitamins were soon divided into: 1) fat-soluble; 2) water-soluble. The fat-soluble were differentiated into vitamins A and D. The ' water-soluble — into В and C. It was soon found that vitamin В was not a single substance, but a mixture of several substances. Its title was altered to vitamin В complex .and the individual constituents as they were isolated, were given distinctive names, the chemical identity of the vitamins Was worked out and many such substances are now known. They are: vitarriins A, D, E К, C (all fat-soluble) and В complex (all water-soluble).
The distinctive charactetistic of the vitamins is that they are micro-constituents of the diet of high biological activity which cannot be replaced by mother normal dietary constituents. -	•,
X.	Read the following passages and present their summary in Russian to your class-mates. Work in pairs.
 Vitamin C Requirements in Man. Accumulated experience and the experiments recorded show that, in adult humans, 10 mg. of dietary ascorbic acid is completely protective and curative over long periods. To allow a margin of safety a daily intake of 30 mg. is recomended. This is readily, achieved by a normal Western diet —one., orange, or half a grapefruit, or a generous helping of lightly-cooked cabbage. The recommended 30 mg. is of ingested vitamin, so that the aim of 70 mg. makes liberal allowance for maltreatment by the cook.
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Vitamin В group. This group consists of series of water-soluble organic substances, which are found in all cells of all species, frorii the bacteria, protozoa, and yeasts up to the highest mammalian forms. Most of the members of the group are constituents of fundamental tissue enzyme systems, involved in the oxidation of the foodstuffs, and are therefore Indispensable for the normal functioning of all tissues. The best studied members of the group are thiamine, riboflavin, and nicotinic acid, generally found together in foodstuffs but not necessarily in the same, proportions. Most of the vitamin В group can be synthesized by the intestinal bacteria.
Vitamin K. Vitamin K, one of the ’’youngest” vitamins, discovered only some 30 years ago, rs of great importance for the proper coagulation of blood. It is essential for the formation of prothrombin, a proteic substance necessary for clotting a blood vessel to stop a haemor-rage.	•
In 1942, Academician Alexander Palladin, a prominent Soviet biochemist, and his staff synthesized vikasol, a new Soviet preparation, which contain^ an analogue of vitamin K. During World War II, vikasol won a good repute for itself among army doctors. Injected intramuscularly or intravenously, it quickly stops various haemorrhages.
Now Soviet researchers have found a new application for vikasol — it is used as a preparation against inflammations and as a means for increasing the resistance of organism to radioactive irradiatipn.
But vitamin K, as the scientists learned, is essential not only for blood clotting. It plays an active role in the so-called tissue breathing of the organism’s cells, in the metabolism. It is as necessary for each living cell as air is vital for man.
Sugars and starches. Sugars, and starches are important sources of energy in your .food. They are present in candies, cakes, potatoes, bread and many other common foods. Most of the starch and sugar you eat is changed to simple sugars like glucose in your digestive system. When they travel through the blood stream, some of the sugars are stored, but Pthers will be burned in the cells to produce the energy we need for life. It is possible to measure the amount of energy produced by a food by burning it outside the body. The heat given off is measured very ca-
' refully. The unit of heat energy in food is called a calo-• Aie'.	'
Fats. They, give much, more energy than do starch or sugar.-(You can easily burn fatty foods peanuts or walnuts by lighting them with a match.) Fitts do not burn ,thr& Way in your body cells, but they are used to produce /heat ahd energy^ Fats do more than simply supply calories. / They,. Are necessary for the continued health of the cells. *j?ats are- unable to grow on a fat-free diet. Children in /waX'torp Eurppe who had no fat in their diet did not ’grojd. properly either and were very weak and underdeveloped-.
Proteins. They supply energy but that is not their chief use.in-the body. Every time a new cell forms, protein is needed to make up its protoplasm. Life would be impossible without proteins since protoplasm is made of them. , 6ecause,‘they are needed for the growth and repair of tis'Mies, proteins are among the most important nutrients. In the body they are broken down into amino-acids. Twenty-two-’different amino acids are known, and of these ten are. absolutely necessary for life.
Minerals. There are several different minerals needed tor health. All of them come from our food and water. They are calcium and phosphorus, flourine, iron, iodine ana many others.
XI.	Translate the following in writing, paying atten-liofy'td .the ”ing” farms:
Syndromes of salt loss
Men working hard ' in hot* moist atmosphere sweat ‘profusely., If they replace the water lost but not the salt, Xa£t deficiency is. produced. A common symptom is wide-spread/Лрtense and exceedingly painful cramps, of the mil«(e^’probably due to the harmful effect of the low N^*7.'pdntant<jsf-'the interstitial fluid. The cramps are EelieS'td'b^'drinkfrig'-saline solution (0.5 per cent) or by takteg'‘salt. t3tblete.. Nowadays such workers are given salt tablets prophyfactically.
12!
Effect of water deprivation
It will lie remembered that water is constantly being lost from the body in expired air. The irreducible minimum water loss is about 1200 ml. daily, representing 2.5% of the total body water. If corresponding amounts of water are not drunk (owing to water not being available, to unconsciousness or to weakness) water depletion develops leading to changes in the body fluids which are the reverse of those changes described for excess water drinking.
XII.	Reproduce in your own words:
Витамины — пищевые вещества, необходимые для поддержания жизненных функций. Организм человека и животных не синтезирует витамины, поэтому получать их должен в готовом виде. Недостаток витаминов в пище или изменение процессов их усвоений приводит к нарушениям обмена веществ.
Витамины должна поступать в организм постоянно в относительно определенных количествах. Однако содержание витаминов в пищевых продуктах подвержено значительным колебаниям и не всегда полностью обеспечивает потребность в них организма. Эти колебания связаны с сезонными изменениями состава пищевых продуктов, неравномерным употреблением ягод, фруктов, овощей. В СССР на предприятиях пищевой промышленности проводят витаминизацию продуктов массового потребления, особенно продуктов детского питания.
Открытие витаминов тесно связано с изучением роли отдельных пищевых веществ. Во второй половине XIX в. считалось, что для нормального функционирования организма достаточно определенного содержания в пище белков, жиров, углеводов и минеральных солей и воды. Однако в течение долгого времени ученым не удавалось установить причину происхождения многих заболеваний. В 1880 г. русский исследователь Н. И. Лунин установил, что в пищевых продуктах имеются еще неизвестные факторы питания, необходимые для жизни. Выводы Лунина были в дальнейшем подтверждены С. А. Сосиным,. а в 1897 г.— врачом Эйкманом. В 1906—1912 годах по предложению Гопкинса и польского ученого Функа эти вещества были названы витаминами.
XIII.	Questions for discussion:
What are nutrients? Give examples. . '
What is the chief use of sugar and starch in the body? What ate the good food sources of sugar and starch? What is meant by a calorie?
What nutrient gives the most energy?
What is the chief use of protein in the body?
What are some good food sources of proteins? ’
XIV.	Give the main points of all the texts of the lesson.
XV.	Compose short dialogues for the following imaginary situations:	'	'
1. We are preparing for the TV programme ”Zdo-rovye”. The question to be discussed is vitamins. Interview a physician on this point, please.
2. You are a doctor. You are consulting a patient with a strange nerve disease. Can’t it be beriberi? Ask the patient about the symptoms and diagnose his . disease.
' 3. You are Dr. Eijkman. You’ve made an experiment with two groups of chickens, one of which died. Share your ijnpressidns with your colleagues.
A. Arrange a competition entitled ’’What do we know about vitamins?” Divide the group in two. The team that utters the last sentence is the winner.
XVI. Read the text "The Science of Biology"
(p. 138—146 be ready to give the main points of it.
LESSON TEN
Grammar: Infinitive. Forms and Functions.
TIMIRYAZEV
Kliment Arkadyevich Timiryazev was born on May
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22, 1843 in St. Petersburg. He got his initial schooling at home . His mother was an excellent linguist and taught her children French and English which they spoke fluently. In later life Timiryazev, then a mature scientist, spoke on many occasions before audiences of French and English scientists, reading his papers in their own language and surprising his hearers by the beauty of his style and the wealth of his vocabulary.
When Timiryazev reached the age of 15 his father was dismissed from his post because of his anti-monarchy views. From then on Timiryazev was -obliged to earn his own living by translating from English into Russian first newspaper articles and later books by such famous English writers as Charles Dickens and George Elliot, in 1860 he entered the St. Petersburg University. At the University he became more and more imbued with* the ideas of revolutionary, democracy and enthusiastic patriotism advocated by N. G. Chernyshevsky, A. I. Herzen, N. A. Dobrolyubov.
Timiryazev’s views on botany and general biology were formed under the influence of eminent Russian scientists I. N. Beketov and D. I. Mendeleev. Timiryazev began to study individual biology problems during his student days. In the competition held in 1864 he was awarded a gold medal for his scientific work. He studied Darwin’s book, which then was not available in Russian translation, and read a paper on it at the meeting of the students’ science circle, directed by Beketov. This paper served as material for his work ""Darwin’s book, its Critics and Commentators” published in 1864. Having graduated from the University Timiryazev became a teacher at the biology department in Petrovsky Academy of Agriculture and Forestry. This offer entirely suited the scientist’s wishes. Work at the' Academy meant the opportunity not only to investigate personally highly important theoretical and practical problems relating to the increase of crop yields but also to impart scientific knowledge to the younger generation.
During the whole of his work Timiryazev never ceased his research in agronomy, in vegetable physiology and in the history of science; at the same time he carried on an enormous amount of work in popularizing science.
As an experimenter Timiryazev concentrated on aerial alimentations of plants, i. e. the processes by which the
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' green leaves of plants assimilate solar energy and carbonic acid from the atmosphere, and the formation of complex organic combinations in the cells of the leaf. This phenomenon afterwards became known ip science as photosynthesis. He proved that animate, nature is subject tb the law of conservation and transformation of energy. His research clearly showed as he himself said, "the cosmic role of the plant”.- In the process of photosynthesis plant absorbs the energy of solar rays that fall on the earth. This energy is then transmitted together with vegetable food to the bodies of animals and men. It is also preserved in coal, oil, peat and other fuels and is used to set in motion all the powerful technique created by man. He called the plant the intermediary between sun and life on our planet. ’’The green'leaf, or, to be more precise, the microscopic green grain of chlorophyll, is the focus, the point in the world to which solar energy flows on one side' while all the manifestation of life on earth take their source on the other side. ’’The plant is the intermediary between sky and earth. It is a real Prometheus, stealing fire from heavens”—wrote Timiryazev.
"Timiryazev K. A.” by G. Platonov.
Notes to the text:
to earn his living — заработать на жизнь in vain — напрасно
a point of view — точка зрения form,— форма
former — первый (из двух перечисленных) latter — недавний, последний (из упомянутых) formely — прежде, некогда
Translate the following words bearing in mind the meaning of the affixes and memorize them:
to oblige (v), obligation (n), obligatory (adj)
to form (v), form (n), formality (n), formalism (n), formation (n)
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to instruct (v), instructor (n), instruction (n), instructive (adj)
to direct (v), director (n), direction (n), direct (adj), directly (adv)
to serve (v), servant (n), service (n)
to assimilate (v), assimilation (n), assimilative (adj)
to conserve (v), conservative (adj)
to absorb (v), absorber (n), absorption (n)), absorptive (adj), absorbable (adj)
to preserve (v), preservation (n)
EXERCISES
I.	Read the following words without a dictionary and guess their meaning:
linguist [’liggwist], audience ['adjans], surprise [sa’p-raiz], style  [’stall], enthusiastic [in’0juzi'aestik], advocate [’aedvakit], individual [Jndi'vidjual], medal ['medl], critic [’kritik], commentator [’komenteita], theoretical [Oia'retikal] > agronomy [a’gronami], popularize ['popjula-raiz], concentrate [’konsentreit], assimilate [a'simileit], combination [Jcombineijan], energy [*enad3i], conservation [,k3nsa:veifan], atmosphere [’aetmasfia], transformation [,traensfa:meijnj, technique [tek'nbk], absorb [ab'sxb], planet [’plaenit], formation [fo/meij'an], focus [fbukas], complex [’kompleks], phenomenon [fi'nominan], chlorophyll '[’kbrafil], manifestation [/maBnifes’teij‘an]
II.	Give all the derivatives of the following words:
to cover, to explore, to direct, *care, to invent, organ, possible, to act, composer, to vary, nature, to connect, to appear, occasion, to hear, to dismiss, to oblige, fame
III.	Underline the verb forming suffixes and translate the verbs:
activate, incorporate, appreciate, oxidize, summarize, analyse, neutralize, modify, specify, intensify, harden, broaden, soften, weaken, widen
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IV.	Find in the text words related in meaning to the following:
initial, brilliant, fluently, mature, to astonish, to discharge, well-known, personal, completely, to conserve, to transfer
zV. Give the Russian equivalents for the following:
to treat with, to catch cold, to earn his living, by no means, by all means, point of view, form, former, latter, prevention of accidents, to be fond of smb., to set on foot, in spite of, in turn, to take care, to be of great value
VI.	Give the English equivalents for the following:
техника безопасности, иметь большую ценность, несмотря на/ заболеть, точка зрения, в свою очередь, в соответствии с, быть уверенным, зарабатывать на жизнь
VII.	Translate the following sentences into Russian bearing in mind the various meanings of the. words in bold type:
a)	1. The work was neither difficult tier easy. 2. His answers were both simple and honest. 3. I like both you and your friends; 4. We shall either work here or go to the library. 5. Either of the vegetable crops mentioned is very rich in vitamins. 6. This fruit may be used for food either in fresh or in frozen state. 7. We shall work neither today nor tomorrow. 8. I shall not come tomorrow either.
b)	1. Neither he nor she wanted to begin the conversation. 2. Both of them were -silent. 3. Neither knew what to say.-4. He showed two books and said she might take' either of them. 5. He said that either of them was very easy to translate; 6. She said that she knew neither English nor German. 7. He had either to read or to translate the text. 8. He said that they,would continue the work -either tomorrow or in a few days. 9. The work was both interesting .and useful.
c)	1. It is' about one of the methods worked out by. our students that our professor spoke at the scientific con-78
ference. 2. It is in spring that birds migrate. 3. It was the cause of migration of birds that the. scientists discussed at this conference. 4. It was a student of our group who made a brilliant report about the migration of birds at . the scientific conference of students.	' '
d)	1. The finer is the soil the easier will the roots penetrate into it. 2. The longer the days the shorter the; nights. 3. The more scientists learn about protoplasm the more interesting is its further investigation. 4. The lom-ger the man lives the more he Jearns. The nearer the tem-. perature approaches the freezing point of water, the less biological activities will take place in the soil.
e)	1. One must-do one’s duty. 2. The method we recommend is the one which was used at one of our experimental stations. 3. One can improve the structure of the soil by proper treatment. 4. One who studies biology is called a biologist. .5. They answered with one voice. 6. If one z wants to extehd one’s knowledge, one has -to have a great choice of books on the subject. 7. I don’t like this pen. Can you show me a better one? 8. There is but one solu: tion of this problem. 9. Often it isn’t the complex element * that causes troubles, but the simple one.
- VIII. Read and translate the following sentences paying attention to the "ing" forms:
1. New methods of cultivation being applied in our locality, we received good yields. 2. The improvement of plants is being carried out constantly. 3. My mother is-proud of my being a student. 4. I worked without being disturbed. 5. The weather being cold, we went homd. 6. We have done selecting. 7. My having made a report was approved by all. 8. Not a single ohe of these substan- , ces being successful, they applied some new ones to control this experiment. 9. He is pleased at being praised by our professor. 10. Being praised by our processor he was much pleased. 11. I heard of your having done this work successfully. 12. Having done this work he went home. 13. They know of his having published the results of his last investigations.
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IX. Read and translate the following sentences paying attention to the infinitives:
!	1. The aim of dur work was to discover cheap sources
| of energy to supply the new plants to be built in that district. 2. To write English is difficult. 3. We have learned 'to understand many words. 4. We use microscope to examine microbes. 5. To make our towns s^ill more beautiful is the aim of our people. 6. We like to invite our friends to our house. 7. We like to be invited to our friends’ house. 8. I was happy to have seen him at last. 9. You must be glad to have been sent to a rest home. 10. I want to understand English. 11. I want to be understood when I speak.
12.	The traditional approach to this problem is to consider ‘ each new process as a pew problem. 13. To make machines work fast and correctly is a very important task. 14. A problem to be solved must be expressed clearly. 15. He hurried to the University to deliver a lecture.. 16. The method of treatment to be used in this case should be simple. 17. To devote himself entirely to poetry he ; abandoned medicine which he had studied for many years.
18.	The results of the experiments to be conducted in our Institute should be published. 19. I am sorry to have caused ybu so much trouble. 20. There are many considerations to be taken into account. 21. The first step to take is to determine the composition of this substance. 22. To translate this text without a dictionary is difficult for him, it containing too many unknown words. 23. To be asked questions and not to be able to answer them means a failure. 24. The problem to be solved at the stage is an entirely difficult one. 25. He required to be given details • about this method. 26. A great improvement in medical education Tn'recent years is' a fact, to be remembered. 27. An organ is a group of tissues working together to do a certain job.
X.	Read add translate the text without a dictionary and reproduce it:
An important part in moulding Timiryazev’s scientific views was played by eminent Russian natural scientists — D. I. Mendeleyev and A. N. Beketov. D. I. Mendeleyev — the chemist and author.of the periodical system of chemical
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elements, began his pedagogical work as assistant profes- . sor at the Petersburg University at the time Timiryazev entered it. Mendeleyev was already known as the author of important scientific investigations and had tremendous prestige among the students.	*
It is very significant that Timiryazev, writing almost half a century later about his first expulsion from the University, said that he found it especially- hard to be _ deprived of Mendeleyev’s lectures and df'laboratory work under him. The many hours spent by Timiryazev in the great chemist’s laboratory were not in vain. He became a splendid and persistent experimenter.
Having finished the University, Timiryazev was eager to start practical work without delay. He gladly accepted Mendeleyev’s offer of work on one of the four experimental plots organized at Mendeleyev’s suggestion for studying new piethods of agriculture and use of mineral fertilizers. Timiryazev’s work there was of the utmost importance for his later scientific and practical activities. While studying problems of the mineral alimentation of plants, Timifyazev began his research in aerial alimentation, to which he later devoted particular attention.
XI.	Listen to the recording of the following text and be ready to answer questions about it:
In addition to Jiis work in the Petrovsky Academy Timiryazev also lectured in the Moscow University. His lectures and practical studies were very popular and attracted big audience both at Petrovsky Academy and at the University. He held that the scientific discussions continually carried on between the different schools of science should not be concealed .from students, he tried to give his listeners the last word of science. This demanded of him attentive study of all the latest research,' not only in vegetable physiology, but also in the associated branches of science. By connecting one branch of natural science with another, by comparing and generalizing facts, he'disclosed to his listeners new and wider scientific horizons. His lectures were distinguished by: a fighting spirit and polemical trend which were very popular with his audience.
6 B-614
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XII.	Translate the text into Russian and then back into English, compare your version with the original:
a)	Nearly all the energy used by living organisms is derived from the light energy of the sun. Light energy is converted into other energy forms by green plants in the process called photosynthesis. It is in carbohydrates that green plants first store this energy. It is in carbohydrates that the energy is distributed to all parts of the plant, and it is from carbohydrates that much of the energy is obtained and used by animals.
b)	Living things grow, move and reproduce. Each of these activities requires energy and so plants and animals must have food to supply the energy. The secret of the world’s food production is found inside the green leaves of plants. For in this laboratory of nature, water from the soil and carbon dioxide from the air are chemically united. In this process the energy of sunlight is used.
This ability of green plants to capture the radiant energy from sunlight and with it convert water and carbon dioxide into food may be the most important ability in our world. Animals do not have this ability. Therefore, it follows that without green plants neither people nor any other animal life could live on the earth. We are all dependent upon green plants for our very lives.
XIII.	Translate the text into English:
Имя знаменитого русского ученого К. А. Тимирязева хорошо известно в нашей стране. Он родился в 1843 году. В 1861 поступил в Петербургский университет, но вскоре был исключен за то, что принимал активное участие в студенческих собраниях. Только через год смог продолжить свое образование экстерном и закончил университет с золотой медалью.
В 1877 году он стал профессором Московского университета, но не получал никакой поддержки в своей работе со стороны администрации, несмотря на то, что его исследования имели большое значение для науки.
Тимирязев продолжал традиции русских демократов. Он был первым, кто популяризировал дарвинизм в Рос
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сии, и именно он перевел книги Дарвина 'ни русский язык, был превосходным лектором, тщательно готовился к своим лекциям и говорил очень простым языком. Его лекции больше походили на дружескук) беседу, чем на официальную лекцию. ПЬсле Октябрьской революции он вступил в ряды Коммунистической партии и стал депутатом Московского Совета.
Всю свою жизнь Тимирязев посвятил служению народу, науке. Он является основателем' нового биологического направления в нашей стране, и его работы в области фотосинтеза хорошо известны как в нашей стране, так и за рубежом.
В 1923 году был воздвигнут памятник Тимирязеву на одной из центральных улиц Москвы, и Московская сельскохозяйственная Академия носит его имя.
XIV.	Compose short dialogues for the following imaginary situations:
1.	You have just moved to a new flat. Your mother has placed flowerpots on the cupboard and wardrobe. Ask her to put them on the window-sill and explain why they should be there.
2.	You have just attended a lecture on physiology that you thoroughly enjoyed. On returning home you tell your sister about the lecturer’s great skill. Com->are the lecturer Timiryazev with other famous-spea-cers and give a comparison of their manner of ecturing.
3.	A conference for foreign students is to be held next week. You are invited to speak on the theory of photosynthesis. What are you going to tell them? Discuss it with your friend.
4.	Professor Timiryazev is known to be the prototype of professor Polezhayev in the film "The Baltic Deputy”. Recall the episodes of the film coinciding with .Timiryazev’s biography.
5.	You have received an invitation to a scientific conference to be held in, Puschino-on-the-Oka. As a participant you are to send in an application with: a) your full name; b) place of study; c) your age; d) the theme of your report with its contents; e) the
6*
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name of your scientific supervisor: Discuss how to do it with your friend.
6.	Your friend is going to take part in a conference. Ask him when .the conference is to be held, when he is leaving and how he is going to get there. When your friend returns congratulate him in the newspaper ”The Beagle”.
LESSON ELEVEN
Grammar: Infinitive. Forms and Functions.
A WHITE-EYED FLY
To scientists, the most important mutation that ever took place happened inside a milk bottle — in an ordinary little fruit fly.	.	•
For a year, starting in 1909, Thomas Hunt Morgan, professor of zoology, at Columbia University, had been breeding this little fly called Drosophila. Drosophila is a. small, ordinary looking insect the sort you often find in grape arbors.
One day in 1910 professor Morgan noticed a very unusual sight in one of his fly-filled milk bottles. There, among all the red-eyed Drosophila was one with white eyes!
Was the white-eyed fly really something new, or would its offspring go back to the red eyes of the rest of the flies? Professor Morgan bred his white-eyed fly and waited to see what colour the eyes of the breed would be. Some were white! He had discovered a real mutation.
This single white-eyed fly started professor Morgan and his co-workers off on eighteen years scientific work. They are known to have studied 15 million flies and found about 500 mutations. The mutations affected the development of every part of the flies’ bodies, their legs, their shape and colour, their internal organs. Through the long years of work in the now famous ”fly-room” at Columbia, professor Morgan and his colleagues were able to show that the genes were arranged on the chromosomes like beads on a string.
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Drosophila seems-almost made to order for scientists to study mutation. • The flies are known to grow very easily on bananas or other simple food. They are hardly little creatures and will stand up under all kinds of treatment. They are known to have a great many clear, easy to recognize features. They have a very small number of chromosomes only 8 (man has 48 and the crayfish has 200). Most important of all, these flies breed very rapidly. It takes Drosophila only 12 days from the time an egg is laid to grow into mature fly ready to lay eggs in its turn. And under the right conditions, a single fly may lay over a thousand eggs.
Drosophila, trees, bacteria, molds, man and every other living thing —all have genes which pass along from parents to offspring generation after generation. What we learn about genes in one living thing tells us a lot about genes in all living things. In 1933, twenty-three years after the first white-eyed fly appeared in the milk bottle, professor Morgan was awarded the Nobel Prize in medicine for his part in showing- how characteristics pass from one generation to another.
A few mutations are very striking and most mutations have little influence on development. Their results are so tiny that we never notice them. Occasionally, however, a mutation may have an important effect because it occurs under just the right set of circumstances.
Mutations occur rarely, but over the years they begin to pile up. Remember that in evolution we deal with many thousands even millions of years. After a million years, offsprings begin to have quite a few genes that are different from their ancestors.
But what causes mutations? Unfortunately scientists still know very little about what actually does make genes mutate. We do know that mutations can pile up in any direction. By X-rays or other treatments, scientists have made mutations take place much more often than,4hey do naturally. So'far, they have not been able to control the direction in which mutations take place. But even this may become possible before long. By treating such things as bread, mold and bacteria with certain chemicals scientists are known to make them mutate in direct way. The possibility of directing mutations in more complicated plants and animals will certainly. increase as we learn more
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 about the gene’s chemistry and understand better what causes mutations in nature.
"Biology and Human Progress" by L. Eis man and Ch. Tanzer.
Notes to the text:	*
for his part — с его стороны hard —твердый, упорно hardly — едва	"
so far — пока before long — скоро '	,
under just the right set of circumstances — при удачном стечении обстоятельств
to stand up to all kinds of treatment — выдержать все виды обработки
to deal with — иметь дело
Translate the following words bearing in mind the meaning of the affixes and memorize them:
fame ((n), famous (adj) to arrange (v), arrangement (n) to recognize (v), recognition (n) to parent (v), parentage (n), parental (adj) to generate (v), generation (n), generator (n), generative (adj)
to affect (v), affection (n)
internal (adj), external (adj), externally (adv) to influence (v), influence (n), influential (adj) rapid (adj), rapidly (adv), rapidity (n)
occasion (n), to occasion (v); occasional (adj), occasionally (adv)
to effect (v), effect (n), effective (adj)
EXERCISES
I.	Pead the following words, and guess their meaningmutation [mjw'teijan], characteristics [,kaerakta'ristiks], prize ['praiz] ( directive [di'rektiv], drosophila [dra'zsfila , banana jba'ncuna], organ ('o-rgan], colleagues [’kolfcgzj, 86
genes [d3i:nz], control [kan'troul], number [’плтЬа], result [ri’zxlt], effect [i'fekt], evolution [Jva'lwfanJ, million [’miljan], naturally ['naetjrali], bacteria [baek'tiaria], structure ['st^ktjaj, accompany [a'Ltmpani], resources [ri's3:siz], to locate [lou'keit], ordinary ['xdqri], occupant [’okjupant]
II.	State to what part of speech the following words • belong and translate them- into Russian. Give all the derivatives:
scientist, happiness, important, mutation, unusual, discover, affection, internal, organ, fame, arrangement, treat, occasionally, nature, existence, origin, generation '
III.	Find synonyms for the following words in the text:
to happen, a great many, right conditions, kind, occur, reason, the only, unusually, quickly, to see, to observe, circumstance
IV.	Form the singular of. the. following nouns:
histories, families, women, algae,' babies, children, geese, bacteria, data, oxen, nuclei, wives, flies, stimuli, shelves, classes, phenomena, lives
V.	Change the following sentences into the plural:
1. This theory is very interesting. 2. The child studies the structure of the leaf. 3. The fly breeds very rapidly.-
4. The boy examined the fly under, a microscope. 5. He treats this bacterium with a chemical. 6. The datum received by him is very interesting. 7. This doctor carries on his experiments on rabbits.
VI. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the infinitives:
a)	1. I want you to know that he is getting much better. 2. As he wanted her to be a biologist he made her en-
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ter the University. 3. We all know him to be an honest man. 4. We wanted him to bring back our books. 5. We expect him to come tomorrow. 6. It was clear she didn’t want me to know the truth. 7. We see the children play in the garden. 8. We supposed ail the details of the plan to have been explained to you long ago. 9. My friend wants me to go to the lecture with him. 10. The child felt his mot-. her take him by the hand. 11. We have heard him lecture many times. 12. I was sitting at my table when I heard something jump in through the wjndow. 13. Unfortunately everyone knew him to have done'it on purpose. 14. He believed plants to influence soil development. 15. He found the enzymes to have played an important part in the building of that complex substance from a simple one. 16. Some scientists believe a virus to be a possible cause of cancer.	•
b)	1. Some research workers of this laboratory are known to work at the same problem. 2. A man has been known to die in less than an hour after being bitten by a large cobra. 3. Substances are known to burn when they unite with the oxygen of the air. 4. He is supposed to be one of the greatest writers of our time. 5. He appeared to be quite another man. 6. This student is considered to have a good knowledge of mathematics. 7. Most of the bacteria recovered from marine bottom deposits prove to be ana-erobs. 8. Plant tissues are known to perish if deprived of light for a long period of time. 9. Before the revolution Michurin is known to have been surrounded by people who dfd not understand his ideas. 10. 1 happened to be present at this experiment.	,
c)	1. At present the only thing for you to do is to work systematically. 2. I took a taxi for her not to walk to the station. 3..It is my purpose in this paper to describe all the parts of this engine in detail for you to understand. what a complicated mechanism it is. 4. There are times when the soil is too cold or dry for root elongation to occur.
^VII. Translate the following sentences into Russian and analyse them:
1. We have to introduce scientific methods at all labo
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ratories. 2. Many laboratories are to be built next year. 3. They gave up their old methods of investigation since new ones were demonstrated to them. 4. His habit being to watch the experiments regularly- he got good results from them. 5. We know that the losses due to insects were enormdus. 6. Give me your plan and that of your friend. 7. Both animal and vegetative forms are closely 'linked with the conditions of their environment. 8. Bacteria can be expected to be found in any kind of food. 9. [n the study of plants it is necessary for us to begin with a single plant. 10. To know how a plant grows one should study the structure of the plants. 11. The vegetables to be stored should be as clean as possible..
VIII. Translate without a dictionary. Guess the meaning of unknown words from the context. Give the main idea of each paragraph:
a)	In general, genes are very stable. They replicate exactly and remain unchanged from one generation to another. They are capable of undergoing change, however, and these changes may result in modification of the gene’s action. The geneticist recognizes this change in action in the phenotype. Once a mutation has taken place, the altered form of the gene is copied exactly, and if the change occurred in a germ cell or in‘a cell which will finally give rise to germ cells, it may be inherited and become a part of the genetic make-up of the population. The frequency with which mutations appear depends to some extent on environmental conditions. The study of mutations and how they arise can lead to a clearer understanding of what genes are and how they function. For these v reasons it was indeed a great step forward when mutations in Drosophila were discovered.
b)	With a good microscope, we can see that in the nucleus of-every cell there are tiny particles that look like dots. These dots are made of a material called chromatin. The chromatin particles form threads. These are the threads that are usually to be found coiled and twisted inside , the nucleus. These threads of chromatin are called chromosomes and they contain genes.
There must be something In the chromatin that decides . what the offspring is going to look like. You know,, of
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course, that a person has many different traits or features. Whatever controls these traits must be packed into the microscopic nucleus. Scientists believe that there are tiny., structures in the chromatin that control all the different traits. These structures,, which are so small that they cannot be seen even under the microscope, are called genes.
Genes are extremely important. You have genes for all your body organs: for hair, skin and eye colour; for blood type and for intelligence. In fact, genes are responsible for almost all the features that make you look different from anybody else. A single gene may even change your whole life. In the nucleus of every cell of your body there are about 20 000 genes all together, these-genes do much to decide what you look like.
c)	Scientists thought it would be interesting to make account of these chromosomes in the cell. It was found soon that each particular kind of animal or plant has its own definite number of chromosomes. Even the shape of each chromosome remains the same in all the cells. And when the cell divides, each chromosome divides lengthwise also. It divides in a manner that every gene in that chromosome also splits in two. In this manner, every cell in the body has the same number of chromosomes and the same gene.
IX.	Give a written translation of the text using a dictionary:
Genetics
The subdivision of biological science that deals with the inheritance of the individual is known as genetics. The primary observation on which this branch of knowledge is based is that individuals resemble their parents, and also their more remote ancestors, to a greater or lesser extent.
Modern genetic theory has grown out the chromosome theory of inheritance and its corollary, the theory of the gene. It holds that the information that determines a character of an individual is carried as a unit of inheritance, or gene, in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA constitutes a portion of the chromosomes of all higher orga-. nisms and is present also in bacteria and most viruses.
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Genetic theory futher holds that genes are arranged in a linear order along the DNA molecule.
Each organism contains one complete set of genes, or a complete set of information in each cell.
The DNA molecule has the capacity to produce exact copies of itself, a process known as replication. The information carried by the DNA molecule from one generation to the next is expressed by its influence on protein synthesis. This accounts for the constancy of the characteristics inherited ~by 3- group of individuals descended from the same ancestor. However, changes can occur in the molecule. These are mutations, and individuals provide the variations upon which change and evolution depend.	*
X.	Texts for discussion:
What is intelligence?
a)	Although the question has n6t yet been settled many students of heredity believe that mental ability is an inherited trait. They base their claims on studies of certain families in which a high degree of intelligence appears repeatedly in the offspring. Other families have been studied that indicate that low intelligence may be inherited as well. It is.true, that identical twins seem, to have about the same level of mental ability* This is what we would expect if intelligence were controlled by genes, since identical twins have the same gene combinations. 1
Interesting studies have been made of identical twins who were separated after birth and raised in different homes. It was found that they sometimes showed greater differences in intelligence than would be expected if they had been raised in the same home. They also showed considerable differences in personality.
Scientists agree that you can do nothing to change your genes, but you can do a great deal to improve the traits controlled by your genes. Education and training will develop the mental traits that you have inherited. You can even improve your physical traits.
b)	Actually there is no precise definition for this trait of intelligence. To most of us it means the capacity, for learning or simply the ability to learn.
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We know some things about intelligence. We know there is extreme variation in mental capacity among human ^beings'. It ranges from idiocy at one extreme to genius at the other extreme, with most people having average or near average intelligence. From this we may conclude that multiple genes are involved. Also it seems from evidence accumulated that the extreme variations in intelligence among human beings are partly hereditary and partly environmental.
Education and training play an Important part in bringing out intellectual potentialities. Yet even among persons with similar training there a're great variations in general intelligence.
It has been observed that when children of the same family differ from each other in mental .capacity, they usually continue to differ despite the fact that they live in the same schoql. The important thing is for each one of us to apply ourselves and to get the. most out of our inherited potentialies. Very few of us do it.
Can we conclude that heredity sets certain limits as to the results that can be obtained from study.or training? Discuss the problem.
XL Translate the text into Russian and then back into' English; compare your version with the original:
In 19IQ the professor of Columbia University Thomas Hunt Morgan, working in his laboratory noticed in one of his bottles a fly with white eyes. All the other flies had red eyes. He continued his observations and noticed that the flies bred from his white-eyed fly had also white eyes. Professor and his co-workers studied 15 million flies, and made a new discovery that living things consist of genes which pass from one generation to another. Sometimes mutations may happen. Over many years mutations pile up-and after a long period of time the offspring begins to have quite new genes, that are different from their ancestors. r	•	'
XII. Reproduce the text in your own words:
Генетика начала свое развитие с работ Г. Менделя еще во второй половине XIX века. Однако только на ру-• 92
бежеХХ века, а именно в 1900 году, его работы получили / признание, и появилось новое направление в биологии — генетика. Дальнейшее развитие генетики обязано работам крупных ученых, как за рубежом, так и в нашей стране.
В 1927 г. Н. К- Кольцов поставил вопрос о молекулярной природе гена и развил матричную (matrix) теорию самоуправления хромосом. Эта работа положила начало молекулярной генетики. В 1953 г. Уотсон и Крик открыли физико-химическую организацию и генетическую сущность молекул ДНК, в которой записан* (to record) генетический код (information). Оказалось, что гены в живых’ организмах подвержены изменениям под влиянием внешних условий. Это положило начало новому направлению — экспериментальному мутогенезу. Используя мутацию животных и растений, стало возможным выводить, новые виды растений и животных.
В 1968 г. 'был впервые химически создан отдельный ген в лаборатории. В настоящее время ведутся работы по ферментативндму синтезу отдельных генов. Введение вновь синтезированных генов в чужие для них клетки положило начало, еще одному направлению в генетике— генетической инженерии:
Современная- генетика в настоящее время вплотную подошла к лечению наследственных заболеваний, и медицинская 'генетика приобретает все большее значение.
БМЭ, т. 6, стр. 30.
XIII. Compose short dialogues for the following imaginary situations:
1.	The cover-of the book ’’Genetics” is decorated with the picture of a Drosophila fly. Your friend from the physics.faculty asks you if there is any connection between this 41y and such a serious science. Can you give him your explanation?
2.	As a tourist you come to the USA. Among other places’ of interest at Columbia University you are shown the ”Fly Room”. Abk your guide to tell you about the room.
3.	You have read a book by Mendel, published at the
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beginning of the century. Compare the state of genetics at the turn of the century and at present.
4.	You are in love and intend to propose. Your friend thinks the heredity factor of the bride’s family should be taken into consideration. Should people who are planning to marry consider the heredity of their families? Discuss the question thoroughly.
liESSQN TWELVE
Grammar: Infinitive. Modal Verbs and Infinitive.
IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS
All varieties of crops have some desirable characteristics or they would not be used. Nevertheless, each of these' varieties is known to possess one or more undesirable traits which, if eliminated, would result in higher yields and better quality. The aim of the plant breeder is to develop superior varieties by eliminating the undesirable characteristics and combining the desirable ones in the same variety.
Plant improvement is based on the principles or laws of heredity which are included in the science known as genetics* Many of the principles and techniques used in plant breeding are complex and to understand them fully intensive study and training are required.
Selection is a simple, but important method of improving plants. As the name suggests this method consists of selecting the outstanding types and discarding those that are undesirable because of certain characteristics being possessed by them. For example, in small grains, plants resistant to lodging may be selected; and with alfalfa those capable of surviving in severe winters are to be retained. After a period of testing, during which plants агё selected for certain desired traits or characteristics, a superior strain may be developed. Improvement by selection cannot be accomplished, however, unless the variety from which the selections are being made possesses some plants containing the characteristics desired.
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Selection is not a new method of improving plants. Actually this process is as old as plants themselves. For many thousands of years, plants have been subjected to the stern and relentless forces of nature, and only the fittest is left entirely to nature, the process is extremely slow. Man cannot wait for nature alone to improve plants for him. By selecting superior plants, he is able to bring about improvements in a few years that would require thousands of years of time if left to nature alone.
Two procedures are commonly used when new varieties are developed by the process of selection. They are referred to as mass selection and individual selection.
. Mass selection consists of selecting a fairly large number of individual plants possessing the desired characteristics. The seed from such plants is then mixed and sown together, and the better individuals are again selected or the poorer ones discarded. This process of selection is to be repeated for a few years until the plants prove to be reasonably uniform for the qualities desired.
Individual plant selection is commonly referred to as pedigree or pure-line selection. When this method is used, individual plants are selected that are superior for certain characters but instead of mixing the seed as in mass selection, the seed from each head or individual is planted in a row of its own in such a manner as to'keep the progeny of each parent separate. The progeny of each plant are then carefully observed, a record being made of their appearance and performance. Comparisons between the different progenies are made, those with undesirable characters being discarded.
Records of performance are carefully checked and compared each year with those of standard varieties which are also grown under the same conditions. If after a testing for a number of years, the strain proves to be superior to the standard varieties, it is then grown in larger plots to increase the supply of seed.
A period of several years may be required for sufficient seed to be obtained for general distribution to farmers. As a rule, 8 to 14 years are usually required for making the selection, testing it and increasing it to the point where the new variety can be released to farmers.
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Notes to the text:
as the name suggests — как указывает само название whichever is most convenient — что является наиболее удобным
in a row of its own — на своем ряду
...that are superior for certain characteristics.— которые являются лучшими в отношении определенных качеств he used to work — он имел обыкновение работать
Translate the following words bearing in mind the meaning of the affixes and memorize them:
to use (v), useless, (adj), useful (adj), usefully (adv), uselessly (adv)
to possess (v), possessor (n), possession (n), possessive (adj)
to improve (v), improvement (n), improvable (adj) • to adapt (v), adaptation (n), adaptability (n), adaptable (adj)
to perform (v), performer (n), performance (n)
to distribute (v), distributor (n), distribution (n)
to refer (v), reference (n)
to inherite (v), inheritance (n), inheritor (n), inheritable (adj)
to desire (v), desire (n), desirability (n), desirable (adj) to correct (v), corrector (n), correction (n), corrective (adj)
to situate (v)/situation (n)
EXERCISES
I.	Read the following, words and guess their meaning:
hybridization ['haibridafzeijn], intensive (in'tensivl, characteristics [^kaerikt^'ristiks], combine [kam'bain], complex ['kampleks], principles ['prinsaplz], technique-(tek'niikj, process [’prouses], selection (si’lekjn), standard ['staendad], situation [.sitju’eij’an], extremely [iks'tri:-mli], individual [indi'vidjual], mixer ('miksa], manner [’maena], period [’piariad], general ['dsenaral], superman ['sjwpamaen]
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II.	Give alt the derivatives of the following words:
to cover, to explore, to direct, to adapt, to situate, to act, to mix, to desire, to use, to vary, to select, to refer, to consist, to repeat, to plant, to separate ’
III.	Find synonyms for fhe following words in the text:
 to wish, to have, different, to give, task, better, to combine, well-known, to fit, right, experiment, base, to use, together with, possibility, on condition
IV.	Compare the following words and expressions and translate them:
1)	to mean, meariing, by means of, by no means, by all means;
2)	late, later, latter, letter, last, at last;
3)	some, same, for the same reason, for some reason;
4)	because, because of;
5)	due, due to.
V. Head and translate the following sentences bearing in mind the various meanings of the words_in bold type:
a)	I. This book is for you. 2. I worked for two hours. 3. The shoot cannot grow for it is too feeble. 4. Air is necessary for chemical changes in the seed. 5. The seed will not germinate for a long time, for the temperature of the soil is too low for it. 6. Ten years have passed since I saw you. 7. I will do it since you desire. 8. Since he had no data he couldn’t make his report. 9. This plant needs heat too. 10. It is too cold here. 11. We must work at this problem too. 12. The lecturer came in due time. 13. His mistakes are due to many reasons. 14. According to their use field crops, are divided into four groups.
b)	1. If you apply these minerals to the soil, you will get some result. 2. Our lectures last for two hours. 3. At last our experimental work is ready. 4. Last month we worked on a state farm and returned late in the autumn. 5. He was late for the same reason as I was. 6. As to the stem and the leaves, it may be said that physiologically,
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the part which the latter play is much more important than that of the former. 7. I gave my friend a letter of introduction to my professor, the latter being a visitor in our institute. 8. He came later because he was busy. 9. I couldn’t come in time because of my lecture. 10. -The yield of crops varies greatly because of the structure of the soil.
VI. Read and translate the following sentences into Russian, paying attention to the word combinations with ”as”:
1. As the climate was very cold the expedition was provided with warm clothes. It was supplied with good food as well. 2. This grain is as good as that one. 3. Water as well as air are important factors for growing plants. 4. Everybody should study foreign languages so as to be able to read scientific literature. 5. As soon as the experiment is done, we shall see the results. 6. These plants as well as those grow slowly. 7. As for the conditions of the soil we shall speak about it tomorrow. 8. As the time went on, we became more convinced the experiment will give good results. 9. As to the water requirements of this crop, it will grow rather well in dry areas. 10. The conditions required by this new crop have not been as yet studied enough. 11. As long as we are students we shall attend lessons. 12. As for your report, we shall speak about it tomorrow. 13. As for me, I do not believe this story.
♦
VII. Translate into Russian, paying attention to the meaning of the word "use", "that", "those":
a)	1. We used these machines last year. 2. We are used to them. 3. We used to work here. 4. .Our farm used several methods in planting this crbp. 5. When a schoolboy he used to go to the village every summer. 6. He has. used new tools in his work. 7. The workers are now used to those tools. 8. They used to think no automation was possible in their work.
b)	1. These plants usually grow more vigorously than those of your region. 2. The significance of Pasteur’s work is much greater than that of Koch. 3. I know that
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you have transplanted these trees. 4. I gave you that plant so that you might improve it. 5. Give me your book and that of your brother’s. 6. These plants usually grow more vigorously than those sown in your region. 7. The problem of water supply is as important as that of lighting.
VIII.	Translate the following sentences into Russian:
1.	We know the most prominent function of blood to be carrying oxygen to the tissue. 2. Of the gases present in the air only a few are considered to be of physiological importance. 3. Different organs and tissues of the body appear to possess varying immunity. 4. After the establishment of the Soviet Power Michurin is known to have had all the opportunities for his research work 5. To prevent infectious diseases the Soviet microbiologists use all their knowledge and strength. 6. The data to be obtained as a result of their research work are of great importance. 7. Chemical analysis shows living material to contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. 8. As knowledge of vitamins increased the diseases caused by the lack of them ceased to be a serious medical problem.
IX.	Translate the following sentences into Russian: (modal verbs+infinitive)
a)	1. Some mistakes must have been made in choosing the method of investigation. 2. Chalk is made of the shells of little animals. They must have been tiny things for you can only see the shells with a very strong glass. 3. The process of decay of some plants must have been very gradual and constant. 4. More might have been said about how some of the important advances in biochemistry have been made. 5. The discussion of the previous section must have made it clear that in order to understand the problem of life in general, we must look for the solution in the structure and properties of the living cells. 6. There is actually no reason why this experiment could not have been performed by his assistant. 7. What seems easy to us now might not have been so some years ago.
b)	1. You must read this story. 2. You must have read this story. 3. The students must finish this work by
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5o’clock. Some of them must have finished it already. 4. You must have been asked,to hurry with your reports.
5.	They could have asked for more information about them when they spoke with the director of the plant. 6. You must meet your friend at the station. 7. You must have met your friend at the station. 8. You might have met youi>friend at the station.
X; Translate into English (Revision of the grammar material):
a)	1. The history of classification of animals is believed to have started with Linneus. 2. D. I. Mendeleev, a famous Russian chemist, was thejirst to discover the law of dependence of the properties of elements upon their atomic weights. 3. The problem to be solved at this stage is an entirely difficult one. 4. Deepsea bacteria have proved to be even more sensitive to heat than those from shallow waters. 5. Many proposals for changing the traditional methods of storing and searching for information have been made in the last decade, and some of these have already proved to be of considerable practical value. 6. D. I. Mendeleev found the properties of the elements to repeat themselves after a definite number of steps. 7. The traditional approach to this problem is to consider each new process as a new problem. 8. Electron microscopes are likely to be wider used' than compound ones. 9. The approach to this problem was supposed to be wrong.
b)	1. Sound is known to travel in water at the speed of about a mile a second, the exact speed depending upon the temperature of water. 2. Being only a few years old bionics has already great significance in biology. 3. To establish the relationships of these groups two things must be taken into consideration. 4. The temperature was too low for germination to begin. 5. Robert Hooke found thin slices of cork to be made up of little boxes which he called cells. 6. Specificity of enzymes action is thought to be related to the properties of the enzyme protein. 7. For the entire seed to swell, moisture should be transferred to the embryo and endosperm. 8. The causes of cancer in human beings are not known, but certain specific factors are known to be related to the development of the condi-100
tion. 9. In many instances the sex patterns of plants appear to be influenced more readily by environmental factors than does that of animals. 10. Enzymes are very sensitive to acids and might be expected to start reverse activities when changes in acidity occur. 11. Not all of water present in soil is capable of being drawn by the root of plants.
c)	(.This soil is said to be in good structural condition. 2. His habit being to water fruit trees regularly, he got good results. 3. Your success depends on your working well. 4. Your being late is inexcusable. 5. Your friends having been late is inexcusable too. 6. To do this we must know the composition of plants. 7. The data to be obtained as a result of their research work are of great importance. 8. Not a single one of these substances being effective, they applied some new ones to control this method. 9. To succeed in your work you have to work better. 10. We have created all the necessary conditions for this experiment to be continued. 11. We have to introduce scientific farming methods. 12. The conditions must have been too moist for this plant to develop well.
XI.	Translate the text with a dictionary:
I.	V. Michurin is known to be a famous selectionist and practical gardener in our country. His scientific legacy is immense. ”We cannot wait for favours from na-. ture. We must wrest them from her”— he used to say. Boldly remaking nature in the interest of man, Michurin evolved more than 300 new varieties of fruits and berries, flowers and decorative plants. Having moved southern plants far to the North he bred new varieties of fruits. For example, Michurin remade the warmth-loving grape, adapting it to the conditions of Leningrad and Kirov, the Moscow area, and many other central and northern regions, where it produces good yields. His efforts made possible fruit cultivation on a large scale in northerly areas and Siberia.
Problems of hybridization held an important place in his researches. Studying the complex biological phenomena manifested in hybridization Michurin developed new methods, not known before him either in biological science or in the practical work of plant or animal breeders.
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Of special significance for biology is Michurin’s teaching about the mentor. Its substance consists of the following: if a young plant is to be grafted on an older one, it will acquire the properties of the mentor. The mentor method employed by him helped to breed new remarkable varieties of apples and many other valuable fruits.
The subjugating of the forces of nature to the will of man was the idea to which I. V. Michurin dedicated his entire life. This idea lives and triumphs in the deeds of the millions of scientists, and had become the foundation of agriculture in our country.
XII.	Translate the text without a dictionary:
• Man has been engaged in breeding and selecting plants and animals for thousands of years. During that time he has been able to develop a great many varieties.
Breeders are always anxious to increase production. They try to get more and better varieties of berries from each bush, more milk per cow, and more eggs per chicken. In many cases, the breeder has found it possible to develop new varieties that resist high or low temperature and diseases.
They use -three chief methods in the effort to increase quality and production. These are selection, crossbreading and the use of mutations.
The breeder tries most of all to understand the heredity of the animals and plants with which he works. He carries out many experiments to learn about the genes and how they are inherited. Then he tries to get a combination of genes that will give him the qualities he desires. Such experiments may be long, difficult and costly.
XI11.	Listen to the recording of the text and reproduce it:
Michurin is well-khown in the history of breeders. As a boy, he became interested in plants and his ability to recognize valuable traits soon became evident. He applied his marvelous powers of observation in developing new types of plants. He could detect traits that were not easily seen by others, and his great patience made it possible for him to carry on experiments that lasted for many years.
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He often combined the traits of two different plants to make a new yariety. He spent many hours carefully transferring pollen from one plant to the pistils of another. In this way he crossed a plum and an apricot to produce a new fruit.
XIV.	Translate the text in writing with a dictionary paying attention to infinitive constructions (you are given 30 min.)
a)	The units of living matter cover a wide range of sizes. A few sorts of cells are large enough to be seen by the unaided eye; to be seen, they must be at least 0.1 millimeters, or 100 microns, in one dimension. Many animal eggs, which are single cells, are this large. Among the few plant cells which are this large are the cells in the fleshy portion of the watermelon. Most cells are smaller than this and are said to be microscppic in size; that is, within, the range of an ordinary light microscope. Below this range is another into which fall the viruses. Particles of known viruses generally occupy the size range 100 to 1 000 A or 10 to 100 millimicrons. Thus, viruses are individually invisible in the light microscope and are said to be submicroscopic, although they can be visualized with the electron microscope. Within this same size range fall several aggregations of molecules which make up the structural components of many types of cells. Between the viruses which have not been demonstrated to have cellular organization, and the bacteria, which have been demonstrated to have a characteristic type of cellular organization, falls a group of organisms known as the Rickettsias. The Rickettsias pre considered by some investigators to be cellular; by others to be noncellular and perhaps similar to the viruses.
b)	The chemical analysis of plants is to show what the plant contains, what food it requires; the chemical analysis of the soil is to show what the tatter lacks; a comparison of the results of the first analysis with those of the second will give an answer as to how soil fertility is to be raised.
The result of this analysis cannot be considered complete unless it is concluded by a summarized synthesis. Besides, both the physical and the chemical analysis of.the
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soil are needed. But neither the one nor the other taken separately, nor both together, can solve the problem of soil fertility, still less the problem of the development of fertility, of the development of soils. This evolution can be understood only if we study soil as a developing integral whole governed by the activity of plant and animal organisms. We cannot imagine either the origin or the for; mation of soil without the direct participation of plants? Plant physiology is the principal basis of all the conclusions of agricultural science. If the soils of today are to be cleared of plants for a number of years it will rapidly lose its fertility and become barreh dust.
XV.	Translate the following letter into Russian and write a letter of congratulation to one of your friends:
For his outstanding fifty years of highly valuable work in the cultivation of new, improved varieties of fruit and berry plants Michurin was awarded the order of the Red Banner and a public celebration was held in Kozlov to mark his fiftieth anniversary. He got a lot of telegrams and letters. Here is one of them:
My dear Ivan Vladimirovich,
It was to my great regret that I could not personally convey to you my feelings of profound respect and esteem.
Allow me then, at least in writing, to congratulate you most sincerely and share with you the joy at the results of your half century of work.
It is not for me to stress what a valuable contribution those results have been to the store of our knowledge and practical work in agriculture. The further our Unionzdeve-lops and strengthens, the clearer and greater will be the importance acquired by your achievements in the entire system of the national economic life of the Union.
A better future for the toiling people depends not only on a suitable state structure, but on commenstirate scientific achievements as well. I have no doubt whatever that the working people will appreciate your work of fifty years that has been so tremendously useful to the nation.
I wish you most cordially futher successes in- maste
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ring the forces of nature and in making them serve man to a still greater extent.
Very respectfully yours.
M. Kalinin.
The Kremlin, October 30, 1925.
XVI.	Reproduce in your own words:
а)	Задачей селекции является создание высокопродуктивных и однородных по наследственным свойствам организмов. Селекция — это практические приемы и методы выведения новых и улучшение существующих сортов растений и животных. Теоретической основой селекции является генетика. Получение селекционных сортов основано на двух свойствах, присущих всем живым организмам,— на изменчивости и наследственности.
Процесс выведения новых сортов подразделяется на следующий стадии: 1) изучение исходного материала, 2) выделение из этого материала выдающихся форм, 3) всестороннее сравнительное изучение выдающихся форм, 4) районирование сортов, т. е. определение районов, для которых тот или иной сорт оказывается наилучшим.
В тех случаях, когда методом отбора нельзя получить сорта с комплексом необходимых хозяйственных свойств, примейяют метод гибридизации разных сортов или даже разных видов растений, у которых нужные свойства имеются порознь. При скрещивании различных сортов в пределах видов Получают плодовитые гибриды. Среди них на основе закрна независимого комбинирования наследственных факторов (генов) могут возникнуть новые сочетания, которые и выделяются в последующих поколениях.
Большая заслуга в разработке методов селекции плодово-ягодных культур принадлежит И. В. Мичурину. И. В. Мичурин всю жизнь занимался практическим садоводством и работал над выращиванием разных видов растений и выведением новых сортов фруктов и цветов. Комбинируя теплолюбивые фрукты с зимостойкими сортам#, он получал качественно новые сорта. Он разрабо
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тал методы скрещивания растений и показал, что изменение законов природы находится во власти человека.
Советское правительство высоко оценило работы И. В. Мичурина. Он был награжден орденом Ленина за то, что создал более 300 новых сортов растений, ягод, цветов.
б)	После того, как я прибыла в Москву, меня доставили на самолете на Черное море, в Сочи, где мне предложили сделать прививку на Дереве Дружбы. Это цитрусовое дерево было посажено в 1936 году, а в 1940 году советский ученый Шмидт сделал на нем первую прививку другого вида цитрусовых. За его прививкой последовали многие другие. Их делали выдающиеся люди — представители ста двадцати шести различных национальностей. Сегодня на дереве зреют плоды итальянского лимона, американского грейпфрута, апельсина. Некоторые прививки были сделаны в память о знаменитых людях, таких, как Чарлз Дарвин, Луи Пастер, и к подножию дерева была доставлена земля с мест погребения Толстого, Чайковского, Пушкина и Махатмы Ганди. Я была счастлива сделать прививку на этом дереве доброй воли; она символизирует мою надежду на то, что работа, проделанная от имени Эльсы ради спасения диких животных, станет движением, сближающим народы во имя мира.
Лжой Адамсон, "Моя беспокойная жизнь”.
Советские читатели знакомы с Джой по ее книгам и рисункам, по ее деятельности в области охраны животных. Она была символом беззаветного служения благородной идее защиты бесценного богатства человечества — Природы.
XVII.	Questions to be discussed:
1.	What are the agents producing change in plant life? Write-a short report about it.
2.	What other Soviet biologists working at the plant physiology do you know? What are their names and what problems do they work at?
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XVIII.	Compose short dialogues for the following imaginary situations:
1.	Your brother knows that Michurin has developed many kinds of fruits. He asks you how he managed to do it. Tell him about Michurin’s work.
2.	A foreigner came to our country to study Michurin’s theory of mentor. Help him please.
3.	You have planted a lemon-tree at home. It has grown 20 cm. high but there are no fruits on it. Ask your botany professor what you have done wrong.
4.	A girl next door says both her friends and she like to work in the orchard, that they are ’’michurintsi”. Ask her what she means.
5.	You have come with a group of British and American biologists wishing to interview Michurin. Here he is in front of you. Ask him questions that are of interest to you. Don’t forget to introduce yourself.
6.	You are at a nursery choosing a fruit tree for your orchard. Ask a specialist for advice what plants would be most suitable, bearing in mind the climatic conditions. What particular varieties are most cold resistant?
7.	You are standing near the famous ’’friendship tree” in the subtropical fruit experimental station in Sochi. Fifty varieties of lemons, oranges and other citrus fruits grow on it. Almost all of them were grafted on to the tree by friends from abroad during visits to Sochi at different times. Discuss with your friend what you would graft on to this tree on behalf of Kazan University students.
XIX.	Read the text "Genetics and the Essence of Life” (p. 158—164) and be ready to give the main points of it.
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LESSON THIRTEEN
Grammar: Subjunctive Mood.
LOUIS PASTEUR
With the work of Louis
Pasteur, a Frenchman, and of
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Robert Koch, a German, the science of bacteriology attained its golden age. Pasteur laid the basis for our knowledge of infection, while Koch discovered the exact methods by which diseases are now studied. Pasteur’s imagination was greater and more far-ranging. Koch’s technique and laboratory skill have never been surpassed. The work of each complemented that of the other. In many cases, as in their study of anthrax, the cattle disease, each attacked the same problem without being fully aware of what the other was doing.
Pasteur’s origins were humble. He was born the son of a tanner in 1822, and became a professor of chemistry at Lille, the centre of a famous French wine-growing region. Here he proved the souring of wine and of milk, as well as the'rancidity of butter, was caused by the wrong kinds of microbes. His method of preventing this ’’sickness” — the heating process known as pasteurization — is used to the present day.
Could the sicknesses of animals and humans have causes similar to those of wine and milk? This was the next great question which Pasteur examined. He began with the lowly but important silkworm. The making of silk was another of France’s great industries, and the silkworms were dying of a mysterious disease. Again Pasteur proved that bacteria were responsible and showed the gro-’ wers how to avoid contagion. Then he went to a still more important discovery. He had grown the bacterium of chicken cholera in test tubes and by giving fresh culture to healthy chickens had caused them to sicken and die. But in one of his experiments he used an old culture and discovered that while the chickens sickened, they did not die. Later, when he gave these same chickens live cholera germs, they failed to catch the disease. Something in the weakened germs had made them immune.
Pasteur was to use this technique in preparing a vaccine which protected cattle against anthrax. Then, in a series of dramatic experiments, he used it on human beings to defeat the horrible disease known as hydrophobia or rabies. His first patient was a young boy who had been bitten by a mad dog. His name was Joseph Meister, a name which has become well-known.
"The Amazing World of Medicine” by H. Wright and S. Rapport.
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Translate the following words bearing In mind the meaning of the affixes and memorize them:
to attain (v), attainment (n), attainability (n), attainable (adj)
to sicken (v), sickness (n), sick (adj)
to complement (v), complement (n), complementary (adj) to imagine(v), image(n), imagination (n), imaginary (adj) to respond(v), response(n), responsibility(n), responsive (adj)
to grow(v), growth(n), grown-up(n), grower(n) to horrify(v), horror(n), Jiorrid(adj), horrible (adj) .
EXERCISES
I.	Read the following words and guess their meaning:
infection [in'fekjn], method [’meOad], to attack [a'taek], technique.[tek’ni:k], assembly [a'sembli], service ['sa;visj, prospect ['prospektj, absolutely ['aebsaludlij, reason [ri:zn], region ['rfedjan], pasteurization [,pa2stara.izeij (э)п|, industry [’indastri], mysterious [mis'tiarias], to test (test], culture [’kAltfa], experiment [iks'periment], immune [i’mjum], vaccine ['vaeksi(:)n], protection [pra'-tekfn], series ['siari:z), dramatic [dra’maetik], patient [’peijant], medicine f'medsin]
II.	Underline suffixes and prefixes in the following words. State to what parts of speech they belong and translate them:
complication, complementary, effective, unexpected, imaginative, assimilation, helpless, needful, external, naturally, powerful, hopeless, attainability, fruitful, replace, responsibility, to horrify
III.	Form the adjectives corresponding to the following nouns:
response, microscope, reproduction, biology, image, science, care, importance, attention, nature, intensity, origin, horror, sickness
(Q9
IV.	Form the nouns corresponding to the following verbs:
to discuss, to suggest, to explain, to possess, to approach, to interfere, to grow, to mutate, to treat, to develop, to arrange, to appear, to discover, to respond, to horrify, to sicken, to attain
V.	Form the verbs of the following words and translate them:
Magnification, difference, movement, investigation, activity, composition appearance, observation, suggestion, possession, mutation, perfection, lecture, government, responsible, failure
VI.	Translate the following words and arrange them into pairs of synonyms:
to attain, exact, sickness, quick, similar, to look for, horrible, entire, health, alike, to receive, illness, whole, strength, awful, cause, basic, horrible, to be in good health, usual, reason, ordinary, offspring, rapid, fundamental, to discover, to find out, to search
VII.	Translate into Russian:
а)	1. He suggested the question be discussed at the next meeting. 2. They propose that the work should begin at once. 3. The scientists propose that a special commission be set up to investigate the causes of this disease. 4. The professor demanded that the postgraduates be allowed to take part in this investigation. 5. It is desirable that all take part in the experiment. 6. They insisted that the question be included in the agenda. 7. It is necessary that all the students of our group should take part in this discussion. 8. It is very important that the root of the plant develop properly. 9. It is necessary to study the structure of this soil.
b)	1. It is important that he is here. 2. It is of first importance that the selected variety be adapted to the re-110
gion in which it is to be grown. 3. It is necessary that a preliminary reaction be essentially complete. 4. Roentgen suggested that thg rays characterized by great penetrating power should be called X-rays. 5. In order to determine whether a given compound is organic it is sufficient to heat it. 6. It is known that the meeting will be held at 9 p. m. 7. It was suggested that this equipment should be tested under very severe conditions. 8. It is the structure of the soil to be studied.
c)	1. It was in the year 1884 that Pasteur succeeded in vaccinating dogs so that they became immune to the disease after vaccination. 2. It was the success of new experiments that made Pasteur willing to risk his own life. 3. It is a measure of the greatness of Louis Pasteur that his work on fermentation gave Joseph Lister the clue which led him to the discovery of antiseptics. 4. It is with justification that Lister has been called the greatest surgeon who ever lived. 5. Although Leeuwenhoek was first to see bacteria as individual organisms, it was the great French chemist and biologist Louis Pasteur, who identified certain of them with specific activities.
VIII.	Read, translate and analyze the following sentences:
1. If you studied you would learn English quickly. 2. If I have time, I shall do this translation. 3. If my friend were at the conference he would hear many important reports on surgery. 4. Had I known that my friend was hospitalized I should have visited himz5. If you were here we should show you our experimental station. 6. We should have been able to distinguish these minute plants if we had had a microscope. 7. If we wanted to kriow the fundamentals of crop production, we should have to study crop ’botany. 8. If you interrupt me, I may forget what I was to say. 9. Had you told me about it before, I should hot have accepted an invitation. 10. If you are busy we may discuss our plans later. 11. If you were free we could do it now. 12. Had I been able to do it before I should have done so. 13. If I offered you my help, would you accept it? 14. If a.new laboratory was founded it could do a lot of useful work. 15. If we made a discovery our laboratory would be famous.
in
' IX. Read and translate the text without a dictionary:
Robert Koch ,
A German scientist Robert Koch proved that a human disease was caused by bacteria. Koch found rod-shaped bacteria in large numbers in the blood of animals suffering from a disease called anthrax. These bacteria had been seen before, but no one could prove them to be the cause of the infection. Most scientists of the time believed them to be in blood merely by accident. Koch grew these bacteria outside the body of the animal in pure unmixed form. He watched them grow under the microscope. Then he injected these bacteria into mice. The mice died of anthrax and in their blood were great numbers of the same bacteria. The bacteria could be grown outside the body of the mouse once again, and again they could cause anthrax. Thus Koch proved bacteria to be the cause of anthrax. After Koch's discovery was made public, scientists made careful studies of people suffering from infectious diseases. Soon other serious il nesses were proved to be caused by bacteria. Koch himse f discovered the bacteria that cause tuberculosis.
X. Read and translate the text without a dictionary:
Joseph Lister
A hundred years ago, about half the people who underwent surgical operations died. In some hospitals the percentage was much higher, approaching-90%. These people, for the most part, died as a result of infections following operations.
Joseph Lister, professor of surgery at tfie University of Glasgow, was much concerned about this condition. After reading of the work of Louis Pasteur, he wondered if the infection that killed people after surgery might not be a kind of fermentation caused by bacteria.
The next time he operated, he painted the wound with carbolic acid and soaked the instruments in the same substance. He also boiled the cloth he used for a-dressing. The man lived, what is more remarkable, there was no infection.
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Encduraged by this success, Lister made other changes in standard operating room procedures. Instead of washing Jiis hands after he operated he washed them before. He wore a clean linen apron instead of the dirty old coat covered with the blood and pus of previous operations, the uniform of the surgeon of that day. Instead of wearing his needle and’thread stuck in the lapel of his coat, he boiled them before using them. He sprayed the air with carbolic acid to kill the bacteria that Pasteur had found there.
. Listens results were unbelievable — most of his patients lived. The frightful infection known as "hospital gangrene" almost disappeared from his hospital. He had introduced to the world the technique of aseptic surgery, that is, surgery without bacteria. Thanks to the pioneering of Joseph Lister, infection following surgical operations is a rare thing today.
XL Read and translate the text with a dictionary in writing: (You are given 30 nun.)
Mechnikov
One couldn’t expect to keep all deadly micro-organisms away from human beings at all times, sooner or later, exposure to disease was certain. What then?
The body had ways of fighting micro-organisms, since it could recover from infections spontaneously. In 1884 the Russian biologist Ilya Mechnikov (1845—1916), found a dramatic example of such "counter bacteria I warfare”. He was able to show that the white corpuscles of the blood, equipped with the capacity to leave the blood vessels if necessary, flocked to the site of infections or bacterial invasion. What followed was very much like a battle bptween bacteria and white corpuscles, with the latter not necessarily always winning, but winning often enough to do a great deal of good.
Yet there had to be more subtle antibacterial weapons, too, since in case of many diseases, recovery from one attack meant immunity thereafter, although no visible changes in the body could be found. A logical explanation for this was that the body had developed some molecule (an antibody) which could be- used to kill an invading
8	Б-614
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micro-organism or neutralize its effect. This would explain the effect of vaccination, since the body might have developed an antibody against the cowpox micro-organism and found it usable against the very similar smallpox micro-organism.
XII.	Reproduce in your own words:
Микробиология — наука о мельчайших^ невидимых невооруженным глазом живых существах — микробах. Эта наука изучает внешнюю и внутреннюю организацию микроорганизмов, проявления их жизнедеятельности, систематику, изменчивость, наследственность .и экологию микробов. Термин „микроб” был предложен в 1878 г. Сидийо (Ch. Е. Sedillot) для обозначения всех невидимых простым глазом живых существ. Название „микробиология” впервые применено Дюкло [Е. Р. Duclaux) и теперь является общепринятым.
Мир микроорганизмов весьма обширен и разнообразен. В его состав входят одноклеточные (unicellular) и некоторые многоклеточные (multicellular), а также микробы неклеточной природы — риккетсии (Rickettsias) и вирусы. Эти различные группы микроорганизмов составляют объект изучения соответствующих разделов микробиологии, которые в процессе исторического развития дифференцировались в самостоятельные дисциплины, а именно: бактериология, микология, вирусология и протистология. Микробиология как отрасль биологических знаний объединяет эти дисциплины, создавая цельное представление о мире микроорганизмов.
Основоположниками микробиологии в России являются И. И. Мечников и С. Н. Виноградский. Идеи этих великих ученых надолго определили направление развития отечественной микробиологии. За последние годы наблюдается новый расцвет микробиологии, причина которого состоит в том, что в микробиологии стали применять новые, точные методы исследования, разработанные физикой, химией, биологией. Знания о морфологии клетки, структуре вирусов значительно расширились благодаря применению электронного микроскопа, использованию современных методов органической, физической и биологической химии.
БМЭ, т. 18, стр. 354.
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XIII.	Compose short dialogues for the following imaginary situations:
I.	Before L. Pasteur dared to use his preventive treatment on little Meister he consulted Vulpian (a member of "Rabies Commission”) and Dr. Grancher, a bacteriologist. On examining the little patient Vulpian and Grancher concluded that urgent actions were necessary. Imagine the kind of conversation Pasteur, Vulpian and Grancher might have had.
2.	You are Meister. Write a short letter to your father, telling him how "Monsieur Pasteur” has cured you.
3.	Next month a conference on the occasion of L. Pasteur’s birthday will take place. You are invited to speak there. Discuss with your friends the plan of your report.
4.	Your sister likes fresh (unboiled) milk. Persuade her to boil it before drinking.
5.	You are a doctor. One day a woman calls at your clinic carrying a girl who has been bitten by a dog. What will you ask her mother about?
6.	You are a medical nurse at a school. Today you are to innoculate the I-st forms. Tell your little patients that there is nothing to be afraid of, soothe them. Explain the necessity of their being innoculated.
7.	Your friend believes Robert Koch to be the founder of the germ theory. Tell him he is wrong and give a short-account of the history of microbiology.
XIV.	Read the text „Louis Pasteur” (p. 164—170), and be ready to give the main points of it.
LESSON FOURTEEN
Grammar: Subjunctive Mood. Conditional Sentences.
AIR POLLUTION
In recent years there has been great interest in the environment and many "new” words have become part
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of our vocabulary, words such as ecology, environment, photochemical smog and greenhouse effect. Simultaneously we have been made aware of environmental problems caused by the high technology created to achieve the material comforts we demand. Among these problems are the effects of air pollution. Air pollution causes increased respiratory illness in the old and young, decreases visibility, damages plants and animals and has possibly catastrophic effects on a global scale.
Air pollution has long been known to have an adverse effect on plants. If we first examine the physiology of the leaf, we can appreciate some of the reasons why damage occurs. The leaf veins function much as the blood vessels do in animals, acting as the transport system for water, minerals and food. The leaf tissue is in layers within a skin or epidermis layer on top and bottom and the'photosynthesis cells in between. The stomata are entrances in the leaf bottom through which CO2 enters to take part in the photosynthesis process. These openings are protected by two guard cells which open and close to allow gases to enter or leave the leaf. Such gases can, of course, also include pollutants.
Most of our air pollution comes from combustion of fuels to produce heat and work. The very rapidly accelerating use of such fuels has greatly increased air pollution and the problem of air pollution has become the very urgent problem of our time. Initiatives to clear up one situation may in fact worsen it or create another, that’s why the solution of this problem must have come from a cooperative efforts between, all nations and between all specialists, i. e. biologists^ technologists and nontechnologists.
"Biology ' a Basic Science" by E. D. Heiss.
Translate the following words bearing in mind the meaning of the affixes and memorize them:
to accelerate (v), accelerator (n), acceleration (n) adverse(adj), adversary(n), adversity(n) to effect (v), effect (n), effective (adj) to pollute(v), pollution(n)
respiration (n), respirator (n), respiratory (adj)
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to protect(v), protector (n), protection (n), protections-lism(n)
to environ(v), environment(n), environs(n)
to create (v), creator(n), creation (n), creature (n), creative (adj)
EXERCISES
I.	Read the following words and guess their meaning:
ecology [i'kolad3i], effect [i'fekt], technology [tek’noladsi], comfort pkAmfat], respiratory [ris’paiara-t(o)ri], veins [veinz], visibility [„vizi'biliti], catastrophe [ka'taestrafi], canal {ka'nael], global pgloubal], atmosphere paetmasfia], function pfAnkfn]; epidermis [,epi'da:mis], metre pmfcta], to produce [pra'djws],' protection [pra'-tekjn], reservoir {'rezevwcu],. attack [a'taek], irrigation [Jri'geifn], navigation [.naevi'geij'n], tourist ptuarist], migration [mai'greijn], collection [ka'lekjh], balance [ 'baelans], population Ppapju'leijn J, to conserve [kan'§a:v], delicate pdelikit]
II.	Find the root of the following words:
growth, continuation, practical, effective, variable, appreciable, favourable, adversity, respiration, responsible, horrible, manifestation, adoption, recognizable, environment, acceleration
111.	Arrange the following in pairs of synonyms:
to convert, to preserve, aim, appreciation, leasure time, simultaneously, top, urgent, combustion, to act, high, important, burning, reason, contaminants, injury, pollutants, damage, free time, cause, adverse, opposite, reverse, to appreciate, at the same time, to estimate, to evaluate, to function, to turn into, to transform, to conserve, purpo-
' se, estimation
IV.	Give the Russian equivalents for the following: -	V
to be aware of, to conceive the idea of, to take notice
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of, to put ideas into practice, the former — the latter, according to, due to, because of, to do one’s best, in spite of, no matter, by means of
V.	Translate the following sentences into Russian paying attention to the words in bold type:
1.	I would like to point out this fact again.
2.	The root system of this plant is like that of corn and oats, that is a fibrous one.
3.	We like the lectures on botany delivered by our professor.
4.	It is unlikely that application of this fertilizer will bring good effect on soils.
5.	His research is likely to be of considerable value.
6.	They are all alike in this respect.
7.	No catalyst is known to influence this reaction.
8.	No organic compounds are completely resistant to decomposition.
9.	If they were, there would be a much larger accumulation of organic matter than is found in soils.
10.	There is.no growth below the freezing point.
11.	After this discovery had been made there developed a new branch of science.
12.	There seems to be no difference between the two methods applied.
13.	The vitamin content of different varieties of vegetables differs greatly, there being high and low vitamin varieties.
VI. Translate the following conditional sentences.
a)	1. Many of the wild flowers growing on the forest floor in midsummer would die, if exposed out in the open to direct sunlight. 2. If you boiled the air out of water and then put a goldfish in the water, it would die. 3. Had I known about these facts before, I should have called your attention to them long ago. 4. If these facts had not been neglected the discovery, would have been made long ago. 5. Were it possible,I would do it. 6. If the importance of this work had been recognized before, far more progress would have been made. 7. If Michurin had used only the
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method of artificial selection, he would not have fulfilled his gigantic task.
b)	1. You must ask your fellow students if they know the day of the next examination. 2. She asked me if my work would depend upon the results of our expedition. 3. If we use these instruments,we shall save a lot of time. 4. I asked him if he will be able to come in time. 5. If you can prove that your project will save us considerable time, we shall accept it.
c)	1. If you could bring all the equipment here, it would save time. 2. I do not know if we shall save much time by asking someone to help us with our work. 3. The work will be done in an hour if you help me. 4. I was asked if I knew the shortest way. 5. If I knew, I would say so. 6. I do not know if the road is good enough. 7. We must ask if there is a road near here. 8. We might go faster if the road were in a better condition.
VII. Analyze and translate the following sentences containing subjunctive mood:
1. It is impossible that he should not come. 2. I suggest that he should write a letter at once. 3. I wish he were here with us. 4. Close the window lest you should catch cold. 5. She looked me over from head to foot as if I were a stranger. 6. He ordered that I should be well taken care of. 7. It is unbelievable that he should have done such a thing. 8. The instruments were packed carefully lest they should be broken during transportation. 9. If I were you, I should go there immediately. 10. While experimenting with inflammable substances one must take care lest the temperature should rise too high. 11. Mendeleyev found it necessary to alter some atomic weights so that the elements should fall into positions in the periodic table assigned to them by their chemical properties. 12. He telegraphed me suggesting that an effort be made to finish this experiment. 13. It is essential that he know this law. 14. It is better to write it down lest you forget it. 15. If it Were my own book, I should give it to you.
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; VIII. Read and translate the texts and give the main points of them:
a)	To get rid of reeds and other ’’enemy” water-plants in waterways has been a problem since ancient times. Water-plants interfere with the circulation, of water in reservoirs and in irrigation systems, they interfere with navigation in canals and rivers. Hydroelectric powerplants lose many kilowatt-hours of electricity due to the growth of plants in the water supply systems. This ’’enemy” has been attacked in many ways, but as a rule, the means used have been complicated, expensive and not very effective.
A solution has now been found in an unexpected source. A fish called ’’White Amour” was brought from the Far East to other parts of the Soviet Union, where it is not-usually found. This fish can grow to a metre in length, and can weigh more than thirty kilograms. Its food is water-pjants, and every day the White Amour eats as many kilograms of water-plants as the weight of its own body, kilogram for kilogram. One year after the White Amour was put into the water supply system of Moscow power-plant, the fish had eaten so many of the ’’enemy” water-plants that the water supply became normal again. Besides being „working fish” the White Amour is a very tasty fish. When it has grown large on the plants in a water system it can be caught and eaten. White Amour are now used to get rid of water plants in irrigation canals in Central Asia. Scientists are now trying to find other fish that can be used for the same purpose.
b)	One early spring day a man stood on the shore of a small lake near Kingsville, Ontario, not far from the city of Detroit, Michigan. Suddenly hundreds of wild geese in graceful formation approached from the south. When they reached the lake, they dropped swiftly downward and alighted upon the water before him. Every year they stopped because they knew that the lake would afford a haven of safety and rest.
Jack Miner was a brick manufacturer. Year after year he observed birds alighting on pond in his brickyard and noted their need of food and protection. Finally in 1904 he conceived the idea of building a bird sanctuary and converted the pond into lake. Then he clipped the wings of 120
two wild geese and scattered corn about for food. The two geese and the corn attracted other geese.
The first spring eleven geese came. The second year the number increased to thirty-three, and the third year to three hundred. Today geese come by thousands.
Besides geese, many other kinds of birds visit the sanctuary, some having changed their original routes of migration to include it in their route. These birds come year after year because they find food and protection. The sanctuary, now known as the Miner Bird Sanctuary, is supported by the Canadian government. It includes a number of lakes and is one of the greatest sanctuaries in the world. Each year it attracts numerous tourists, sometimes as many as ten or fifteen thousand a day.
IX.	Translate the text without a dictionary. Suggest a suitable title for it and give the main points of the text in writing:
Through the years some interesting relationships among organisms have developed. Some of these relationships are so definite that the organisms concerned can live in no other way and when one dies, the other dies also. In other cases, the relationships are more flexible.
The sum total of all these interrelations of living things is called the balance of life, or balance of nature. This balance can be upset by changing the environment or by changing the population of living things in the environment. In any event, a new balance is soon established.
Man has been more active in upsetting the balance of nature than any other factor.
We know today that the thoughtless destruction of wild life may result in a serious upset in the balance of nature. Every plant and animal influences the lives of many other living things in the same area. They live in a delicate state of balance with one another. It is unwise to disturb this balance without giving thought to the results.
The preservation of wildlife is a duty of every citizen. If you catch a fish that is below the legal length, you should wet your hands, carefully remove the hook and put the fish back into the water. Never take more than your legal limit. Observe the laws passed to protect rare wild flowers, since they rapidly wither and lose their “beauty. Leave them as they are for others to enjoy.
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X.	Texts for discussion:
a) The chief reason why our wild creatures have disappeared is the destruction of their homes. When we cut down forests we force many birds and other animals to leave the area or die. The draining of marshes, removes the nesting places of millions of ducks and other water birds. When cities dump their sewage into streams, rivers, they often make life impossible for the fish that once swam in the clear waters. If we wish to conserve our wildlife we must provide places where they can live as they did in the past. This is one of the chief aims of conservation-minded citizens.
The second cause of wildlife destruction is uncontrolled hunting and fishing by man. (Today, because of education and protective laws, hunting and fishing are not as serious and dangerous as they were in former years).
Among the first efforts to stop the destruction of wild life were the laws passed to control hunting. Closed seasons were established during which the birds could not be hunted. A closed season usually lasts from March to September, when the birds are nesting and the young are being cared for. During the open season the hunters are permitted to shoot a limited number of birds.
1.	When are the closed and open seasons in your district?
2.	What is the limit for hunting and fishing in your place? Discuss the problem.
b) Nowadays shorter working days and weeks are common. This provides people with more leisure time. Whether you go camping or on a hike or travel by car or train, you will always find the world of wild life interesting. Trees, flowers, birds and insects will take on new meaning for you. You will recognize more of them by name. Perhaps you like pictures or collect things. Taking pictures is a fascinating hobby. Pictures of flowers, birds and many other animals are among the most interesting you can get. Some people have the hobby of collecting, insects, flowers, leaves. If you choose a hobby in the field of nature you will be assured a lifetime of healthy fun and recreation.
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1.	What are some hobbies based upon biological knowledge? (fishing, collecting insects, raising pets, growing vegetables, photographing living things, making and keeping an aquarium, etc)
Try to add other hobbies of this kind to the list and discuss the problem.
/
XI.	Translate the text into Russian and then back into English; compare your version with the original:
We are trying to replace the homes of our vanishing wildlife refuges (sanctuaries) in suitable areas all over our country.
The USSR has 126 natural reservations, seven reservation hunting grounds and six national parks. They occupy 9.3 million hectares and scientific institutions make use of them to study the biosphere, the natural contacts and laws to protect nature and increase its wealth. Scientists and specialists have invented a number of instruments that would help them to observe the development of plants in different places so that they know which of them are most suitable for this or that animal.
XII.	Answer the following questions:
1.	What is environment?
2.	What is the balance of nature? Give examples to show what may happen when the balance of nature is upset.
3.	What are some things that you can do to help preserve our wildlife? What should be done to preserve our wild flowers?
4.	In what ways are the problems of conservation of soils, forests, and wildlife related to one another?
5.	Do you know what birds in our country have become extinct?
6.	Do you build birdhouses, feeding grounds near your house?
7.	Why are closed seasons usually established during the spring and summer months?
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XIII.	Using the information from all the texts of the lesson enlarge on:
Environmental protection is one of the major problems of the modern world.
XIV.	Reproduce in your own words:
Я не захотел бы жить в мире без птиц, лесов, без животных всяких-малых и больших. Да, человек просто не смог бы жить в таком ми)зе! Между тем, скорость, с какой развивается цивилизация и, следовательно, скорость, с какой люди опустошают нашу удивительную, прекрасную планету, растет из года в год, из месяца в месяц. Долг каждого — попытаться предотвратить ужасное осквернение нашего мира, и в эту борьбу каждый может внести свой, пусть маленький, пусть скромный, вклад. Я делаю то, что мне посильно, единственным способом, который я знаю, и я рассчитываю на вашу помощь. Обычно мне претит роль зазывалы, но ради такого важного дела я готов отбросить все колебания, и, если вам захочется помочь мне в этом деле, напишите, пожалуйста, по такому адресу:
•-
Джерсейский трест охраны диких животных. Джерсейский зоойарк. Поместье Огр.
Нормандские острова.
Г. Даррелу.
А я, пока на Свете есть животные и зеленые уголки, буду стараться их навещать и писать о них.
Г. Даррел.
XV.	Compose short dialogues for the following imaginary situations:
1.	You have bought the book ’’Talks on Ecology”. Besides ecology you came across the expressions ’’photochemical smog” and ”air pollution". What do these phrases mean?
2.	An international conference on Nature Protection
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is to be held next month. You are invited as a representative of our University. What will you say about air pollution? Ask your friends to help you to prepare a report.
3.	Your young brother knows that man arid other animals take in oxygen by the lungs. He asks you to explain how plants breathe. Give your explanations;
4.	A boy wants to burn a film to make a smoke screen. Come up to him and persuade him not to do it.
5.	A group of tourists put up near a biostation. Instruct them on the conservation of the forest and its environment.
6.	One of the enterprises was noticed to carelessly thrqw off the chemical wastes. As a result the lake in the neighbourhood is perishing. Explain to the administration of the enterprise their fault. How would you begin the conversation?
7.	Your friend suggests going hunting during May Day holidays. Explain why it is impossible and persuade him not to do it.
8.	You are a member of the State Committee for Control of Natural Environment. You are going to speak on the improvements of the environment in our country. What suggestions can you make?
XVI.	Read and translate the text ’’Environmental Protection" (p. 170—174) and be ready to give the main points of it.
LESSON FIFTEEN
Grammar: Subjunctive Mood.
I. P. PAVLOV
If you visit the Pavlov Biological Station at Pavlovo near Leningrad, you will see a very interesting monument there. It is a monument to the dog. The dog as you know played a very important part in all Pavlov’s experiments
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on the activity of the higher nervous system. In the name of science and humanity, Pavlov wanted to thank the dog; so this monument was put up.
Then if you go to see Pavlov’s study,, the room in which the-great scientist worked for so many years, you will notice another dog, a toy one, standing on the bookcase. This toy dog has a very interesting history. It comes from Cambridge, England, where there is one of the oldest Universities in the world.
On the 18th of July 1912, a group of students stopped before the window of a toyshop in Cambridge and looked at the toy dogs there. ’’There is the thing we want”, said one of them, and he pointed to a big white dog in the shop window. They entered the shop and asked for this toy to be packed. Soon they came out with a parcel containing the big white dog. Then, laughing and talking, they hurried. to the laboratory of their physiology professor and showed the dog to him.
The professor did not understand what it was all about until Archibald Hill, now one of the greatest physiologists in the world told him about their plan. It was this.
They knew that the next day some foreign scientists were to come to Cambridge. Among these was Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, the great Russian experimenter and physiologist. So the students wanted to present Pavlov with a toy dog. ’’Where did you get the idea from” — asked the professor. ”1 thipk it’s an excellent one”. ”1 got it from the grandson of Charles Darwin, who is now a student here”, answered Hill. "When Darwin got his doctor’s degree at Cambridge, the students of that time gave him a toy monkey. That was how they showed that they supported his theory of the origin of man. Now we shall honour Pavlov in the same way^’.
The next day was a great holiday of Cambridge. Thousands of people came to see the foreign scientists receive their diplomas. The students watched the ceremony from the gallery. When the Speaker had made his speech, which was in Latin, the chancellor gave the doctors their diplomas one by one and they sat down at the great table on the platform.
Now it was Pavlov’s turn. As he was moving slowly forward under the gallery, the students let the dog fall right down into his arms. He looked up, saw all the young, 126
smiling faces above him and immediately understood what they meant. The students knew him too. It was one of the happiest moments in his life. As this was taking place, an old professor on the other side of the hall said to his neighbour: “Look, the students are giving Pavlov a toy dog. Did you see Darwin get his diploma? Do you remember him standing there with a toy monkey in his arms nearly forty years ago? History repeats itself, doesn’t it?”
* *
*
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov set out to find out how the food made the stomach juice flow. Did it work through chemicals, or nerves, or what? Was this flow of juices influenced by what a person ate, how the food looked and tasted, by the person’s thoughts? Doctors, Pavlov realized, had to know the answers to these questions if they were going to make people healthier or even save their lives. Here is what Pavlov did: he anesthetized a dog—that is, he gave it some medicine that would keep it from feeling any pain. He made an opening in the outside wall of the dog’s abdomen. Then he took a part of the dog’s stomach and made a pouch of it. This pouch had all the nerves and blood vessels that the rest of the stomach had. Pavlov made-a separate opening in the pouch that led out through the hole in the abdominal wall.
Then Pavlov fed the dog. As soon as food got into its mouth, juice began to pour into the stomach. Some juice also poured into the pouch, and tjie scientist collected it in a little bottle through the opening in the abdominal wall. This experiment was one more proof that food itself starts its own digestion going. Pavlov showed that the presence of food in the mouth started nerve impulses that went to the brain and then to the cells of the stomach, then secreted or poured out juices. When he cut the vagus nerves, which bring impulses from the brain to the stomach, the dog’s mouth could be stuffed with food yet no juices would be secreted in the stomach.
Just as you don’t have to think in order to breathe, you don’t have to think to digest. You can drink a glass of hot milk before you go to bed, and it will be digested long before morning. It is digested while you are asleep. We
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call such an activity of the body, which involves nerves and happens automatically, a reflex. When food enters the mouth, a nerve impulse goes to the medulla. This is then ’’reflected” back by the nerves to the stomach. When the impulse reaches the stomach, the muscles contract and the cells secrete their juices. Physically and chemically, digestion has started. Pavlov also showed that the sight, the smell, even the thought of food could start the reflexes going and the stomach secreting. At the thought of a nice thick steak, you could really say: "My stomach waters”. This kind of reflex Pavlov called a conditional reflex.
"From Head to Foot” by A. Novikoff.
Notes to the text:
1)	to go on excursion — ехать на экскурсию to go in for sports — заниматься спортом
2)	to get his way — добиться своего
3)	higher nervous activity — высшая нервная система
4)	to put up a monument — воздвигнуть памятник
5)	to receive an honorary degree — получить почетную степень
to receive doctor’s degree — получить докторскую степень
6)	to present smb. with —дарить
present (adj) —1) присутствующий; 2) настоящий;
3)	данный, тот самый
at present — в настоящее время presently — вскоре, сейчас же to be present — присутствовать
7)	turn — поворот, оборот; перемена; очередь
in turn — по очереди
to turn-f-(adj) —становиться, делаться
to turn pale — побледнеть, to turn old — постареть to turn into — превратиться
to turn off — выключить (свет, газ) to turn on — включить
it turned out — оказалось
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Translate the following words bearing in mind the meaning of the affixes and memorize them:
to support (v), support(n), supporter (n)
tp honour(v), honour(n), honourable(adj), honorary(adj) to influence (v), influence (n), influential (adj)
to contract(v), contract(n), contraction(ii), contractor(n) to lead(v), lead(n), leader(n), leadership (n).
to irritate(v), irritation (n), irritability (n), irritable (adj) to response(v), responsefn), responsive (adj), responsible (adj)
to secrete (v), secretion (n), secretory (adj)
to reflect(v), reflection (n), reflector(n), reflective (adj) impulse(n), impulsive(adj), impulsively (adv)
humanity(n), humanitarian (n), humanism (n), human (adj)
EXERCISES
1.	Read the following words and guess their meaning:
6xcursion [iks'karjnj., monument ['monjunrentj, gallery [’gaelari], humanity [hjw’maeniti], physiology [Jizi'-. olodsi], impulse ['impAls], diploma [di'ploumo], ceremony ['serimoni], platform [’plaetfom], anaesthetize [ae'nrsQitaiz], secret	[’skkrit ], negative ['negativ], positive J'poza-
tiv], compromise ['kompramaiz], diplomatic [,dipla'm«- . tikj, intensive [in'tensiv], expedition [,ekspi'dijn], medal [medl], accumulate [a'kjwmjuleit], genius ['djimjas], contract fkontraekt], cerebral ['seribr (э)1], reflector
 [ri'flekta]
II.	State to what parts of speech the following words belong and translate them:
a)	curious, inventive, dangerous, neighbour, powerful, rapidly, pollute, accelerate, creative, appearance, relative, decision, generalize, significant, conservation, useless, solidification, tiredness;
b)	late—latter
form — former hard —hardly true — truth	•
to like — likely
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III.	Arrange the following words into pairs of antonyms and synonyms:
a)	early, to include, living, small, outside, to resemble, frequently, underlying, latter, to cover, question, large, late, to send, presence, contraction, to receive, youthful, expantion, to discover, difference, to exclude, to differ, overlying, insignificant, outer, resemblence, inner, inside, absence, former
b)	to make people healthier, to realize, to anesthetize, to set out, at once, to happen, to be full of, to enter, to cure, to understand, to collect, to notice, to get, to start, to keep from feeling pain, a hole, to get his living, immediately, to take place, to be stuffed with, to come in, to earn his living, to gather, to see
IV.	Analyse and translate the following sentences into Russian paying attention to ’’should” and ’’would”:
1. We thought that we should be asked to help the teacher of our group in his laboratory work, but we were sent to an extra lecture. 2. It should be remembered that a certain amount of food is required at all times to maintain the body. 3. If I were you, I should keep regular regime in my studies. 4. It is very important for our laboratory work that you should finish your experiment in time. 5. I should like to tell you about the positive effect of this drug. 6. All students should come to the consultations and should speak English at the lessons. 7. If I had more time, I should come to see you. 8. They knew I should not be late. 9. Should we follow his advice,we should conserve more water in the soil. 10. He said that we should start planting in a very short time. 11. If I were a botanist, I should know the difference between these plants. 12. He said that the roots of this plant should penetrate deeply into the soil. 13. Should there be no free movement of air in the soil, the plant growth would be markedly reduced. 14. I suggest that we should meet at 7 o’clock.
* * x *
1.	The professor told the students that he would
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examine them in two days. 2. If we began the work immediately it would be finished in time. 3. He thought that he would do it and was to be helped. 4. When I was in the sanatorium,! would rest after dinner. 5. We would like to stress the influence of environmental factor on the living things. 6. It would be interesting to know how many years it would take to improve our method. 7. He would often come to see me in summer as he lived near us. 8. They would have met you if they had known the time of your arrival. 9. The assistant asked the professor if he would be present at the examination. 10. Sometimes he would work all day long, sometimes he would lie in bed complaining of a headache.
V. Translate the sentences into Russian:
1. There will be no biological activity in the soil, provided its temperature is near the freezing point of water. 2. The soil provided with a good amount of organic matter will secure a high yield. 3. The aim of Dynamic Biology today is to provide'a course in biology on the basis of the preceeding discussion. 4. He will be able to translate difficult texts provided he comes to the consultations regularly. 5. We shall meet provided we finish our work at the same time. 6. She will be given a new task, provided she has solved the first problem. 7. Our plants povided us with all the necessary equipment for our work. 8. Our plants will give production of the highest quality, provided they have the best equipment. 9. Plants provide animals with vegetable material.
* ♦ *
1. We shall not leave the place until we have completed the work. 2. The students will not be able to handle these instruments unless they are properly explained how to use them. 3. Until this experiment is completed, no one can foretell the results. 4. Unless and until these questions have been settled, we shall not be able to go ahead with our work. 5. No medical treatment or theory receives sanction unless born out by scientific facts. 6. We shall not come here tomorrow unless it is absolutely necessary.
9*
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7. The work will have to be put off unless you come and help us. 8. You must come unless you want us to do all the work.
z VI. Read and translate the text in writing.
Suggest a suitable title for it:
What were the influential forces at work on Pavlov to bring him to the decision to investigate psychic activity by the objective method of science? There were, of course, many factors. There was his long experience as a most successful experimental scientist, in the fields of blood circulation and digestion. Futher, his career thus far in work on the lower nervous system was his concern and interest. Also, no doubt, the fact that brain physiology was in a blind alley, as much as circulation of the blood and digestion had been, posed an irresistible challenge to him.
But perhaps the single most important influence was his familiarity with the works of I. M. Sechenov, and more especially "The Reflexes of the Brain”. Here, in this book, Pavlov had not only set an example of courage in the face of persecution, but a treatment of the same subject, and important ground-breaking for a physiology of the brain.
That Sechenov and his work played a' major role in Pavlov’s decision is attested to by Pavlov himself: "And I take it that the most important motive for my decision, even though an unconscious one, arose out of the impression made upon me during my youth by the monograph of I. M. Sechenov, the father of Russian physiology, entitled ’’Reflexes of the Brain’* and published Tn 1863... In this book, a brilliant attempt was made, altogether extraor-' dinary for that time, to represent our world from the standpoint of pure physiology."
VI I. Read and translate the text without a dictionary:
At the age of 78 Pavlov was taken seriously ill. He had to undergo an operation. His age and the seriousness of the operation affected his heart. Pavlov’s heart had never known tiredness, and now it was beginning to wear out.
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Nevertheless the great scientist could not miss the opportunity for another experiment. With the help of a trained assistant he made some careful observations of his organism and soon a paper appeared under the modest title ’’Post Operation Neurosis of the Heart, Analyzed'by the Patient Himself.I.P.P.”
He didn’t stop his work, even on his death-bed, he studied his illness, made his own diagnosis on the basis of his activities, discussed his observations aloud. The great Russian scientist knew that the end approached. He called in a nerve specialist to analyse his condition with him. He looked upon his Death as his last experiment.
yin. Translate the text into Russian, then back into English; compare your version with the original:
In the village of Pavlovo, near Leningrad, there is a scientific ’’town” founded by the great physiologist. It is a part of the institute, in which research is under way in the field of the genetics of higher nervous activity, comparative physiology and other subjects.
The workers of the institute are doing successful research on various important problems of modern physiology, one of them being the problem of the principal laws governing the higher nervous activity of man and animal^ in normal and pathological conditions.
The new data obtained at the institute has proved that the selective systematism of cerebral activity is not characteristic of man alone — the opinion held before — but also of the higher vertebrates. *
IX.	Listen to the recording of the following text and reproduce it:
Sechenov lived for forty-two years after the publication of his famous book ’’Reflexes of the Brain”. Much of that time was passed as Professor of Physiology at Moscow University. He also taught without pay several courses at the Women’s Pedagogical Society and at a school for factory workers. Both these teaching tasks were part of his struggle for extending education in tzarist Russia to women and to workers. These years were rich in scien
гзз
tific work, lecturing, and publishing papers in the professional journals. Through his laboratory work and his teaching he won for himself the unofficial title of father of Russian Physiology.
X.	Texts for discussion:
A Conditional Reflex
A hungry dog which is shown food will salivate. This is a reasonable reflex, for saliva is needed for the lubrication and digestion of food. If a bell is made to ring every time the dog is shown food, it will associate the sound of the bell with the sight of food. Eventually, it will salivate as soon as it hears the sound of the bell, even though it sees no food. This is a conditioned reflex, Pavlov was able, to show that all sorts of reflexes could be set up in this fashion.
In the case described above, if a part of the dog’s brain called the cerebrum were removed, the dog would no longer perform the conditioned response. This proves that the cerebrum is the centre of conditioned reactions in the nervous system of dogs. Many animals, even earthworms, can be made to learn things by conditioning. Many acts in human beings are developed as a result of conditioning. For example, a spoiled child learned that he can get his way by crying. He has connected the act of crying with his ability to get what he wants. Conditioning is really a very simple form of learning. You are not born with any conditioned reactions. But you develop them throughout your whole life.
An Unconditional Reflex
Harry was on his way to school in a great hurry. As he ran along, he kept thinking of what would happen if he arrived late for his first class. His teacher had spoken to him very seriously the last time he was late. She had explained the importance of developing the habit of being on time. Suddenly he tripped over a stone and his books went flying in all directions as he fell heavily,Ласе forward. After a moment, he was able to pick himself up off the
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ground. Fortunately he was not badly hurt, but then he looked at his hands. They were dirty, scratched and bloody. He wondered how he had been able .to throw up his hands quickly enough to save his face from serious injury. He had done it automatically without thinking. It was a case of a reflex act performed in time to protect his face against harm. This is an example of an unconditional reflex.
Questions for discussion:
1.	Give your own example of conditional reflex. What is a conditional behaviour?
2.	Name some important functions of your body that are controlled by reflexes.
3.	Describe one of your own experiences in which you avoided serious injury by the action of your responses.
4.	In what way does conditional behaviour differ from a reflex response?
5.	How does a person develop a fear of something harmless? Give an example of your own experience of conditional behaviour.
6.	How can an animal be trained to perform tricks? Is his behaviour conditional or unconditional? Why?
XI.	Reproduce in your own words:
Иван Петрович Павлов — великий русский физиолог, создатель ряда новых направлений в физиологии, преобразовавший методы ее направлений. И. П. Павлов создал материалистическое учение о высшей нервной деятельности, ввел в практику хронический эксперимент, позволяющий изучать деятельность практически здорового организма. С помощью разработанного им метода условных рефлексов И.,П. Павлов установил, что в основе психической деятельности лежат материальные физиологические процессы, происходящие в коре головного мозга.
Учение Павлова о высшей нервной деятельности создало новую эпоху в физиологии мозга. Столетняя традиция изучать мозг только в форме непосредственных на него воздействий или в форме общих наблюдений была радикально изменена введением нового метода — метода условных рефлексов.
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Условный рефлекс Павлова—это принципиально новая форма регулирования отношения животного к внешнему миру. Оно коренным образом отличается от всего того, что было создано на протяжении трехсот лет, начиная с момента, когда Декарт сформулировал правила ответной деятельности организма.
Переход Павлова от работ в области пищеварения к изучению высшей нервной деятельности был далеко не случайным. Он был обусловлен ходом предшествующих исследований в его лаборатории и постепенно назревших изменений во взглядах Павлова.
В настоящее время учение о высшей нервной деятельности развивается на основе использования современных средств тонкого электрофизиологического исследования Мозга. Это новое направление признано теперь всеМи лучшими неврологическими лабораториями мира, и условный рефлекс Павлова стал критерием правильности нашего понимания отдельных тончайших процессов, совершающихся в мозге.
Исследования И. П. Павлова физиологии высшей нервной деятельности, а именно второй сигнальной системы, типов нервной системы, локализации функций, системности работы больших полушарий и др. сыграли большую роль в развитии физиологии, неврологии, психиатрии, психологии и педагогики.
БМЭ, т. 22, стр. 982.
XII.	Summarize the general ideas of all the texts of the lesson:
a)	Write a short report on the topic: “Pavlov is a great physiologist of the world”.
b)	Make a report on any problem concerning Pavlov’s investigation.
c)	Speak on the importance of Pavlov’s work in the field of: Physiology, Psychiatry, Pedagogics.
XIII.	Compose short dialogues for the following imaginary situations:
1.	You are a teacher of biology. The subject of your lesson is reflexes. Explain the difference between conditioned and unconditioned reflexes.
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2.	Two groups of students met to discuss the types of experiment on digestive tract. Y.ou are among the supporters of the ’’chronic” type. Try to prove that you are right to the other group which defends the ’’acute” type.
3.	You are a professor of physiology. Your students are to be shown an experiment with a dog. But your assistant doesn’t know how to prepare a dog. Teach him how to do it.
XIV.	Read and translate the text in writing:
A letter to the youth by L. P. Pavlov
What would I wish for the youth of my fatherland who devote themselves to science?
First of all, persistence. I can never speak , without emotion of this most important condition for fruitful scientific work. Persistence, persistence, and again persistence. From the very beginning of your work train yourselves to be strictly systematic in amassing knowledge.
Learn the ABC of science before attempting to ascend its heights. Never reach for the next step without having first mastered the preceding one.
Never attempt to cover up the gaps in your knowledge by even the most daring conjectures and hypotheses. No matter how the colourings of such soap-bubbles may please your eye, they will inevitably burst, leaving you with nothing but confusion.
Train yourselves to discretion and patience. Learn to do the rough work in Science. Study, compare, and accumulate facts.
No matter how perfect a bird’s wing, it could never raise the bird aloft if it were not supported by air. Facts are the air of the scientist. Without them you will never be able to soar, without them your ’’theories” are useless efforts.
Yet, while studying, experimenting, observing, try not to stop only at the surface of facts. Do not become an archivist of facts. Try to penetrate the mystery of their origin. Seek persistently the laws governing them.
Secondly, modesty. Never think that you already know everything. No matter in what high esteem you are held, always have the courage to say to yourself: ”1 am ignorant”.
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Don’t allow yourself to be overcome by pride. Pride will make you stubborn where it is necessary to agree; it will make you reject useful advice and friendly assistance; you will lose the sense of objectivity.
In the group which I am called to direct, atmosphere is everything. We are all harnessed to one common cause and everyone furthers it to the best of his strength and ability. Often we cannot distinguish between what is our own and what is our neighbour’s, but through this our common cause only gains.
Third — passion. Remember, science requires your whole life.* Even if you had two lives to give, it would still not be enough. Science demands of men effort and supreme passion. Be passionate in your work and in your quests.
Our fatherland opens broad vistas to scientists, and we must truthfully say science is being generously introduced into the life of our country. Extremely generously.
What is there to say about the position of a young scientist in our country? It is perfectly clear. To him is given much, but of him much is demanded. And it is a matter of honour for the youth, as well.as for all of us, to justify those great hopes which our fatherland places in science.
I. P. Pavlov.
XV.	Read the text "Ivan Pavlov" (p. 174—180) and be ready to give the main points of it.
TEXTS FOR HOME—READING
THE SCIENCE OF BIOLOGY
Biology is the science of living organisms. It is concerned with their nature, functions, reproduction, and place in their environment. It is a ramifying science, but it aims to be a precise one. It i$ rooted in physics
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and chemistry and many of its interpretations are made in terms of these sciences and of mathematics. It is bound closely with geology and meteorology, and applications of its principles are found in anthropology, psychology, sociology, agriculture, medicine, industry, and indeed, in everyday living. Inasmuch as one of its ultimate aims is thorough understanding of living organisms including man, biology is entitled to be called the most vital of the sciences.
composition of living bodies. Chemical analyses show that living materials consist of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus,, potassium, iron, and magnesium. In addition, they usually contain sodium, chlorine, and lesser amounts of such elements as manganese, copper, iodine and fluorine. Everything can beJdentified. There is no residue of unidentifiable stuff. But the elements present in living matter are all found in abundance in mineral deposits, in sea water, or in the atmosphere. Hence we can conclude that there is nothing peculiar in the elemental composition of living matter.
But what of the way in which these elemental blocks are put together? We know, for instance, that hydrogen and oxygen combined in one proportion (H2O) constitute water, a specific substance; in another (H2O2), hydrogen peroxide have quite different properties, associated with their differences in composition. Is living matter distinguished from nonliving matter by its chemical organization? With reference to many of chemical compounds found in living matter the answer to this question is no. With reference to the sum total of the compounds which together make up any living body the answer is yes.
A major part, 65 to 90 percent, of every living body is composed of hydrogen and oxygen combined as water. Water is an inorganic substance, chemically simple and obviously not confined to living organisms. The bodies of plants and animals contain numerous other inorganic substances—acids, bases, and salts. None of them differ from the acids, bases, and salts with which the inorganic chemist works daily in his laboratory.
Other substances, the so-called carbon or organic compounds; are restricted, in nature, to living bodies or the products of living bodies. They include the carbohydrates,
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fats, and proteins. All contain carbon, hydrogenvand oxygen. In addition, the proteins contain nitrogen and often sulfur and other elements.	.
The carbohydrates are generally considered the simplest organic substances. Their structure is adequately known and many of them can be synthesized. In living organisms they are important as energy compounds.
Nearly all the energy used by living organisms, plant, and animal, is fight energy derived from the sun. This light energy is converted to other energy forms by a process called photosynthesis. It is in carbohydrates that green plants first store this energy. It is primarily in carbohydrates that the energy is distributed to.all parts of the plant, and it is from carbohydrates that much of the energy used by animals is obtained.'
Fats resemble carbohydrates in composition but are chemically more complex and contain more stored energy. Like the carbohydrates, many fats can be synthesized in the laboratory.
Proteins differ considerably from fats and carbohydrates. Chemically they are much more complicated than all except a few carbohydrates and fats. So far no proteins have been synthesized. Proteins are more closely related to certain of the activities which characterize the living state than are the carbohydrates and fats. Proteins have a specific character which the other organic compouns lack. Whereas the same carbohydrates and fats are found in thousand’s of different kinds of organisms, among the proteins there is a high degree of specificity. Each protein tends to be characteristic of only one kind of organism, sometimes of only certain organs or of particular stages in development. Hence, the differences among living things seem to be in some way correlated with differences in the nature of their proteins.
subdivisions of biology. We shall consider plants and animals together, both in the discussion of fundamental biological principles and with respect to their natural associations with each other. They will be treated separately when this appears desirable for purposes of emphasizing basic differences and when the problems of approach are different.
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Plants and animals are. similar in the their fundamental composition. They are made up of the same group of elements combined in essentially the same way. Both are composed of cells as the fundamental structural units, but their tissue systems, organ systems, and general construction are very different. Animals are usually more complicated than- plants, and with this greater structural complexity are associated with more highly developed coordination and greater activity. Plants lack the power of locomotion; animals have various means of moving about. The nutritional activity of a plant is circumscribed by its inability to move; that of an animal is fairly broad. This difference is associated with the expenditure of far more energy by animals and with' more intricate mechanisms for the liberation and use of energy. Partly as a result of such differences, evolution has brought about greater diversity among animals, the types of animals being much widely different than the types of plants.
Biology may be divided in either of two ways, depending upon whether thfe emphasis is placed on type of organisms or on processes, structures, and functions. With the first system there are two principal divisions: botany, which deals with plants, and zoology, which deals with animals.
Botany may be subdivided as follows: Bacteriology — study of bacteria.
Mycology — study, of fungi.	~
Algology (sometimes called phycology)—study of algae. Bryology — study of mosses.
Pteridology — study of ferns.
All these branches may be grouped together as cryptoga-mic botany, the study of plants which do not produce seed. Study ot the seed plants (actually two groups — the gymnosperms, which bear cones, and the angiosperms, which bear flowers) covers a single field, phanerogamic botany. Zoology is similarly divided as follows: Protozoology — study of single-celled animals. .
Entomology — study of insects. '	_ •
Ichthyology — study of fishes.
Herpetology — study of amphibians and reptiles. Ornithology — study of birds.
Mammalogy — study of mammals.
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Anthropology — study of man (with reference to physical rather than cultural characteristics).
This botany-zoology system grew up naturally as biological science developed, the emphasis during its early years being placed on structure and relationships.
As it became more arid more of a precise experimental science and emphasis was given to finer aspects of structure and function, another system of classification based upon the parts or prpcesses studied came into use. In this system there are such subdivisions as the following: Cytology — study of cells.
Histology — study of tissues.
Anatomy — study of internal structure as revealed by dissection.
Morphology — study of gross structure, the organism viewed as a whole.
Physiology — study of functions and processes.
Genetics — study of heredity and variation.
Pathology — study of aberrant conditions and diseases and their effects.
Evolution — study of origin and changes in species. Paleontology — study of fossil organisms.
Taxonomy — classification of organisms.
Ecology — study of organism-environment interrelations. Psychology (experimental psychology) — study ' of the animal mind.
Examples of more specialized fields that fall within this same general classification are:
Embryology — study of individual development.
Endocrinology — study of the endocrine gland system in animals.
Parasitology — study of parasitism.
As the emphasis on these finer studies increased, biology as an exact science has become more dependeni on the other exact sciences for interpretation of its data and their significance. Biochemistry, a division of chemistry, deals with the chemistry of living organisms and thdir products. Biophysics has as its subject matter the physics involved in the structure, development and functioning of living organisms. Biometrics is a special field of mathematics concerned with the analysis of biological data.
We must recognize that any classification of biology or any other science into branches or subsciences is purely
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arbitrary and has value only in providing for the presentation of facts. It is impossible to obtain a true idea of plants and their significance without a parallel consideration of animals. It is equally impossible to study structure effectively without at the same time studying function, or to study distribution without studying inheritance. We shall consider what have come to be recognized as main principles concerning the organization of functioning, distribution, and interrelation of living organism. In doing this we shall break down the whole subject and deal with specific groups or processes when doing so will lend clarity to the presentation.
Basic life functions
The characteristic organization of living creatures is inseparable from those functions that are the distinguishing marks of life. One of the most significant of these is photosynthesis, the process by which green plants, with adequate light, manufacture carbohydrates. These carbohydrates, important as energy sources, are the initial sources of the organic substances from which most living organisms are built. Plants store them or convert them into other chemical compounds. Animals derive4- their building materials and their energy directly or indirectly from plants. Although photosynthesis is a function of green plants — indeed, of only certain cells in these plants — it is one of the most important of all biological processes.
A universal life process is respiration, by which the energy in chemical compounds is released for use in the activities of protoplasm — in the maintenance of cells and tissues, in the formation of new cells and tissues, and in the processes involved in their breakdown.
All organisms are characterized by growth and reproduction. Growth may be defined in a general way as a simple increase in mass, but the growth of an organism usually includes increase in the number and size of the cell units and progressive development of the various parts of the organism. Growth ceases and the individual
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is said to be mature. All organisms can reproduce and thus increase their number — reproduction, which is essential to the perpetuation of each type of organism, usually takes place during maturity.
Irritability — the capacity to react to stimuli — is characteristic of all living organisms. Upon this capacity to react to such stimuli as light, temperature, contact and specific chemicals rests the ability of the organism to adjust itself to its environment.
To define the nature of living material we must consider not only the functions and characteristics of living things, but also the environment in which the organisms exist. No plant or animal can live apart from this environment or even far out of adjustment with it.
Living Organisms And Their Environment — An organism’s surroundings and all the factors which influence it constitute its environment. The complex relations between organisms and their environment can be seen in a very brief consideration of food supply.
The green plants are at the base of the system of food relations in the organic world. They take from their surroundings only simple inorganic .materials — water, carbon dioxide, oxygen, inorganic nitrogen, and various mineral salts. From these simple substances plants build carbo-' hydrates, fats, and proteins. With the exception of a few bacteria and molds, all other organisms depend upon the green plants for their food supply. Herbivorous animals consume plants directly. Carnivorous animals eat other animals which may in turn be herbivorous. Some are omnivorous; that is, they eat both plants and other animals. The types of plants in a particular environment determine to a large extent what kinds of animals can inhabit that environment. As we shall see later, the presence of a particular organism in a given environment may influence all the others found there. The basic physical and chemical factors in the environment are also of the utmost importance.
Oxygen is an absolute requirement for most organisms; it is likewise abundant in most surroundings. Land-dwelling species obtain oxygen from the air; most aquatic species utilize the oxygen dissolved in water; If as sometimes happens in experimental or otherwise limited envi
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ronments, the oxygen supply of organisms is cut off the organisms will die.
Quite as important as oxygen is water which is a universal component of protoplasm. It provides the essential medium for the chemical processes of life and the transport of materials. The amount of water available determines what types of organisms will occur in an environment, how fast they will grow, and the rate of many of their basic life processes.
Carbon dioxide in the environment is essential for photosynthesis. If either carbon dioxide or inorganic nitrogen is absent or deficient, the growth of photosynthetic plants is limited or prevented. This, in turn, affects the animal population.
Equally important are, such physical factors as light, temperature, and gravity.
Light furnishes, through photosynthesis, virtually all the energy of the Organic world. Furthermore, it has many direct influences, such as those on the growth patterns and flowering habits of plants and the migratory and sex cycles of some animals.
In general, life processes cease at about the freezing point of water (0°C dr 32°F) and at about 80°C or 176°F (the boiling point of water is 100°C or 212°F). A few kinds of plants and animals can endure lower or higher temperatures, but for optimum development most organisms have relatively narrow temperature ranges. Some plants and animals are characteristic of low-temperature zones; others, of high-temperature zones. The daily and seasonal temperature fluctuations are important, too, in the growth .and developmental processes of both plants and animals and in the feeding, mating and migratory habits of many animals.
Such a fixed environmental factor as gravity may control both form and function. Most plants and animals are directly responsive to gravity. Roots of plants normally respond positively, that is, they grow downward; shoots respond negatively — they grow upward. Balance in an animal is a gravitational response, and the size of an animal is in part controlled by the relation between its structure and gravity.
All these and many other factors are aspects of an organism’s environment. Over a long period of time
10 Б-614
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plants and animals may become modified and thus adapted to particular features of an environment. For example, aquatic plants and animals have much less structural rigidity than terrestrial types; they need less support in the buoyant water. Active aquatic animals such as fish are streamlined and move rapidly^ against the resistance of the water. Birds are similarly streamlined for easier movement against the resistance of air. Birds have another adaptation in their light, hollow bones which result in light body weight.
Similar adaptations occur with respect to temperature and moisture conditions. Thick layers of fat and heavy coats of fur characterize many animals in the low-temperature regions. The leaves of plants that grow in hot, dry regions are often covered by thick deposits of wax that reduce the water lost by evaporation.
Colour phenomena of several types are generally considered to be adaptations. Numerous animals, from tiny insects to polar bears, have camouflaging colours at one time or another. Foliage dwellers may be gre^n, ground dwellers brown or gray.
Many animals have hard shells, spines, or other specialized structures which afford them protection against natural enemies that inhabit their environment. Such characteristics have obvious survival values.
Because of their relation to the factors in their physical environment and to each other, the organisms of the world are tied together in a very complex pattern. One type frequently depends upon another for food, protection, proper conditions for growth and development.
"Biology a Basic Science” by Elwood D. Heiss.
I.	Make up a plan of the text using questions.
II.	Give a short summary of the text using your questions.
III.	Discuss the following questions with you fellow students:
1.	What is the composition of living bodies? What is the way in which the elements are put together?
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2.	Is living matter distinguished from non-living matter by its chemical composition?
3.	What do fats resemble in composition?
4.	Do proteins differ considerably from fats and carbohydrates?
5.	What divisions of biology do you know?
CHARLES DARWIN
Charles Darwin brought the idea of organic evolution sharply to people’s attention. It was he who proposed a theory of how and why one species developed from another. In 1859 his great book The Origin of Species was published, and after that people’s whole outlook on nature seemed to change.
It was rather strange that Darwin should have worked out the’theory of organic evolution, for at first he believed in ’’special creation” as firmly as anyone could. In the beginning he had no thought of being a naturalist. His father in fact, was quite discouraged with him, for in his early years he seemed to care for nothing but horseback-riding and pheasant-shooting. His father feared that he would become nothing but an ’’idle sportsman.
Finally, however, Darwin agreed to study at the medical school of the University of Edinburgh, for both his father and his grandfather were doctors. But the lectures at the medical school appeared to him dull, and he could not bear the sight of operations: they were administered in those days without anesthetics. So he left the medical school.
After that — and there was a good deal of argument first — he agreed to study for the ministry. In thought he might become a country minister. He loved country life, and had begun collections of beetles and butterflies. Reluctantly, then, he enrolled as a theological student at Cambridge. And there he met Professor John Stevens Henslow, the geologist and botanist.
Almost immediately Henslow and Charles Darwin became fast friends. They were seen walking together so often that the students at Cambridge called Darwin "the man who walks with Henslow”.
It was during those years', and under Henslow’s influence, that Darwin began to read the works of the great
io*
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naturalists. He read Alexander von Humboldt’s Personal Narrative of Travels to the Equinoctial Regions of America and longed to set foot in the new world. He read Sir John Herschel’s Introduction to the Study of Natural Philosophy and dreamed of adding something humble but substantial perhaps to what he called a little pompously, ’’the noble structure of natural science”.
His opportunity to add to that structure came much more quickly than he anticipated. . In the late summer of 1831, the HMS Beagle was to make a cruise around the world for purposes of mapping and scientific observation. The captain,' Robert Fitzroy, wanted a scientist to go on the expedition — ”a scientific person to examine the land”.
Professor Henslow recommended Charles Darwin for the post, and Darwin was filled with excitement. To go to the equinoctial regions of America as Von Humboldt had done, to have a chance to examine minerals and wild life in regions where he had never been before, seemed to him the opportunity of his life.
But his father objected. They boy ought to finish his theological course, he said. He had wasted time enough. Charles Darwin’s uncle, Josiah Wedgwood, who was’the owner of the famous Wedgwood potteries, saw the youth’s point of view. He had his horses harnessed to his carriage and drove more than thirty miles to see the elder Darwin. In the end the permission was given, and Charles Darwin set off for the Beagle.
But now he encountered another difficulty. The captain of the vessel hesitated to accept him. He doubted, he said, ”whether a man with such a shaped nose could possess sufficient energy and determination for the voyage”.
”How strange!” Charles Darwin said years later.
”1 became a naturalist only because my uncle was willing to drive thirty miles to see my father, and because the captain finally decided he did not object to the shape of my nose”.
His Majesty’s ship Beagle, a ten-ton brig, sailed out of Devonport on the twenty-seventh of December, 1831. She was bound for Patagonia, and thence through the straits of Tierra del Fuego, and so on around the world. ”It was the most important event in my life”, Charles
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Darwin wrote years later. The little brig pushed out across the Atlantic, and soon was encountering rough seas, so that the young naturalist, lying in his bunk, was miserable with seasickness. This sickness was to plague him off and on, whenever the vessel rocked, throughout the five years of the voyage.
They landed on the South American coast, and Darwin began his collections immediately. Soon he had mineral, shells, and plants arranged systematically in the small room behind the mast where he also kept his book and instruments. Since the space alloted him was so small, he decided not to collect many specimens but to choose each one as carefully as he could and classify it in as orderly a way as possible.
Day after day the vessel sailed along the South American coast, and the young naturalist, who had never been out of England before, watched the unfolding panorama of the South American shore — the dark Brazilian forests with their rich life of birds, reptiles, and animals; the high grass of the pampas in Argentina; the bleak, rocky heights of Patagonia, where the wind never stopped blowing. For though the Beagle was to push on across the Pacific and into the South Seas, the greater part of the voyage was spent along the coast of South America.
As they sailed down the coast Darwin went ashore at frequent intervals to study the land, the mud, the rocks, the fossil bones, the fungi in the dark forests, the ostrich on the high plains, the flamingo that fed on the worms of the salt lakes of Argentina. ,
When the Beagle laid over for a month at one of the .Galapagos Islands, five hundred miles from the South American coast, strange and disturbing thoughts began to enter Charles Darwin’s mind. On this island, which was composed of volcanic lava recently cast up from the sea, he found animals that were certainly of the same genera as those on the mainland of South America. Yet they were not the same; they seemed to be of different species. And as the Beagle moved on, visiting one island after another, he found that each island had its separate species of plants and animals.
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Now, he thought, watching the rim of the ocean as the little vessel pushed across the sea, why had a separate species been created for each small island? The making of such a multiplicity of species seemed at least irrational. Why were there thousands of different species o*n those islands? Why did they belong to the genera of South America, which was miles away? Animals might perhaps have swum across. But if this was true, why was each of the species on the islands a little different from those on the mainland?
The problem troubled him. Characteristically he said nothing about it, however, in a small yellow notebook he started to make notes on his observations.
After he reached England again he wrote to Joseph Dalton Hooker, the botanist: ”At last gleams of light have come, and I am almost convinced (quite contrary to the opinion I started with) that species are not (it is like confessing a murder) immutable.”
But the confession of the ’’murder” was later. For the present he was simply examining the facts.
Finally the Beagle docked at Falmouth, October 2, 1836, and Darwin, who had suffered from seasickness almost every day of the five-year voyage, found himself on firm land again. The voyage was over.
Darwin’s letters and part of his specimens had arrived in England before him, and his reputation as a naturalist was now well established. The scientists greeted him enthusiastically.
But Charles Darwin wanted to get away from all of them. After three years in London, he married his first cousin, Hannah Wedgwood, and they bought a roomy, comfortable house with a garden at Down, a small town in Kent. There he was to live and work for the rest of his life.
The problem that Charles Darwin wanted to study was the one that had perplexed him first on board the Beagle. Had God whose ’’special creation” he had taken so much for granted really created so many thousands of species, all of them so nearly alike, yet different? Or was it possible that the idea of special creation might be wrong? Was there some sort of relationship between the species? He had heard of the work of Lamarck, but he thought
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nothing of it — ’’rubbish” he called it. Cuvier’s idea of catastrophes seemed to him foolish too.
He decided that he might get some help by studying domestic animals, since these were near at hand and easy to observe. He began a correspondence with a large number of breeders and started to breed different races of pigeons himself. He found that man could certainly modify the breeds of dogs, of cows, of pigeons. There must be some force in nature that works the same way, he thought. But what was it?
Darwin thought. All organisms must increase at an enormous rate. Linnaeus had said somewhere that if a plant produced two seeds each year, and if each of these produced only two seeds in the same way, a million plants would be descended from the first one in only twenty years. Darwin kept thinking of that. And take animals, he argued. An elephant is a very slow breeder. But if a pair of elephants produce six young in the course of their lives, and each of these does likewise, in seven hundred and fifty years there will be nineteen million elephants on the earth! They would have a struggle to keep alive, he said.
This, then, might be the answer, he thought — a continual struggle to exist. But granted, as he could easily observe, that every member of a species is not exactly like every other, granted that there are some variations among them, what determines which ones will survive? What determines which plants or birds or animals will live and which will die off? How is the balance so beautifully kept that the world is never overrun with elephants or stifled with oak trees?
The answer he found to his problem came to him slowly, as he sat in his comfortable library with its book-lined walls, as he walked through his garden at Down, as he watched his cattle cropping the grass in his pastures.
He could not tell exactly why there was a slight variation in the offspring of each plant or animal. That slight variation will ’’provide a grand and hitherto untrodden field of investigation”, he said. But it is certain that some green beetles are a little greener than others; some swallows have stronger wings than others; some deer are quicker to hear the sound of danger. And among these, those that are best fitted to adapt themselves to their
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environment survive and reproduce their kind, while the others die off. By piling up variations ia one direction over long ages of time, new species are formed.
The idea of special creation now seemed like an idle dream to him. As he walked through his fields, often accompained by his terrier Folly, he examined plant and animal, bird and insect, considering his theory as he went along.
The years went by, he was still testing, examining. He wanted to be sure of his facts; he wanted to accumulate scores of facts.
In 1844 he wrote out in pencil a brief statement of his new theory and showed it to a few friends. They urged him to hasten to publish it. But he said there were more data that must be collected: he wanted to be so sure that he was right.
In 1859 Darwin published his famous bbok ’’The Origin of Species”. And it was followed in 1871 by another book, called ’’The Descent of Man”. In the latter book he applied the doctrine of the survival of the fittest to human beings, and drew the conclusion that ’’man is descended from some less highly organized form”.
The uproar that followed the publication of Darwin’s theories must have been heard even in the quiet garden of the house at Down. For most people are conservative and do not like to see their well-established ideas upset.
He grew to be an old man, who walked about his garden in a long black cloak, his beard snowy white, but his gray eyes still keen beneath their overhanging brows.
He died in 1882, and his countrymen took his body to Westminister Abbey, where they buried him beside Sir Isaac Newton.
"Men, Microscope and Living things", by K. Shippen.
I. Give a short summary of the text using active vocabulary.
II. Discuss the following questions with your fellow students:
l^What do you know of Charles’ childhood?
2.	What countries and islands did the Beagle visit?
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3.	What led to a constant fight for life in Darwin’s.opinion?
4.	When was his book ’’The Origin of Species” published?
5.	What did he state in his book?
- 6. What did he think about the different'species of plants and animals? Why did the animals and plants on the islands change?
THE WORLD OF THE DOLPHIN
A good deal has been written about these animals which look so, very much like fish.
What drives the numerous researchers in many countries to attempt to penetrate the ’’world of the dolphin”, to set up new laboratories, build new instruments and to put forward new hypotheses?
First of all, it must be said that this interest is not the outcome of some mass hypnosis, but is a conscious attempt to find out how it happened that a mammal managed to conquer the ocean and to populate it from the Arctic to the Antarctic, and from the surface down to depths of hundreds of metres. It is necessary to find the answer to this riddle, for the time is coming when man will concentrate on mastering the ocean depths, on the same scale - as he is now trying to conquer outer space.
The study of the dolphins behaviour has its philosophical aspect, as well as the purely practical results. The dolphins, for example, possess a well-developed brain, communication signs, and a complex pattern congregation, which leads some researchers to declare that the dolphins are on a par with humans in intellectual development, or are even more advanced than man, whereas others maintain that,these cetaceans are ordinary animals, which respond well to experiments. This leads to the argument about the philosophical criteria of intelligence, about the variety' of expressions of intelligence, about the stages in the development of consciousness, about the possibility of man making contact with some other section of the animal kingdom, and about the responsibility this places on human beings.
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Soviet researchers of different specialities are making thorough studies of dolphins. •	'
the dolphin family. Research into the inter-relations within the school of dolphins provides grounds for supposing that their ’’social” system is matriarchal. We have observed, for instance, in one species of Arctic white dolphins how an old female — the elder of the school — was surrounded by her offspring grandchildren and greatgrandchildren of both sexes and of all ages up to the Ilth generation.
The. dolphin’s gregarious instinct is so strong that isolation leads to a deep and persistent depression. The aninfal loses its appetite completely, as well as all interest in its environment. This can last a day or two, or even a week, and if there is no way of distracting the animal or of establishing contact with it, then it has to be reinstalled in the school or it will perish.
This affinity is most evident in young dolphins, but on the other hand, the trainers manage to establish contact with them more easily and quickly.
The affinity between mothers and their young is not restricted to the suckling period which may continue for 6—8 months. The mother will recognize its offspring atnong other dolphins even after several years of separation. This is probably due to a number of factors, the more important among them being the individual peculiarities of signals emitted by each animal, its own, so to speak, ’’personal” tune. We humans also recognize the voices of people we know by their timbre, intonation, tempo, and so on.
It has also been established by experiment that domination by one or another dolphin within the school is almost absent if the conditions in captivity are favourable. In this case groups of 2—4 dolphins are formed, apparently according to similarity of temperament and interests. These groups are very stable and dissolve only during breeding time. On the other hand, when abnormal situations arise, there emerges one dominating mammal.
Another form of domination is expressed in the management of the school. Among the bottle-nosed two old females played the part of leaders. At first when attempts were made to take some dolphin out of the school all the
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animals would bunch into a dense group and only the two old females would swim around its perimeter. This was a sort of a warning. As soon as a man began to approach, ”to violate” the border, one of the females swam in his direction with her mouth wide open. It was a formidable spectacle and left not the least doubt as to her intentions. The only thing the man could do to protect himself was to push the animal’s mouth away with his hand (you can’t very well run away in water). In answer to this the dolphin coiled itself up and struck out strongly with its tail. All this happened in split seconds. The conflicts ended after the dolphins got used to us.
UPBRINGING OF THE YOUNG. The dolphin cubs are born with the ability to swim, dive and prod with their mouths at their mother’s mammary glands, from which a jet of thick milk is injected into their mouths. The first 2—3 months the cub dolphin swims only by his mother’s side, in' which, by the way, he’s assisted by the laws of hydrodynamics. After that he gathers strength and tries to assert his independence.
When the cub is 4—5 months old, the mother sometimes leaves it, though not for a long time, with other dolphins, usually with ’’aunties” — adult females who have no offspring. When it is about 6 months old, the cub takes each and every opportunity of getting £way from the mother — it becomes irresistibly attracted to everything novel. The mother keeps a vigilant eye on the cub and goes out of her way to ’’distract” it. Sometimes the cub does manage to escape, but never for-long, and is then severely punished. The most effective punishment is to chase it under the water and not let it surface for a spell of fresh air. Another means is to throw the cub up into the air. In both cases the cubs become ’’well-behaved” for a time.
At 7—9 months the mother punishes the cub by slapring it with her tail, bites or pushes it with her snout. This happens, for example, when the cub snatches a fish from under the nose of the older one. But this form of punishment is rarely effective for the cubs often consider it to be a kind of a game. Imitation is of tremendous importance in the life of dolphins. Should anyone of them invent a new trick, all the others learn it very quickly. Once a dolphin
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amused itself by squirting water at a wall. The next day we could have very well organized a competition among all the dolphins, which of them could squirt the farthest and most accurately. Another dolphin liked a ring very much. It learned to swim with the ring on any of its fins, to push it with its nose, to submerge it, and toss and catch it, to put it on the nose and do the hula-hoop, and throw the ring from its nose sideways. When the other dolphins saw all that they learned the entire bag of tricks immediately. One could quote a large number of similar examples.
Imitation is important in teaching the cubs. Practically, in his mother’s school the dolphin goes through a sort of a ’’university” and when it leaves the school at. 4—5 years of age, the male is prepared for independent life and the femals-to rear her own cub.
daily routine. The dolphins are no meditators. They are always active. Only new and unknown things which may be dangerous can stop activities for a spell.
The main activities are swift-mdving games. Usually several dolphins take part. The duration and variety of such games speaks of the high level of ertiotional activity of the dolphins.
The bottlenose dolphin emits specific sounds under well-defined conditions. A special pair of whistles and the behavior associated with these whistles was first observed in 1955.
The call itself is similar to other whistles in the ’’vocal exchange” group of sounds. It is repeated many times until an appropriate response is elicited either from the other dolphins in the neighbourhood or from a human. The call consists of a group of two whistles. The first whistle starts at a relatively low fundamental frequency and rises to a relatively high fundamental frequency. The second whistle of the pair starts at a relatively high fundamental frequency and falls to a relatively low fundamental frequency. This pair is emitted repeatedly with a delay of only a few tenths of a second between pair for several seconds or several hours and stops when appropriate relief is obtained.
The call is emitted underwater or in air depending on the circumstance. The intensity of the underwater call 156
can be as low as the noise level of the electronic apparatus or up to 100 decibels higher. In the usual cases during underwater emissions the blowhole slit can either emit air or not emit air. Young, small dolphins usually emit air, older ones may or may not.
In air the call was heard faintly accompanied by bubbles, at the outer lips of .the blowhole or heard loudly at the open blowhole from structure deeper in the airways.
There are individual differences in the voices of the animals; trained human listeners can distinguish emissions from individual dolphins. Such differences did not affect the rescue responses of animals meeting for the first time.
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In conclusion I must say that dolphins are very contradictory. They are easily scared — anything new evokes a defence reaction, and they are also very brave — they are not afraid of sharks, allow man to catch and pat them or to transport therq in ships or planes. They dislike everything new, but are nevertheless very inquisitive. They are particularly interested in man and quickly learn how to put their heads out of water to look at him. They are very lively and yet can stay still for hours. It will take much effort on the part-of the research workers to amass, bit by bit, their knowledge of the world of the dolphins, which should in the long run provide the answer to the questions posed above. But today we can say with every conviction that man will be able to make the dolphin his assistant in the ocean.
"Moscow News”, 1979, № 5.
I.	Make up a plan of the text using questions.
II.	Give a short summary of the text using active vocabulary. .
III.	What books about dolphins have you read? Write a short report about them.
IV.	Discuss the following questions with your fellow students:
1.	.A’-e there any leaders in the family of dolphins?
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2.	Is there mutual help among adult dolphins?
3.	Do fights occur among dolphins?
4.	How do dolphins multiply? How long do they live?
5.	How do dolphins sleep?
6.	What contributes to the rapid movement of dolphins in water?
7.	How good is dolphins’ hearing?
8.	How good is dolphins’ eye-sight?
9.	Can dolphins think?
10.	How do dolphins communicate?
GENETICS AND THE ESSENCE OF LIFE
ELEMENTARY units OF heredity. Genetics today is a most brilliant participant in the general revolution wrought in the natural sciences. Its discoveries have led to the emergence of a new concept on the essence of life, and new methods have been evolved for the study and control of heredity, which have greatly affected agricultural production and medicine.
The basic event has been the discovery of the molecular foundations of heredity. It turned out that the rather simple molecules of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) carry within them a record of genetic information. This discovery gave rise to a common platform of geneticists, physicists and chemists in analysing the problems of heredity. It was found that the genetic information operates within the cell on the principle of guided systems. This allowed in many instances to employ the logic and language of cybernetics in heredity studies.
This discovery upsets the old concept on the omniscient role of protein and showed that the molecules of nucleic acids were responsible for passing on the hereditary features. Under their influence specific proteins are formed in each cell. The controlling mechanism of the cell is concentrated in its nucleus or, to be more precise, in the chromosomes, which are composed of linear'sets of genes. Each gene, which in an elementary unit of heredity, is at the same time a complex microcosm, with a chemical pattern of a separate fragment of the DNA molecule.
Thus molecular genetics opened up to man the innermost depths of the organization and functions of life. Like
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all great discoveries, the development of the chromosome theory of heredity, the theory of genes and the theory of mutations (the teaching on forms of change of the genes and chromosomes) have greatly affected life.
nature made to order. Using these new discoveries, people have evolved new methods of selection of plants, animals and micro-organisms. We can say in all confidence that the nature of the productive forces depends largely on the successes achieved in the microbiological synthesis of proteins, antibiotics, amino-acids, vitamins and other Substances. Already today the microbiological industry is based on the use of the so-called radiation and chemical mutants, i.e., the strains of micro-organisms capable of ’’supersynthesis” of the substances we need.
It was found that the energy of radiation or chemical compounds, penetrating into the cell, reaches the genes and causes in them various chemical transformations. As a result, a change takes place in the chemical operation of the cell and geneticists find the strains capable of ’’supersynthesis”. In the same way researchers find the changes, which help resist disease, bring about increased photosynthesis sturdiness and other needed features in plants. This has formed the basis for new methods of transforming the nature of plants and some animals.
The problems of radiation and chemical influences are of no little importance for the biology of man himself. Today when the impact of these factors is not yet a menacing danger, we must carefully weigh up the consequences which may arise if the radiation or chemical background on earth is noticeably increased. In consequence of the constant process of natural mutations 4 per cent of all babies are born with marked physical or mental deformities. If the background is intensified this level of aggravated heredity will also grow. Soviet scientists have done a lot of research into this problem and are active in the work of the UN ScientificSZommittee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation which assesses the effect radiation has on human heredity and keeps a record of radiation on earth.
A number of major achievements in experimental genetics serve to solve in our time the problem of sharply
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increasing the output of grain crops and of radically changing all agricultural production in the world. By the end of this century the world population will double. In order to' adequately supply its requirements we need to double in the next 30 years production of grain and increase the livestock population 10-fold. That means that we must intensify agricultural production.
Experimental genetics has evolved a number of new methods above all, of controlling heterosis (the increased vigour and growth capacity exhibited by hybrids from specially selected parents) and experimental polyploidy (controlled increase of chromosomes in a cell) and has. discovered excellent means of raising crop yields and productivity of animals.
Hybrid maize, hybrid forms of vegetables and polyploid sugar-beet have already won a place in the world and raised yields by 20—30 per cent. At present revolutionary changes are anticipated in selection of wheat — the staple food crop. Everywhere in the world and in our country, too, intense, research is underway to evolve a new high-yield, essentially new kind of hydrid wheat. The application of heterosis hybrids has brought about a sharp increase in the productivity of hens, cattle and other stock.
HEALTH OF MAN. Man himself is becoming the object of close study by geneticists. At every stage of its history genetics was concerned with one major object in its research. At first the genes theory was worked out in experiments with peas, then the pomace fly was used to establish the chromosome theory. Now that molecular genetics is developing by leaps and bounds, the genetics of bacteria and substances is the main problem. But in its future stage genetics research will apparently concentrate on man himself.
A new science — cytogenetics of man — which has developed in the last 6—7 years has established that disruption of v the patterns of chromosomes in the nucleus of man’s cells may have a grave and, at times, fatal effect on the development of his personality. It was also discovered that the mutations of genes also have effect. Coupled with medicine, genetics can become a shield against
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the tragic, hereditary maladies which destroy the human personality and cause terrible grief to families. where deformed children are born.
Moscow News, 1981, № 15.
I. Give a short summary of the text using active vocabu-4ary.	. .
BIONICS IS THE SCIENCE OF THE FUTURE
The collaboration of biologists and engineers has given rise to an independent branch of scientific and technical research, known as bionics.
Bionics is the crossroads where biology, mathematics, physics, chemistry and technology meet for a common purpose. The collaboration of these sciences helps us to discover increasing numbers of living creatures which are of such a nature that the organisational principles of their organism can undoubtedly be used in the near future to bring great benefit to mankind.
Suffice it to say that living organisms possess a "tech- . nology” which far surpasses anything created - by man. ft is known, for instance, that the electric ray fish is capable of giving its prey an electric shock of several hundred volts; What better model for engineers who are trying to develop miniature electric accumulators.
» A study of optical organ of the horsd-shoe crab has revealed that the eyes of this creature are able to increase many times over the contrast between the contour of the observed object and its background. This ability adds enormously to the power of vision. If a similar mechanism could be developed by man, our television technology could be improved immeasurably.
Qr take the whale, the biggest animal in the world, which can submerge to a depth of 2 kilometres and remain there for about two hours. If man wants to go even a few hundred metres under the water, he has to use special gear, bulky and complicated.
It follows that ,a study of the mechanisms which allow the whale to withstand this tremendous pressure and to 'go without breathing for so along would help scientists
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to develop reasonably simple diving apparatus enabling man to go deep under water for long periods.
Studying whales has proved useful to engineers in a rather unexpected way: shipbuilding experts have shown that it would be. much more economical to give large ocean-going liners and freighters the blunt shape of a whale’s head.
^Bionics also includes the study of insects — There are aproximately one million species of insects, and practically each one possesses wonderful mechanisms which are worth copying. These include organs that are super-sensitive tb infrared and ultraviolet rays, organs which record ultra-sonic oscillations, and minute variations of pressure, and many others.
- ' Many animals,. birds and fishes migrate annually, and in the course of these migrations they travel thousands of kilometres. The most experienced pilots and sea captains might envy the accuracy of their movement and their ability to orientate themselves without landmarks.
Scientists from different countries are carrying out intricate and ingenious experiments in an attempt to discover what gives the birds’ and the fishes their advantage over modern navigational systems. A variety of hypotheses have been put forward to explain this marvellous sense of direction that anirnals possess. It is clear that in time this research will enable us to develop economical and completely accurate systems of navigating boats, planes and spaceships.
Bionics became a separate trend of research in 1961. # The very first and most popular definition of bionics cha- * racterizes it as a trend studying the living matter with the aim of solving engineering problems. However, the philosophical analysis biased on the classical statements made by F. Engels about the forms of motion of matter makes it possible to considerably widen the horizons of this science.
As is. known, F. • Engels regarded the development of nature as the change from the lower forms of motion to the higher. ones. According to bis classification the mechanical form was the simplest one. It was followed by the physical, chemical and the most complex in nature — biological form of motion of-matter.
However the appearance of man and society resulted in the development of ’’artifical nature’* ”neosphere”, 162
I’the second nature”,, "sociosphere”. It also requires classification. One of the ways to do it is to classify" it in accordance with the nature classification based on the forms of motion.	>
In the second riature there must appear systems reproducing the .properties of the biological form of motion. Hence, there must be sciences to realize this complex form of motion by technological means. Bionics is one of them. Unlike other sciences of this kind it tries to imitate certain properties of the biological form of motion on the living matter rather than on the dead one, that is on the simpler forms by means of physics and chemistry.
All this shows that bionics is a separate field of knowledge. Reproduction of the biological form of motion of matter, in artificial systems may be called the most complicated stage of technical development at present.
The important role played by bionics together with other sciences in the scientific and technological progress makes it one of the most promising sciences of our epoch.
By its place in the system of mooern knowledge bionics can be defined as a science about the. ways and means of, the reproduction (realization) of the biological form Of motion (its principles, properties, laws) in the artificial systems of non-biological nature referring to simpler (mechanical, physical and chemical} forms of motion of matter.
The principal tasks of bionics are modelling and reproducing initial laws governing life in its very beginning.
: In spite of its being'very young bionics has a number of specific methods of scientific research and applied solutions. First of all mention should be made of the three 'Stage techn ology of bionic investigations.
• The first or biological stage includes the study of certain aspects of living objects. Unlike biology bionics iahns ,at obtaining data for "formalization or making a Wodel.
The second stage which is .theoretico-mathematical deals with the summary of the data obtained at the biologi-=cal stage, their formalization, modelling, making functioning schemes and establishing definite laws.
£/7The third technical stage consists in the engineering Implication of the working model.
One more popular method in bionics is the method of
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imitation. Its essence is in imitating different properties, structures and laws of living organisms. It is the basis of the initial bionics idea about the solution of engineering problems by means of biology.
Bionics investigations are being carried out on a large • scale and embrace a great variety of structures and functions of the living matter. They may be subdivided into a number of groups: general problems, receptors and analysers and their models, neuron and neuronic networks, memory and thinking, orientation, navigation, location and connection in the living world and their technical analogues, recognition of images, bionic aspects of biomechanics, bio-aero-hydrodynamics, biotechnical and manmachine systems.	<
So bionics is a fundamental science of our time. It discovers and mobilizes a reserve hidden before — the peculiarities of the biological form of motion in the system of non-biological nature.
‘’Bionics" by D. Z. Sainova
I. Give a short summary of the text by using active vocabulary.
II. What branches of science is bionics connected with? Give its definition.
LOUIS PASTEUR
Famous scientist, Louis Pasteur, succeeded in finding out the cause and cure of the disease named hydrophobia. — that doomed men to torments and hopeless suffering. Pasteur may be called a life-saver. He treated bitten people with injections of weakened rabies virus. Introduced by Pasteur this treatment is used everywhere now and has already saved thousands of human lives. Here is the episode how he cured the boy bitten by a mad dog.
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On Monday, July 6, Pasteur saw a little Alsatian boy, Joseph Meister, enter his laboratory, accompanied by his
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mother., He was only nine years old, and had been bjtten two days before by a mad dog at Meissengott, near Schlestadt.
The child, going alone to school by a little by-road, had been attacked by a furious dog and thrown to the ground. Too small to defend himself, he had only thought of covering his face with his hands. A bricklayer, seeing the scene from a distance, arrived, and succeeded in beating the dog off with an iron bar; he picked up the boy, covered with blood and saliva. The dog went back to his master, Theodore at Meissengoot, whom he bit on the arm: Vone seized a gun and shot the animal, whose stomach was found to be full of hay, straw, pieces of wood, etc. When little Meister’s parents heard all these details they went, full of anxiety, to consult Dr. Weber, at Vijle, that same evening. After cauterizing the wounds with carbolic, Dr. Weber advised Mme. Meister to start for Paris, where she could relate the facts to one who was not a physician, but who would be the best judge of what could be done in such a serious case. Theodore Vone, anxious on his own and on the child’s account, decided to come also.
• Pasteur reassured Him; his clothes had wiped off the dog’s saliva and his shirt sleeve was intact. He might safely go back to Alsace and he promply did so.
Pasteur’s emotion was great at the sight of the fourteen wounds of the little boy, who suffered so much that he could hardly walk. What should he do for this child? Could he risk the preventive treatment which had been constantly successful on his dogs? Pasteur was divided between his hopes and his scruples, painful in their acuteness. Before deciding on a course of action, he made arrangements for the comfort of this poor woman and her child alone in Paris, and gave them an appointment for five o’clock, after the Institute meeting. He did not wish to attempt anything without having seen Vulpian (a member of the official Commission that had been appointed to investigate his work). Since the Rabies Commission had been constituted, Pasteur had formed a growing esteem for the great judgment of Vulpian.
Vulpian expressed the opinion that Pasteur's experiments on dogs were sufficiently conclusive to authorize him to foresee the same success in human pathology. Why not try "this treatment added the professor, usually, so
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reserved. Was there any other efficacious treatment against hydrophobia? If at least the cauterizations had been made with a red-hot iron. But what was the good of carbolic acid twelve hours after the accident? If the almost certain danger which threatened the'^boy were weighed against the c-hances of snatching him from death, Pasteur would see that it was more than a right, that it was a duty to apply antirabic inoculation to little Meister.
This was also the opinion of Dr. Grancher, whom Pasteur consulted. M. Grancher worked at the laboratory; he and Dr. Straus might claim to be the first two French physicians who took up the study of bacteriology.
Vulpian and M, Grancher examined little Meister in the evening, and, seeing the number of bites, some of which, on one hand especially, were very deep, they decided on performing the first inoculation immediately; the substance chosen was fourteen days old and had quite lost its virulence: it was to be followed by further inoculations gradually increasing in strength. -
It was a very slight operation, a. mere injection into the- side of a few drops of a liquid prepared with some, fragments of medulla oblongata. The child, who cried very much before the operation, soon dried his tears when he found the slight prick -was all that he had to .undergo.
Pasteur had had a bedroom comfortably arranged for the mother and child in the old Rollin College, and the little boy was yery happy amid the various animals — chickens, rabbits, white mice, guinea pigs; etc.; he begged and easily obtained of Pasteur/the life of several of the youngest of.them.	..
' ’’All is going well”, Pasteur wrote to his son-in-law on July II: ’’the child sleeps well, has a good appetite, and the' inoculated matter is absorbed. into the system from one day to another without leaving a trace. It is true that I- have not yet come to the last inoculations, which will take place on Tuesday, and Thursday. If the lad keeps well during the three following weeks, I think tire experiment will be safe to succeed. I shall send the child and his mother back in any case on August 1, giving these good people detailed instruction as to the observations they are to record for me. I shall make no statement before the end of the vacation”.	1
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But, as the inoculations were becoming more virulent, Pasteur became a prey to anxiety. ”My dear children”, wrote Mme. Pasteur, "your father has had another bad night; he is dreading the last inoculations on the child. And yet there can be no drawing back now! The"boy continues in perfect health”.
Renewed hopes were expressed in the following letter from Pasteur.
”My dear Rene, I think great things are coming to pass. Joseph Meister has just left the laboratory. The three last inoculations have left some pink marks under the skin, gradually widening and not at all tender. There is some action, which is becoming mote intense as we approach the final inoculation, which will take place on Thursday, July 16. The lad is very well this morning and has slept well, though slightly restless; he has a good appetite and no feverishness. He had a slight hysterical attack yesterday”.
The letter ended with an affectionate invitation. ’’Perhaps one of the great medical facts of the century is going to take place; you would regret not having seen it!"
Pasteur was going through a succession of hopes, fears, anguish, and an ardent yearning to snatch little Meister from death; he could no longer work. At nights, feverish visions came to him of his. child whom he had seen playing in the garden, suffocating in the mad struggles of hydrophobia, like the dying child he had seen at .the Hospital Trousseau in 1880. Vainly his experimental genius assured him that the virus of that most terrible of diseases was about to be vanquished, that humanity was about to be delivered from, this dread horror — his human tenderness was stronger than all, his accustomed ready sympathy for the sufferings and anxieties of others was nonce centered in ’’the dear lad”.
The treatment lasted ten days; Meister was inoculated twelve times.
Cured from his woiinds, delighted with all he' saw, gaily running about as if he had been in his own Alsatian farm, little Meister, whose blue eyes now showed neither fear nor shyness, merrily received the last inoculation; in the evening after claiming a kiss from ’’Dear Monsieur Pasteur”, as he called him, he went to bed and slept peacefully. Pasteur spent a terrible night’ of insomnia;
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in those slow, dark hours of night, when all vision is distorted, Pasteur, losing sight of the accumulation of experiments which guaranteed his success, imagined that the little boy would die.
The treatment being now completed, Pasteur left little Meister to the care of Dr. Grancher (the lad was not to return to Alsace until July 27) and consented to take a few days’ rest. He spent them with his daughter in a quiet, almost deserted country place in Burgundy, but without, however, finding much restfulness in the beautiful peaceful scenery; he lived in constant expectation of Dr. Grancher’s daily telegram or letter containing news of Joseph Meister.
By the time he went to the Hura, Pasteur’s fears had almost disappeared. He wrote from Arbois to his son August 3, 1885: "Very good news last night of the bitten lad. I am looking forward with great hopes to the time when I can draw a conclusion. It will be, thirty-one days tomorrow since he was bitten”.
"the Amazing World of Medicine” by Wright and Rapport.
150th Anniversary of Louis Pasteur’s birth
By Academician A. Imshenetsky
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Louis Pasteur was born ';on December 27, 1822, in the small French town of Dole ipto the family of one of Napoleon’s retired soldiers. With his name is linked a whole number of sciences. Louis Pasteur’s research into molecular dissymmetry laid the foundation for the science of stereochemistry; he experimentally proved impossibility of the spontaneous generation of living organisms; initiated asepsis in surgery and led to the development of the canning industry.
Research into the agents causing various fermentations and the transformation of different substances under natural conditions made microbiology an independent science. Pasteur regarded fermentation as a biological process, and as a change in the metabolism of bacteria and yeast in the absence of air or free oxygen. The very fact of the discovery of anaerobic microorganisms complete
tely refuted the previously unassailable proposition that life was not possible without oxygen.
Each' fermentation has a causative agent of its own, and one species- of microorganisms does not change into any other species. These firmly established facts underlie the modern conception that each contagion or disease in a man or animal has a concrete pathogenic agent of its own. Louis Pasteur completely refuted the theory of the spontaneous generation of diseases. He also did the first research into the changeability of microorganisms. He proved that cultures of pathogenic microbes could produce forms which lose their ability to induce a disease but when introduced into the organism of a living being made it resistant to the disease in question. The prevention vaccination of animals against anthrax and other diseases helped Pasteur to create his method of preventive vaccination.
However, his method of vaccination against rabies was the most outstanding of his accomplishments, and shows with exceptional clarity the, great genius of this man. True, he did not find the pathogenic agent causing the rabies, for it is brought about by a virus, and there was no such science as virology in his day. However, utilizing the fact that rabies has a prolonged incubation period, the scientist proposed to inoculate a person bitten by a mad dog with increasing dozes of the rabies infective agent, taken from the spinal cord of the dead rabbit in which rabies had been artificially induced. Thanks to these vaccinations, the bitten person became immune to rabies before the infectious agent of the rabies received from the dog bite started propagation.	i
All his life Louis Pasteur had to defend his ideas, his methods and the results of his research from criticism. But his opponents gradually dwindled away, and this French scientist attained fame and the gratitude of entire mankind during his lifetime. His name was given to many microorganisms; several medals were struck in his honour; .the sterilizing of foods and liquids by heating earned the name of pasteurization, and, following the opening of the Pasteur Institute in Paris in 1888, research institutions named after him also started to appear jn other countries’
Scientists are usually divided into romanticists and classics. Louis Pasteur thought imagination was necessary
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for a man of science,. nevertheless, he checked up on all. his ideas and hypothesis by staging thorough experiments. He. was his own most exacting critic. During his life Louis Pasteur stressed many times the importance of the experimental method in scientific research, and was of the opinion that only this method secured the progress of science.
• He initiated several sciences and founded microbiology, but at the same time he thought it incorrect to divide the' sciences into theoretical and practical ones. He used to say that there are theoretical sciences and applied sciences, which are as closely associated as are fruit and the tree-that bore it. The practical benefits which L. Pasteur’s work brought to. all mankind are incalculable.
On the day of the 150th anniversary of his birth, we remember with gratitude the professional career of this outstanding scientist, a great humanist, an unequalled master in experimentation, and a true patriot of his Motherland.
I. Make a short summary of the texts and say which ideas of the texts attracted your • attention most of all.
II. Discuss the following questions with your fellow students:	• _
1.	.What can you say about the biography of Louis Pasteur?
2.	Read the life of Pasteur and try to decide which of his discoveries are of the greatest benefit to mankind? Describe these discoveries.
3-	. What was one of Pasteur’s first discoveries?
4.	How did they formerly treat people bitten by mad animals?
5.	Speak on the episode with the little boy, bitten by a mad dog and saved by Louis Pasteur. .
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION — WORLDWIDE CONCERN
As a higly industrialized state which accounts for 20 per cent of the world’s industrial production, the Soviet Union cannot ignore the problem of environmental protection..
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Nature conservation has always been an important part of Soviet domestic and foreign policy. Even in the formative years of Soviet government Lenin» the founder and leader of our state, signed more than a hundred documents relating to the preservation and rational use of natural resources. As our country’s economy developed, ecological issues became increasingly important for the state, and about 20 years igo conservation legislation was adopted by the Union Republics.
The next step in the growing official attention to environmental protection began with the inclusion, since 1975, •of a special section on nature conservation and rational use of the natural resources in the annual and long-term economic and social development plans. And ultimately, environmental protection became a constitutional principle, appearing in the new USSR Constitution of 1977, the first constitution ever to make it so. From this one can see that the ecology and its protection are considered a matter for the entire country, and appropriate measures are stipulated in all-Union legislation and in the legislation of the Union' Republics.
To make state policy in environmental protection more - effective, theJJSSR State Committee for Hydrometeorology and Control of Natural Environment was established by government decree. It is responsible for the organization and the activities of a state system of environmental supervision and control for regulating the utilization of urban and industrial air basins and control over the sources of their pollution, and for the elaboration of the maximum levels of allowable discharge of pollutants into the. atmosphere and seeing that they are met. It will also look over planned location of~new factories, etc., and the reconstruction of factories and other structures to see that they meet anti-pollution requirements.
Even now, there are 1,000 control stations in 250 Soviet cities keeping a constant watch over the air, 1,200 stations for checking inland fresh water, 1,600 stations checking the seas, and 2,700 posts for soil checkup.
The USSR was the first country to establish maximum levels of harmful substances for the air and water. Qne of the ways we keep big city air pure is through the broad  use of central- heating systems. All the large factories built recently have purification systems. More than 50 per
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cent of industrial water needs are met by reusing water. And in the near future our new chemical and petrochemical plants will be based on wasteless technology.
Both government and public organizations are involved in ecological protection; we have nature conservation societies throughout the Union Republics which supervise the observance of the relevant legislation, and publicize the need to protect the environment and to rationally use and renew natural resources. Their praiseworthy work is backed by popular sentiment and by local authorities.
International cooperation — We cannot talk about state’s environmental protection measures without mentioning its extensive international efforts in the field.
First comes cooperation with the socialist countries. In 1972, the CMEA Committee for Scientific and Technical Cooperation formed a special council to examine the basic direction of environmental research, coordinate efforts . and diffuse the respective experience among the socialist countries. There are coordinated scientific programmes’ for preventing environmental pollution, industrial use of waste, developing wasteless technologies and closed water-supply cycles, and for the conservation and improvement of natural landscapes. A single system of 155 basic environmental* indicators has been drawn up to coordinate the relevant activities of the socialist countries.
The USSR takes part in all the main international environmental protection programmes sponsored by various international organizations.
The '’Soviet Union initiated an all-European meeting on cooperation in environmental protection, and supports all preparatory efforts towards it. We seek to ensure that they are finalized on a generally acceptable platform as soon as possible so that the meeting can take place this • year. We believejthat the proposed agenda, which includes the development*of new and modernization of the existing non-polluting low-waste technologies, and questions of across-bordfer drift of pollutants, is urgent and important for all the countries which took part in the European Conference for Security and Cooperation.
The Soviet Union also believes that bilateral coopera-  tion between states with different social systems is equally
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important, and since 1972 has signed bilateral agreements on cooperation in environmental protection with several of the developed capitalist countries (the USA, Britain, France, Belgium.) Agreements on economic, scientific and technological cooperation with Italy, Sweede'n, Denmark, Finland and other countries provide for joint measures in the field.
The Soviet Union feels that cooperation on the matter with the United States, the capitalist world’s biggest, industrial power, is extremely important, and their agreement on environmental protection was the first document in the series of scientific and technological cooperation agreements which began a new state in their relations at the beginning of the 1970s.
The five-year agreement expired, in 1977, but considering their interest in continued cooperation, the great extent of the joint studies, the important practical results plus the social and political importance of the agreement, it has been extended for another five years (1977—1982), and both countries have reaffirmed their desire to expand and deepen their cooperation.
There are now 41 jdint Soviet-American cooperation projects, embracing a wide range of scientific and techno-ogical questions and problems of environmental protection, rational utilization of natural resources and the man — nature relationship. Involved on the Soviet side are about 30 all-Union and republican ministries and administrations and more than 70 large research centres and factories, while an equally large number of departments and administrations and several industrial associations and companies are involved on the American side.
The practical results of the cooperation include the development of technology to control atmospheric and water pollution, agricultural pollution control, the study of man’s influence on the climate, the forecasting of earthquakes and tsunamis, and the biological and genetic consequences of pollution. Also included is the protection of rare and vanishing plants and animals as well as a whole lot more.
Moscow News, 1981, № 51.
I. Shorten the text by omitting the details and reproduce it in your own words.-
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II. Using the information from the text enlarge on: ’’What are the things that you can do to help preserve our .wildlife.”	—
.	IP. PAVLOV
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was born in the old Russian city of Ryazan on September 14, 1849. His father was then a young priest of a poor parish and had to supplement his income by work in the garden and orchard. He was something of an intellectual who loved books and read widely. From him Ivan acquired a love of learning and a respect for scholarship.
Ivan Petrovich started lessons in reading and writing at the age of five from an elderly lady who drilled him with unflagging zeal. But his greatest joy was in working, with his father in the garden and orchard, a taste for physical work which he carried throdgh life.
Due to a fall which seriously affected his general health, he did not enter the Ryazan church schoo,1 until he was eleven. When .he finished the elementary course, he entered the local theological seminary.
During Pavlov’s student years Russia was going through momentous changes. The middle of the nineteenth century was a turbulent time. The serfs won their freedom in 1861 and the ferment around this issue dominated the intellectual life of the country. It was the period of the revolutionary democrats and enlighteners — Belinsky, Herzen, Chernyshevsky, Dobrolyubov, Pisarev. These men fought against reaction in political life, in culture and in science; Liberalism was the temper-of their thought and materialism was their philosophy. This group of revolutionary thinkers had a strong influence on the young Pavlov. Following their articles in the- progressive journals and their fiery debates on science, he was imbued with their enthusiasm and their ideas.
In a short autobiographical piece, Pavlov later wrote of this period: ’’Under the influence of the literature of the sixties, especially Pisarev, our intellectual interests turned to natural science in the University”. While still at the seminary hi was strongly moved by two books that were
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to be permanent influences in his life. The first was "Reflexes of the Brain”, the classic work of the founder of physiology in Russia, I. M. Sechenov, and the second was a text-book, on practical physiology.
Under these influences Pavlov rejected his hereditary ' career in the church and left the seminary without completing the course. He then entered the University at St. Petersburg, where he enrolled in the physic^ and mathematics department, taking the natural science course. His excellent recprd and a certificate of poverty brought him a scholarship which covered his livjng expenses.
At the University Pavlov studied with a number of outstanding teachers. He sat under such «professors as Mendeleyev in inorganic chemistry and Butlerov in organic chemistry. But it. was I. F. Tsyon’s course in physiology which settled the question of carrer-for him. Tsyon was an extraordinarily skilled experimenter and his tutelage played a big part in making the young Pavlov into one of the greatest experimental scientists of all time. Pavlov’s schoolboy interest in physiology developed rapidly into a firm resolve to master the subject. In the autobiography he wrote: "At the time the faculty was in a brilliant state. We had a number of professors of great authority in science with outstanding talents as lecturers. I chose for my major course animal physiology, and took chemistry as a minor. We physiologists were enormously impressed by Tsyon. Wg were truly fascinated by his ingeniously simple exposition of the most complex physiological questions, and his masterful ability in conducting experiments. One can never forget such a teacher.”
While still an undergraduate at the University, Pavlov, under Tsyon’s direction and together with another student, conducted his first experimental research. It was concerned 'with the physiology of the nerves of the pancreas. He received a gold medal for his work. In 1875 he completed his course with an outstanding record „and received the degree of Candidate of Natural Sciences.
The following four years were difficult ones for the young scientist. It was hard to find work since the universities were controlled, as a rule, by political appointees' of the tsarist regime. Those interested in serving science rather than currying favor were forced-to leave the country to carry on their researches. Among such victims were
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Sechenov and Mechnikov. Pavlov was no exception. So for four years-he moved from laboratory to laboratory.
But finally in 1870, after graduating at the Military Medical Academy with a gold medal award for his research, he won a two year fellowship. About the same time he was invited by the famous clinician, S. P.-Botkin, to work in the physiological laboratory at his clinic. Here Pavlov could devote all his time to research, which he did until 1890. He was, in fact if not in title, in charge of the laboratory, if a small bathhouse with no equipment and no funds to buy animals for experiments can be dignified with the title. But here in his first laboratory Pavlov was completely his own master and thus had full opportunity for creative development.
. It was mainly in the Botkin clinic that Pavlov carried on his research into the nervous regulation of blood circulation. Here we are not primarily concerned with the results of these experiments, but we are interested in the new experimental method devised by Pavlov, for it was one component leading to the eventual discovery of conditioned reflexes.
Pavlov found that the classic physiological method of experimenting on anaesthetized animals was unsuitable ’ for work on the complex problem of nerve regulation. Anaesthesia had a distorting effect on the reflex actions of the nervous system. Pavlov succeeded in eliminating this and in taking a first step toward his method of studying the functions of the intact organism under natural conditions. He did this by training the experimental dogs to lie on the operating ЯаЫе and calmly undergo without narcosis all the manipulations of an elaborate and lengthy experiment: incising the skin and surface tissues; disclosing the artery and connecting it to instruments for registering blood pressure and similar procedures.
By this- new method Pavlov was able' to discover a number of important laws concerning the reflex regulation of the cardiac and vascular functions. From these discoveries he made a broad generalization to the effect that not only the blood vessels, but all organs contain specific sensitive nerve devices adapted to respond to mechanical, physical stimulants. From this he concluded that it is the nervous system that regulates and combines the varied activity of the organism into one unified whole.
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These broad generalizations were by no means speculative, but were the result of almost fifteen years of exacting yet creative experimental work. They were firmly rooted in what Pavlov throughout his life liked to refer to as ”Mr. Fact”. In 1890 Pavlov was appointed Professor of Pharmacology at the Military Medical Academy. He remained for five years at this post, and then was appointed to the chair of physiology in the same academy, which he held for some thirty years. It was at the Military Medical Academy that he did some of his work on the digestive system and the early phase of the work on conditioned reflexes.
Meantime he had been invited in 1891, to organize and direct the department of physiology in the new Institute of Experimental Medicine. He was head of that department for 45 years — until the end of his life. Here he did the bulk of his classic experiments on digestive glands which made him world famous.
The study of digestion was one of the background branches of physiology. The chief reason was that the old ’’acute” or vivisectional type of experiment was not suitable for studying the intricate workings of the digestive glands. In overcomimg this difficulty Pavlov perfected his method of the chronic experiment, begun in his work on circulation.
The method was called ’’chronic”, meaning lasting a long time or continuously, in opposition to the ’’acute”, meaning short but critical, or coming speedily to a crisis through drastic surgery (for example, the removal of organs for purposes of analysis). This latter method had played an important role in physiological research as long as the analysis of structure was the primary task. But when the function of an organ or system of organs was to be investigated, the drastic acute method was far too crude and led Jo distortions of functions which made discovery of laws all but impossible.
The secret of the chronic method as employed by Pavlov was to treat the organism as a whole thus making possible the investigation of the interrelation of organs. The technique employed was the construction, through highly skilled surgery, of a fistula, an opening or a ’’window”. This fistula would then allow the experimenter to observe the functioning of the gland or organ or system
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under controlled conditions but without interference with the normal, healthy functioning of the animal.
Pavlov devised and performed a series of ingenious and delicate operations to construct these fistula „windows”. He built fistulas in the stomachs, pancreas and salivary glands of his experimental animals. These made accessible for observation and experiment the internal digestive organs without impairing their nervous regulation, blood supply, and interconnection throughout the - animal organism. They made it possible for the researcher to observe and experiment on an animal while at the same time it lived a normal life and its living conditions remained essentially unaltered.
Pavlov accomplished this feat by masterful surgical technique and by instituting for the first time in history the kind of aseptic operative and post-operative care which had up to that time been the case only in hospitals for human beings. This was absolutely necessary if the experiment was to be chronic. The health of the animal had above all to be preserved or restored.
On such healthy animals with fistula ’’windows” in different parts of the digestive system, Pavlov carried forward his experiments to discover the facts and laws of digestion. This synthetic approach, the chronic method, made possible, a much closer, and more detailed and allsided study of the digestive glands as they function under normal life conditions without disturbing the integrity of . the complex organism or its relation with the environment.
Here again we are not primarily concerned with the results of these experiments on the digestive glands. We are, however, deeply concerned with the innovation in method. For if was this method that was to make possible Pavlov’s work with the conditioned reflex.
The acute type of experiment is mechanical in approach since it treats .the organs and systems, of the organism as parts of a simple machine which can be disassembled without changing their nature and function. At the same time, it isolates the organism from its environment. The acute experiment as Pavlov put it, is unfit even ”to obtain irreproachable analytical data,” let alone synthetic methods, analysis and synthesis, both are essential for scientific experiment if it is to disclose the function as well as the structure of complex living matter.-This is particu
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larly true when the investigation concerns nervous regulation, since all nerves are coordinated through the central nervous system, and isolation cannot but disrupt and distort the complex interrelations.
Analysis means the separation of anything into its constituent parts. It is the resolving, dissecting, reducing of a thing from a single whole to its discrete elements. Such a process is an indispensable phase of any scientific inquiry. But it must be viewed as a phase, and not as an end in itself. For an organ is not simply a collection of parts, but is a system, a more oir less complex interrelation of constituent elements. Not only that, but the organ is likewise, itself, not isolated from others which together form another system. Thus any system of parts forming a single organic whole is interrelated in two ways, internally and externally; that is, the interconnection of internal parts and the interrelation of organism and environment.
The process of studying the interconnections and interrelations and of .treating the organism as a whole, together with its life conditions, is called synthesis, or the synthetical method. Synthesis is the putting together the composition, the combination of parts or elements tp form a whole. As such, it is the direct opposite of analysis. The two in their interconnection form the methodology of science, if it is to discover the laws of complex processes.
Pavlov was the first physiologist to employ both approaches systematically. The chronic experiment was the solution of the problem of synthesis in physiological in-' vestigation. He supplemented the analytical approach to the structure and functions of the organism with a synthetic one. In this way he created a dialectical method of study; that is, he combined the two opposite methods into one unified approach. It was' this dialectical method which enabled Pavlov to study the organism in its integrity and in its unity with its environment.
In his study of blood circulation and of digestion, Pavlov'was governed by a single idea: to investigate the nervous regulation of the activity of the organism. This idea or principle he called ’’nervism”. ’’By nervism”, Pavlov wrote, ”1 mean the tendency in physiology which tries to extend the influence of the nervous system on the greatest possible number of functions of the organism”.
This principle was not entirely new with Pavlov, but
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had a brief history prior to his work. I. M. Sechenov, I. F. Tsyon, and S. P. Botkin played significant roles in developing it. It was Pavlov, however, who embodied nervism wholly in his work and who, with his later study of brain physiology, brought jt to full fruition.
Under the theoretical guidance of the principle of nervism and employing the method of the chronic experiment with its fistula window, Pavlov in his twenty-old years of work on digestion proved conclusively that the main digestive glands, such as the liver, the gastric glands, and the pancreas, have nerves that cause the secretion of digestive juices. This was a major discovery, one which brought the study of digestion out of the stagnation in which it had remained for decades.
Pavlov published in 1897 the results and generations of his study of digestion in a book entitled "Work of the Digestive Glands”. For this he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1904. He was the first Russian scientist, and the first physiologist in the world, to receive the award.
"Towards a Scientific Psychiatry and Physiology" by H. K. Wells.
I.	Make up key questions to the text.
II.	Give the contents of the text in detail using your key questions.
III.	Write a brief summary of the text in English.
IV.	Discuss the following questions with your fellow students:
1)	In what way does conditional behaviour differ from a reflex response? Write a report about it.
2)	Describe Pavlov’s experiment. What happens in the dog’s brain as a result of conditioning?
3)	What is a conditional behaviour? Give your example.
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL FOR GRAMMAR REVISION
1. Analyse and translate the following sentences (infinitive):
1. About three hundred years ago Robert Hooke found
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the acorn of the oak tree to be made of tiny compartments which he named cells. 2. To prevent the eyes from drying, most land vertebrates have well-developed eyelids which they blink many times each minute to keep the eyeball clear and moist. 3. One of the surprising features of the Arctic is the number of insects to be found there. 4. Dinosaurs were the first animals to fly. 5. Lizards are found to live everywhere in the world except the Arctic regions. 6. Bacteria seem to be nearly everywhere. 7. An organ is a group of tissues working together to do a certain job. 8. Most insects are known to have large compound eyes and often three or more simple eyes situated between the others. 9. The endocrine secretions have been found to control many of the organic functions. 10. Bacteria are known to live on either dead or living materia. 11. When conditions are favourable, some insects are known to produce a new generation in less than two weeks. 12. We know Michurin to have crossed not only different varieties oT the same plant but different plants, for instance, apples and pears. 13. Dockutchaev believed plants to influence soil development. 14. We found the enzymes to have played an important part in the building of the complex substance from a simple one. 15. Earthworms help to keep soil porous, which allows air to penetrate to the roots of plants. 16. Prolonged irritation seems to cause some cancers. 17. Scientists consider each part of the nervous system to have a definite function. 18. Birds are said to be warm-blooded. 19. Everybody knows the nervous system to consist of many thousands of nerve cells or neurons. 20. Many other vitamins are known, but most of them have not yet been proved to be essential in human metabolism.
* * *
1. Proteins to be circulated must be digested into amino acids. 2. Since the functions of nerves in animals have long been known to involve electric phenomena it is not strange that scientists are beginning to look on the electric changes in plant cells as a type of nervous activity. 3. To establish the relationships of these acids two things must be taken into consideration. 4. Among other things Robert
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Нооке examined thin slices of corn obtained from the bark of a tree, and found it to be made up of little boxes which he called cells. 5. Undoubtedly there is a determi-ning_Jactor that causes each branch root to be sent forth from a definite point, but its nature is obscure. 6. The specificity of enzymes action is thought to be related to the properties of the enzyme protein. 7. In many instances the sex pattern of plants appears to be influenced more readily by environmental factors than does that of animals. 8. Enzymes are known to be present in the chloroplasts. 9. Enzymes are very sensitive to acids and alkalies and might be expected to start reverse activities when changes in acidity occur. 10. Scientists are agreed that life began in the sea, and blood is believed to have originated by sea water being enclosed within the body. 11. Movements of the air are known to increase evaporation from the leaves. 12. The power of bacteria to produce disease is known as virulence. 13. The first thing to be done in this case is to roll the soil after ploughing for firmness to be obtained.
II. Analyse and translate the following sentences ' (ing-forms):
1. Studying the complex biological phenomena manifested in hydridization, Mitchurin developed entirely new methods, not known before him either in biological science or in the practical work of plant or animal breeders. 2. We were surprised at his not being invited to the party. 3. I am greatful for your having invited me. 4. The presence of this toxin having been detected, the patient was injected with antitoxin. 5. We' couldn’t clear up some points in the report without asking some questions. 6. The stability of the compound being formed must be considered. 7. Hydrogen is the lightest substance known. 8. The flowers pollinated by fliers are most often dark in colour. 9. Leaves on -plants grown in darkness are very small. 10. There is a difference of opinion as to the amount of carbon taken from the soil by the roots of plants. 11. The. possibility of demonstrating specific parts of the intestinal tract as being responsible for the intoxication seen in those animals was explored in two ways. 12. The leaves, having no growth tissue, are secondary structures.
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13.'Photosynthesis forms sugar which is temporarily changed to starch, this keeping down sugar concentration in the cell. 14. Any plant part used as food contains several vitamins. 15. Leaves are born mostly at the tops of branches, the main limbs toward the trunk being devoid of them. 16. Botany-Zoology system grew up naturally as biologic science developed, the emphases during its early years being placed on structure and relationships. 17. The sources of materials used have been recorded elswhere. 18. The theoretical treatment given is based entirely upon the experiment. 19. Before being planted, potatoes are cut into several pieces, each piece having at least one eye. 20. Unfortunately it is not possible to present in this book all the information obtained. 21. The size of microorganisms is usually expressed in microns, a micron being one thousandth of a millimeter. 22. Verterbrates known as fishes are widely distributed, being found in water in nearly all parts of the earth. 23. Having made a great number of experiments with different substances the chemists found that most of them could be decomposed into other substances. 24. The succession of plants during a single growing season illustrates the distribution of plants by temperature, the spring plant being able to endure greater cold than can those of the summer. 25. Plants grown in the dark are always colourless, chlorophyll becoming green only under the action of light. 26. Abundant water being combined with high temperature, luxuriant vegetation is the result. 27. My little sister dislikes .being alone at home. 28.-Not all water present in soil is capable of being drawn by the root of plants. 29. There is a possibility of his being sent to this conference. 30. In this figure you can see a diagram of recording. 31. After having checked the temperature twice he decided to change conditions of the experiment. 32. In some species the vessels may be of both large and small diameter, the large vessels being concentrated in the wood formed early in the growing season. 33. In many lower plants there is little organization and differentiation of the plant body, the individual cells being held together very loosely. 34. Birds have no teeth, the food being swallowed without chewing. 35. All primates resemble man to some degree, the resemblance being least marked in the monkeys. 36. Many birds thrive in the Arctic, the sea birds being
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more numerous than the land ones. 37. The frog is a cold-blooded animal, its temperature varying with the environment. 38. Children lacking sufficient vitamin C, their teeth frequently decay easily. 39. Cold-blooded forms possess no heat-producing or heat-regulating mechanisms, their bodies tending to take the temperature of the surrounding water. 40. Only the snakes have no eyelids at all, their eyes being fixed in a permanent glassy stare. 41. Whether a substance is an element or not could be determined by experimenting. 42. We insist on their taking part in this experiment. 43. During the experiment I needed recording temperature immediately.
III. Analyse and translate the following sentences (Subjunctive mood):
1. I should like to begin with a general description of metabolism and then f shall turn to a discussion of the total biochemistry of small organisms such as bacteria and yeasts. 2. Scientists would be delighted to build even the simplest carbohydrate from carbon and water, but nature herself finds that impossible. 3. It is necessary that this equipment undergo a thorough test before putting it into practice. 4. During frosty weather it is important that the water should be drained from pipes which are likely to freeze. 5. It is desirable that all possible doubts concerning the structure of the DNA molecule should be eliminated. 6. If the reaction involves more than one substance it is not necessary that they should all have the same initial concentration. 7. The first requirement of a good system of classification is that it should be objective and reproducible. 8. The very successes of physics and chemistry have ensured that biology should now present the key problems of the whole of natural science. 9. What would happen provided all the air could be forced out the room? 10. Oxygen is an element of utmost importance to us, all living things would die without it. 11. If the temperature should fall below the boiling point the boiling will immediately cease. 12. It would be incorrect to say that X-rays became available to mankind as the result of an accident. 13. I should like to remind that bionics is a very large subject and one which is growing rapidly. 14. It would be a great mistake to believe that a li-184
ving biologically homogeneous tissue can be compared with ordinary physically homogeneous substance. 15. There is no telling whether the evolution of life on different ’’inhabitable” planets takes the same track as it did on our Earth. The study of life in different worlds would contribute essentially to our understanding of the evolutionary process. 16. The bee is an insect. This means that its body looks as if it were cut out through in two pieces. The word ’’insect” means ’’cut into”. 17. Biology now touches the physical sciences at so many points that it would be difficult for anyone who has worked in the latter not to have had some practical contacts with biological topics, 18. Provided the problem of air and water could be solved, life on the Moon would be possible. 19. Enzymes do not alter the equilibrium point of a balanced reaction, provided the same intermidiate products are formed as during the action of some other catalyst. 20. It is desirable that the biophysical investigation of the neuron be not limited to bioelectric processes, but be systematic and exhaustive. 21.-It is essential that the substance be chemically pure. 22. Although it is highly important that this cardinal fact be clearly grasped, the science of biology today is not in a position to interpret the responses of organism in these fundamental terms.
* * *
1. It would be easy to expand this idea to show how hardly a scientific development of recent years could have been achieved without the aid of mathematics. 2. The disease was due to the lack of a vitamin, and it could he abolished if milk were added to the diet. 3. Were it not for the action of these helpful bacteria, nitrogen and other valuable element would soon be gone from the soil, and all life on the earth would cease. 4. If the concentration of the enzyme were increased, the rate of the reaction would be changed. 5. If food particles were absent from the water, the bulk of the ameba would gradually diminish. 6. If the cancer had been detected early enough, it would have been destroyed or its growth would have been arrested by treatment. 7. How much more Pasteur would have done in the branch of microbiology if he had lived longer.
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8. Never has the advance of Biology been so rapid as it is now. 9. Tryptophone cannot be synthesized by animals and it should- therefore be present in the food, either free or combined as a protein. 10. The very successes of physics and chemistry have ensured that biology should now present the key problems of the whole of natural science. 11. Should there be no rain, crops will be spoiled. 12. As the plant is a living thing it must have food, or it would die. 13. Some people would pass by common things without notice. 14. Without the sun this world would be a very cold, dark, dreary place. Nothing could grow. No creature could live in it. It would be a dead world. 15. It is essential that all possible preparations should be taken while dealing with these substances. 16. What would happen if all the air could be forced out of the room? 17. Had the checking up of the experimental data not taken so much time, we should have completed our work in accord with the plan. 18. The intention of the present work was to see whether a detailed study of the environment would reveal any regularities of behaviour. 19. You said that you would do this work yourself. 20. He would do this work if you gave him all the necessary information to-morrow. 21. We should adopt the plan to-morrow if you explained it clearly at our meeting. 22. I said that I should support it. 23. I knew that you would do that. 24. I thought that he would agree with me: 25. He said that you would illustrate your report with figures. 26. He would obtain interesting results if he continued his investigation.
КРАТКИ Й СПРАВОЧНИК ПО ГРАММАТИКЕ
ГЛАГОЛ (THE VERB)
Формы глагола бывают личными и неличными. Личные глаголы служат в предложении сказуемым и согласуются в лице и числе с подлежащим.
Таблица времен личных форм,глагола.
	active	passive
Indefinite	to ask present I ask past I asked future I shall ask	to be asked I am asked I was asked I shall be asked
Continuous	to be asking present I am asking past I was asking future I shall be asking	to be being asked I am being asked I was being asked
Perfect	to have asked present I have asked Past I had asked future I shall have asked	to have been asked I have been asked I had been asked I shall have been asked
Perfect Continuous	to have been asking present I have been asking past I had been asking future I shall have been asking	
Неличными формами глагола являются: инфинитив, причастие и герундий. Неличные формы глагола могут выполнять функции различных членов предложения.
Английский глагол имеет три наклонения: изъявительное, повелительное, сослагательное и два залога — действительный (active) и страдательный (passive).
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Способы перевода страдательного залога:
Глагол в страдательном залоге можно перевести на русский язык следующими способами:
1.	При помощи глагола быть в прошлом и будущем времени и краткой формы причастия страдательного залога.
Skeletons of mammoths	Скелеты мамонтов были
have been found in Sibe-	обнаружены в Сибири
ria and Europe.	и в Европе.
2.	Глаголом с окончанием на -ся и ~сь в соответствующем времени, лице, числе.
The reaction is effected	Эта реакция осуществля-
under very high pressure.	ется при очень высоком
‘ давлении.
3.	Глаголом в 3-м лице множественного числа действительного залога в неопределенно-личном предложении. This method is looked	На этот метод смотрят
upon as the most progres-	как на наиболее прогрес-
sive one.	сивйый.
4.	Предложения с сочетаниями модальный глагол + инфинитив страдательного залога переводятся со словами можно, следует и др.
The problem must be sol- Эту проблему	следует
ved.	изучить.
5.	Подлежащее английского предложения становится в русском предложении косвенным дополнением в дательном или винительном падеже.
She was shown a new Ей показали новую book.	книгу.
Если в английском предложении после сказуемого в страдательном залоге стоит отдельный предлог, то при переводе соответствующий русский предлог ставится в начале предложения, и подлежащее английского предложения переводится предложным дополнением: Such plants are spoken	О таких растениях гово-
of as cross-pollinated.	рят как о перекрестно-
опыляемых.
Не was sent for.	За ним послали.
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Значительную трудность для перевода на русский представляет страдательный залог от глагола значение рассчитывать на,
язык
to depend. Он приобретает полагаться на:
Red clover can be usually depended upon to produce a good crop.
This method can never be depended upon.
Можно обычно рассчитывать на то, что красный клевер дает хороший урожай.
На этот метод нельзя никогда полагаться.
Согласование времен
Согласование времен выражает зависимость сказуемого дополнительного придаточного предложения от сказуемого главного предложения, если сказуемое главного предложения стоит в одном из прошедших времен. В таких случаях Past Indefinite или Past Continuous в придаточных предложениях переводится на русский язык настоящим временем, a Past Perfect — прошедшим
временем.
We knew he worked at this problem.
The newspapers reported that he had made a new discovery.
We said that we should do this work in time.
Мы знали, что он работает над новой проблемой
Газеты писали, что он сделал новое открытие.
Мы сказали, что сделаем эту работу вовремя.
Причастия и причастные обороты
Формы причастия
	active	passive
Present	asking	being asked
Past		asked
Perfect	having asked	having been asked
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Причастия в функции определения
Flowering plants produce seeds for reproduction.
The collective-farms growing vegetables must plow the soil in time.
The growth of all cultivated plants depends dn the fertility of the soil.
Hydrogen is the lightest substance known.
Varieties, being grown for storage must be selected.
Цветущие растения производят семена для размножения.
Колхозы, выращивающие овощи, должны вспахать почву вовремя.
Рост всех возделываемых растений зависит от плодородия почвы.
Водород — самое легкое вещество, которое известно.
Сорта, выращиваемые (которые выращиваются) для хранения, должны быть отобраны.
Причастия в функции обстоятельства
Considering the matter he encountered many difficulties.
Asked about the results of your experiment, you’ll make a report about it.
Having increased the depth of plowing we shall have a better home for the plant.
Рассматривая этот вопрос, он столкнулся со многими трудностями.
Если вас спросят о результатах вашего опыта, скажите, что вы сделаете доклад об этом.
Увеличив глубину вспашки, мы получим лучшую среду для развития растения.
Being deprived of the oxygen supply required, the plant is retarded in its growth.
Будучи лишено необходимого снабжения кислородом, растение отстает в росте.
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Независимый причастный оборот
Независимый причастный оборот отличается от обстоятельственного причастного оборота тем, что имеет свое собственное подлежащее и везде отделяется от главной части предложения запятой. Если независимый причастный оборот предшествует главному предложению, он переводится с подчинительными союзами так как, когда, после того как, если.
This soil containing a sufficient amount of moisture, a good yield of wheat may be produced on it.
Так как эта почва содержит достаточное количество влаги, на ней может быть получен хороший урожай пшеницы.
оборот стоит после переводится предло-тем как, хотя.
It is desirable to sow winter wheat early enough, the time of sowing varying with the locality.
Если независимый причастный главного предложения, чаще всего жениямр с союзами причем, между Желательно сеять озимую пшеницу достаточно райо, причем время сева бывает различным в зависимости от местности.
Встречаются случаи, когда независимый причастный оборот начинается с предлога with. Это не меняет пра-
вила его перевода.
With the beet growing largely underground, a deep seedbed is necessary.
Так как свекла растет в основном под землей, необходима глубоко обработанная почва. .
Герундий и герундиальные обороты
Формы герундия
	active	passive
Indefinite	asking	being asked
Perfect	*	having asked	having been asked
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Герундий переводится на русский язык существительным, деепричастием, инфинитивом, придаточным предложением.
В предложении герундий мо>Кет выполнять следующие функции:
1.	Подлежащего: Making these calculations may be a very difficult procedure.
2.	Именной части м о г о:
Seeing is believing.
3.	Дополнения: They spoke of building a new laboratory.
Выполнение этих расчетов может оказаться очень трудной процедурой.
составного сказу е-
У видеть — значит	пове-
рить.
I like translating scientific books.
Они говорили о постройке новой лаборатории.
Я люблю переводить научные книги.
' 4. Обстоятельства.
Перед герундием в этой функции всегда стоит предлог:
Before boiling these instruments you should clean them.
Прежде чем кипятить эти инструменты, вы должны их прочистить.
5. Определения:
The new method of teaching English was approved.
Новый метод исследования был одобрен.
6.	Сложные формы герундия обычно имеют перед собой определения, выраженные притяжательными местоимениями или существительными с предлогом. Такие герундиальные обороты переводятся на русский язык дополнительными придаточными предложениями и придаточными подлежащими. Причем определение герундия становится подлежащим, а сам герундий — сказуемым. I was told of his having Мне сказали, что он уже finished his experiments. закончил свои опыты. 192
Инфинитивы и инфинитивные обороты
Формы инфинитива
	Active	Passive
Indefinite	to ask	to be asked
Continuous	to be asking	-
Pelfect	to have asked	to have been asked
Perfect Continuous	to have been asking	—
В предложениях'инфинитив может выполнять следующие функции:
1. Подлежащего:
То study the structure of the plant is the first task of our laboratory.
Изучение строения растения является первой задачей нашей лаборатории.
2. И м е н н о й части составного сказуе-. мого и части составного глагольного сказуемого с модальным оттенком: The plan is to find out	План заключается в том,
all the necessary data.	чтобы выяснить все необ-
ходимые данные.
This machine is to be tested in our laboratory.
Машину должны испытать в нашей лаборатории.
Перфектный инфинитив после м о д а л fa-ных глаголов
Действие, выраженное перфектным инфинитивом, обычно относится к прошедшему времени. Глагол must + perfect infinitive переводится должно быть, должен был, вероятно. Глагол might, could 4- perfect infinitive переводится мог бы, возможно, может быть.
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You -mpst have seen him.
I could have gone there, but I lost .his address.
You might have made the experiment more carefully.
.3. Дополнения: He helped me to translate this text.
4. Обстоятельства в и я:
То get high yields of crops we must work hard.
Ail parts of a plant must be developed well enough to function properly.
Вы, должно быть, (вероятно) видели его.
Я могла бы поехать туда, но я потеряла его адрес.
Вы могли бы сделать опыт тщательнее.
Он помог мне перевести этот текст.
цели или следст-
Чтобы получить высокие урожаи, мы должны много работать. .
Чтобы функционировать правильно, все части растения должны быть развиты достаточно Хорошо.
5. Определения.
Инфинитив- в этой функции стоит непосредственно после существительного, которое он определяет, и переводится определительным придаточным предложением, сказуемое которого имеет оттенок долженствования.
Choosing the best variety to be grown in a given region is not a simple thing.
Выбор лучшего сорта, который должен выращиваться в данном районе, — не простая задача.
It is necessary to know the temperature to be expected under different conditions.
The problem to consider is very important.
Необходимо знать температуру, которую можно ожидать при различных условиях.
Вопрос, который будет рассматриваться, очень важный.
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Оборот „именительный падеж с инфинитивом"
Этот оборот состоит из существительного либо личного местоимения в именительном падеже и инфинитива, связанного с ним по смыслу. Между ними стоит сказуемое, выраженное личной формой глагола в страдательном залоге, или такие глаголы, как to seem, to appear, to prove, to happen, turn out в действительном залоге, или сочетание слов to be likely, to be unlikely, to be certain, to be sure.	•	;
He is considered to be a good specialist.'
He appeared to be a man of high intellect.
Their seed is certain to rot.
Считают, что он хороший специалист.
Казалось, что. он человек большого ума.
Их семена несомненно загниют..
Когда именительный падеж с инфинитивом употребляется с глаголами в страдательном залоге в отрицательной форме, отрицание относится к глаголу.
This reaction is not expected to continue indefinitely.
He предполагается, что эта реакция будет продолжаться бесконечно долго.
Если же сказуемое в отрицательной форме выражено в действительном залоге, то это отрицание относится к инфинитиву.
This phenomenon does not По-видимому, это явле-appear to have been ние не было изучено.
studied.
Объектный падеж с инфинитивом
Объектный падеж с инфинитивом — это сочетание существительного или местоимения в форме объектного падежа с инфинитивом. Это сочетание образует одну синтаксическую группу — сложное дополнение — и пере-
13*
195
водится на русский язык дополнительным придаточным предложением, причем местоимение,в объектном падеже переводится подлежащим, а инфинитив — сказуемым придаточного предложения.
I didn’Kknow them to take part in this expedition.
Everybody knows soil fertility to be a very important factor. •
Я не знал, что они принимают участие в этой экспедиции.
Каждый знает, ято плодородие почвы является -очень важным фактором.
Если глагол — сказуемое выражает чувства и восприятия, например, hear, see, feel, watch и некоторые другие, то инфинитив употребляется бёз частицы to.
We see the water boil in Мы видим, что вода ки-' the boiler.	пит в котле.
Инфинитивный оборот с предлогом for .также состоит из существительного или местоимения в объектном падеже с инфинитивом for + объектный падеж + инфинитив. Переводится придаточным предложением с союзами: чтобы, для того чтобы.
The soil must be well drained for warmth to be insured.
Почва должна быть хорошо дренирована, для того чтобы она прогревалась (чтобы тепло проникало в нее).
Сослагательное наклонение
Сослагательное наклонение выражает предположение, условие, желаемое действие. На русский язык переводился глаголом прошедшего времени с частицей бы.
Сослагательное наклонение может быть выражено простыми формами: be, were, know для всех лиц единственного и множественного числа. Сложными формами: should, would -f-инфинитив без частицы to should, would, might, could + перфектный инфинитив.
Употребляется:
1.	В простых предложениях со значением предположения, пожелания.
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Success attend you!	Пусть успех сопутствует
вам!
Somebody help him in Кто-нибудь помог бы ему his work. *	в его работе.
2.	После безличных оборотов типа its necessary, it is important, it is desirable.
It is important that plants Важно, чтобы растения (should) be irrigated.	поливались.
3.	В дополнительных придаточных предложениях после глаголов, выражающих приказание, предложение, желание типа suggest, demand, recommend, order, propose, insist, require.
We recommend that the ' Мы рекомендуем, чтобы' laboratory tests (should) лабораторные испытания be repeated.	были повторены.
4.	В придаточных предложениях после союзов that, so that, lest, in order that.
They gave him the address Они дали ему адрес, что-lest he should lose his way. бы он не заблудился.
5.	В обстоятельственных предложениях сравнения, или образа действия с союзами as if, as though.
You speak as if you were	Вы говорите, как будто
a specialist on the subj-	вы специалист по данно-
ect.	му вопросу.
/ 6. В условных предложениях. Условные предложения вводятся союзами if, unless, provided, on condition, that, in case и бывают двух типов:
а)	условные, относящиеся к настоящему или будущему времени. Переводятся в прошедшем времени с частицей бы.
If we placed several kinds	Если бы положили нес-
of matter on a hot stove,	колько веществ на горя-
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we should find that some would' get hot sooner than others.
чую плиту,  мы бы обнаружили, что некоторые из них нагреваются быстрее других.
б)	условие невыполнимое, относящееся к прошедшему периоду времени. Переводится также в прошедшем времени с частицей бы.
If we had come some mi-	Если бы	пришли, на	нес-
nutes earlier, we should	.	колько	минут раньше,
have met you.	мы бы	встретили	вас.
Различные значения	should и	would
Should употребляется:
1.	Как .вспомогательный глагол при согласовании времен в придаточных дополнительных предложениях Для выражения будущего времени в первом лице единственного и множественного числа.
Не asked if I should come	Он спросил меня, приду
to the conference.	ли я . на конференцию.
2.	Во всех, лицах единственного и множественного числа, для образования сложных форм сослагательного наклонения.	•
It is necessary that a fer- Необходимо, чтобы было tilizer should be applied. внесено удобрение.
3.	В первом лице единственного и множественного числа для образования сложных форм сослагательного наклонения, употребляющихся в главной части условных предложений II, III типов.
We should have investiga-	Мы бы исследовали это
ted this phenomenon if we	явление, если бы у нас
had time.	было время.
4.	Во всех лицах единственного и множественного числа для образования сложных форм сослагательного наклонения, употребляющихся в придаточной части условных предложений I, II типа.
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Should a plant lack water it will very soon wilt and cease to grow.
Should a plant lack water it would very soon wilt and cease to grow.
Если растению не хватает воды, оно скоро увянет и перестанет расти.
Если бы растению не хватало воды, оно через короткое время увяло бы и перестало расти.
5. В качестве модального дует, надлежит, должен.
глагола со значением сле-
The soil should be fine and mellow.
Почва должна быть мелкокомковой и хорошо разделанной.
Would употребляется:
1. Как вспомогательный глагол при согласовании времен в придаточных дополнительных предложениях для выражения будущего времени в любом лице единственного и множественного числа.
Не said that he would show the model of a new machine.
Он сказал, что покажет модель новой машины.
2. Во 2-м и Зм лице в ложеиий II и III типа.
If you took a text-book of biology you would find this material there.
главной части условных пред-
Если бы взяли учебник . биологии, вы бы нашли этот материал там.
3j Во 2-м и 3-м лице сослагательного наклонения, употребляющегося в простых предложениях со значением предположения, возможности.
It would be impossible to meet all the difficulties without this new method.
Было бы невозможно преодолеть все трудности без применения этого
метода.
4.	В качестве модального глагола во всех лицах единственного и множественного числа для выражения
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нежелания совершить действие в прошлом (категорическое отрицание).
The professor insisted on her repeating the experiment, but ,she wouldn’t.
Профессор настаивал на том, чтобы она повторила опыт, но она не захотела.
5.	Для обозначения обычно повторяющегося действия во всех лицах единственного и множественного числа.
Не would come and work Он бывало приходил with us.	и работал с нами.
6.	Для-выражения просьбы.
Would you wait for me He подождете ли вы меня for ten minutes? - десять минут?
Таблица нестандартных глаголов.
			
Indefinite	Past Indefinite	Participle II	Перевод
be	was, were	been	быть
beat	beat	beaten	бить
begin	began	begun	начинать
bring build	brought built	brought built	приносить строить
burn	burnt	burnt	сжигать
buy	bought	bought	покупать
come	came .	come	приходить
cost	cost	cost	стоить
cut	cut	cut	резать
do	did	done	делать
drink	dranks	drunk	пить
drive	drove	driven	ехать - ‘
eat	ate	eaten	есть
fall	fell	fallen _	падать
find	found	found	находить
fly	flew	flown	летать
give	gave .	given	давать
go	went	gone	идти
grow	grew	grown	расти
have	had	had	иметь
hear	heard	heard	слышать
hold	held	held	держать
keep	kept	kept	t	хранить
know	knew	known	знать
lay	laid	laid	класть
200
Indefinite	Past Indefinite	Participle II	Перевод
lead	led	led	вести
leave	left	left	оставлять
lose	lost	lost	терять
make	made	made	делать
mean	meant	meant	иметь в виду
meet	met	met	встречать
pay	paid	paid	платить
put	put	put	класть
read	read	jead	читать
rise	rose	risen	•	подниматься
say	said	said	сказать
see	saw	seen	видеть
send	sent	sent	посылать.
shake	shook	shaken	трясти
show	showed	shown	показывать
sit	sat	sat	сидеть
sleep	slept	slept	спать
speak	spoke	spoken	говорить
speed	sped	sped	ускорять
spend	spent	spent	тратить
stand	stood	stood	. стоять
swim	swam	swum	плавать
take	took	taken	брать х
teach	taught	taught	учить, преподпвать
tell	told	told	говорить
think	thought	thought	думать
understand	understood	understood	понимать
wear *	wore	worn	носить
win	won	won	выигрывать
wind	wound	wound	заводить
write	wrote	written	писать
Список принятых сокращений;
adj adjective — имя прилагательное adv. adverb — наречие conj. conjunction — союз n. noun — имя существительное nunk numeral — числительное part, particle — частица pl. plural — множественное число sing, singular — единственное число • pron. pronoun — местоимение v. verb — глагол
Использованная литература
I.	Адамсон Д. Моя беспокойная жизнь.'—М.: Прогресс, 1981.
2.	Большая, медицинская энциклопедия.— М.: Медгиз, 1958, т. 4,6;
1959, т. 13; 1960, т. 18; 1961, т. 22; 1962, т. 26.	-
3.	Даррел. Г. Зоопарк в_ моем багаже. Поместье Зверинец.— М.:
Мысль, 1978.	'
4.	Eisman Tanzer Ch. Biology and Human Progress. USA, 1958.
5.	Heiss E, D. Biology a Basic Science. USA, 1958.
6.	Novicoff G. From Head to Foot. New York, 1945.
7.	Platonov G. B. Timiryazev. Moscow, 1955.
8.	Shippgn-K. B. Men, Microscope and Living Things, 1945.
9.	Timiryazev K. The Life of the Plant. M., 1958.
10.	Timiryazev Institute of Plant Physiology.—M.: Nauka, 1976. .
11.	Wells H. K. Ivan Pavlov Toward Scientific Phychology and Psychiatry, New York, 1960. '	»
12.	Whaley W. G., Breland О. P, Principles of Biology. New York, 1945.
13.	Wright S. Applied Physiology. London, 1961.
14.	Wright H., Rapport S. The Amazing World of Medicine. New York, 1961.
15.	Moscow News.
ОГЛАВЛЕНИЕ
Предисловие.................................................5
Basic course
Lesson one. BIOLOGY.........................................8
Grammar: Indefinite, Continuous, Perfect Tenses. Active Voice.
Lesson two. BIOLOGY........................................13
Grammar: Indefinite, Continuous, Perfect Tenses. Active Voice. Modal Verbs.
Lesson three. ANIMALS AND PLANTS............................19	,
Grammar: Perfect Continuous Tenses.
Lesson four. LINNEAN SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION ... 26 Grammar: Passive Voice.
Lesson five. THE MICROSCOPE . . . .	. .	. .32
Grammar: Indefinite; Continuous, Perfect, Perfect Continuous -* Tenses. Active and Passive.
Lesson six. CHARLES DARWIN.................................39
Grammar: Direct and Indirect Speech, Sequence of Tenses.
Lesson seven. THE CELL.....................................47
Grammar: Participles. Forms and Functions.
Lesson eight. THE STUFF OF LIFE............................55
Grammar: Participles. Forms and Functions.
Lesson nine. FOOD FACTORS................................. 64
Grammar: Gerund. Forms and Functions.	z
Lesson ten. TIMIRYAZEV...................................  74
Grammar: Infinitive. Forms and Functions.
Lesson eleven. A WHITE-EYED FLY............................84
Grammar: Infinitive. Forms and Functions.
Lesson twelve. IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS.......................94
Grammar: Infinitive? Modal Verbs and Infinitive.
Lesson thirteen. LOUIS PASTEUR v ........ . .107 Grammar: Subjunctive Mood.
Lesson fourteen. AIR POLLUTION............................115
'Grammar: Subjunctive Mood. Conditional Sentenses.
Lesson fifteen. I. P. PAVLOV..............................125
Grammar; Subjunctive Mood.
204
Texts for Home-reading.
The Science of Biology..............................  138
Basic Life Functions................................143
Charles Darwin...................................  .147
The World of the Dolphin............................. 153
Genetics and the Essence of Life..................... 158
Bionics is the Science of the Future	 161
Louis Pasteur.......................................164
Environment Protection-World wide Concern...........170
Ivan Pavlov .........................................174
Supplementary Material for Grammar Revision ...............................................180
Краткий справочник по грамматике....................187