Рецензенты:
кафедра иностранных языков Института государственного управления
Академии управления при Президенте Республики Беларусь
Дмитриева И. В. — доцент кафедры истории и грамматики английского
языка Минского государственного лингвистического университета,
кандидат филологических наук.
Денисёнок Н. Е.
Английский язык для архитекторов: пособие / Н. Е. Денисёнок. — Мн.: Лексис, 2002. —
240 с.
Пособие написано в соответствии с программой по иностранным языкам для неязыковых вузов. Состоит из
двух разделов, глоссария и приложения. Материалом пособия послужили оригинальные тексты. В первом разделе,
состоящем из одиннадцати уроков-тем, представлены тексты, которые дают общую характеристику архитектурных
стилей. Упражнения направлены на расширение словарного запаса, развитие умений и навыков для полного пони¬
мания читаемого и адекватного его воспроизведения при использовании текста для развития продуктивных видов
речевой деятельности — говорения и письма. Во втором разделе представлены тексты для дополнительного чтения.
Глоссарий включает лексические единицы и словосочетания из учебных тектов и упражнений. В приложении пред¬
ставлено графическое изображение памятников архитектуры, основных архитектурных элементов и строительных
конструкций.
Для студентов архитектурных специальностей вузов. Может быть использовано также широким кругом чита¬
телей, интересующихся историей архитектуры.
© Денисёнок Н. Е., 2002
© ООО “Лексис”, 2002

CONTENTS
Предисловие 	4
Section I. From Pyramids to Post-Modernism	5
Unit 1. Egyptian Architecture 	6
Reading Task 	6
Unit 2. Classical Greece 	11
Reading Task: Part 1 	11
Reading Task: Part 2 	13
Reading Task: Part 3 	16
Unit 3. Imperial Rome 	22
Reading Task: Part 1 	22
Reading Task: Part 2 	24
Reading Task: Part 3 			27
Reading Task: Part 4 	31
Unit 4. The Early Christian and Byzantine Period	36
Reading Task: Part 1 	.36
Reading Task: Part 2 	39
Unit 5. The Romanesque Style 	44
Reading Task: Part 1 	44
Reading Task: Part 2 	48
Unit 6. The Gothic Styie 	54
Reading Task: Part 1 	54
Reading Task: Part 2 	57
Reading Task: Part 3 	60
Unit 7. The Renaissance 	66
Reading Task: Part 1 	66
Reading Task: Part 2 	68
Reading Task: Part 3 	73
Reading Task: Part 4 	75
Unit 8. The Baroque Period 	82
Reading Task 	82
Unit 9. The Neoclassical Style 	 	90
Reading Task 	90
Unit 10. The Nineteenth Century 	96
Reading Task 	96
Unit 11. The Twentieth Century 	104
Reading Task 	104
Section II. Supplementary Reading Material 	113
Appendix. Architectural Features 	151
Glossary 			195
References 			239

ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ
Пособие предназначено для студентов архитектур¬
ных специальностей вузов и ставит целью комплексное
формирование практических умений в разных профес¬
сионально-ориентированных видах англоязычной рече¬
вой деятельности на основе развития навыков смысло¬
вого восприятия письменного текста.
Материалом пособия послужили оригинальные тек¬
сты. Тематика текстов охватывает историю развития ар¬
хитектурных стилей. Это позволяет обучаемым не только
усвоить чрезвычайно обширный лексический пласт
“языка архитектуры”, но и создать общее представление
об архитектуре.
Пособие состоит из двух разделов, глоссария и при¬
ложения. В первом разделе, состоящем из одиннадцати
уроков-тем, представлены тексты, которые дают общую
характеристику архитектурных стилей. Последователь¬
ный хронологический переход текстов от одного архи¬
тектурного стиля к другому дает возможность создать бо¬
лее или менее целостную картину развития архитектуры.
Приведенная периодизация стилей соответствует перио¬
дизации, принятой в Великобритании и США. Все тек¬
сты информативно насыщены и имеют несомненный
познавательный интерес, что предполагает повышение
мотивации студентов в изучении учебного материала.
Наряду с текстами в первом разделе предлагаются
разнообразные языковые и речевые упражнения. Языко¬
вые упражнения выполняют задачу обучения студентов
структурным элементам языка, которые являются сред¬
ством реализации речевого общения. Большое внимание
уделяется работе с лексикой. В практику вводятся зада¬
ния на понимание смысла через толкование явлений и
соответствующих терминов, нахождение синонимов и
антонимов, комбинаторные свойства лексических еди¬
ниц, словообразование (что является одним из эффек¬
тивных способов наращивания индивидуального слова¬
ря). Предъявление языкового материала в такой форме
способствует не только пониманию аутентичных ино¬
язычных текстов, но также накоплению языкового опы¬
та и его использованию. Речевые упражнения предпола¬
гают обучение говорению на базе прочитанного текста.
Построению целостного текста способствуют упражне¬
ния на восстановление лексических пропусков.
Предлагаемые для перевода связные мини-тексты
позволяют не только практиковаться в корректном
употреблении терминологических единиц, но и обуча¬
ют пониманию необходимости владения лингвистичес¬
кими и экстралингвистическими средствами организа¬
ции текста. Предусмотренные в конце каждого урока-
темы задания на развитие навыков монологической ре¬
чи в виде сообщения или доклада, которые могут быть
также использованы для развития навыков диалогичес¬
кой речи и ведения дискуссий, определяют тему и пред¬
полагают перечень вопросов, которые необходимо зат¬
ронуть. Это, с одной стороны, определяет смысловое
содержание высказывания, с другой — обеспечивает
необходимые языковые опоры. Наряду с этим традици¬
онно развиваются умения фиксации информации, из¬
влеченной из прочитанного текста (в виде аннотаций и
рефератов), и перевод. Благодаря используемой систе¬
ме упражнений данное пособие позволяет расширить
словарный запас студентов, необходимый для разных
сфер общения, а также обучить их комплексу умений и
навыков анализа смыслового содержания и логико¬
коммуникативной организации текста, необходимых
для полного понимания читаемого и его адекватного
воспроизведения при использовании текста для разви¬
тия продуктивных видов речевой деятельности — гово¬
рения и письма.
Во второй раздел включены тексты для дополни¬
тельного чтения о выдающихся памятниках зодчества и
крупнейших архитекторах XIX и XX вв., оказавших боль¬
шое влияние на развитие мировой архитектуры. Эти тек¬
сты способствуют расширению профессионального и
общего кругозора студентов. Тексты сопровождаются
иллюстрациями архитектурных сооружений, которые
дают возможность активизировать идиоматику и про¬
фессиональную лексику путем их описания.
Глоссарий содержит наиболее характерные и частот¬
ные архитектурные термины и общеупотребительную
лексику, необходимые для понимания предложенных
текстов и выполнения послетекстовых упражнений. Все
лексические единицы, которые могут вызвать затрудне¬
ние в понимании, даются с объяснениями.
В приложении представлено графическое изображе¬
ние памятников архитектуры, основных архитектурных
элементов и строительных конструкций как иллюстра¬
тивного материала к текстам первого раздела, который
может быть также использован в качестве стимула к выс¬
казыванию.
Более мотивированному достижению программных
целей способствует согласование во времени изучения
материалов пособия с читаемыми курсами по профили¬
рующим дисциплинам.
Творческая инициатива преподавателя, работающе¬
го с пособием, способна дать наиболее эффективные ре¬
зультаты обучения.
Пособие может быть использовано не только сту-
дентами-архитекторами, но и самым широким кругом
читателей, интересующихся историей архитектуры.
Автор выражает искреннюю признательность и бла¬
годарность кандидату филологических наук, доценту
И.В. Дмитриевой (МГЛУ) и кандидату филологических
наук, доценту Л.В. Вертаевой (ИГУ Академии управле¬
ния при Президенте Республики Беларусь) за детальный
анализ рукописи и ценные методические рекомендации,
а также декану архитектурного факультета БИТУ канди¬
дату архитектуры, доценту Г.В. Полянской за большую
помощь при подготовке рукописи к изданию.

Section I
From Pyramids to Post-Modernism

Reading Task
Find the following terms in the glossary and memorize their meanings.
ancient
court
construction
regular
BC
processional axis
masonry construction
grid
temple
flank v
fill in
carved
tomb
sphinx
smooth
entrance
obelisk
columnar type
finish
bastion
battered wall
trabeated type
burial chamber
courtyard
inclined wall
durable
air shaft
elevation
pylon
stone
rectangular
line v
tower
funerary complex
permanent structure
clerestory
cavetto
stepped pyramid
gallery
fagade
cornice
reeded column
cut stone
statue
column
fluted column
air shaft
proto-Doric
capital
engaged column
column-and-lintel
Hellenistic
hypostyle hall
design v
structure
motif
Read the text carefully paying attention to the terms in bold. Look at the illustrations in the
Architectural Features section at the back of the book.
Ancient Egyptian architecture was mostly that of the monumental temple and tomb, and featured
obelisks, battered (inclined) walls, pylon towers, pyramids, cavetto cornices, large columns with lotus,

papyrus, palm, and other capitals, hypostyle halls, courts, vast processional axes flanked by sphinxes,
stylized sculpture, and hieroglyphs. It was an architecture of the columnar and trabeated type.
The pyramids, gigantic, anonymous and impersonal, were arguably the first examples of monu¬
mental architecture. Built in durable stone to last for ever, they are symbolic of the importance the
Egyptians placed on the afterlife: the timeless significance of the soul compared to the contemporary
nature of the body.
The early stone-built funerary complex at Saqqara (c.2778—c.2600 BC) had many buildings
including a stepped pyramid, processional hall with reeded and fluted engaged columns, courts, and a
vast wall containing the whole: it was designed by Imhotep, who must be regarded as one of the great¬
est architects of all time, and an important innovator in the development of masonry construction.
The earliest pyramids are stepped, such as the pyramid of Zoser at Saqqara, superseded by the later
ones where the stepped construction is filled in to give a smooth finish. The highest is the pyramid of
Cheops at Giza with two burial chambers, a wide gallery and several air shafts. Temples, generally rec¬
tangular in plan, were also built as permanent structures of cut stone with column-and-lintel (trabeat¬
ed) structures, and columns in regular grids. Typically the tops of the columns (capitals) are carved to
look like palm leaves, imitating simple houses made of lotus plants, reeds and canes that are plentiful
along the banks of the Nile. The entrance was through a bastion or pylon with battered walls, via a
courtyard. Often the only visible elevation, the approach was lined with sphinxes.
Little remains of the buildings of the Middle Kingdom, but the New Kingdom (1570—1085 BC)
saw some spectacular temple buildings. At Kamak and Luxor there are vast halls with a multitude of
papyrus columns, and clerestories to let light in at high level.
The Great Temple at Abu Simbel has a pylon fa9ade with statues over 20m high. Many temples of
traditional form, such as the temple of Horns at Edfu and the temple of Isis at Philae (280—50 BC),
survive from the Ptolemaic period, established following the break-up of Alexander the Great’s
Empire.
Egyptian architecture influenced other styles: the rock-cut tombs at Beni-Hasan, for example,
have proto-Doric columns; very many Egyptian motifs were absorbed by the Hellenistic Greek cultures
and by the Roman Empire; and Neoclassicism, Art Deco, Rational architecture, and Post-Modernism
drew on Ancient Egyptian motifs.
Comprehension Check
Щ 1. Decide whether the following statements are true or false according to the text.
1.	The pyramids were the first example^ of monumental architecture.
2.	Ancient Egyptian architecture was the architecture of column and lintel type.
3.	The earliest pyramids were stepped, such as the pyramid	of Cheops at Giza.
4.	The highest is the pyramid of Zoser at Saqqara.
5.	Zoser was one of the first architects who developed masonry construction.
6.	Temples were built as temporary structures.
7.	Temples were generally triangular in plan.
8.	Temples were built of cut stone.
9.	All approaches to the pyramid were lined with sphinxes.
10.	Much remains of the buildings of the Middle Kingdom.

11.	In the New Kingdom some spectacular temples were built.
12.	The tops of columns are carved to look like palm leaves.
13.	There are vast halls with a multitude of papyrus columns and clerestories at Kamak
and Luxor.
14.	Clerestories were used to let light in at low level.
15.	The Great Temple at Abu Simbel has a plain facade with statues over 20m high.
16.	Many temples of traditional form survive from the Ptolemaic period.
17.	Many temples of traditional form were built in 1280—150 BC.
|2. Answer the following questions.
1.	When did Egyptian architecture develop?
2.	What typical structures did the Egyptians produce? Why?
3.	What materials did they choose? Why?
4.	Who must be regarded as one of the greatest architects of all time?
5.	What is he famous for?
6.	What system of construction was used in temples?
7.	How can you describe a pyramid?
8.	What is a temple characterized by?
9.	How do the structures of the Middle and the New Kingdoms differ?
10.	What was the contribution of Egyptian architecture to other styles?
Vocabulary Practice
Make sure you know the meanings of these terms and match them with their definitions.
cavetto, clerestory, elevation, grid, pylon, trabeated (post-and-lintel)
1.	The upper level of the central part of a church with windows to provide lighting below.
2.	A network of equidistant parallel lines laid at right angles over a similar set forming squares,
thus establishing the pattern for a plan.
3.	A structure of columns and beams.
4.	A portal of an Ancient Egyptian temple composed of two huge battered towers, usually deco¬
rated with bas-relief sculptured figures and hieroglyphs, flanking a lower framed gateway
which, like the towers,was crowned by a cavetto or gorge-comice.
5.	A. An accurate geometric projection, drawn to scale, of a building’s facade or any other visible
external part on a plane vertical (at a right angle) to the horizon. B. Any external fa§ade.
6.	A concave moulding; in Ancient Egyptian architecture the main element of a comice, plain or
decorated with upright stylized leaf forms.
Щ Find in the text the synonyms of the following words.
great number — ...	eternal	—	...
lasting — ...	impressive —	...
significance — ...	current — ...
replace — ...	remain — ...
build — ...	stonework —	...

3
Find in the text the opposites of the following words.
narrow —...	temporary
irregular — ...	small — ...
upright — ...	base — ...
exit — ...	rough — ...
Fill in the correct prepositions, then choose any seven items and make sentences.
1)	to be built... (stone); 2) to last... ever; 3) to compare ... sth; 4) to be (rectangular) ... plan;
5) to be lined (flanked)... sth; 6) to be ... (traditional) form; 7) to survive ... sth; 8) to be symbolic
... sth; 9) to draw... sth; 10) to be regarded... sb/sth.
Language Development
| Fill in the correct word(s) from the list below.
finish, architect, grid, featured, stone, column and beam, temples, pyramids, survive, pylon, elevation,
superseded, architecture, burial chamber, regular, capital, faqade, clerestory
1.	... is the oldest building material known to man.
2.	The Egyptians will always be known for the construction of their... and palaces.
3.	This... system was limited to the interior.
4.	Temples were generally... in plan.
5.	Although the... remained the highest buildings in the world for 5,000 years, they remain mon¬
uments to engineering rather than....
6.	The front of a building is called ....
7.	Imhotep is the earliest known ....
8.	The plan is a drawing that represents an object in horizontal projection, to scale, while the ...
represents its vertical sections.
9.	The pyramids of the Old Kingdom were built to contain the... and the mummy of the pharaoh.
10.	This building has a... column... uniform from floor to floor.
11.	The... is the topmost member of a column.
12.	The term... is now usually given to towers.
13.	The ... of this stonework was performed manually.
14.... is the upper part of a wall in a church with windows in it.
15.	A lot of monuments ... from that time.
16.	Stepped pyramids were... by the smooth-sided types, of which the Gizeh pyramids are exem¬
plars.
17.	Hellenistic and Roman architecture... Egyptian motifs.
Щ Match the words with the nouns. You may use some words more than once.
carved, smooth, gigantic, visible, timeless, lotus, stepped, traditional, contemporary, great,
monumental, regular, ancient, to influence

a(n)... finish	a(n)...	form
a(n)... pyramid	... architecture
a(n)... column	a(n)...	temple
a(n) approach—	a(n)...	motif
... nature	a(n)... grid
... other styles
_ВЛ Complete the following text with the correct words derived from the words in brackets.
In... (add) to mortuary temples, a number of... (monument) structures were built to exalt the... (vary)
... (Egypt) gods. These temples, sometimes referred to as pylon temples because of the shape of their mas¬
sive facades, were all of similar design. The ... (dominate) feature was the fagade of the pylon, a huge
structure that was flat on the top with sloping walls on the sides, through which one entered. This ...
(enter) led to the open courtyard where masses of people were allowed to. Further in was a hypostyle hall
(called hypostyle because its roof was supported by rows of columns), to which only a chosen few had
access. The innermost area, the sanctuary, was only entered by the pharaoh and the priest.
[]ЕЯ Translate the following extracts into English using the vocabulary of the text.
1.	В период Древнего царства в Египте появляется новый тип гробниц — ступенчатая пи¬
рамида. Первая такая пирамида построена для фараона Джосера (Zoser) архитектором Имхо¬
тепом (Imhotep) в XXVIII в. до н. э. К этому же веку относится и возведение известных пира¬
мид в Гизе (Giza = Gizeh). Самая грандиозная из них — пирамида Хеопса (Cheops = Khufu).
Ее высота около 150 м, сложена она из 2 млн 300 тыс. блоков. Каждая из пирамид представля¬
ет в плане квадрат, а ее стороны — равнобедренные (isosceles) треугольники.
2.	В период Среднего царства ведется поиск новых типов храмов и усыпальниц. Первым
памятником нового типа стал храм-усыпальница Ментухотепа I (Mentuhotep I) в Дейр-эль-
Бахри (Deir el-Bahari) (XXI в. до н.э.), положивший начало крупным храмовым ансамблям бо¬
лее позднего времени.
3.	Наибольшее распространение в период Нового царства получил тип храма прямоуголь¬
ный в плане, имевший трехчастное деление: открытый двор — перистиль (peristyle), колон¬
ный зал — гипостиль (hypostyle) и святилище (sanctuary). Таковы храмовые комплексы, пос¬
вященные богу Амону (Amon), в Карнаке (Karnak) и Луксоре (Luxor).
4.	Широкое строительство разворачивается во второй половине Нового царства. Создает¬
ся целый ряд заупокойных храмов, вырубленных в скалах. Среди них Большой храм Рамсеса
II	(Ramses II) в Абу-Симбеле (Abu Simbel), вход в который выделен четырьмя двадцатиметро¬
выми статуями сидящего фараона (1-я половина XIII в. до н.э.).
Follow-up Activities
Read the text again and make notes under the following headings. Then use your notes and the illus¬
trations to talk about Egyptian architecture.
1.	Typical structures.
2.	Materials.
3.	System of construction.
4.	Structures of the Middle and the New Kingdom compared.
5.	Influence of Ancient Egyptian architecture.

Reading Task : Parti
^IQf^ndthe following terms in the glossary and memorize their meanings.
perfection
preserve
cornice
perfect
post-and-lintel type
frieze
AD
support V
architrave
ivory
straight line
capital
church
arch
shaft
mosque
curve n
base
ammunition store
entablature
Parthenon
column
Щ Read the text carefully paying attention to the terms in bold. Look at the illustrations in the
Architectural Features section at the back of the book.
To understand and enjoy the architecture of classical Greece we must approach it in the manner
of the archaeologist. In other words, what we see is only part of the picture. The rest must be filled in
by imagination based on study. This can be a rewarding exercise, not least because of the quality of
Greek achievements.
Among the various city-states in Grecce, Athens was artistically pre-eminent. It was a small town
with some 50,000 freemen, yet it controlled an empire.
In the fifth century BC architecture, sculpture and drama in Athens reached levels not far short of
perfection. Indeed, if asked to name the most perfect buildings in the world, many people would choose
the Parthenon, which was built in the fifth century as the chief temple of Athena on the Acropolis.

Yet the Parthenon we see today is largely a ruin. Originally it contained a gold and ivory statue of
Athena, but this was subsequently taken away. In the sixth century AD the temple was turned into a
church, and the inner columns and the roof were removed. Later it became a mosque and, in the sev¬
enteenth century, an ammunition store. After that the damage was more gradual.
Even so, in comparison with the other buildings of the extraordinary civilization which once flour¬
ished in Greece, the Parthenon is well preserved. That is the measure of our loss and also of the chal¬
lenge to those who go today to look at the remains.
What makes even the ruins of the Parthenon so memorable? Principally purity of style, perfect har¬
mony and technical perfection.
The so-called ‘post-and-lintel’ type of construction is the term used to describe standard Greek prac¬
tice. Greek buildings were composed entirely of horizontal blocks supported by columns and walls.
Straight lines predominated and, in marked contrast with all later styles, there were no arches or curves.
The two main components of a building are the entablature and the column. Within the entablature are
the cornice, the frieze, and the architrave. The column is made up of the capital, the shaft, and the base.
Comprehension Check
I Choose the answer (a, b, с or d) which you think fits best according to the text.
1.	To understand and enjoy the architecture of classical Greece
a)	we must rely on our imagination.
b)	study and imagination can be of great benefit to us.
c)	we must be archaeologists.
d)	careful study must be conducted.
2.	Athens was artistically prominent in the 5th century BC because
a)	architecture, sculpture and drama reached almost perfect levels there.
b)	it was a small town.
c)	the Parthenon was built in the fifth century on the Acropolis.
d)	it controlled an empire.
3.	The Parthenon is so memorable
a)	because it was the chief temple of Athena.
b)	because it is largely in ruins.
c)	because it was turned into a mosque.
d)	because it is the most perfect building in the world.
4.	We can recognize a classical Greek building
a)	by the column and the entablature.
b)	by arches and curves.
c)	by horizontal blocks.
d)	by standard Greek practice.
■	Answer the following questions.
1.	When did classical Greek architecture develop?
2.	What makes the Parthenon the most perfect building in the world?
3.	What type of construction was used in Greek practice?

4.	What were the main components of a building?
5.	What does the entablature consist of?
6.	What is the column made up of?
Vocabulary Practice
Make sure you know the meanings of these terms and match them with their definitions.
entablature, column, comice, frieze, architrave, capital, shaft, base
1.	Part of a column between the capital and the base.
2.	A middle member of the classical entablature between the architrave and the cornice.
3.	The distinctive feature on top of the classical columns, by which different orders can easily be
identified.
4.	A component of the classical order consisting of a base, a shaft and a capital.
5.	The lowest part of the classical column.
6.	The area supported by the column in classical orders and consisting of architrave, frieze and
cornice.
7.	The top section of the entablature in the classical order. Also the top, projecting feature of
many external and internal walls.
8.	The lowest part of the entablature.
| Match the words with their synonyms.
1)	post-and-lintel	5) statue
2)	different	6) entirely
3)	chief	7) pre-eminent
4)	column	8) remove
Я Match the words with their opposites.
1) flourish	4) rewarding
2) perfect a	5) gradual
3)	curve
a)	post
b)	completely
c)	sculpture
d)	important
a)	straight
b)	vain
c)	sudden
e)	main
f)	take off
g)	various
h)	trabeated
d)	decay
e)	defective
Fill in the correct preposition, then choose any five items and make sentences.
1)	to turn ... sth; 2) ... comparison ... sb/sth; 3) to be composed ... sth; 4) ... contrast ... sth;
5)	to be made ... sth; 6) to be (circular)... shape.
Reading Task : Part 2
ID Find the following terms in the glossary and memorize their meanings.
circular
elevated platform
step/i
face v
portico
slanting roof
construct
wooden
rafter

cover v
marble
terracotta
tile
pediment
shallow pediment
surmount
length
doorway
skylight
house v
altar
decorate
carving
relief carving
chamber
naos
enrich
gold
semi-precious
open-air theatre
seat n, v
chorus
auditorium
semi-circle
carved
stage
store room
changing room
Hal Skim the texts.
TEMPLES
To the Greeks, the most important buildings were temples. Some temples were circular in shape,
but the majority were rectangular. A temple was always built on an elevated platform with steps lead¬
ing up to it. These steps were too high for human legs, and at one point ribrmal-sized steps were cut
into them.
The main entrance always faced east. In front of the temple was an open portico supported by
columns with a corresponding portico at the opposite end of the building.
The columns of the portico continued along the two sides of the temple and joined the columns of
the portico at the back. In this way symmetry was achieved irrespective of the direction from which the
building was seen.
The low, slanting roof was constructed from wooden rafters and covered with thin marble or terra¬
cotta tiles. Shallow pediments surmounted the whole length of both the east and west fa§ades. Light
came in mainly through the doorway and skylights.
Christian churches are built to house the congregation who came to worship. A Greek temple was
considered the private abode of a deity, and only the priests were allowed to enter. The altar was always
on the outside of the building, either on top or in front of the main steps, and all the rituals and festiv¬
ities were held outside.
A temple was decorated in the brightest of colours. There were statues in the front of the building
and beautiful relief carvings, especially on the pediments and friezes.
The temple consisted usually of two chambers. The smaller chamber at the back, the treasury, was
used mainly to store the offerings made to the deity. The larger chamber (the naos) housed the statue
of the god or goddess to whom the temple was dedicated.
When the huge ceremonial double doors were open, the rays of the morning sun would fall direct¬
ly on to the statue of the deity. This must have been an impressive sight, for the statues were often
colossal — some were more than 12 metres (13 yards) high— and covered in ivory, gold and semi-pre-
cious stones. They were also painted by artists whose task it was to enrich the statue even further.
Regular festivals were held, when the whole of the populace walked in procession to the temple,
bringing the sacrificial animals. After the priests had ritually killed the animals they sprinkled them
with scent and burnt them on the temple fires. It was believed that the deity would smell the scent and
thereby know that the people had gathered there and held a festival in his or her honour.
In Athens the statue of the goddess of the city, Athena, even received a new dress at each annual
festival.

THEATRES
Next in importance to the temples were the Greek theatres. Open-air theatres were usually cut into the
side of a hill. Some seated as many as 30,000, yet both vision and acoustics were excellent. It was in these
huge open-air theatres that the works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides and Aristophanes were performed.
The central part of the theatre was reserved for the chorus, an indispensable part of Greek drama.
The auditorium formed a semi-circle around it. The front rows, with beautifully carved marble seats,
were reserved for the priests and important dignitaries. Behind the chorus was a long, narrow stage
with a building which served both as a store room and a changing room.
Many of the plays were concerned with major public and religious issues, and attendance at the
theatre was not only a pleasure but also a civic duty for all freemen of Athens.
Comprehension Check
JU After the first reading decide which text tells us about
1)	less important buildings.
2)	buildings cut into tjie side of a hill.
3)	buildings erected on an elevated platform.
4)	roofed buildings.
5)	buildings consisting of more than two parts.
6)	the size of buildings.
7)	the decoration of buildings.
8)	the shape of buildings.
| Read the texts again paying attention to the terms in bold. Look at the illustrations in the
Architectural Features section at the back of the book. Answer the following questions.
1.	What buildings were the most important ones to the Greeks?
2.	Where was a temple always built?
3.	How were the porticoes arranged?
4.	What kind of roof was constructed?
5.	What is the difference between Christian churches and Greek temples?
6.	How were the temples decorated?
7.	What was the structure of the temple like?
8.	What kind of theatre did the Greeks build?
9.	How large were the theatres?
10.	What was the structure of the open-air theatre like?
Vocabulary Practice
■	Make sure you know the meanings of these terms and match them with their definitions.
portico, pediment, skylight, rafter
1.	A window in a sloping roof.
2.	The entrance hall, vestibule or porch with roof over supported on columns on at least one side,
usually on three sides.

3.	One of several sloping beams of the framework on which tiles or slates of the roof are supported.
4.	The triangular part above the entablature in classical orders.
| Find in the texts the synonyms of the following words.
carry — ...	form — ...
view — ...	permit — ...
connect — ...	essential — ...
elevation —	...	enrich — ...
| Find in the texts the opposites of the following words.
flat a ...	sunk — ...
front — ...	mediocre — ...
leave — ...	poor — ...
behind —...
Щ Fill in the correct preposition, then choose any seven items and make sentences.
1)... front... sb/sth; 2)... the back; 3) to be irrespective ... sth; 4) to come in ... sth; 5) to be dedi¬
cated ... sth; 6)... sb’s honour; 7) next... importance; 8) to cut... the hill; 9) to be reserved... sth;
10)	to be concerned ... sth.
Reading Task : Part 3
Find the following terms in the glossary and memorize their meanings.
order
tablet
inverted bell
Doric order
fluting
acanthus leaves
Ionic order
alternate
scroll
Corinthian order
square a
exterior
decorated
space
measurement
platform
flat a
height
groove
band
interior
grooved shaft
caryatid
entasis
edge
spiral
concave
plain
plane
spacing
convex
project v
adjustment
moulding
sculptured
curve v
triangular
dentil
ш|й Read the texts carefully paying attention to the terms in bold. Look at the illustrations in the
Architectural Features section at the back of the book.
GREEK ORDERS
There are three different types or styles of order (column) in Greek architecture: Doric, Ionic and
Corinthian.

The relative proportions of base, shaft and capital varied in the different types of order. The
Romans adapted the Greek orders for their own purposes, but in general Roman orders were lighter,
and more heavily decorated.
DORIC
The Doric order is the most massive of the three. It is the only style in which the column has no
base and the shaft is placed directly on the platform. The shaft itself is grooved and the grooves meet in
a sharp edge. The capital can be described as a plain convex moulding.
The architrave can be plain or decorated with intermittent rows of small triangular carvings. The
frieze is decorated with a series of tablets with vertical flutings, alternating with square spaces which
were either left plain or decorated with relief carvings.
IONIC
In the Ionic order the shaft is taller and more slender. The grooves on the shaft are separated by flat
bands.
Occasionally the shafts are replaced by female figures (caryatids). According to legend, they repre¬
sent the women from an ancient tribe whom the Greeks captured and enslaved.
The capital has two sets of spirals, rather like a roll of paper with its ends curled towards each other.
The architrave is made up of three horizontal planes, each projecting slightly beyond the one below.
The frieze can be plain or sculptured. The cornice in the Ionic order is often decorated with rows of
small blocks which look like teeth and are called dentils.
CORINTHIAN
The Corinthian order is similar to the Ionic. The main difference is in the capital, which is much
more richly decorated.
A Corinthian capital is like an inverted bell. Some of them are decorated with acanthus leaves sur¬
mounted by four symmetric scrolls. In others lotus or palm leaves replace the scroll.
The Greeks never used more than one style for the whole of a building. The only exception to this
rule was to have one order for the exterior and another for the interior. As a result it is relatively easy
to decide the style of any Greek building, even one in ruins, by looking at a capital, a segment of a col¬
umn or part of an entablature.
All the measurements used by the architects, such as the height of a column, were expressed in mul¬
tiples of the diameter at the base of the shaft.
Each order had its own rules concerning the size of its component parts. For example, the height
of a Doric column is between four and six times the diameter of its base. The height of an Ionic col¬
umn is nine times, and the height of a Corinthian column ten times the diameter of its base. Similar
rules governed even the smallest component of a building.
The system had many advantages. One was that while only a man of great talent could build a mas¬
terpiece, even a mediocre architect, working within the rules, could produce a passable result.
IN SEARCH OF PERFECTION
One of the great strengths of Greek architects was their skill in creating the appearance of perfect
symmetry. They achieved this partly by eliminating the optical illusions to which all buildings are to
some extent subject, a technique known as entasis.
Seen from a certain distance all straight lines, vertical or horizontal, seem slightly concave at the
middle. To counteract this Greek architects made the lines of the building correspondingly convex.
In the same way distances between columns seem to vary when in fact they are mathematically
exactly equal. Greek architects therefore varierl f hr snatiwiff of their columns.

These are only two out of a number of techniques used to correct optical illusions and achieve
buildings approaching perfection.
The adjustments were small and delicate. For example, the horizontal line of an entablature of over
60 metres (200 ft) needed to curve upwards only 10 cm (5in) at its centre for the concave appearance
to be eliminated. The techniques required to make these adjustments were time-consuming and very
expensive, and they were used only for the most important buildings, such as temples.
Although little of ancient Greek architecture remains in its original form, its influence has been
enormous. The ancient Greeks took their styles to the lands which they colonized — for example
Sicily and much of the Mediterranean littoral — and when Greece itself became a Roman colony in
the second century BC the Romans happily adopted the styles of what they instinctively recognized
as fine art.
Greek influence has inspired a number of classical revivals and it continues to be evident in archi¬
tecture even today.
Comprehension Check
я Decide whether the following statements are true or false according to the texts.
1.	Greek architects developed three different types of order.
2.	The relative proportions of the base, shaft and capital were the same in different types of orders
3.	Roman orders were heavier and less decorated.
4.	The Doric order is the heaviest of the three.
5.	In the Ionic order the shafts are occasionally replaced by male figures.
6.	The Corinthian order has much in common with the Ionic order.
7.	The Greeks often used more than one order for the whole of the building.
8.	All the measurements were based on mathematics.
9.	The height of the Corinthian column is between four and six the diameter of its base.
10.	Greek architects created the appearance of perfect symmetry by eliminating the optical illu¬
sions to which all buildings are to some extent subject.
11.	Seen from a certain distance all straight lines seem slightly convex at the middle.
12.	Greek architects always put the columns at the same distance between them.
13.	They made adjustments only for the most important buildings.
14.	Greek influence is still felt in architecture.
Щ Answer the following questions.
1.	What types of order did Greek architects develop?
2.	Did the Romans use Greek orders?
3.	What is the difference between Greek and Roman orders?
4.	What is the Doric order like?
5.	What is the Ionic order like?
6.	What is the Corinthian order like?
7.	How can we identify the style of any Greek building, even in ruins?
8.	What were the measurements used by the architects expressed in?
9.	What are the advantages of this system?

10.	How did Greek architects create the appearance of perfect symmetry?
11.	Did they use these adjustments to all types of buildings?
12.	What was the influence of ancient Greek architecture?
Vocabulary Practice
Make sure you know the meanings of these terms and match them with their definitions.
moulding, flute, dentil, caryatid, order, entasis
1.	Upright stone columns carrying flat horizontal stone lintels, which are to be found in Classical
buildings. Also a typical style of classical architecture.
2.	A sculpted female figure used as a supporting column.
3.	An ornamental strip in wood or stonework, either recessed or in relief.
4.	A small block forming one of a long horizontal series, closely set, under the cornice.
5.	A device used by classical Greek architects to counteract the optical illusion which makes shafts
with straight sides appear to curve inwards.
6.	A channel of semicircular, segmental, or partially elliptical section, one of many set parallel (or
nearly so) to each other, as in a Classical column shaft.
Я Match the words with their synonyms.
1)	order n	5)	grooved
2)	decorated	6)	project v
3)	concave	7)	convex
4)	plane n	8)	plain
■	Match the words with their opposites.
1)	interior	5) similar
2)	upwards	6) correct
3)	perfect a	7) strength
4)	exterior	8) plain
a)	surface
b)	projecting
c)	fluted
d)	style
a)	weakness
b)	distorted
c)	inside
d)	downwards
e)	jut out
f)	ornate
g)	recessed
h)	unadorned
e)	faulty
f)	different
g)	outside
h)	decorated
Fill in the correct preposition, then choose any five items and make sentences.
1)	to be adapted... sth; 2) to be described... sb/sth; 3) according... sth ; 4) to be similar... sb/sth;
5)	to be an exception... the rule; 6) to work... the rules.
Language Development
FuTin the correct word(s) from the list below.
rafters, peripteral, space, orders, triangular, female, vary, marble, cut, decoration, concavS, portico,
square, scrolls
1.	The loggia or... was devised to prepare the visitor for entry.
2.	The majority of early Greek temples were constructed from....

3.	The faces of the stone pieces were dressed to be ....
4.	The different styles are known as....
5.	Wooden... were used to hold up a roof.
6.	... are the ornament composed of curved lines like volutes.
7.	Ancient Greek buildings show simplicity of form, scale related to human occupation, and ...
related to materials and construction.
8.	The classical temples... in size, but use the same formal elements and represent a rectangular
enclosed... with a colonnaded portico at one end.
9.	The column of the Ionic order has a capital... from a rectangular block and is raised on a ...
base.
10.	The Parthenon followed the form of a... temple, in which the structure is surrounded by a sin¬
gle colonnade.
11.	The Doric order was considered to be male and the Ionic to be ... in orientation.
12.	At either end above the entablature was the... form of the pediment.
■	Match the words to the nouns. You may use some words more than once.
slanting, plane, flat, decorated, horizontal, wooden, to house, carved, projecting, grooved, terracotta,
marble, plain, vertical, sharp, to achieve, open-air, component
а(п)... roof
a(n)... edge
а(п)... surface
a(n)... shaft
а(п)... theatre
a(n)... tile
а(п)... part
a(n)... fagade
а(п)... plane
a(n)... band
... symmetry
a(n)... a statue
_U Complete the following text with the correct words derived from the words in brackets.
The ... (survive) stone buildings use the same trabeated structures that were used for timber build¬
ings. Early ... (construct) methods — mud-brick walls with timber posts to support timber lintels and
beams — produced very simple logical structures. For... (importance) buildings, such as temples, tim¬
bers were ... (gradual) replaced with stone. The classical temples vary in size but use the same for¬
mal elements and are ... (vary) on the ... (base) theme of a... (rectangle) ... (enclose) space with a ...
(colonnade) porch (portico) at one end. The most complex have several rooms inside, porches at
both ends and ambulatories at the sides with a double row of columns. The stonework was often cov¬
ered with render or stucco, and painted and... (gold) with a common colour scheme. Bright blue was
used for triglyphs and cornice blocks, red for spaces between the cornice blocks and bands, blue with
gold stars for the ceiling panels and gilt bronze for figures.
IB Translate the following extracts into English using the vocabulary of the texts.
1.	С VIII в. до н.э. начинается массовое строительство храмов. Простейший храм, посвя¬
щенный какому-либо божеству, представлял собой помещение, где стояла культовая статуя,
освещавшаяся лучами восходящего солнца через проем входа на восточном фасаде.
2.	Типы храмов были разнообразны: с выдвинутыми вперед 4-, 6-, 8-колонными портика¬
ми на одном или двух противоположных торцовых фасадах здания.

3.	Греческий архитектурный ордер состоял из следующих основных элементов: трехсту¬
пенчатого стереобата; колонн, состоящих из базы, ствола и капители; антаблемента, деляще¬
гося, в свою очередь, на архитрав, фриз и карниз. Выше антаблемента находился треугольной
формы фронтон, ограниченный сверху двумя скатами крыши.
4.	Парфенон (the Parthenon) — крупнейший дорический храм в Греции, построенный из
мрамора на вершине Акрополя (the Acropolis). Размеры его стилобата 30,89 х 69,54 м. По типу
Парфенон — октастильный периптер, высота колонн — 10,4 м.
5.	ВIV в. до н.э. появилось много сооружений круглой формы, в том числе открытые гре¬
ческие театры, сооружавшиеся на склоне скалы.
Follow-up Activities
Read the texts again and make notes under the following headings. Then use your notes and the illus¬
trations to talk about classical Greek architecture.
1.	How to identify a classical Greek building.
2.	Temples and theatres.
3.	Greek orders.

Reading Task : Parti
Find the following terms in the glossary and memorize their meanings.
town planner
market
private house
triumphal arch
amphitheatre
aqueduct
bridge
villa
housing
pattern
fountain
shrine
bath
forum
excavate
rounded arch
basilica
JIQH Read the text carefully paying attention to the terms in bold. Look at the illustrations in the


Architectural Features section at the back of the book.
Most of the Greek city-states were no bigger than what we now call small towns or large villages.
Rome, by contrast, was a city with perhaps a million inhabitants. For architects and town planners this
meant that new problems required new solutions. Continuous supplies of food and water brought in
from outside, housing on a huge scale, markets and mass entertainments were only a few of the needs
which engineers and builders now had to meet.
Rome was an imperial capital, which Augustus, the first Emperor, was determined to make worthy
of the position it held in the known world. In his own words: ‘I found Rome a city of brick and I left it
a city of marble’. As a consequence of all this the variety of buildings which Rome required was quite
unprecedented.
The great age of ancient Roman architecture coincided roughly with the period of the empire and
lasted some four hundred years from the accession of Augustus in 27 BC.

Although relatively little of what was built in those four centuries remains intact, we are still able to
picture Roman cities as they once were, largely through the skill of archaeologists, and partly because
of some strange accidents.
One such accident was the eruption of Vesuvius in AD 79, which buried the town of Pompeii in
lava and thereby preserved it. As a result we can see today the regular patterns of the streets. We
know where the theatres and temples, fountains and shrines, baths and meat markets were, and what
they looked like. We can see at a glance how many rooms there were in private houses and how big
the shops were. We can even tell from inscriptions that Pompeii had a mixed population, including
Greeks and Jews.
As the Roman empire expanded, cities built in the Roman style came into being in various parts of
Europe, North Africa and Asia Minor. The legions were expected to stay in occupation for long peri¬
ods. Local governors were men of consequence who expected to live well. So the forums and baths,
theatres and temples which characterized Roman cities sprang up beyond the Alps and the Rhine and
the English Channel.
Some of these cities are still being excavated and continue to add to our knowledge of Roman
architecture.
The rounded arch and the classical orders were predominant features. Among the great variety of
Roman buildings were temples, basilicas, triumphal arches, theatres, amphitheatres, baths, bridges,
aqueducts and villas.
Comprehension Check
Choose the answer (a, b, с or d) which you think fits best according to the text.
1.	Rome was
a)	a city-state.
b)	a small town.
c)	a large village.
d)	a big city.
2.	The great age of ancient Roman architecture lasted
a)	forty years.
b)	27 years.
c)	four hundred years.
d)	79 years.
3.	We are able to picture Roman cities as they once were
a)	through the skill of architects.
b)	through the excavations.
c)	through the needs which engineers and builders had to meet.
d)	because of the accession of Augustus.
4.	We can recognize a Roman building
a)	by markets and fountains.
b)	by private houses and shops.
c)	by the rounded arch and the classical order.
d)	by brick and marble buildings.

Щ Answer the following questions.
1.	When did Roman architecture develop?
2.	Why did Imperial Rome mean new problems for architects and town planners?
3.	What was the contribution of Augustus to Roman architecture?
4.	What helps us to picture Roman cities as they once were?
5.	How was the town of Pompeii ‘preserved’?
6.	Which were the main structural components in Roman buildings?
7.	What types of buildings are characteristic of Roman architecture?
Vocabulary Practice
| Make sure you know the meanings of these terms and match them with their definitions.
amphitheatre, aqueduct, basilica, pattern
1.	The repetition of elements or the combination of elements in a readily recognized systematic
organization.
2.	A Roman building used for administrative purposes. The early Christians adopted its plan for
their churches.
3.	A number of arches supporting, at the top, a channel along which water runs.
4.	A large open-air theatre with tiered seats.
Щ Match the words with their synonyms.
1)	needs n	5) preserve
2)	pattern	6) feature n
3)	excavate	7) add to
4)	unprecedented
| Match the words with their opposites.
1)	intact	4) preserve
2)	continuous	5) predominant
3)	ancient	6) building
a)	increase
b)	requirements
c)	save
d)	plan
a)	structure
b)	modem
c)	ruin v
e)	peculiarity
f)	dig
g) unparalleled
d)	interrupted
e)	spoilt
f)	inferior
Fill in the correct prepositions, then choose any three five and make sentences.
1)... contrast; 2) to make worth... the position; 3)... a consequence; 4)... a glance; 5) to come
being; 6) to add... sth.
Reading Task : Part 2
Ж Find the following terms in the glossary and memorize their meanings.
span
storey
weight
scale	sturdy
load-bearing capacity	volute
decoration	Tuscan order

Composite order
brick
construction
frame v
cement
vault
human proportions
concrete
dome
opening
iron
steel
ornate
face v
saucer dome
bronze
plaster
shallow
grille
stucco
Read the texts carefully paying attention to the terms in bold. Look at the illustrations in the
Architectural Features section at the back of the book.
GREEK INFLUENCE
Greek influence on Roman architecture was profound, particularly after Greece became a Roman
province in the second century BC. Many of Rome’s outstanding buildings were indeed built by
Greeks.
Greek architecture was based on horizontal and vertical components only. This imposed certain
technical limitations. For example, the maximum span possible between columns was 5 to 6 metres (16
to 19.5 ft), and buildings could be no more than two storeys high. The limiting factor was the weight
that a column could support.
Given the relatively small scale of Greek buildings, these limitations were of little importance. The
Romans, by contrast, wanted taller buildings constructed on a much more lavish scale. They succeed¬
ed largely through an ingenious combination of the column with the rounded arch, a system which
gives a very much higher load-bearing capacity.
Smaller buildings or buildings of no more than one storey high, such as temples, continued to be
built in the Greek style. For larger buildings, or for buildings of more than one storey, the Romans
made use of the rounded arch. The Greek orders served mainly as decoration in such buildings.
ROMAN ORDERS
The Romans had five different styles or orders. Three were borrowed directly from the Greeks:
Doric — the plainest and sturdiest; Ionic — identified by its capital with volutes; and Corinthian — in
which the capital is decorated with acanthus leaves. This last order was the most popular among the
Romans.
The two styles which the Romans added were Tuscan — an even simpler form of Doric; and
Composite — a richer form of Corinthian.
In Roman buildings of more than one storey the orders were placed one above the other and usu¬
ally in a prescribed sequence. The lowest would be the Doric, above it the Ionic, and above that the
Corinthian.
Doors and windows were rectangular and were usually framed by different styles of moulding. In
the doors the opening was reduced to human proportions. The space at both sides of the opening was
usually filled in by columns. In many of the doors the space above the opening was filled in by an ornate
bronze grille.
Building materials were brick, tiles, cement, concrete and iron. The Romans developed concrete,
an extremely hard and durable material, in the second century BC. Concrete was also easier to handle
and more economical than other materials, and it soon came into common use. To make it more
attractive in appearance, concretc was faced with stone, plaster, stucco or marble.

Concrete made possible the construction of the great Roman vaults and domes. The spans of many
vaults — some over 50 metres (55 yards) in diameter — were not equalled until the development of
steel construction in the 19th century.
Roman domes are sometimes described as ‘saucer domes’ because of their shape. In comparison
with domes of later periods they are comparatively shallow.
Comprehension Check
Decide whether the following statements are true or false according to the texts.
1.	Roman architects were greatly influenced by Greek architects.
2.	Roman architecture like Greek architecture was based on horizontal and vertical components
only.
3.	Smaller buildings combined the column with the rounded arch.
4.	Larger buildings continued to be built in the Greek style.
5.	Greek orders were used as load-bearing components in such buildings.
6.	The Romans never used different orders for buildings of more than one storey.
7.	In buildings of more than one storey the orders were placed in a prescribed sequence.
8.	The door openings were reduced to human proportions.
9.	The Romans borrowed concrete from Greece.
10.	Vaults and domes were made possible due to the development of concrete.
Щ Answer the following questions.
1.	What technical limitations did horizontal and vertical components impose?
2.	Why were these limitations of little importance to the Greeks?
3.	How did the Romans succeed in erecting taller buildings?
4.	What did the Greek orders serve as?
5.	What order was the most popular among the Romans?
6.	How did the Romans place the orders in buildings of more than one storey?
7.	How were doors and windows designed?
8.	What building materials did the Romans use?
9.	Why did concrete soon come into common use?
10.	What types of construction did concrete make possible to produce?
11.	What superseded the possibilities of concrete construction?
12.	Why are Roman domes sometimes described as ‘saucer domes’?
Vocabulary Practice
Щ Make sure you know the meanings of these terms and match them with their definitions.
concrete, dome, span, vault
1.	A bowl-shaped vault on a circular, elliptical, or polygonal plan.
2.	An arched ceiling or roof of stone or brick.
3.	The distance apart of two supports, especially as applied to the opening of an arch or the width
of a space covered by a beam, lintel, truss, etc.

4.	A mixture of cement with broken brick or stone, first used in buildings by the Romans.
Щ Find in the texts the synonyms of the following words.
deep — ...	produce — ...
restriction — ...	order n — ...
weight — ...	circular — ...
cover v — ...	aperture — ...
I	Find in the texts the opposites of the following words.
soft — ...	not strong —	...
ugly — ...	convex — ...
decorated — ...	deep — ...
| Fill in the correct prepositions, then choose any five items and make sentences.
1)	to be based... sth; 2) to be... importance; 3) to serve... sth; 4) to borrow... sb/sth; 5) to reduce
... sth; 6) to be filled... by sth; 7 to come... use; 8) because ... sb/sth.
Reading Task : Part3
^^Qf~Find the following terms in the glossary and memorize their meanings.
podium
apse
tiered seating
flight of steps
accommodate
arena
colonnade
swimming pool
astride
attach
basement
attic
round temple
hollow tile
sculptured group
low-pitched roof
hollow brick
engineering
elaborate a
mosaic
utilitarian building
severe
niche
tier
ground-plan
statuary
cement-lined channel
nave
door screen
tower v
aisle
window screen
countryside
timber
gilded
water supply
trussed timber roof
passage way
well
vaulted structure
orchestra
solid structure
barrel vault
dressing room
carry
groined vault
palace
heavy traffic
ШЕЯ Skim the texts.
TEMPLES
More than any other type of Roman building the temples, especially the early ones, strongly resem¬
bled their Greek prototypes. Many of the Roman temples survived because at later dates they were
converted into Christian churches.

Temples were built on high podiums with a flight of steps leading up to the building. Rectangular
temples had a deep portico in the front, with the columns continuing along the two sides of the build¬
ing. Along the sides the columns either formed a colonnade or were attached to the walls. In round tem¬
ples the colonnade went all around the building.
The roofs were low-pitched with correspondingly shallow pediments. The name of the deity to
whom the temple was dedicated was usually cut into the stone below the pediment.
Most Roman temples were built in the elaborate Corinthian or Ionic orders. The severe Doric
order was very rarely used.
The altar was always on the outside of the building and the ceremonies took place in the open.
The interiors of the early temples tended to be very plain. This changed dramatically in imperial
times, when some of the interiors created were truly magnificent.
BASILICAS
The Roman basilica was both a hall of justice and a place for business transactions.
The ground-plan of the building was rectangular. On the inside it was divided by two rows of
columns into a central nave and two aisles.
The basilica had a simple trussed timber roof or a vaulted structure, which was either a barrel vault
or a groined vault. Domes were a common feature. Light was let in through windows above the aisles.
One end of the building — or in some cases both ends — terminated in an apse, where the sacrifi¬
cial altar was to be found. At ceremonies or after important decisions had been taken it was usual for
sacrifices to be offered at the altar.
PUBLIC BATHS
At one time in Imperial Rome alone there were over 800 public baths of different sizes and
standards. The largest and most luxurious baths were centres of social life. They had heated halls
for the winter and shaded gardens for the summer. Here philosophers exchanged ideas, authors
read from their latest works, and the news of the day was discussed. Some of the buildings also
housed theatres, sports stadia and restaurants. The largest public baths could accommodate over
3,000 people at a time.
The baths themselves consisted of a series of hot and cold rooms. The last to be visited was usual¬
ly an open-air swimming pool. They were heated in the same way as private houses. Hot air from fur¬
naces in the basement passed through hollow tiles and bricks in the walls and floors. The temperature
in the different rooms could be regulated exactly to meet the requirements.
The whole of each building was richly decorated. Marble and mosaic covered the walls and floors.
Wall niches held statuary. Bronze was commonly used for door and window screens. Marble columns
supported gilded capitals. Service was provided by means of underground passage-ways, through which
slaves could move swiftly and without disturbing anyone.
THEATRES
The main components of the theatres were the semi-circular auditorium, the orchestra and the
stage. The stage stretched from one side of the semi-circle to the other. Behind the stage the so-called
‘stage-building’, often two or three storeys high and elaborately decorated, was used mainly as the
actors’ dressing-room.
If an actor entered from the centre door it indicated that the character he was playing had come
from the palace. Entrance from one side door meant that he had come from the city or the forum, and
from the other that he had come from the country.

AMPHITHEATRES
These were used mainly for gladiatorial combats and similar spectacles, which usually ended in the
killing of the vanquished.
The central arena was entirely surrounded by tiered seating. Underneath the arena were rooms for
the gladiators and other unfortunate human participants, and cages for the animals.
The best seats were reserved for state officials. Above them were those for the rich or the nobles,
and the higher still the seats for the rest of the populace. Seats were numbered and presumably, there¬
fore, could be reserved.
Sophisticated stage techniques made spectacular displays possible. The whole of the arena, for
example, could be flooded and a mock naval battle staged.
TRIUMPHAL ARCHES
Triumphal arches commemorated great military victories and other important events. They were
often situated astride a main road leading into a city and were composed either of one or of three
arches.
There was usually a column on each side of the arch and Corinthian or Composite orders were
most commonly used. Elaborate carvings decorated the space below the columns and around and
underneath the arches and friezes.
The part above the entablature was called the attic. This contained the dedicatory inscription.
Above the attic there was usually a large sculptured group, often in the form of figures driving a chari¬
ot with four or six horses.
AQUEDUCTS AND BRIDGES
The Romans raised engineering to the level of art. By-doing so they made utilitarian buildings, such
as bridges and aqueducts, both majestic and beautiful.
Aqueducts were built from arches in one, two or three tiers. The water was carried in a cement-lined
channel which ran along the top.
Some aqueducts were many kilometres in length and towered over the countryside. It was estimat¬
ed that at one time 1,500 million litres (330 million gallons) of water a day from 11 great aqueducts
were pouring into Rome. From the aqueducts the water was diverted into pipes and distributed
throughout the city. The rich often had their own water supply, while the rest of the population had to
rely on communal wells.
Roman bridges were simple but extremely solid structures. Some indeed are still in use and able to
carry heavy traffic today.
Comprehension Check
ЦД-After the first reading decide which text tells us about
1)	a rectangular ground-plan of buildings.
2)	a round or half-round ground plan.
3)	utilitarian buildings.
4)	buildings composed of either one or of three arches.
5)	domes as a common feature of a building.
6)	covering materials of walls and floors.

7)	Roman buildings resembling their Greek prototypes.
8)	buildings with low-pitched roof.
9)	buildings divided by two rows of columns into a central nave and two aisles.
10)	simple but extremely solid structures.
11)	buildings with a plain interior.
12)	structures still in use today.
Щ Read the texts carefully paying attention to the terms in bold. Look at the illustrations in the
Architectural Features section at the back of the book. Answer the following questions.
1.	What buildings were the most typically Roman?
2.	Why did many of the Roman temples survive?
3.	Where were the temples built?
4.	What was the ground-plan of temples like?
5.	What was the difference in the composition of a rectangular and round temple?
6.	What orders were most Roman temples built in?
7.	Was the altar always on the outside or inside of the building?
8.	What was the ground-plan of a basilica like?
9.	What was a common feature in basilicas?
10.	What types of vaults were used in basilicas?
11.	What did the baths consist of?
12.	How were they heated?
13.	What decoration was used in public baths?
14.	What was the composition of the theatre like?
15.	What were the main components of the amphitheatre?
16.	What was the composition of the triumphal arch like?
17.	What orders were commonly used for triumphal arches?
18.	What was the contribution of the Romans to engineering?
19.	How can you prove that Roman bridges were extremely solid structures?
Vocabulary Practice
Make sure you know the meanings of these terms and match them with their definitions.
aisle, apse, attic, nave
1.	The semi-circular area at the extreme end of a Roman basilica. This feature was later incorpo¬
rated in Christian churches.
2.	The main central public space in a church.
3.	Part of a church on either side of the nave or choir, divided from the latter by means of arcades,
colonnades, or piers supporting the clerestory.
4.	In Classical architecture, a storey erected over the main entablature.
Match the words with their synonyms.
1) prototype	3) truss
2) rectangular	4) utilitarian
a) support	c) precedent
b) firm	d) orthogonal

5) attach	8) solid a	e) useful	h) range
6) row	9) elaborate	f) detailed	i) end
7)	terminate	g)	join
_КЯ Match the words with their opposites.
1) pitched 5) sophisticated a) unstable
e) outside
2) open-air 6) solid a b) simple
f) indoor
3) inside 7) shaded c) solid
&)flat
4) hollow
d) sun-lit
LKB Fill in the correct nreoositions. then choose anv five items and
make sentences.
1) to convert... sth; 2) to be divided... sth; 3) to terminate... sth; 4)... a time; 5) to consist.
6)... the same way... sb/sth; 7) to be ... use; 8) to rely... sb/sth.
Reading Task : Part 4
Л Find the following terms in the glossary and memorize their meanings.
domestic architecture
open section
reception room
town house
peristyle
floor
apartment house
colonnaded walk
fresco
country house
surround
wall surface
ground floor
standard of living
panel
plan v
advanced technology
stucco
front door
equip
ornamental motif
atrium
central heating
border
covered
living room
scrollwork
ЯЯ Read the text carefully paying attention to the terms in bold. Look at the illustrations in the
Architectural Features section at the back of the book.
DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE
The principal forms of Roman domestic architecture were the town house (domus); the apartment
house (insula); and the country house (villa).
Seen from the outside the houses of even the richest Romans were quite plain. Roman houses nor¬
mally had no windows except when part of the ground floor was let off as a shop, as happened, for
example, in Pompeii.
The interior of a house was planned around one or more courtyards. A passage led from the front
door to a court known as an atrium. The atrium was covered except for an open section in the centre of
the roof, which admitted light. It also let in rain, which was collected in a cistern or pool situated below
the opening.
In many houses there was a second or inner court known as a peristyle. This was a colonnaded walk
surrounding a garden with fountains and statues. The most luxurious villas had several courts.
The various rooms were grouped round the courts. In addition to dining room, reception rooms,
bedrooms and game rooms, these would include a room for the household gods.

The rooms in the houses of the well-to-do were evidence of a high, even luxurious standard of liv¬
ing and of advanced technology. The houses were comfortable as well as elegant and were well equipped
with central heating and baths. The living rooms and reception rooms were richly decorated. The floors
were laid with mosaics or coloured marble. Frescoes covered the walls. In some houses wall surfaces
were divided into panels of painted stucco.
Another practice was to paint the interior walls with outdoor scenes to create the impression that
the walls had disappeared. Human figures were sometimes included in the paintings, usually in scenes
from everyday life.
The main ornamental motifs were acanthus leaves and scrolls. Panels and borders were decorated
with scrollwork and with representations of animals, plants and mythological figures. Birds, griffins, ivy
and cupids were particularly popular.
Comprehension Check
| Decide whether the following statements are true or false according to the text.
1.	Roman domestic architecture was rather diverse.
2.	The outside of Roman houses was quite plain.
3.	Roman houses were normally windowless.
4.	The interior of the house was planned around only one courtyard.
5.	Light was admitted through the windows.
6.	An open section in the centre of the roof let in rain.
7.	A peristyle is an inner court surrounded by a garden with fountains and statues.
8.	The living rooms in the houses of the rich were richly decorated and were equipped with cen¬
tral heating and baths.
9.	The floors were covered with frescoes.
10.	The walls were laid with mosaics or coloured marble.
11.	Interior walls were often painted with outdoor scenes.
12.	Human figures were never included in the paintings.
Answer the following questions.
1.	What were the principal forms of Roman domestic architecture?
2.	What did Roman houses look like from the outside?
3.	How was the interior of the house planned?
4.	What did the opening in the centre of the roof serve for?
5.	What were the usual rooms in a Roman house?
6.	What is the evidence of a high standard of living and of advanced technology?
7.	What kind of decoration was used in the houses?
8.	Why did they paint the interior walls with outdoor scenes?
9.	What ornamental motifs were particularly popular?

Vocabulary Practice
Make sure you know the meanings of these terms and match them with their definitions.
atrium, fresco, peristyle, stucco
1.	A painting technique where water-based paints are applied to a wall of freshly spread lime plaster.
The paint is applied before the plaster dries so that the colour is absorbed as the plaster sets (dries),
2.	The entrance hall of a Roman house.
3.	A smooth sand and lime plaster, sometimes reinforced with hair, for covering exterior walls,
often with imitation of joints to give the impression of stonework.
4.	A row of free-standing columns surrounding an area such as a temple; a court in a Roman
house or a cloister.
■	Find in the text the synonyms of the following words.
accumulate —	...	vanish — ...
furnish — ...	picture — ...
progressive —	...	let in — ...
cover v — ...	residential — ...
severe —...
Ц Find in the text the opposites of the following words.
exclude — ...	appear — ...
monochrome — ...	rear — ...
simple — ...	urban — ...
poor — ...	closed — ...
Fill in the correct prepositions, then choose any five items and make sentences.
1) to let... as sth; 2) except... sb/sth; 3) to be known ... sb/sth; 4) in addition ... sb/sth; 5) to be
equipped... sth; 6) to be laid... sth.
Language Development
Ш Fill in the correct word(s) from the list below.
architecture, concrete, scale, made use of, space, borrowed, dome, vault, span, engineering, temples,
utilitarian, hard, support, figures, consists of, durable
1.	In the visual arts, the Romans ... a great deal from the Greeks and other peoples with whom
they came in contact and continually struggled.
2.	The Romans made advances in the areas of... and....
3.	By using... as a binding agent, the Romans were able to create arches and large vaulted spaces.
4.	Little attention was paid to the originals in terms of material or....
5.	Where the Greeks ... columns and beams, the Romans favoured walls.

6.	The paintings and mosaics were frequently utilized to create an illusion of increased ... within
the rooms where they were created.
7.	A... is a rounded roof, hemispherical in shape.
8.	A dome was developed from the barrel....
9.	In Imperial Rome, many individual gods had ... dedicated to them.
10.	The Romans developed purely ... buildings such as bridges and aqueducts.
11.	The Romans developed concrete, an extremely ... and ... material.
12.	The maximum ... possible between columns was 5 to 6 metres.
13.	Through the use of light and shading the ... not only appear as solid beings but also seem to
move through the space depicted.
14.	The structure, more than three storey high,... arches enframed by engaged columns and entab¬
latures.
15.	A Roman amphitheatre was built into a side of a hill, which gave structural....
■	Match the words to the nouns. You may use some words more than once.
load-bearing, shallow, luxurious, comfortable, strong, profound, regular, high, solid, advanced,
to develop, common, town, to handle
a(n)... influence	a(n)...	standard
a(n)... capacity	a(n... technology
a(n)... pattern	a(n)...	house
a(n)... dome	a(n)...	structure
... concrete	... planners
Complete the following text with the correct words derived from the words in brackets.
The ... (Rome) forum, a rectilinear ... (enclose) space, containing and limiting the ... (move)
of people, was the antithesis of the ... (Greece) open space — a physical ... (manifest) of the move¬
ment from democracy to imperium. The building techniques that enabled the Romans to dominate
the landscape with viaducts, vast bath-houses and civil buildings were very ... (differ) also. Where
the Greeks made use of columns and beams, the Romans favoured walls. Built from bricks or small
pieces of stone, walls could extend much higher and openings could be of any size, with ...
(semi-circle) arches. In conjunction with concrete, ... (mass) structures could be achieved.
The Classical orders, with ... (vary), were employed in a ... (decorate) fashion, applied to the sur¬
face of... (mason) walls.
Ю~Translate the following extracts into English using the vocabulary of the texts.
1.	В республиканский период сложились основные типы римской архитектуры. Создают¬
ся сложные инженерные сооружения: акведуки, мосты, гавани.
2.	Если в греческом зодчестве ордер имеет констру ктивное значение (колонна является не¬
сущим элементом, опорой), то в римской архитектуре ему отводится декоративная роль (опо¬
рой служит стена).
3.	Главное завоевание римлян в архитектуре — создание огромных внутренних про¬
странств, свободных от опор, развитие мощных сводчатых и купольных конструкций.

4.	Самое величественное сооружение Древнего Рима — Колизей (the Coliseum =
the Colosseum) — был построен в 75—82 гг. н. э. Основу сооружения составляют 80 ради¬
ально расходящихся стен из туфа и бетона. Основные конструктивные элементы — свод и
арка.
5.	В Пантеоне (the Pantheon) в полной мере проявились высокие инженерные достиже¬
ния и художественная гармония римской архитектуры. Композиция храма поражает своей
простотой и ясностью. Глубокий восьмиугольный портик коринфского ордера украшает
главный фасад. Высота здания 43,7 м, диаметр грандиозного купола почти равен высоте —
43,2 м. Простоте четких геометрических форм внутреннего пространства соответствует
строгость убранства.
Follow-up Activities
Read the texts again and make notes under the following headings. Then use your notes and the illus¬
trations to talk about Roman architecture.
1.	How to identify a Roman building.
2.	Greek influence and Roman orders.
3.	Types of Roman buildings.

Reading Task : Parti
Find the following terms in the glossary and memorize their meanings.
spacious
coffered roof
font
put up
hammer-beam roof
bell-tower
relieve
post
landmark
width
baptistery
watchtower
arcade
polygonal
Read the text carefully paying attention to the terms in bold. Look at the illustrations in the
Architectural Features section at the back of the book.
The two principal architectural styles that developed between the middle years of the Roman
Empire and the first millennium AD are known as Early Christian and Byzantine.
THE EARLY CHRISTIAN PERIOD
So long as they were a prohibited sect Christians had to meet in secret, in private houses and in the
catacombs. But in 313 the Emperor Constantine issued the Edict of Milan,- which gave the Christians
the right to practice their religion openly. Twelve years later the Emperor himself was converted and
in 380 Christianity became an official religion of the Roman Empire. Consequently, Christian church
architecture does not begin until some three centuries after the Crucifixion.
Early Christian churches are characterized by rectangular ground-plans. It was the basilica, rather
than the temple, which became the common architectural prototype of the Early Christian church.
The structure was spacious enough to hold a large congregation. The nave was uninterrupted by

columns and gave a clear field of vision to the worshippers. The buildings were comparatively inex¬
pensive to put up, which to the early Christians was an important consideration. They were usually
about twice as long as they were wide and the entrance was always from the west.
The exterior was rather severe and relieved only by a front portico which extended across the whole
width of the building. Those who were not allowed to enter the church because of their sins could stand
in the portico and listen to the service from there.
The eastern end of the building took the form of a semi-circle — called an apse — with the altar in
front of it. The rest of the interior was divided by two rows of arcades into a nave and two or more
aisles. The walls above the arcades were flat, allowing spaces for frescoes and mosaics. Above these
were the windows, which were surrounded by rounded arches. The coffered or hammer-beam roofs
were made of wood, with either one or two supporting posts.
The early baptisteries were separate buildings and were circular or polygonal in shape. Light came
in from a central dome. Only from the fifth century onward were baptisteries placed beside churches
or attached to them.
The font was always in the centre of the baptistery and was usually a small-scale copy of the build¬
ing itself. The fonts may seem surprisingly large. The reason for this is that in the early Christian peri¬
od adults had to be fully immersed when baptized.
The very high bell-tower next to the church served not only as an important landmark but also as a
watchtower against possible attacks.
Comprehension Check
■	Choose the answer (a, b, с or d) which you think fits best according to the text.
1.	Christian church architecture began
a)	in 313.
b)	about twelve years after the conversion of the Emperor Constantine.
c)	about three centuries after the Crucifixion.
d)	in 380.
2.	The common prototype of the early Christian church became
a)	the temple.
b)	the catacomb.
c)	the basilica.
d)	the portico.
3.	The ground-plan of the Early Christian church was
a)	circular.
b)	polygonal.
c)	semi-circular.
d)	rectangular.
4.	The entrance to the building was from
a)	the east.
b)	the west.
c)	the north.
d)	the south.

5.	The rows of arcades divided the interior into
a)	a nave and aisles.
b)	a baptistery and aisles.
c)	a nave and a baptistery.
d)	a portico and an altar.
■	Answer the following questions.
1.	When did Early Christian architecture develop?
2.	How did Early Christian architecture begin?
3.	What structure became the common architectural prototype of the Early Christian church?
4.	How large was the church?
5.	How was the exterior organized?
6.	How was the interior organized?
7.	What shape were the baptisteries?
8.	How were they lit?
9.	What did the high bell-tower serve as?
Vocabulary Practice
sure you know the meanings of these terms and match them with their definitions.
arcade, baptistery, hammer-beam, coffer
1.	A roof timber beam projecting from a main wall.
2.	An arched, covered passageway in church architectural design.
3.	Recessed squares or other geometric shapes in the soffits of arches, domes, vaults or ceilings.
4.	A building or part of a church in which Christians are baptized.
Щ Find in the text the synonyms of the following words.
feature v —...	strict	—	...
extensive — ...	ease v — ...
erect — ...	round — ...
motive —...
Jgfl Find in the text the opposites of the following words.
permit — ...	cramped — ...
exit — ...	informal — ...
huge —...
JU FiiTin the correct prepositions, then choose any five items and make sentences.
1)	to be characterized... sth; 2) to be (polygonal)... shape; 3) to be attached... sth; 4) to be... the
centre ... sth; 5) the entrance is... the (west); 6) to allow sth... sth/sb; 7) a field... vision.

Reading Task : Part 2
Find the following terms in the glossary and memorize their meanings.
basilican
cruciform
arrange
decorative pattern
tile v
lead n
austere
flank v
blind arcade
grilled window
pillar
outline
design n
cube
depth
richly grained marble
pier
inlaid marble
incised line
drilled hole
basket capital
cubical capital
■■ Read the text carefully paying attention to the terms in bold. Look at the illustrations in the
Architectural Features section at the back of the book.
THE EASTERN EMPIRE
After the division of the Empire into eastern and western parts, and the subsequent collapse of the
power of Rome, the Byzantine Empire continued to flourish. It developed its own characteristic archi¬
tectural style, in which eastern influence greatly modified classical tradition.
In the sixth century the Byzantine Emperor Justinian tried unsuccessfully to recapture the territo¬
ry of the former Roman Empire. His Italian capital was for a time Ravenna, and it is there that some
of the greatest Byzantine churches in western Europe are to be found.
The brilliant mosaics in the interiors of Byzantine churches are their most recognizable feature.
The ground-plan could be basilican, cruciform, circular or polygonal. The main entrance was from the
west and the altar was always at the eastern end of the church.
The principal building material was brick, arranged in decorative patterns or covered in plaster.
Roofs were either tiled or covered by sheets of lead.
From the outside the buildings look rather plain, with austere entrances.flanked by blind arcades.
The grilled windows are small and were filled in with thin sheets of marble or parchment.
In vivid contrast the interiors glow with the rich, jewel-like colours of the mosaics, which decorate
the wails, domes and vaults. The predominant colours are blue and gold. There are few columns-and
pillars, and as a result there is an almost unrestricted view of the mosaics. The subjects depicted are
either scenes from the Bible or imperial court..
Mosaic is made up of small cubes of marble or glass set in cement. The cement was prepared in a
number of layers. When the final layer was in place the design was frescoed on to the damp cement.
The cubes were then placed in the cement following the outlines of the design. The last layer of the
cement was put on unevenly, so that when the cubes were set in, the faces of the different cubes were
at an angle to each other and reflected light from one cube to another. From this comes the almost
magical impression of light and depth which mosaics convey. Modem mosaics, by contrast, are nor¬
mally put evenly and so fail to create this effect.
Richly grained marble was used to cover other parts of the walls and around the base of the piers.
The floors were covered with inlaid marble or mosaics.
Byzantine columns and capitals are easily distinguished from the classical prototypes. Many of the
capitals are sumiounted by a large block of stone, which provides a broad base for the arch above. It
was common practice to carve a monogram of the emperor or another rich patron on the capital.

The carvings on the capitals were created by deeply incised lines and drilled holes, giving a strong¬
ly defined black and white effect. The most popular forms of capital were the basket and the cubical.
From a structural point of view the dome is the most important feature of a Byzantine church.
Unlike the Roman domes, which were all placed over round openings, Byzantine architects developed
a system of construction which enabled them to place a dome over a square opening. This major
advance was to have important consequences in Renaissance architecture.
Human figures do not appear in Byzantine sculpture. (A prohibition to the same effect is of course
to be found in the Judaic and Islamic traditions.) Decorative effects were achieved with scrolls, circles
and other geometric forms or by depicting leaves and flowers. Wind-blown acanthus leaves were a
popular subject.
Comprehension Check
Decide whether the following statements are true or false according to the text.
1.	The Byzantine Empire developed its own characteristic architectural style, in which classical
traditions greatly influenced eastern features.
2.	The most recognizable feature in the interiors of Byzantine churches is mosaics.
3.	The ground-plan could be different in shape.
4.	The principal building material was concrete covered in stucco.
5.	The outside of the building was rather ornate.
6.	In vivid contrast the interior was quite plain.
7.	The main colours were blue and gold.
8.	Mosaics were widely used.
9.	Modem mosaics produce the same effect as the mosaics of the Byzantines.
10.	Marble was used to cover the walls and the floors.
11.	One can easily distinguish Byzantine columns and capitals from their classical prototypes.
12.	From a structural point of view the dome is the most important feature of a Byzantine church.
13.	The Roman domes were placed over square openings, while the Byzantine domes were placed
over round ones.
14.	The main decorative motifs were geometric forms, leaves and flowers.
15.	Human figures were never used in Byzantine sculpture.
| Answer the following questions.
1.	When did Byzantine architecture develop?
2.	What did the flourishing of the Byzantine Empire lead to in architecture?
3.	What is the most recognizable feature in the interiors of Byzantine churches?
4.	What forms was the ground-plan of Byzantine churches based on?
5.	What was the principal building material?
6.	What is the difference in the decorations of the inside and the outside?
7.	How is an almost unrestricted view of the mosaics achieved?
8.	What is the process of making up mosaics?
9.	How is the magical impression of light and depth produced?
10.	Where was marble used?
11.	What is a distinctive feature of Byzantine columns and capitals?

12.	What is the most important feature of a Byzantine church from a structural point of view?
13.	What major advance did Byzantine architects make?
14.	How can we recognize Byzantine sculpture?
Vocabulary Practice
Make sure you know the meanings of these terms and match them with their definitions.
basket, pier, pillar
1.	A free-standing unadorned pier, monolithic or built up, usually on a rectangular or square plan.
2.	A laige area of walling which takes the weight from an arch or a dome.
3.	A Byzantine and Romanesque capital carved with interwoven strips resembling a basket-weave.
Match the words with their synonyms.
1)	flourish
2)	collapse n
3)	flank v
4)	unrestricted
5)layer
6)	face n
7)	distinguish
8)	opening
a)	unlimited
b)	line
c)	break-up
d)	prosper
e)	aperture
f)	differentiate
g)	coating
h)	facet
H Match the words with their opposites.
1)	austere	3) fail
2)	uneven	4) modify
5)	broad	7) final
6)	advance n
a)	initial
b)	leave the same
c)	narrowe
d)	smooth
e)	not succeed
f)	luxurious
g)	regression
Fill in the correct prepositions, then choose any five items and make sentences.
1)... a time; 2) to be flanked ... sth; 3)... a result; 4) to (fresco)	sth; 5) to distinguish ... sth;
6)... (a structural) point... view.
Language Development
■	Fill in the correct word(s) from the list below.
bricks, space, dome, tiles, covered, piers, churches, circular, arrangement, basilica, development,
reflection, spatial, mosaic, was, popular, depth, spacious, proliferated
1.	After Christianity became the official state religion of the Empire, ... were built as places for
worship.
2.	The rectangular... was to become the preferred configuration in the Catholic western realm.
3.	Another popular style, probably inspired by the Pantheon, was a ... domed church, which
became very popular in the Byzantine East.
4.	The main building material in Constantinople, mud, was made into ... and ....

5.	The techniques of construction and geometry of... were more Eastern than Western.
6.	Santa Sophia (AD 532—537) was the first square volume to be capped by the....
7.	The colossal... are stone and the dome is brick.
8.	The surfaces were ... successively with paint, marble and mosaic.
9.	Byzantine churches ... throughout Asia Minor, relying on an ... of clay domes supported on
stone piers.
10.	The significant... in the constructional system was in the use of pendentives which facilitated
the building of domes.
11.... is composed of small pieces of glass, stone or other materials, set in mortar.
12.	The consequent unevenness in the surface of the mosaic makes it more lively, the angles of ...
changing with each view point.
13.	The Church of San Vitale (AD 526—547), in Ravenna, is of a style that... in Constantinople.
14.	Though vaguely similar to the mid-fourth-century Santa Constanza in Rome, it is larger and
more ... and has a domed centre built into its octagonal design.
15.	To avoid any association with idol worship, early sculptural work did not include large-scale
statuary or relief that involved much....
■	Match the words to the nouns. You may use some words more than once.
square, predominant, building, architectural, private, rectangular, principal, small-scale, colourful,
round
a(n)... style	a(n)... interior
a(n)... house	a(n)... material
a(n)... exterior	a(n)... colour
a(n)... ground-plan	a(n)... feature
a(n)... portico	a(n)... opening
Complete the following texts with the correct words derived from the words in brackets.
1.	Early Christian buildings date from around AD 200 — catacombs, martyria and... (meet) hous¬
es for worship. Once Christianity was ... (official) recognized as the religion of the Roman Empire in
AD 391, the basilica was adopted as the model for churches. ... (original) a meeting hall, it was ...
(ideal) suited to accommodate a... (congregate).... (typical) rectilinear in plan, it had a higher central
nave lit by clerestory windows and flanked by... (colonnade) aisles. A curved end (apse), originally the*
judge’s position, formed the place for the altar.
2.	The Emperor Constantine left home to establish a new capital at Byzantium (Constantinople)
in AD 330. Classical motifs and Roman ... (build) techniques were imported but eastern influence
continued. Intellectual... (achieve), the harmony of proportions and the intricacies of structure were
considered equal to, if not more important than,... (emotion) or ... (sense) qualities. Hagia Sophia
(AD 532—537), built by a ... (mathematics), Anthemios is the most ... (spectacle)
building. In the middle Byzantine period (9th—12th century) symbolism expressed in... (paint) and
mosaics required certain formal ... (arrange). The cross-in-square plan became a common type,
with a ... (centre) higher dome on a drum, often surrounded by lower smaller domes over apses on
all sides.

_Ц Translate the following extracts into English using the vocabulary of the texts.
1.	Ведущая роль в византийском зодчестве принадлежит архитектуре храмов и монастыр¬
ских ансамблей.
2.	Архитекторы Византии работают над проблемой увеличения внутреннего пространства
храма с целью вмещения большего числа верующих. Создается новый тип культовых постро¬
ек, объединивший конструктивные особенности базилики и центрально-купольного храма —
купольная базилика. Свое гениальное воплощение новый тип храма получил в грандиозной
церкви св. Софии (the Church of Bagia Sophia = Santa Sophia) в Константинополе
(Constantinople).
3.	План св. Софии представляет собой слегка вытянутый прямоугольник, в центре которо¬
го выделен квадрат с мощными уступами, перекрытый грандиозным куполом (диаметр
31,5 м), нагрузка распора (thrust) которого передается на массивные устои через паруса (вог¬
нутые сферические треугольники — pendentives).
4.	Внешний облик храма с преобладающим над ним куполом аскетически суров, в то
время как внутреннее убранство собора поражает разнообразием формы и цвета. Стены
покрыты полированным серо-зеленым и розовым мрамором. Своды и купола украшают
мозаики.
Follow-up Activities
Read the texts again and make notes under the following headings. Then use your notes and the illus¬
trations to talk about Early Christian and Byzantine architecture.
1.	How to identify an Early Christian church.
2.	How to identify a Byzantine church.

Reading Task : Parti
JDT^the following terms in the glossary and memorize their meanings.
fortified castle
encircle
parapet
vaulted ceiling
corbel
crypt
decorative feature
projecting
gallery
buttress
doorway
triforium
lean
receding column
arrangement
support n
semi-circular arch
vaulted structure
octagonal
beam
right angle
steep roof
tympanum
seam
cross V
iron work
groin
transept
bronze work
transverse arch
pitched roof
original a
vaulting
gable
decorated moulding
cushion capital
pilaster strip
Latin cross
concentric
arched moulding
chancel
circular moulding
dwarf arcade
screen
pedestal
KB Skim the text.
A.	The word ‘Romanesque’ was coined in the 19th century to describe the architecture of the 11th
and the 12th century and means ‘in the Roman style’.
In the dark ages which followed the collapse of the Roman Empire there was little architecture of
distinction. Builders in the 11th century, looking for an ideal, turned to the architecture of ancient

Rome. Yet, while adapting Roman methods and even pillaging Roman buildings to obtain their mate¬
rials, the architects of the 11th century developed a distinct style of their own which was greatly
inspired by Christianity.
Of the buildings which have survived from the Romanesque period a number are fortified castles.
Most of them are churches.
B.	The rounded arch, the most distinctive characteristic of Romanesque architecture can be seen
in doors, windows, arcades, vaulted ceilings and in many decorative features.
The earliest churches had wooden roofs, which sooner or later burned down. They were particu¬
larly liable to catch fire because of the many candles and blazing torches which were used to light the
churches.
Gradually in Romanesque churches the vaults came to be built of stone. The extra weight exerted
great pressure on the rest of the building, and massive exterior walls were needed to support this weight.
Shallow buttresses leaning against the walls served to give additional support.
C.	Round, square or octagonal towers with their own steep roofs and of considerable height draw
the eye upwards and relieve the heavy outline of the building. Two of the most prominent towers are
those which flank the west door. Another is commonly found directly above the point where the nave
crosses the transept. Pitched roofs with gables are another characteristic feature of Romanesque
churches.
Walls and towers are as a rule decorated with pilaster strips connected by arched mouldings, by real
or blind arcades and by rows of windows. Dwarf arcades frequently encircle the towers just below the
level of the roof.
Corbels, which are small projecting blocks of stone, often finely carved, are used as decoration or
to support other decorative features such as sculptures. Carvings and sculptures are the principal forms
of decoration on the main fagade.
D.	Doors are deeply set and the doorways flanked by a series of receding columns. Above the
columns semi-circular arches recede in the same way. Above the door is a horizontal beam. The area
between the beam and the arch above it, the tympanum, is usually filled with sculptures portraying bib¬
lical themes.
The depth of the doorways shows how extraordinarily thick these walls are, some more than six
metres (20 ft). An interesting feature of the door itself is the iron and bronze work. Many original locks,
hinges and doorknockers can still be seen.
Windows were comparatively small and narrow. They were made to look larger and more impor¬
tant by the columns, arches and decorated mouldings which surrounded them.
E.	The ground-plan of a Romanesque church is always in the shape of a Latin cross. The altar is at the
east end of the chancel, in the direction of Jerusalem. The main entrance to the church is from the west.
In the interior a screen or parapet across the nave separated the congregation from the clergy and
the choir. In the eleventh and twelfth centuries there were no pews or chairs and the bulk of the con¬
gregation had to stand throughout the service. A stone ledge running round the perimeter allowed the
lame, the weak and the old to rest during their devotions.
The crypt, which was on the lower floor and usually underneath the altar, housed the relics of
saints. Because of its sheltered position the crypt is often the best preserved part of the church.
Arcades divide the nave from the aisles. Above the aisles is the gallery (triforium), which gives a
view of the nave and was used by some of the clergy during the services. Above the galleries runs a nar¬
row passage (clerestory), in which the principal windows are set.

This so-called ‘three-tier’ arrangement varies from region to region. Indeed in some churches
there is no third tier. In others, instead of a real gallery above the aisles, there is only a blind arcade
on a solid wall.
F.	The ceilings are colossal vaulted structures made of stone. There were two types of vault used in
Romanesque churches: barrel vaults, which were the simplest kind, the shape resembling the top of a
covered wagon; and groin vaults, those formed by two barrel vaults crossing one another at right angles.
The seams along which the two barrel vaults are joined are called the groins.
Shafts rising from ground level up to the roof and transverse arches across the nave or choir give
additional support to the roof.
Stone vaulting and stone walls helped to give a sonorous quality to human voices. The Gregorian
chant developed during the Romanesque period.
Columns and piers are usually massive. The capitals are based on either the Roman Corinthian
or the later ‘cushion’ design. The latter has the shape of a cube, except that its bottom edges are
rounded. The base of the column is made up of concentric circular mouldings, the lower ones being
wider than the upper ones. The space between the rounded base and the pedestal is sometimes filled
out with carvings.
Comprehension Check
m After the first reading decide which part of the text (A—F) tells us about
1)	a style inspired by Christianity.
2)	the most distinctive features of Romanesque architecture.
3)	stone vaults.
4)	kinds of vaults.
5)	the decoration of churches.
6)	the shape of the ground-plan.
7)	the need of massive exterior walls.
8)	additional support.
9)	the ways of relieving the heavy outline of the building.
10)	components used both as decorative and as supporting ones.
11)	the ways of increasing the size of windows.
12)	the best preserved part of the church.
Щ Read the text carefully paying attention to the terms in bold. Look at the illustrations in the
Architectural Features section at the back of the book. Answer the following questions.
1.	What does the term Romanesque mean?
2.	When did the Romanesque style develop?
3.	What buildings have survived from that period?
4.	What are the most distinctive features of Romanesque architecture?
5.	Where can we see the rounded arch?
6.	What structural elements were needed to support the heavy weight of the vaults?
7.	How could the heavy outline of the building be relieved?
8.	Which were the most prominent towers?

9.	How were the walls and towers decorated?
10.	What was the function of corbels?
11.	How were the doors and windows arranged?
12.	What was the shape of the ground-plan like?
13.	What divided the nave from the aisles?
14.	How was the interior organized?
15.	What types of vaults were used in Romanesque churches?
16.	What gave additional support to the roof?
17.	What are columns and piers like?
Vocabulary Practice
Make sure you know the meanings of these terms and match them with their definitions.
buttress, corbel, gable, parapet, pilaster, pilaster strip, screen, transept, triforium, tympanum
1.	The flat triangular space enclosed by the moulding of the pediment.
2.	Section of a cruciform church which intersects the nave.
3.	A wall built at right angles to the main wall. The projection decreases in stages towards the top
in order to take the thrust of the arch or vault behind.
4.	A square or rectangular pillar slightly projecting from a wall.
5.	An upper aisle with its own arcade forming an important part of the elevation of a nave interi¬
or above the nave-arcade and below the clerestory.
6.	Not a true pilaster; has no base or capital, has no entasis.
7.	The triangular top portion of an end wall where there is a sloping roof.
8.	A projection of brick or stone used as a support.
9.	A low wall or barrier at the edge of a balcony, bridge, roof, terrace, etc., where there is a dan¬
ger to drop. The highest part of the wall above the beginning of the roof slope.
10.	A partition of timber, stone or metal, not part of the main structure of the church, to separate
the nave from the choir, etc.
9 Find in the text the synonyms of the following words.
definite — ...	surround — ...
silhouette — ...	lintel — ...
traverse v —...	configuration — ...
pitched — ...	disposition — ...
undersized —...
Я Find in the text the opposites of the following words.
increase the weight — ... divide — ...
flat a — ...	real — ...
advance v — ...	complex a — ...
top —...	former — ...
inhuman...

m Fill in the correct prepositions, then choose any seven items and make sentences.
1)	to look ... sth; 2) to turn ... sth; 3) ... sth which (have survived); 4) to exert pressure ... sth;
5)... a rule; 6) to be... the shape...; 7)... the interior; 8) to run... the perimeter; 9) to give a view
... sth; 10) to vary... sth ... sth; 11)... the right angle.
Reading Task : Part 2
Find the following term in the glossary and memorize its meaning.
pilgrim church	enliven	wall arcade
walkway	sculpture	Moorish
ambulatory	distortion	compound pier
body	elongated	figure
chapel	wet draping
ИЯ Read the texts carefully paying attention to the term in bold. Look at the illustrations in the
Architectural Features section at the back of the book.
TEXT 1. PILGRIM CHURCHES
During much of the period when Romanesque architecture flourished the practice of going on pil¬
grimages was widespread. Most pilgrims were drawn to Jerusalem, Rome or Santiago de Compostela
in Spain. Half a million pilgrims were estimated to have passed through France in a single year.
The arrival of a large group of pilgrims affected medieval communities much as an influx of tourists
affects modem townships. Among the provisions made was the building of hospices and special
churches along the pilgrim route. These so-called ‘pilgrim churches’ were exceptionally large and are
among the finest examples of Romanesque architecture.
One of the features is the walkway behind the altar known as the ambulatory. This enabled groups
of pilgrims to walk up one aisle, past the east end of the church, and down the other aisle without dis¬
turbing those at worship in the main body of the church. Small chapels led off the ambulatory, where
the overflow of pilgrims could worship.
Because of the shape and size of the windows there is much less light in Romanesque churches than
in churches of later styles. As a result the churches seem to us dark and mysterious. They did not seem
so to the people who first worshipped there.
To understand how the church once looked you have to imagine it lit by many hundreds of candles
and torches, the ceilings and walls enlivened with frescoes, and with many carvings painted in bright
colours. Sadly, with very few exceptions, all the bright colours and the frescoes have by now disappeared.
TEXT 2. ROMANESQUE SCULPTURE
At a time when very few people, apart from the clergy, could read or write the accepted ways of teach¬
ing the message of the Bible were by preaching, and by the carvings and paintings in the churches.
Many of the carvings tell stories, some taken from everyday life, but the majority from the Bible.
In some churches a story continued from one capital to the next, and the worshipper might walk the
length of the nave before coming to the story’s end.

Medieval people were more accustomed, and hence better able, to follow the stories told in the
carvings, but with a little patience and some knowledge of the Bible these stories can still be understood
without much difficulty.
In Romanesque art sculpture was subordinate to architecture. In other words the carvings had to
fit exactly into clearly defined spaces such as the tympanum, capitals, arches or columns.
To fit the sculptures into their allotted spaces, the human and animal figures often had to be dis¬
torted. Bodies are elongated or bent, and heads and limbs are often out of proportion to the rest of the
body. Surprisingly perhaps, these distortions do not detract from the realism of the figures. They even
seem to enhance the power of the expression in the carvings.
The elongated figure fits perfectly into the space allotted to it within a column. Movement and light
are created in spite of the restricted space. The material of the garment is drawn tightly across, outlin¬
ing the body beneath. Even the hem of the dress flares out as if caught by the breeze. It looks almost as
if the material were damp and that is why it is clinging to the body. This style of carving is called ‘wet
draping’ and is very common in Romanesque art.
TEXT 3. AROUND EUROPE
ITALY
Both exterior and interior walls are frequently covered in marble. Rows upon rows of wall arcades,
even extending on to the gables, decorate the fa§ades of many of the churches.
Crouching lions and other beasts support some columns, symbolizing the victory of good over evil.
The southern part of the Italian mainland and Sicily were occupied at various times by Byzantines,
by Arabs and by Normans. Each of these left an imprint on local architecture. Many of the churches
are a mixture of Italian and foreign influences.
GERMANY
Some of the churches have an apse both at the east and the west end. In such cases the main
entrance to the church is from the side.
SPAIN
From the 8th to the 15th century much of Spain was under Arab occupation and Moorish influ¬
ence on Spanish architecture was widespread.
ENGLAND
In England the Romanesque is known as the Norman style. In outward appearance the buildings
tend to be heavy, and they often have squat, square towers. In the interiors massive compound piers fre¬
quently alternate with equally massive columns.
Comprehension Check
^D~Decide whether the following statements are true or false according to the texts.
Text 1.
1.	The arrival of a large group of pilgrims required certain provisions for them in medieval com¬
munities.
2.	The so-called ‘pilgrim churches’ were the finest examples of Romanesque architecture.

3.	The ambulatory was provided for groups of pilgrims to walk through the church without dis¬
turbing the worshippers.
4.	Romanesque churches were well lit.
5.	As the interiors of the churches were rather plain, there are very few examples of bright colours
and frescoes.
Text 2.
1.	Preaching was the only accepted way of teaching the messages of the Bible.
2.	The carvings and paintings in the churches were used to teach as well.
3.	In Romanesque art architecture was superior to sculpture.
4.	Human and animal figures looked very natural.
5.	Because of the restricted space it was very difficult to create movement and light.
Text 3.
1.	Both exterior and interior walls of German churches are frequently covered in marble.
2.	The facades of Italian churches are decorated with rows of wall arcades.
3.	In Spain crouching lions and other beasts support some columns.
4.	English churches are a mixture of different influences.
5.	In outward appearance Spanish buildings were heavy.
6.	Massive compound piers alternating with massive columns are characteristic of the Norman
style.
| Answer the following questions.
Text 1.
1.	What did the practice of going on pilgrims give rise to?
2.	Why were these churches exceptionally large?
3.	What did the ambulatory enable?
4.	Why was there less light in Romanesque churches than in churches of later times?
5.	What were the ceilings and walls decorated with?
Text 2.
1.	What was the purpose of the carvings and paintings in Romanesque churches?
2.	Where were the carvings mainly used?
3.	Why did they have to fit exactly into clearly defined spaces?
4.	How were human and animal figures fitted into their allotted spaces?
5.	Do the distortions make them look unnatural?
6.	What exemplifies movement and light created despite the restricted space?
Text 3.
1.	Where was the Romanesque style widespread?
2.	What distinguishing features of the Romanesque style in different countries can you trace?
3.	Why do many of Italian churches represent a mixture of different influences?
4.	What is the Romanesque style known as in England?

Vocabulary Practice
Make sure you know the meanings of these terms and match them with their definitions.
ambularory, barrel vault, groin vault
1.	A vault formed by the intersection at 90° of two identical barrel vaults creating groins where
they join. Also called cross vault.
2.	A passage at the eastern end of a church which gives access to chapels behind the altar.
3.	The simplest variety of vault, really an elongated or continuous arch like half a cylinder, span¬
ning the distance between parallel walls or other supports. Also called cylindrical, tunnel, or
wagon vault.
Ж Match the words with their synonyms.
1)	affect v	6) imprint n
2)	disturb	7) define
3)	enliven	8) estimate
4)	distorted	9) allot
5)	mixture
a)	evaluate
b)	combination
c)	assign
d)	effect
e)	trouble
f)	out of proportion
g)	brighten
h)	influence
i)	limit
Match the words with their opposites.
1) arrival
2.	subordinate
5)	squat
6)	detract from
3)	widespread
4)	elongated
7)	enhance
8)	bent
a)	add to
b)	lessen
e)	straight
f)	departure
c)	superior
d)	uncommon
g)	graceful
h)	shortened
Fill in the correct prepositions, then choose any seven items and make sentences.
1) to draw... sth; 2)... the route; 3) to lead... sth; 4)... now; 5) to continue... sth.... sth; 6)... other
words; 7) to fit... sth; 8) to be	proportion; 9)... spite ...; 10) to extend	sth; 11)... vari¬
ous times;
Language Development
Fill in the correct word(s) from the list below.
nave, tower, proportions, vaulting, doorways, influence, buttresses, effect, features, transept, aisles,
light, sculpture, enlivened, flanking
1.	Though the 200 years that encompassed the Romanesque style of architecture reflected a range
of regional styles with different methods of vaulting and lighting, their common... allow us to
speak of a Romanesque style of building.
2.	The crossing square of the... and the... at the eastern end served as a measure by which the rest
components of the church were designed.
3.	On both sides of the central nave are two... that originate at the two towers of the eastern facade.

4.	A tall... rises from the crossing square.
5.	The problem of designing a vault system that would at the same time allow ... to enter the
church was probably the major issue facing the architects of the Romanesque period.
6.	Inside, square schematism has again been used to determine the ... of the components of the
church.
7.	Of all the Romanesque styles of architecture, the Norman style was probably to have the great¬
est... upon the development of Gothic architecture.
8.	In northern England, the Cathedral of Durham (1093—1130) was designed with ... in mind
from the beginning.
9.	Exterior... between the windows help to counteract the outward pressure of the inner vaults.
10.	The interior of the cathedral with regularly spaced columns... both sides of the nave, arcades
and a timber roof, is also reminiscent of the earlier basilica design.
11.	However, the galleries above the columns are of Byzantine....
12.	The exterior of the Church of San Miniato al Monte (1018—1062) in Florence is... with geo¬
metric ornamentation of green and white marble.
13.	The lower level of the facade utilizes Corinthian columns to frame its five..., three of which are
real, two of which are false and purely decorative.
14.	The eleventh century is a,significant point of the Romanesque period as it marks the revival of
monumental figurative stone ... in western Europe.
Ш Match the words to the nouns. You may use some words more than once.
groin, stone, pitched, heavy, elongated, right, shallow, distinctive, barrel, great, semi-circular, steep,
squat, massive
a(n)...	characteristic	a(n)...	figure
a(n)...	vault	a(n)...	pier
a(n)...	outline	a(n)...	buttress
a(n)...	arch	... pressure
a(n)...	angle	a(n)...	roof
ВЦ Complete the following text with the correct words derived from the words in brackets.
Stocky, chunky, solid and primitive looking, Romanesque buildings are generally... (recognize) by
their round arches. Exteriors and interiors are... (clear) related to each other.	,
Neither... (power) nor... (dominate), and without grandeur of Roman buildings or the mystery of
Byzantine architecture, although using elements from both, the Romanesque has ... (picture) quality
and a much friendlier feel.
In Italian Romanesque, the picturesque quality is evident; the tower (campanile) is detached from
the main body of the church and external arcading is common. Pisa Cathedral (1063—1118; 1261—
1272) is the best known, with its... (lean) campanile with arcades at every level, as well as three more
levels of arcades on the facade of the cathedral.
In England the Romanesque is called Norman and starts with Westminster Abbey built by Edward the
Confessor. Almost every cathedral and abbey church was... (build) at this time and, as well as the... (type)
Romanesque, some had... (variant) — Ely has a single West tower, Lincoln has niches on the fagade.
Castles were also enclosed communities. Norman castles had keeps on the raised mound (motte),
often surrounded by a moat and an adjoining enclosure (bailey). Examples include the White Tower at
London (1086-97) and Orford, Suffolk (1166-72).

ШШ Translate the following extracts into English using the vocabulary of the texts.
1.	Романский стиль в архитектуре сочетает классические элементы и элементы местного
зодчества. Наибольшее распространение получают храмы, монастырские комплексы, замки.
Внешний облик романских построек отличается простыми массивными формами.
2.	Центром монастырского комплекса был храм — самое значительное создание роман¬
ского зодчества. Наибольшее распространение получают храмы базиликального типа. Роман¬
ский храм в плане представлял собой латинский крест, образованный пересечением продоль¬
ных помещений (нефов), которых было обычно три или пять, с поперечными (трансептами).
Центральный, более высокий, чем боковые, неф завершался на западе алтарной апсидой.
Вход в церковь обычно был выполнен в виде перспективного портала, выложенного последо¬
вательно уменьшающимися к проему, врезанными в толщу стены полуциркульными арками.
Пространство стены над входом, ограниченное полукружием арки (тимпан), обычно украша¬
лось рельефными изображениями.
3.	Внешний вид романского собора суров, прост, лаконичен. Центром композиции обыч¬
но служила башня, увенчанная шпилем и установленная в средокрестии (crossing).
4.	Рельефные изображения подчинялись форме элементов постройки: пропорции изобра¬
жения на колоннах вытянутые, удлиненные, в фризах приобретали приземистые формы.
Follow-up Activities
Read the texts again and make notes under the following headings. Then use your notes and the illus¬
trations to talk about the Romanesque style.
1.	How to identify a Romanesque church.
?.. Romanesque sculpture.
3.	Romanesque variations in different countries.

Reading Task : Parti
Find the following terms in the glossary and memorise their meanings.
cathedral
drapery
Gothic S-curve
croquet
sloping side
spire
mason
drawing
mock gable
fabric
pointed arch
ornate
column figure
stone work
rose-window
canopy
pinnacle
projection
ШвЯ Read the text carefully paying attention to the terms in bold. Look at the illustrations in the
Architectural Features section at the back of the book.
CHURCHES
Gothic architecture is the supreme expression in stone of the Christian faith.
Not surprisingly, the greatest Gothic buildings are the cathedrals, of which there was the astonish¬
ing outcrop in western Europe in the 13th and the 14th centuries. The men who designed and built the
cathedrals were not usually local people. They were professional masons, who were organized in
lodges, and travelled from city to city as work became available.
The master masons were in effect the architects. A number of them are no longer known to us by
name, although they are identifiable by the individual masons’ marks which they cut into blocks of stone.
There were no architects’ drawings in the modem sense of the term, and parts of buildings did
occasionally fall down because of faulty construction. But the splendour of their achievements is the
abiding proof of the masons’ extraordinary skills and of the strength of the spirit which inspired them.

The pointed arch is the main feature which the visitor sees in a Gothic building.
The western fagade is the most ornate part of a Gothic church. There are usually three richly
carved doorways in this fa?ade, the centre one being the largest of the three. This arrangement of the
doorways corresponds with the internal division of the building, which has a wide nave flanked by
two aisles.
The deep doorways are formed by receding columns with arches above them. A characteristic
feature is the so-called column figure, which is not in fact a part of the column itself. In classical
architecture figures are commonly incorporated in the columns, but in Gothic they usually stand in
front of them.
The figures in Gothic sculpture look very natural. The drapery of the dresses is soft and pleasing.
Many of the female figures have taken up a sinuous stance known as the Gothic S-curve.
Above the doorways the facade is so richly decorated that there are hardly any empty spaces left.
Rows of sculptured figures alternate with niches holding even more figures. Many doors, windows and
niches are surmounted by mock gables.
Horizontal mouldings and rows of blind arcades add to the richness of the fabric. A huge round
window with intricate stone work, the so-called ‘rose-window’, is usually in the middle of the facade.
Crockets are typically Gothic decoration. They are carved in the form of curling leaves and are
used to decorate the sloping sides of spires, canopies, pinnacles and other projections.
The carvings above the doors were intended to instruct. They were based on biblical events and,
being in narrative fon£, often continued from one door to the next.
Above the western fa$ade are the two main towers, and at the point where the nave crosses
the transepts is the centre tower, which usually has a very high spire. The original intention in some
of the larger churches was to build even more towers, but the plans were sometimes abandoned for
lack of money or because adding further structures on top of already high buildings was thought too
dangerous.
Comprehension Check
I Choose the answer (a, b, с or d) which you think fits best according to the text.
1.	The greatest Gothic buildings are
a)	the pointed arches.
b)	the cathedrals.
c)	the spires.
d)	the towers.
2.	The main feature in a Gothic building is
a)	richly decorated doorways.
b)	the column figure.
c)	the pointed arch.
d)	horizontal mouldings and blind arcades.
3.	The most ornate part of a Gothic church was
a)	the western facade.
b)	the deep doorways.
c)	the sculptured figures.
d)	the spires.

4.	Typically Gothic decorations are
a)	columns.
b)	pinnacles.
c)	richly carved doorways.
d)	curling leaves.
5.	The figures in Gothic architecture
a)	were upright.
b)	looked very artificial.
c)	looked real.
d)	were distorted.
6.	The arrangement of the doorways corresponds with
a)	the so-called ‘rose-window’.
b)	receding columns with arches above them.
c)	a wide nave flanked by two aisles.
d)	the two main towers and the central tower with a very high spire.
Щ Answer the following questions.
1.	When did Gothic architecture develop?
2.	What are its greatest buildings?
3.	Why did parts of buildings occasionally fall down?
4.	What is the main feature in a Gothic building?
5.	How is the western fa§ade organized?
6.	How are the deep doorways formed?
7.	What is the characteristic feature of the column?
8.	What are many doors, windows and niches surmounted by?
9.	What adds to the richness of the building?
10.	What decoration is typically Gothic?
11.	Where is it used?
12.	What was the purpose of the carvings above the door?
13; How many towers are used for a Gothic building?
14.	What was originally intended to be built in some of the larger churches?
15.	Why did they fail to do that?
Vocabulary Practice
I^Qflviake sure you know the meanings of these terms and match them with their definitions.
crocket, pinnacle, pointed arch, rose window
1.	An ornamental pyramid or cone, the terminating feature of a buttress, spire, etc., often orna¬
mented with crockets.
2.	A Gothic circular or marigold window subdivided by complex tracery radiating from the cen¬
tre and joining in foils to form a stylized floral design of great intricacy and beauty.
3.	Any equilateral arch whose proportions are governed by the positions of the centre-points from
which the arcs are struck.
4.	A Gothic decorative carving, often in the shape of a leaf, used on the slanted edge of a spire etc.

Я Find in the text the synonyms of the following words.
collapse v — ...	cap v — ...
adorned — ...	complex — ...
join — ...	plan n — ...
twisting — ...	give up — ...
house v — ...	extension —	...
Я Find in the text the opposites of the following words.
alien — ...	simple —	...
advancing — ...	retreat —	...
male — ...	safe —
straight — ...	pursue —	...
S Fill in the correct prepositions, then choose any five items and make sentences.
1)... effect; 2)... the modern sense of the word; 3) to correspond... sth; 4)... fact; 5) to be incor¬
porated ... sth; 6) to alternate ... sth; 7) to add... sth; 8)... lack... sth.
Reading Task : Part 2
_Ц Find the following terms in the glossary and memorize them.
rib	bear v	design n
thrust	stained glass window	cluster-pier
vaulted roof	sketch	foliage
rib vault	whitewashed
flying buttress	trestle
ШМ| Read the texts carefully paying attention to the terms in bold. Look at the illustrations in the
Architectural Features section at the back of the book.
TEXT 1. INTERIORS
The ground-plan in a Gothic church is in the form of a Latin cross. This was often modified by the
addition of extra chapels or of double rows of aisles and ambulatories.
The nave is divided from the aisles by a row of columns. Above the aisles are the galleries, and
above the galleries a row of windows. The arrangement differs from church to church, and to the visi¬
tor it can be particularly interesting to see the form these differences take.
Entering a Gothic church gives an immediate impression of vast height, which is created partly by
the real height of the building and partly by an optical illusion produced by the columns, arches, ribs
and other features all pointing upwards.
In earlier styles the weight — or the downward thrust — exerted by the heavy vaulted roofs was
evenly distributed over the massive walls. Windows and doors were kept relatively small in order not to
weaken the walls, and consequently churches tended to be dark.

In Gothic architecture the roof structure is of the rib vault kind. The ribs, made of stone, were con¬
structed first, and then the space between the ribs was filled with a much lighter material. A further
development enabled the bulk of the downward thrust to be carried by the ribs. From there it was
channelled through the columns into the ground.
The function of the flying buttresses was to counterbalance any outward thrust exerted on the walls.
Pinnacles on top of the buttresses look like decorative, but their main purpose is to add further weight
and stability to the buttresses themselves.
As the walls no longer had to bear so much of the weight, they could be built much higher and with
large windows, which allowed light to flood into the building. Some of the windows were so big that
they reached almost from one buttress to another.
Daylight coming through these huge windows would have created a harsh and, perhaps in the
minds of the builders, a too worldly effect. To produce a more pleasing and more suitable light the
masons developed the stained glass window.
TEXT 2. STAINED GLASS AND FURTHER GOTHIC FEATURES
Stained glass windows are among the great glories of Gothic churches. The art which produced
them was similar in execution to that of the mosaic. A sketch was made first, probably depicting a bib¬
lical story or an incident in the life of a saint. A cartoon — or a full-sized drawing based on the
sketch — was then placed on a whitewashed table supported by trestles.
The next step was to mark on the cartoon the colours to be used. Glass was then cut with a fairly
crude iron instrument to fit the shapes of the coloured section as closely as possible. (When in the 16th
century a diamond-cutting tool was invented which was also used for glass, all the greatest Gothic win¬
dows were made.)
Details such as faces were printed on the glass, which was fired in a kiln, cooled, and laid out on
the table again. The gaps between the pieces of glass were filled with lead, which is both pliable and
weather-resistant. One of the great artistic achievements of the Gothic window-makers was the way in
which they used lead to create rhythm and to emphasize lines in their design.
There were therefore four main elements in the art: glass, pigment, lead and, not least important,
the light which filtered through the window.
When many of the windows were made there was less lead in them than there is today. As time went
by, more lead had sometimes to be added and new glass cut as windows suffered damage from causes
ranging from warfare to the flight of birds.
Apart from the stained glass windows, the vaults are probably the most aesthetically pleasing fea¬
tures of a Gothic church. As the style developed, more and more ribs, some purely decorative, were
added to the vaults. The patterns they formed are often of extraordinary beauty.
Gothic columns are slim. Piers are often surrounded by a cluster of shafts and are known as clus-
ter-piers.
Capitals are decorated mainly with foliage. In later Gothic both human and animal figures are
found on the capitals. Occasionally one can come across the slightly disconcerting sight of a human
face peeping out from among the foliage, with leaves growing out of his face. This is the Green Man,
who in pagan times was a familiar fertility symbol.

Comprehension Check
Decide whether the following statements are true or false according to the texts.
Text 1.
1.	The ground-plan in a Gothic church is in the form of the Greek cross.
2.	The aisles are divided from the nave by a row of columns.
3.	The arrangement of the components of the interior remains the same in all churches.
4.	An immediate impression of vast height is created by the real height and by the optical illusion
produced by the features pointing downwards.
5.	In earlier styles the weight of the heavy vaulted roof was evenly distributed over the massive wall.
6.	The size of doors and windows contributed to strengthening the walls.
7.	In Gothic architecture the massive walls were not needed as the ribs could carry the downward
thrust.
8.	The use of ribs enabled to build much higher and with large windows.
Text 2.
1.	The art of producing stained glass windows was different from that of mosaic.
2.	All the greatest Gothic windows were made with the invention of a diamond-cutting tool in the
16th century.
3.	The way in which the Gothic window-makers used lead to create rhythm and to emphasize
lines in the design was one of the greatest artistic achievements.
4.	The main elements in the art of making stained glass windows were glass, pigment, lead and
light.
5.	The vaults are probably the most aesthetically pleasing features, apart from the stained glass
windows.
6.	Gothic builders used squat columns.
7.	Foliage being the main decoration, one can find neither human nor animal figures on Gothic
capitals.
I Answer the following questions.
Text 1.
1.	How can you define the ground-plan in a Gothic church?
2.	How is the impression of vast height created in a Gothic church?
3.	What was the weight of the heavy vaulted roof distributed over in earlier styles?
4.	What was the roof structure in Gothic architecture like?
5.	How was the roof constructed?
6.	What was the function .of the ribs?
7.	How was any outward thrust exerted on the walls counterbalanced?
8.	What was the purpose of the pinnacles?
9.	What allowed light to flood into the building?
10.	Why did the masons develop the stained glass window?
Text 2.
1.	What can stained glass windows be called?
2.	What was the art of producing stained glass windows like?
3.	What were the main elements in this art?

4.	What else is probably the most aesthetically pleasing feature apart from the stained glass
windows?
5.	What are Gothic columns like?
6.	What decorations are used on the capital?
Vocabulary Practice
Ц Make sure you know the meanings of these terms and match them with their definitions.
flying buttress, rib, rib vault
1.	A variety of vault with ribs framing the webs and concealing the groins.
2.	A moulding on a flat or vaulted ceiling.
3.	A type of buttress consisting of an arched structure extending from the upper part of a wall to a
massive pier in order to convey the outward thrust of the stone vault safely to the ground.
| Match the words with their synonyms.
1)	counterbalance 6) closely
2)	stability	7) gap
3)	execution	8) resistant
4)	suitable	9) arrangement
5)	rhythm	10)	cluster
■	Match the words with their opposites.
1)	light a	5) harsh
2)	resistant	6) closely
3)	difference	7) pliable
4)	light a	8) weaken
a)	interval
b)	configuration
c)	oppose
d)	proof
e)	firmness
a)	identity
b)	strengthen
c)	mild
d)	distantly
f)	bunch
g)	appropriate
h)	regularity
i)	tightly
j) performance
e)	hard
f)	unable to withstand
g)	dark
h)	heavy
Fill in the correct prepositions, then choose any five items and make sentences.
1) to be divided ... sth ... sth; 2) ... order to; 3) to be ... (a certain) kind; 4) to exert sth ... sth;
5)	to reach... sth... sth; 6) to be similar... sb/sth; 7) to suffer... sth; 8) to range... sth ... sth.
Reading Task : Part3
Find the following terms in the glossary and memorize their meanings.
early Gothic	mullion	ogee arch
high Gothic	transom	steep roof
late Gothic	tracery	fresco painting
lancet window	curvilinear	Early English style
unadorned	sweep	Decorated style

Perpendicular style
fan vault
open space
town hall
Flamboyant style
fortress
defensive works
living quarters
dormer window
stonemason
trefoil design
quatrefoil design
plate tracery
Plateresque
silver work
Tudor style
ЩШ Read the text carefully paying attention to the terms in bold and to the illustrations in the


Architectural Features section at the back of the book. Seven sentences have been removed (gaps
1—7) and placed in a jumbled order after the text.
VARIATIONS IN GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE
The Gothic style in architecture lasted in some parts of Europe for over four hundred years. Its his¬
tory can be divided into three periods: early Gothic, high Gothic and late Gothic.... (1)
Early Gothic so-called lancet windows are tall and narrow. When two or more windows were
grouped together they were usually surrounded by an arch. The empty space between the top of the
windows and the surrounding arch was probably thought too plain to be left unadorned.... (2) As the
windows became larger they were given vertical and horizontal divisions, called mullions and transoms.
The high Gothic window is larger and the mullions and transoms are slimmer. The tracery here is
curvilinear, sweeping in various directions. The pointed arch is often replaced by the ogee arch.
As a generalization it can be said that early Gothic and high Gothic are similar in style in most
European countries. But by the time of late Gothic each country had developed a variation of the style
with strong national characteristics of its own.
In northern Europe there was a tendency to build high, steep roofs and large windows letting in as
much light as possible.... (3)
Smaller windows meant larger wall surfaces. As a result fresco painting continued in the south, and
stained glass was much rarer than it was in the north.
In England the three main periods of Gothic architecture are called Early English, Decorated and
Perpendicular. The first two were similar to early and high Gothic respectively. Perpendicular was a
purely English style.
During the Perpendicular period in England the decorating of panels on both outer and inner walls
was in fashion.... (4) During the same period vaults became more and more intricate, culminating in
the exclusively English fan-vault.
One of the most pleasing aspects of an English Gothic cathedral is the amount of open space
around it which enables the visitor to look at it from a distance. The reason for this is that in England
the cathedrals were monastic establishments with considerable land of their own.
Apart from the churches a number of ornately carved timber buildings survive from this period,
some of them private houses, some inns, and some town halls. Timber was also used for the roofs, out¬
standing among them being the beautifully carved hammer-beam roofs.
In France the late Gothic period is called Flamboyant, from the window tracery which resembled
flames leaping upwards. Towards the end of the period the fortresses of the nobles became more like
ENGLAND
... (5).
FRANCE

palaces. They still retained their moats and other defensive works, but the courtyards became more
elaborate, and much more space was given over to living quarters.
The town houses of the rich also became more elegant and comfortable. ... (6) High roofs and
dormer windows were characteristic features.
GERMANY
Among the peculiar characteristics of German Gothic architecture arc the so-called ‘hall church¬
es.’ ... (7) Some of the churches had only one central tower above the western fa$ade.
SPAIN
In Spain the Gothic style is called ‘Plateresque’, meaning that it resembles ornate silver work. The
decorations are exceptionally rich and cover most of the facade.
Comprehension Check
| Read the sentences carefully paying attention to the terms in bold. Then skim the gapped text
again and choose from the sentences (A—G) the one which fits each gap (1—7).
A.	In the south, where there was less rain and snow, the roofs were flatter, and to keep the heat of
the sun out, the windows were smaller.
B.	The final development of English Gothic is known as the Tudor style.
C.	In these, the roof of the nave and the roof of the aisles are of the same height.
D.	The stonemasons therefore pierced the stone and created circular, trefoil or quatrefoil designs
called plate tracery.
E.	Most of these houses had spacious courtyard and were two or three storeys high.
F.	Each period had its own characteristic features, but probably the easiest way to identify a peri¬
od is by the windows and, in particular, by the stonework within the windows.
G.	The style was then adopted for windows, the glass being divided into small rectangular panels
and the whole window being enclosed in a broad arch.
| Answer the following questions.
1.	How long did the Gothic style last in some parts of Europe?
2.	What periods can it be divided into?
3.	Which is the easiest way to identify a period?
4.	What are characteristic features of the early Gothic windows?
5.	What are the high Gothic windows characterized by?
6.	What arch was used in the high Gothic period?
7.	What was the late Gothic period like in most European countries?
8.	How did the roof differ in the north and in the south?
9.	How did the wall surface influence the decoration?
10.	What are the three main periods of Gothic architecture in England?
11.	What are their distinguishing features?
12.	What did the development of the vault culminate in in England?

13.	What did the amount of open space around an English Gothic cathedral provide?
14.	What buildings apart from churches survive from this period?
15.	What is the final development of English Gothic known as?
16.	Why is the late Gothic period in France called Flamboyant?
17.	What changes took place towards the end of the period?
18.	What are peculiar characteristics of German Gothic architecture?
19.	What is the Gothic style like in Spain?
Vocabulary Practice
Make sure you know the meanings of these terms and match them with their definitions.
dormer window, fan vault, lancet window, mullion, ogee arch, tracery, transom
1.	A Gothic system of vaulting, in which the ribs start together	at the	main	wall	and	rise	in a
curved fan-shape to a semi-circle at ceiling level.
2.	A vertical post between the lights of a window or screen.
3.	The arrangement by which panels, screens, vaults, or windows	are divided	into parts	of differ¬
ent shapes or sizes by means of moulded stone bars or ribs.
4.	A window letting daylight into the space under a sloping roof.
5.	The first Gothic tall, narrow window-aperture with a pointed arched head, either a single insert
in a wall or one of several lights of similar shape in a window.
6.	A pointed keel-arch of four arcs with two centres outside it and two inside, thus producing two
S-shaped curves.
7.	A horizontal element framed across a window, dividing the window-aperture into lights framed
by bars forming the mullions and transoms.
И Find in the text the synonyms of the following words.
recognize — ...	vogue — ...
combine —...	surround — ...
bore v — ...	wooden — ...
curvaceous — ...	dwelling n — ...
substitute —...
| Find in the text the opposites of the following words.
offensive — ...	narrow — ...
plain a — ...	unessential — ...
cramped — ...	perish —...
ornate — ...	straight — ...
Fill in the correct prepositions, then choose any five items and make sentences.
1) to last...; 2) to be similar... sth; 3)... a generalization; 4) to be ... fashion; 5) to culminate
sth; 6) to look... sb/sth... a distance; 7) to give	sth.

Language Development
■	Fill in the correct word(s) from the list below.
sculpture, Latin cross, flying buttress, figure, pinnacles, used, vertical, rib vault, decoration,
pointed arch, distinctive, functional, emphasizes, spires, aesthetic
1.	The essence of a Gothic building is its structure — the result of the combination of ...
and....
2.	The..., pointing skyward on the buttress, add weight to tie the buttresses to the ground.
3.	... act as landmarks and allow the sound of bells to be heard far away.
4.	The transepts which break up the linearity of the nave provide lateral support and give it the ...
plan.
5.	What made the design of the Church of St. Denis so... was the way in which it utilizes existing
architectural elements.
6.	Flying buttresses had been ... effectively at the Cathedral of Notre-Dame as well as at the
Cathedral of Laon.
7.	Gothic architects exposed the buttresses and trimmed them in such a manner that they were
both... and....
8.	Though Chartres Cathedral was built in the high Gothic style, the portals of the western facade
represent examples of early Gothic ....
9.	The ... orientation and lightness of the mass are accented by the colonnettes and compound
piers as well as by the natural light that enters through the clerestory windows.
10.	Stylistic differences among the... indicate that a number of sculptors were involved in their cre¬
ation.
11.	The Virgin is portrayed in a way that... her vertical orientation, the folds of her robe being elon¬
gated and angular.
12.	During the latter part of the 13th century there was a shift in emphasis from the vertical ele¬
ments of the church to the refinement of surface ....
Ш Match the words to the nouns. You may use some words more than once.
elaborate, faulty, empty, outward, open, original, downward, whitewashed, light, suitable, full-sized,
artistic, pleasing, western, weather-resistant, pliable
a(n)... construction	a(n)... drawing
a(n)... fagade	a(n)... achievement
a(n)... space	a(n)... pattern
a(n)... thrust	... stonework
a(n)... material	a(n)... design
_|Я Complete the following text with the correct words derived from the words in brackets.
Gothic cathedrals exist in the greatest numbers in France and England, though the French cathe¬
dral builders attempted more... (dare) structures than their English counterparts.
The earliest Gothic building is the rebuilding of the choir of the Abbey of Saint Denis near Paris
(1140). Notre Dame de Paris (1163) is archetypal French Gothic. It is... (enormous) high (32m), with
three levels of flying buttresses, double aisles, and a chevet end with chapels. The west end has two
square towers and ... (circle) windows.

The thirteenth-century Rayonnant style, developed in France as a... (react) to the vast scale of the
cathedrals, produced much smaller-scale churches. The Sainte Chapelle in Paris (1243) is a... (partic¬
ular) beautiful space: a simple rectangle with an apsidal end and ... (spectacle) stained glass work
intended to be seen close to.... (External) the small building is covered with pinnacles and spires.
In England the Gothic period is... (rough) divided by century,... (general) related to the ... (com¬
plex) of the tracery. Canterbury Cathedral’s Trinity Chapel is a good example of the ‘Early English’,
or ‘Lancet’ style. ‘Decorated’ is the next phase, which is sometimes called ‘curvilinear’ as forms
become more complex, freer flowing and ... (curve). The Henry VII Chapel at Westminster (1503)
and King’s College, Cambridge (1446) are the most magnificent examples of the Perpendicular
style. In both, the ... (spectacular) intricate vaulting owes more to ... (decorate) intention than ...
(structure) logic.
_Ц translate the following extracts into English using the vocabulary of the* texts.
1.	Готическое искусство достигло наивысшей точки в храмовом зодчестве. Величествен¬
ные готические соборы существенно отличаются от романских. Более высокие, нарядные,
легкие, они поражали изящностью, динамичностью и живописностью.
2.	Мастера готики продолжают развивать базиликальный тип храма. Одно из главных дос¬
тижений готической архитектуры — выделение устойчивой каркасной системы, в которой
конструктивную роль выполняют крестовые нервюрные своды (ribbed groined vaults) (нервюры
(ribs, liemes) — ребра жесткости (stiffening ribs), поддерживающие свод), внутренние устои (ко¬
лонны) и внешние опоры (вынесенные за пределы собора контрфорсы, сдерживающие распор
стены, передающийся на контрфорс через аркбутан). Такая конструкция позволила перекры¬
вать большие пролеты и поднять своды на головокружительную высоту.
3.	Одна из характерных особенностей готической постройки — стрельчатая арка.
4.	Внутреннее помещение готического собора, стены которого, в отличие от романского,
прорезывают большие окна, становится светлее, поражает своим великолепием. Сам воздух,
наполненный разноцветными струями света, просеянного через окна-витражи, производит
сильное впечатление.
Follow-up Activities
Read the texts again and make notes under the following headings. Then use your notes and the illus¬
trations to talk about Gothic architecture.
1.	How to identify a Gothic building.
2.	Decoration.
3.	Variations in Gothic architecture.

UNIT 7. THE RENAISSANCE ««1-16thcentury
Reading Task : Parti
[]Hr~iindthe following terms in the glossary and memorize their meanings.
architectural drawing	architectural drawing	undercoating
early Renaissance	cartouche	background
high Renaissance	ornamental panel	semi-elliptical dome
ornamentation	sgraffito
Read the text carefully paying attention to the terms in bold. Look at the illustrations in the
Architectural Features section at the back of the book.
The term ‘renaissance’ — or rebirth — is commonly used to describe the great intellectual awak¬
ening which took place in Europe from the 14th to the 16th centuries.	'
In architecture the Renaissance style started in 15th-century Florence, and from there spread to
most other parts of Europe. Just as the general intellectual awakening was stimulated by rediscovery 6f
classical literature — the monk Rabelais declared that a man should be ashamed of knowing no
Greek — so the new Italian architectural style was deeply influenced by the theory and practice of
Imperial Rome.
In the early 15th century a ten-volume work was rediscovered in Italy. Its author, Vitruvius, was an
architect and engineer who served the Emperor Augustus and dedicated his work to him. The book
gave detailed information on the different styles practised by Roman architects and the rules govern¬
ing correct proportions and other requirements.
Vitruvius was widely accepted as an authority on how buildings should be constructed, and some
of the greatest Renaissance architects, men whose names are still household words, were close students
of his work.

As the new vogue spread, architects came to Rome from other Italian cities, and then from other
European countries, to study ancient Roman buildings — most of them in ruins. A number of them
published their findings. New works were also produced known as sample books, which contained
architectural drawings. With the advent of printing these were more and more widely distributed.
Renaissance architects did not try to make exact copies of ancient Roman buildings. In more than
a thousand years the manner of life had changed too much for this to be feasible. But they did observe
the rules and outward forms which Vitruvius had described in such detail, adapting them to the
requirements of their own time and imposing on them, as great architects will, their own personalities.
Among the many features which they incorporated into their own buildings were the Roman arch,
the vault, the gable and, most important, the five Roman orders: Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian and
Composite.
As a generalization, Renaissance architecture can be divided into two main periods: 15th-century
early Renaissance and 16th-century high Renaissance. In early Renaissance,- Roman influence is most
apparent in the ornamentation of the buildings. In high Renaissance Roman influence extends to the
structure of the buildings as much as to their ornamentation.
A common form of Renaissance decoration is the cartouche. This is an ornamental panel in the
form of a scroll or a sheet of paper, with curling ridges. It usually bears an inscription and is sometimes
ornately framed.
Another characteristic decoration is the sgraffito, which originated in Venice. This was a manner
of painting in which the undercoating was black. A thin surface of white was laid over it, and the design
was then scraped down to the black background.
Renaissance buildings are chiefly characterized by their classical components and their very striking
semi-elliptical domes. The greatest buildings of the period are town palaces, country villas, and churches.
Comprehension Check
Ш Decide whether the following statements are true or false according to the text.
1.	In architecture the Renaissance style coincided with the appearance of a book by Vitruvius in
the 15th century.
2.	The new Italian architectural style was stimulated by Greek architecture.
3.	Vitruvius was widely accepted as an authority on the construction of buildings.
4.	His ten-volume book gave detailed information on different styles, the rules of proportions and
other requirements.
5.	He taught some of the greatest Renaissance architects.
6.	As the new vogue spread, architects came to Rome from other Italian cities and other European
countries to study ancient Roman buildings which are now in ruins.
7.	Some of them published their findings which became sample books containing architectural
drawings.
8.	Renaissance architects attempted to make exact copies of ancient Roman buildings.
9.	They followed blindly the rules and outward forms which Vitruvius had described in such detail.
10.	They incorporated into their own buildings the Roman forms and the five Roman orders.
11.	In early Renaissance, Roman influence is most apparent in the structure of the buildings.
12.	In high Renaissance, Roman influence is most apparent in the ornamentation of the buildings
as well as in the structure.

13.	The common forms of Renaissance decoration are the cartouche and the sgraffito.
14.	Renaissance buildings are chiefly characterized by their classical components as well as their
striking semi-circular domes.
| Answer the following questions.
1.	When and where did the Renaissance style develop?
2.	What architecture influenced the new Italian architectural style?
3.	Where could Renaissance architects get information on Roman architects’ activity?
4.	What was Vitruvius?
5.	Did Renaissance architects try to make exact copies of ancient Roman buildings? Why?
6.	What did they observe?
7.	What were the main features incorporated into their own buildings?
8.	What periods ean Renaissance architecture be divided into?
9.	What was the difference between early Renaissance and high Renaissance?
10.	What were characteristic Renaissance decorations like?
11.	What are Renaissance buildings characterized by?
12.	What are the greatest buildings of the period?
Vocabulary Practice
Find in the text the synonyms of the following words.
happen — ...	keep to —	...
give rise to — ...	style — ...
devote — ...	acknowledge — ...
discovery — ...	evident —	...
example — ...
Ш Find in the text the opposites of the following words.
wrong — ...	impossible — ...
unrecognized — ...	neglect — ...
poncealed — ...	unprecise — ...
Я Fill in the correct prepositions, then choose any three items and make sentences.
1)	to be ashamed ... sb/sth; 2) an authority ... Sth; 3) to adapt sth ... sth; 4) to incorporate ... sth;
5) to extend... sth.
Reading Task : Part 2
U Find the following terms in the glossary and memorize their meanings.
rusticated
joint
rustication
console
jut out
open arcade

..mezzanine
piano nobile
principal room
medieval
utilitarian
garden design
centrally planned church
flat roof
barrel-vaulted ceiling
positioning
drum
lantern
church architecture
sculpted figure
square n
staircase
cloister
terrace
balustrade
planned garden
engaged columns
curved pediment
pointed pediment
spherical dome
eye
top v
copper
vaulted ceiling
flat ceiling
panel work
salone
camera
rood screen
choir
U 2. Read the texts carefully paying attention to the terms in bold and to the illustrations in the
Architectural Features section at the back of the book. Seven paragraphs have been removed
(gaps 1—7) and placed in a jumbled order after the texts.
TEXT 1. TOWN PALACES
Medieval castles were fortresses in which large numbers of people could be assembled. Renaissance
palaces, by contrast, were planned as agreeable palaces in which to live and to entertain. They often
included store-rooms and offices, but they were not designed to be defended against battering-rams or
bowmen. To prevent theft, or even an onslaught by an angry mob, the ground floor windows were
always kept small and covered by a grille. The ironwork was usually based on Roman motifs. Above the
ground floor the windows became very much larger and more ornate.
Seen from the street, the ground floor fagade is forbidding. It is often rusticated — that is to say the
walls are formed of large blocks of stone with broad joints. In some palaces the whole of the fagade is
rusticated; in others rustication is restricted to the comer edges of the building.
Many of the early Renaissance windows consist of a single rusticated arch enclosing two openings
separated by a single column. Later windows are rectangular in shape, surrounded with mouldings, and
with consoles and a pediment above.
Doors are normally flanked by columns carrying an entablature. Pediments above the doors are
common.
In the 16th century a Renaissance variation of the Roman orders appears. This is the giant or colos¬
sal order, which extends over more than one floor. Harmony and orderliness are still achieved, large¬
ly because the columns surrounding the windows are equal in height to a single floor and serve to indi¬
cate clearly the proportions of the building.
Cornices are a dominating feature of Renaissance buildings. Some jut out as much as 2 metres
(6 ft) from the wall. In some houses the top storey takes the form of an open arcade.
The ground-plan of a palace is usually square. The main entrance leads through the house into a
courtyard where, as a rule, light and delicate arcades provide a startling contrast with the fagade.
The mezzanine floor usually has square windows, and on the first floor above, the so-called piano
nobile, the principal rooms are to be found.
. (1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

Smaller palaces — or town houses — which had no more than two or three rooms on a floor were
built in the same style.
TEXT 2. COUNTRY HOUSES AND GARDENS
The change from medieval fortress to Renaissance home was just evident in country villas as it was
in town palaces. Medieval gardens, many of which were part of monastic establishments, were largely
utilitarian. In 15th-century Italy, by contrast, the design of gardens for aesthetic pleasure and the inte¬
grated planning of garden and house was developed as an art form. Some of the greatest Italian archi¬
tects engaged in garden design. This was in conformity with much of the spirit of the Renaissance,
when one individual could achieve greatness as painter, architect, sculptor and inventor, and beings
such as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo were impossible to classify as practitioners of any partic¬
ular art form.
- (5)
TEXT 3. CHURCHES
The ground-plans of Renaissance churches vary considerably. Some are modelled on the Roman
basilica, some lire in the shape of the Latin cross, and some are centrally planned.
The basilica-type churches either have flat roofs, as in the Roman prototype, or barrel-vaulted ceil¬
ings with domes. In the churches planned in the form of a cross, apses are often added at the ends.
The inspiration of some of the circular churches came from Roman colonnaded circular temples.
The similarity of the positioning of the columns is striking. The circular form was also held to symbol7
ize the cosmos — conceived in the form of a globe — with man at its centre. Some of the domes were
so large and impressive that they became famous landmarks.
... (6)
Both the inner and the outer domes are resting on a circular drum which has windows all around
it. Daylight enters the church through the windows of both the lantern and the drum.
Giant scrolls — a characteristic feature of Renaissance church architecture — fill in the space cre¬
ated by the differing heights of the nave and the aisles. Niches as tall as a whole floor with only one
sculpted figure in them are also common.
Entrance to the churches is through richly decorated double doors. In some of the churches, there
are a number of side chapels instead of aisles.
... (7)
The ceilings in Renaissance churches are richly decorated, being either painted or coffered — that
is, with carved decorated squares.
Among the features of these churches are splendid tombs, set in niches or free-standing. Some are
truly magnificent examples of sculpture and stonework.
Comprehension Check
Read the paragraphs carefully paying attention to the terms in bold. Then skim the gapped texts
again and choose from the paragraphs (A— G) the one which fits each gap (1—7).
A.	The fagade is decorated with rows of pilasters placed between the windows. Following the
Roman rules, the bottom row is Doric, the one above is Ionic, and the top row is Corinthian. There
may also be niches with statues and a fountain in the courtyard. Some palaces have more than one
court. Staircases lead up from the courtyard, usually from beneath the arcades.

B.	In Renaissance gardens cypresses, plane trees, box and shrubs were planted in relationship to
fountains, stone stairways, cloisters and terraces with balustrades, while the medieval tradition of the
small, enclosed, private gardens was maintained. Symmetry and proportion, colour and scent, light
and shade were equally ingredients of the planned garden.
C.	Roman influence was pervasive. The Roman amphitheatre may seem a surprising source of inspi¬
ration for the home of a Renaissance prince or merchant. Yet one look at an amphitheatre reveals how
much the arches and pilasters on the fa£ades of stately houses in Florence, for example, owe to the past.
D.	Another type of window, which is also rectangular, is flanked by engaged columns — columns
partly attached to the wall — which carry an entablature. The pediment above is curved. In a number
of buildings windows with curved pediments alternate with windows having pointed pediments^
E.	Renaissance domes are spherical in shape and are constructed from stone. At the top of the
dome there is an opening, called the eye. The dome is completely covered by a much larger, second
dome. It is the outer dome, semi-elliptical in shape, topped with a lantern, constructed from wood and
covered with lead or copper, which is visible from the outside.
F.	In these rooms Roman influence is again apparent. The ceilings are either vaulted or flat and are
decorated with paintings or panel work. The subjects may be historical or allegorical. There are few cor¬
ridors, for the roonis are inter-connecting and decrease gradually in size from the main salone to the
small camera.
G.	Medieval monastic churches had large rood screens which separated the choir from the rest of
the congregation. These tended to disappear in the 15th century, the choir being removed to a chapel
behind the high altar.
I	Answer the following questions.
Text 1.
1.	What was the difference between medieval castles and Roman palaces?
2.	What was the source of inspiration for a Renaissance home?
3.	What is the ground-floor facade like?
4.	What is the difference between the early and the later Renaissance windows?
5.	How are the doors arranged?
6.	What is a Renaissance variation of the Roman orders?
7.	How are harmony and orderliness achieved?
8.	What is a dominating feature of a Renaissance building?
9.	What is the ground-plan of a palace like?
10.	How is the fi^ade designed?
11.	What features are peculiar to the principal rooms?
Text 2.
1.	What was the function of medieval gardens?
2.	What art form was developed in 15th century Italy?
3.	What was the difference between Renaissance gardens and medieval traditions?
4.	What were the ingredients of the planned garden?
5.	What was the spirit of the Renaissance concerning individuals?
Text3.
1.	What are the ground-plans of Renaissance churches modelled on?
2.	What is their composition like?

3.	Where did the inspiration of circular churches come from?
4.	What did the circular form symbolize?
5.	How are Renaissance domes constructed?
6.	How are the entrance doors treated?
7.	How are the ceilings treated?
8.	What features are common to Renaissance church architecture?
Vocabulary Practice
Щ Make sure you know the meanings of these terms and match them with their definitions.
balustrade, cloister, console, drum, lantern, mezzanine, piano nobile, rustication
1.	The floor on which the main room in a large house is situated. It is usually the one above the
ground floor.
2.	Building stones tooled to give an exaggeratedly rough surface, usually with deep, recessed joints.
3.	The name given to a number of uprights, called balusters, which carry a staircase or support a
coping above the comice of a building.
4.	A prominent external feature on the top of a dome. Often built in a classical style, it is a turret
with a small round roof, which lets light and ventilation through the eye of the dome.
5.	A projecting ornamental bracket.
6.	A partial low storey introduced in the height of a principal storey, or any subordinate storey
intermediate between two main storeys.
7.	An enclosed court, attached to a monastic or collegiate church.
8.	A vertical wall constructed on a circular or polygonal plan, usually carrying a cupola or dome,
and often pierced with windows.
Match the words with their synonyms.
1)	prevent
2)	pervasive
3)	forbidding
4)	joint
5)	top
6)	indicate
7)	follow
8)	ingredient
9)	positioning
10)	rest
a)	point to
b)	component
c)	be supported
d)	placement
e)	widespread
f)	seam
g)	stop
h)	repellent
i)	crown
j) keep to
3.	Match the words	with their opposites.
1)	forbidding	5)	orderliness
2)	pointed	6)	free-standing
3)	appear	7)	similarity
4)	harmony
a)	variation
b)	discord
c)	engaged
d)	blunt
e)	attractive
f)	disorder
g)	vanish
4.	Fill in the correct prepositions, then choose any five items and make sentences.
1)	to be restricted ... sth; 2) to be equal... (size)... sth; 3) a contrast... sth; 4) to decrease ... sth;
5)	to engage... sth; 6. to be... relationship... sth; 7. to rest... sth.

Reading Task : Part 3
Find the following in the glossary and memorize their meanings.
carved ornament
stuccoed ornament
over-decorated style
banded decoration
conceal
overlook
chateau
grouped roof
chimney
Elizabethan style
Jacobean style
E-shaped ground plan
formal garden
oak-panelling
plasterwork
curved gable
mansion
multi-storeyed gable
stepped gable
ШвЯ Skim the text.
AROUND EUROPE
Renaissance architecture reached virtually all European countries and developed in most of them
along similar lines. At first the Renaissance influence was to be seen largely in decoration. Gradually a
greater understanding of the classical rules was achieved, and styles throughout Europe approximated
more closely to those of the Italian Renaissance.
Much of Spanish Renaissance architecture is known as ‘Plateresque’ — that is to say the surface
of the building is almost entirely covered by carved or stuccoed ornaments. This practice was to be
found too in earlier styles, but there is a noticeable difference between the Gothic and Renaissance
motifs.
Gradually a change took place from a quite stunningly over-decorated style to one which was much
purer and in which some almost starkly classical buildings were created.
French Renaissance architects generally observed the classical traditions, but interpreted them in
a style which is less severe and lighter than its Italian counterpart. A new order too was created, in
which banded decorations served to conceal the joints.
In the 16th century a number of palaces were built along the Loire valley. Their situation was care¬
fully chosen, most of them overlooking the river or a lake. Some were designed to ensure that maxi¬
mum dramatic effect was achieved by their reflection in the water.
A unique feature of these chateaux is the grouped roof. Instead of one large roof there are a num¬
ber of smaller roofs with extravagantly decorated dormer windows and chimneys.
Renaissance architecture of the Italian kind reached England only in the 17th century. Before then
strictly national styles prevailed with Renaissance influence mainly in the decoration. These styles
became known as Elizabethan and Jacobean.
Characteristic features are the E-shaped ground-plan, formal gardens, symmetrical fasades, long
galleries — intended originally for taking indoor exercise — and elaborately carved staircases. Classical
details are to be found in the decoration. Oak-panelling and decorated plasterwork were used in the
interior. Curved gables are another feature of the Elizabethan mansion.
SPAIN
FRANCE
ENGLAND

THE LOW COUNTRIES
The outstanding features of Low Country architecture of this period are the high multi-storeyed
gables. Medieval gables were stepped; Renaissance gables were curving, with scrolled sides and a ped¬
iment at the top. Many of the finials were carved in human or animal shape.
GERMANY
Sixteenth-century German houses tended to be narrow and five or six storeys high. Gables were
very ornate and curved at the side.
Comprehension Check
| After the first reading decide whose architects
1)	worked in the styles approximated more closely to the Italian Renaissance.
2)	almost entirely covered their buildings by ornamentation.
3)	interpreted the classical traditions in a style which was less heavy and severe.
4)	created a new order.
5)	related their buildings to certain natural surroundings.
6)	kept to national styles with Renaissance decoration.
7)	exploited a unique feature.
8)	preferred symmetrical facades.
9)	used oak and plaster for the interior.
10)	used different gables.
11)	built multi-storeyed buildings.
Щ Read the text carefully paying attention to the terms in bold. Look at the illustrations in the
Architectural Features section at the back of the book. Answer the following questions.
1.	Where was the Renaissance influence to be seen at first?
2.	When did the styles throughout Europe approximate more closely to the styles of the Italian
Renaissance?
3.	What features were characteristic of Spanish Renaissance architecture?
4.	What kind of change took place then?
5.	What was the difference between French and Italian Renaissance architecture?
6.	What did French Renaissance architects create?
7.	How did they choose the location of their palaces?
8.	What did they try to achieve?
9.	When did Renaissance architecture reach England and what was it known as?
10.	What are characteristic features of the Elizabethan and J acobean styles?
11.	What is another feature of the Elizabethan mansion?
12.	What were the outstanding features of Low Country architecture?
13.	What shape did they carve the finials in?
14.	What is German Renaissance architecture characterized by?

Vocabulary Practice
_Ц Find in the text the synonyms of the following words.
practically — ...	face v — ...
attain — ...	.	predominate	—	...
transform — ...	floor — ...
hide — ...	completely — ...
U Find in the text the opposites of the following words.
massive —...	common — ...
ornamented — ...	informal — ...
neglectfully — ...	slightly — ...
minute a —...
I	Fill in the correct prepositions, then choose any five items and make sentences.
1) to develop... (similar) lines; 2) to approximate... sth; 3) to interpret sth... sth; 4) instead... sth;
5) to be intended ... sth; 6)... the interior.
Reading Task : Part 4
Find the following terms in the glossary and memorize their meanings.
Mannerism	void	inter-penetrate
Palladian style	solid	front
civic building	broken entablature	back v
domestic building	extension	revival
ШЯ Read the texts carefully paying attention to the terms in bold. Look at the illustrations in the
Architectural Features section at the back of the book.
TEXT 1. MANNERISM
Mannerism is «the term used to describe the work of certain Renaissance architects who used the
classical forms, but in a manner which was different from the traditionally accepted.
Those whose work came within the definition of Mannerism included some of the greatest of all
Renaissance architects, Michelangelo among them, but there were others who varied the rules largely
through misinterpretation.
Only a limited number of architects or masons made the journey to Rome to study the original
models. Many had to depend for guidance on the sample books, and hence their understanding of
these classical forms was not always complete. In turn they had to instruct workmen, who might add
their own individual interpretations. There was also a natural tendency for those who were accustomed
to working in the Gothic style to continue to do so but to add Renaissance decoration.

The forms of Mannerism consequently varied considerably in different European countries, and it
can even be said that in most of these countries early Renaissance architecture was a national form of
Mannerism.
TEXT 2. THE PALLADIAN STYLE
The term ‘Palladian’ is derived from the name of Andrea Palladio of Vicenza, one of the great
architects of the high Renaissance in 16th-century Italy. Palladian buildings included churches,
palaces, country houses and a few civic buildings (a theatre among them). Their influence was deep and
prolonged, particularly in domestic architecture.
The porticoes which decorate a number of Palladian buildings are the style’s principal character¬
istic. Palladio developed this feature in the mistaken belief that such porticoes were to be found in
Roman domestic architecture. No doubt his mistake arose from the fact that the Roman domestic
buildings he was able to see were all ruins.
Perfect symmetry is perhaps the second most characteristic feature of Palladian architecture. In
some of the buildings the rhythm of void — solid — void is emphasized.
Palladian villas are built on podiums and were approached by impressive staircases. Most of the vil¬
las have rusticated ground floors. Two important features of Palladian architecture are the giant
columns, and the so-called ‘Palladian motif. Both were widely copied. The Palladian motif is made
up of two giant columns supporting the entablature. Between the two giant columns there are two sets
of smaller columns, each set supporting their own entablature. The two central columns support also
a semi-circular arch.
Another characteristic feature, used mainly for civic buildings, is the broken entablature which juts
out above each column.
VILLAS
The main building forms a perfect square. It is decorated with a portico on the outside. Some build¬
ings extend sideways either in a straight line or in a curve. The extension usually housed the stables and
the servants’ quarters. Palladio himself likened his extensions to ‘arms which would receive those who
came near the house’. Some of the villas have porticoes on two or even four sides.
The interior of the house is planned around a central hall, which often has a dome above it. An ele¬
gant staircase leads up to the first floor, where all the main rooms are to be found. The rooms them¬
selves are usually high and imposing, with large windows.
CHURCHES
A number of Palladian churches have porticoes reminiscent of classical temples. Giant orders give
great dignity to the buildings.
Like a number of other Renaissance architects, Palladio experimented with the problem of how to
balance the different heights of the nave and the aisles with that of the fagade. He developed a type of
fagade which incorporated two inter-penetrating temple fronts which differed in scale. Perfect balance
was achieved by having columns of different sizes. The columns backing against the nave are much
taller than those which back against the aisles.
Palladian architecture had a considerable vogue in Europe, particularly in England, where in the
18th century there was an important Palladian revival. A number of the buildings of this period were
almost exact copies of the buildings in Italy.

Comprehension Check
ШЖ Choose the answer (a, b, с or d) which you think fits best according to the texts.
Text 1.
1.	Mannerism is the term used to describe the work of certain Renaissance architects who
a)	used the classical forms.
b)	neglected the classical forms.
c)	used the classical forms in a strange way.
d)	used the traditional forms.
2.	The forms of Mannerism varied in different European countries because
a)	none of the architects or masons studied the original models.
b)	many architects and masons continued to work in the Gothic style.
c)	many architects and masons used Renaissance decoration.
d)	classical elements were employed in a different way based on individual
interpretations.
Text 2.
1.	The Palladian style’s principal characteristic is
a)	the porticoes.
b)	the palaces.
c)	the theatres.
d)	domestic architecture.
2.	Palladio developed the porticoes
a)	because he had made the journey to Rome to study the original models.
b)	because he wanted to create what is now called ‘Palladian motif.
c)	because the domestic buildings he saw were all in ruins.
d)	because of the mistaken belief that they were used in Roman domestic
architecture.
3.	The interior of the villa is planned around
a)	an extension.
b)	a central hall.
c)	a perfect square.
d)	an elegant staircase.
4.	The problem of perfect balance was solved
a)	by incorporating columns of different thickness.
b)	by alternating tall and low columns on the faCade.
c)	by incorporating columns of different sizes.
d)	by incorporating a semi-circular arch and a broken entablature.
5.	Palladian architecture had a considerable vogue
a)	in Italy.
b)	in Germany.
c)	in Spain.
d)	in England.

| Answer the following questions.
Text 1.
1.	What does the term ‘Mannerism’ mean?
2.	Why were many classical forms and rules misinterpreted?
3.	What were the consequences of this misinterpretation?
4.	What can early Renaissance architecture be called in different European countries?
Text 2.
1.	What was the term ‘Palladian’ derived from?
2.	What types of buildings did this style include?
3.	Where was its influence particularly felt?
4.	What was the main characteristic of this style?
5.	Why did Palladio develop the porticoes?
6.	What was the second most important characteristic feature?
7.	What did it emphasize?
8.	What other features are characteristic of Palladian architecture?
9.	What is the Palladian motif like?
10.	How is the villa planned?
11.	What was the function of a portico?
12.	What did Palladio himself liken his extensions to?
13.	How is the interior of the house planned?
14.	What are Palladian churches like?
15.	What did Palladio experiment with?
16.	What type of fagade did he develop?
17.	How did he achieve perfect balance?
18.	Where was Palladian architecture much in vogue?
Vocabulary Practice
Find in the texts the synonyms of the following words.
understanding — ...
therefore —...
secular —...
dwelling n —...
substance —...
space —...
project v —...
group —...
imitate —...
design —...
grand —...
permeate —...
Find in the text the opposites of the following words.
religious —...
shortened —...
superficial —...
distortion —...
recede —...
inexact —...

Щ Fill in the correct prepositions, then choose any seven items and make sentences.
1) to come ... the definition; 2) to depend ... sth; 3)... turn; 4) to be accustomed ... sth; 5) to be
derived ... sth; 6) to arise ... sth; 7)... the outside; 8) to liken sth ... sth; 9) to experiment... sth;
10)	to, back... sth.
Language Development
FliTin the correct words(s) from the list below.
solid, void, piano nobile, revival, spread, inspired, force, adapted, column, pilaster, entablature, tem¬
ple front, rebirth, darkness, building techniques, architecture, drawings, churches, Mannerism,
palaces, spaces, motifs, modified
1.	The Renaissance was seen as the ‘... ’ of classical culture following the M iddle Ages, which were
perceived as a period of cultural and artistic ...
2.	In the mid-fifteenth century, a renaissance began in Florence which was to remain a lively and
developing... for the next 350 years.
3.	The language of classical form was recalled:... and...,... and..., together with the classical sys¬
tem of proportion.
4.	Filippo Brunelleschi is said to have founded the Renaissance style of ...
5.	In his travels to Rome, Filippo Brunelleschi became familiar with Roman architecture	and	...
6.	Through his... of various buildings and monuments, he contributed much to the growing body
of knowledge having to do with linear perspective.
7.	He did not copy the architecture of classical Rome, but... it to Gothic building technique	and
produced a new style that influenced western architecture until the 20th century.
8.	A search for refinement and symmetry, the study of the relationships between light and dark,
... and ..., and the general belief in the visual and spiritual advantages of harmony, became the
bases of Renaissance architecture.
9.	....... and organized open urban ... are the architectural works most often associated with this
time.
10.	was the name for the first floor of Italian palaces where the principal rooms were located.
11.	Although the ultimate Renaissance architect Andrea Palladio used the ... of stonework, his
buildings were mainly built of stucco.
12.	The Renaissance of classical humanism in the fifteenth century, which saw the ... of Greek and
Roman architectural forms, also changed the whole relationship of the window to the wall.
13.	As the influence of the Renaissance spread through northern Europe, not unexpectedly, it
underwent considerable change as it was ... to meet local conditions.
14.	After 1500, Renaissance ideas ... north, initially to France, and ... the design of secular build¬
ings such as palaces and town halls, while sacred architecture continued in the Gothic tradition
alongside.
15.... is a term used to describe a certain genre of literature, art, and architecture that was produced
between the end of the High Renaissance and the beginning of the Baroque period.

2
Match the words to the nouns. You may use some words more than once.
a source of, garden, to overlook, Palladian, impressive, rusticated, to influence, to observe,
architectural, to govern, to provide, to keep to, residential, civic
... the style	a(n)... design
... proportions	... the tradition
... the rules	... the river
a(n)... drawing	a(n)... building
... inspiration	a(n)... fa§ade
... a contrast	a(n)... ground floor
КЯ Complete the following text with the correct words derived from the words in brackets.
What is Renaissance in architecture? The answer depends on how much of a... (pure) you are. To
some it means buildings from fifteenth-century Florence right up to the middle of the eighteenth cen¬
tury when the style reached France and Austria. For others it describes only the period up until the
mid-sixteenth century, after which extremes of ... (invent) in Baroque illusion or conservative
Neoclassical revivalism take over.
Common to all is the starting point: the break with the feudal medieval past and the... (new) inter¬
est in ancient Rome. Early exponents made ... (care) studies of ancient remains in order to create ...
(faith)... (reproduce). Their drawings, printed for the first time, became ‘design guides’ to the Classical
orders. The work of those who subverted these rules or strayed too far from the correct uses of the
orders was labelled with... (derogate) terms such as Mannerist, Baroque, and Rococo. Nowadays, such
labels are often used ... (descriptive) without any sense of... (deprecate).
The invention of printing resulted in the publication of the first... (architecture) theories or treatis¬
es. Alberti’s De Re Aedificatoria (1485) laid down a set of design rules based on the writings of Vitruvius
from the first century BC. Palladio’s... (theory) writings, illustrated with examples of his own works as
well as those of... (antique), were... (enormous)... (influence). They continued to be a respected source
well into the eighteenth century. The only work using medieval as well as ancient examples was
Scamozzi’s L’idea dell’Architettura universale (1615).
KB Translate the following extracts into English using the vocabulary of the texts.
1.	Основные типы построек Раннего Возрождения — храмы и дворцы аристократии. Но¬
вое направление в архитектуре связано с переработкой античных традиций и ордерной систе¬
мы. Родоначальником итальянского Возрождения в зодчестве был флорентиец Филиппо Бру¬
неллески (Filippo Brunelleschi) (1377—1446). Его первая крупная работа — возведение гранди¬
озного, диаметром 42 м, купола над построенным в XIV в. собором Санта-Мария делЬ Фьоре
(the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore) во Флоренции (Florence) (1420—1436).
Значительное место в архитектуре занимали гражданские здания. Городские дворцы (па¬
лаццо) характеризовались четкостью прямоугольного объема, уравновешенностью компози¬
ции фасада (обычно с тремя поэтажными горизонтальными членениями), обращенностью
фасадов на улицу города, квадратными внутренними дворами, окруженными галереями. Фа¬
сады решались как плоскость с изображением архитектурной композиции на основе ордер¬
ной системы.

2.	Традиции итальянской архитектуры Высокого Возрождения складываются в Риме. Ос¬
новоположником нового направления в архитектуре был Донато Браманте (Donato Bramante)
(1444—1514). Главное творение архитектора — проект собора св. Петра (St. Peter’s Cathedral)
в Риме (с 1503). Мастер воплощает в этом проекте замысел идеально симметричного цен¬
тральнокупольного здания.
3.	Огромное влияние на архитектуру Позднего Возрождения (вторая половина XVI в.) и
последующих эпох оказало творчество Микеланджело Буонарроти (Michelangelo Buonarroti)
(1475—1564). Он создал в Риме ансамбль Капитолия (the Capitol) — один из ранних примеров
пространственного ансамбля в истории западно-европейской архитектуры, возвел основную
часть здания собора св. Петра (1546—1564). Купол собора диаметром 42 м покоится на бараба¬
не с раскрепованным антаблементом {раскреповка — небольшой вертикальный выступ, парал¬
лельный основному полю стены), небольшие окна зажаты между гигантскими пилястрами.
Follow-up Activities
Read the texts again and make notes under the following headings. Then use your notes and the illus¬
trations to talk about Renaissance architecture.
1.	The Renaissance style in architecture.
2.	How to identify a Renaissance building. Town palaces. Country houses. Gardens. Churches.
3.	Mannerism.
4.	The Palladian style.

Reading Task
Find the following terms in the glossary and memorize their meanings.
light effects
acoustics
pilaster
undulating wall
apex
oval a, n
fluid a
designer
baldachin
dome-shaped
balcony
coffering
fluid line
linear perspective
central dome
subsidiary dome
undulating facade
winding staircase
turning staircase
design n
fluidity of the composition
twisted columns
broken pediment
arched pediment
finial
curve n
arabesque
shell
wreath
S-curve
C-curve
door opening
wall-panelling
Read the texts carefully paying attention to the terms in bold. Look at the illustrations in the
Architectural Features section at the back of the book.
TEXT 1
The origin of the term ‘baroque’ is not known for certain, but it is believed to be derived from bar-
rueco’, the Spanish name for an irregularly shaped pearl. ..
Baroque architecture originated in the 16th century and was largely a consequence of important
developments within the Catholic Church.

In the churches, architecture and sculpture, painting and music were blended in a new and the¬
atrical manner to emphasize Catholicism’s vitality and to make its message attractive.
A sense of continuous movement, mainly created by the walls which alternate from convex to con¬
cave, is the most obvious feature of a Barotjue building. Your first impression may well be that the
building is in nearly every respect like a theatrical production. There is drama, there is movement,
there are striking light effects and good acoustics. Wherever you are in the building you seem to have a
ringside seat.
Baroque architecture, which originated in Rome, is a style for churches, palaces and important
civic buildings conceived and designed on a grand scale. In some respects Baroque is an extension of
Renaissance architecture. Both have the dome, the column, the pilasters, the entablatures and other
classical components. Where Baroque principally differs is in the freedom with which these features
are incorporated, a freedom which no true Renaissance architect would have found acceptable.
TEXT 2. CHURCHES
The undulating wall strikes one immediately as the outstanding feature of Baroque churches. Giant
orders, usually two storeys high, and giant walls dominate the exteriors. Gables are broken or curve
inwards before meeting at their apex.
Large windows are rectangular, and the smaller, more ornamental windows are circular, semi-cir¬
cular or oval. Oval shapes are also used to frame wall carvings.
The ground-plan is often oval, which is the most fluid of geometrical forms and the one which most
readily creates a sense of movement. The oval form is used throughout the building.
As you enter the church the sense of theatre becomes even stronger. In many earlier churches there
had been clear physical divisions between clergy and laity. The designers of Baroque churches wanted
those who came to worship to feel that they were actively participating in the service. They wanted them
to see what was going on and to hear the priests clearly as well as see him. Most Baroque churches there¬
fore have no columns dividing the aisles from the nave; instead there are side chapels lining the walls.
In the interior, as on the exterior, the undulating walls give a feeling of movement. The eye is drawn
to the very elaborate Baroque altar with a baldachin above it. The baldachin is very much like a canopy,
often dome-shaped, and supported on four elaborately carved columns.
Balconies, a natural feature of theatres, are also found in Baroque churches, some with elaborate
ironwork.
Some of the churches are so richly decorated that it is possible to feel that the whole wealth of the
Church is on display. This perhaps was the intention.
The combined efforts of architects, painters and sculptors produce in Baroque churches a remark¬
ably homogeneous effect. Ceilings are decorated with paintings or with elaborate coffering. For wall
decorations stucco was often used. Being a very pliable material, it helped to create the fluid lines char¬
acteristic of Baroque.
The rules of linear perspective, formulated in the Renaissance, were well-known to Baroque archi¬
tects, and they used this knowledge to give an illusion of greater depth or length to parts of a church.
Light enters Baroque churches from very few sources, mainly from the central dome and any sub¬
sidiary domes. Light effects, particularly those achieved by the right quantity of light shining on to the
right place, were an important, and essentially dramatic, part of Baroque church architecture.
TEXT 3. PALACES
Many of the characteristic features of Baroque church architecture can be recognized too in the
palaces. Among them are the undulating facades, the fluid lines both in construction and decoration,
and the rich and ornate nature of the whole.

Mp^ymental staircases are an important feature of Baroque palaces and villas. These staircases,
some winding, others turning, dominate both the approach from the outside and the interior of the
house.
In country houses, and in town houses with space around them, the formal gardens were an inte¬
gral part of the whole design. Some of the fountains are magnificent. In earlier times, fountains, even
the more elaborate ones, performed a practical function. By contrast, in the huge and often complex
grouping of figures in some Baroque fountains the only purpose of the water seems to be to add to the
fluidity of the composition.
TEXT 4. AROUND EUROPE
Italian Baroque spread to nearly all European countries, but it took root most strongly in central
and southern Europe. It may be thought to have had its fullest flowering in Germany and Austria.
SPAIN
Baroque made a strong appeal to Spanish architects. In its most extreme form it is called
‘Churrigueresque’. In this there is so much decoration that the structure of the building is barely visi¬
ble. Characteristic features are twisted columns, broken and arched pediments and entablatures and
pilasters with more than one capital.
PORTUGAL
The outstanding examples of Portuguese Baroque are the great pilgrimage churches, which are
usually built on hill-tops. They are approached by stone staircases, which are decorated by finials and
sculpted figures.
TEXT 5. ROCOCO ARCHITECTURE
The term ‘rococo’ is in fact an amalgamation of two French words: ‘rocaille’, which was used to
describe the grottoes and rocks in the gardens in Versailles, and ‘coquille’, meaning a shell.
Rococo is often regarded as the last phase of Baroque. Although there are obvious visual similari¬
ties between Baroque and Rococo, particularly in the use of curves and ovals, the inspiration of the two
styles differed greatly. Baroque was profoundly influenced by Catholic doctrine and practice. The ori¬
gins of Rococo, which dates from the early 18th century, were much more frivolous and worldly.
In France at the court of Louis XIV, Baroque was much in vogue. Under his successor there was a
reaction against the monumental manner in which the style had been used for personal aggrandize¬
ment. The number of pure Rococo buildings in the rest of the country is very few. But buildings with
quite plain exteriors and brilliant Rococo interiors are much more numerous.
In Austria and southern Germany, Rococo took more extreme forms than it did in France, and the
style is more widely spread. Orders tend to be omitted or to be of little importance.
The style made its greatest impact in the decorative arts. Among the most popular decorations are
scrolls and arabesques, shells and wreaths of flowers, all of them curving and sensuous. The decora¬
tions are often asymmetrical and incorporate many S- and С-curves. Rococo motifs can be found
around windows and door openings and, in the interiors, around mirrors and paintings, ceilings and
wall-panelling.
Colours are light and cheerful. White is used extensively on walls and blends happily with pastel
shades and light gilding.
At one stage in the 18th century there was a strong Chinese influence in some forms of Rococo.

Comprehension Check
_Ц Decide whether the following statements are true or false according to the texts.
Text 1.
1.	Baroque architecture originated in the 16th century largely as a consequence of important
developments within the Catholic Church.
2.	The most obvious feature of a Baroque building is a sense of continuous movement, created by
the alternation of columns.
3.	Baroque architecture originated in Rome as a style for churches, palaces and important civic
buildings.
4.	In some respects Baroque architecture preceded Renaissance architecture.
5.	Baroque and Renaissance architecture have much in common.
6.	Light effects and good acoustics make these two styles different.
Text 2.
1.	Giant orders dominate the exteriors of Baroque churches.
2.	The oval form prevails throughout the building.
3.	In the interior the undulating walls with large rectangular windows divide the aisles from the
nave.
4.	In Baroque churches the efforts of architects, painters and sculptors are combined into a
remarkably homogeneous effect.
5.	The rules of linear perspective were used by Baroque architects to give an illusion of greater
depth or length to parts of a church.
6.	There are various sources for light to enter Baroque churches.
Text3.
1.	Baroque churches and palaces have many common characteristic features.
2.	Monumental staircases are an important feature dominating the interior of the building.
3.	The formal gardens with the magnificent fountains were an integral part of the whole design in
country houses and in town houses with space around them.
4.	Baroque fountains performed a practical function.
Text 4.
1.	Baroque architecture flourished in Germany and Austria.
2.	The abundance of decoration used by Spanish architects emphasized the structure of the
building.
3.	The great pilgrimage churches, which are usually built on hill-sides, are the outstanding exam¬
ples of Portuguese Baroque.
Texts.
1.	Rococo is often believed to be the last phase of Baroque.
2.	There are obvious differences between Baroque and Rococo.
3.	Rococo was much in vogue in France.
4.	In Austria and southern Germany the style is more widely spread than in France.
5.	Rococo greatly influenced the decorative art.
6.	Rococo motifs can be found can be found everywhere throughout the building.

2
Answer the following questions.
Text 1.
1.	What is the term ‘baroque’ believed to mean?
2.	When and where did Baroque architecture originate and how long did it develop?
3.	What is the most obvious feature of a Baroque building?
4.	What do Baroque and Renaissance have in common?
5.	What feature makes them different?
6.	What types of structures were built in this style?
Text 2.
1.	What is the outstanding feature of Baroque churches?
2.	What shapes prevail throughout the building?
3.	How is the interior of the church designed?
4.	How are the churches decorated?
5.	How was an illusion of greater depth or length created ?
6.	What are the main sources for light?
7.	What was an important part of Baroque church architecture?
Text 3.
1.	What characteristic features of Baroque church architecture can we recognize in the palaces?
2.	What is an important feature of Baroque palaces and villas?
3.	What was an integral part of many country and town houses?
4.	What was the function of fountains in earlier times?
5.	What was the purpose of the water in some Baroque fountains?
Text 4.
1.	Where did Italian Baroque architecture spread to?
2.	What countries did it flourish in?
3.	What is the extreme form of Baroque in Spain characterized by?
4.	What are the examples of Portuguese Baroque?
Text 5.
1.	What is Rococo regarded as?
2.	What does the term ‘rococo’ mean?
3.	What are obvious similarities between Baroque and Rococo?
4.	What was the principal difference?
5.	Where was this style much in vogue?
6.	What was the difference between Rococo in France and Rococo in Austria and southern
Germany?
7.	What was the impact of this style in the decorative arts?
8.	What are Rococo motifs like?
9.	What influence was there in some forms of Rococo in the 18th century?
Vocabulary Practice
■	Make sure you know the meanings of these terms and match them with their definitions.
apex, arabesque, baldachin, canopy, Jinial

1.	Decorative scroll-work and other ornament loosely derived from branches, leaves, tendrils,
and vegetation, arranged in imaginatively intertwined symmetrical geometrical patterns.
2.	A permanent canopy, especially over an altar, throne, or tomb, usually supported on columns.
3.	A roof-like ornamented hood surmounting an altar, doorway, font, niche, statue, tabernacle,
throne, tomb, window-aperture, etc., supported on brackets, colonnettes, etc., or suspended.
4.	A boss, crop, crope, knob, or pommel at the top of e.g. a bench-end, canopy, gable, pinnacle,
oj spire, usually decorated.
5.	The top of a cone, gable, obelisk, pediment, or pyramid.
Я in the texts the synonyms of the following words.
amalgamate — ...	uniform — ...
devise — ...	supplementary — ...
wavy — ...	changeableness — ...
top — ...	interlaced — ...
elliptical — ...	increase n in importance — .
attract — ...	utmost — ...
Я Find in the texts the opposites of the following words.
outwards — ...	invisible — ...
heterogeneous — ...	unchangeable	— ...
useless — ...	straight — ...
■	Fill in the correct prepositions, then choose any seven items and make sentences.
1)... certain; 2) to be a consequence ... sth; 3) to alternate ... sth. ... sth; 4) ... a (grand) scale;
5) to differ... sth; 6) to participate ... sth; 7)... the interior; 8)... the exterior; 9) to be ... display;
10)	to take root... sth; 11) to be a reaction... sth; 12) to blend... sth.
Language Development
^flfFill in the correct word(s) from the list below.
baldachin, movement, integrate, convex, concave, reached, designs, churches, palaces, pastel, Rococo,
exteriors, extension, inspired, interiors, symmetry, orders, founding, impact
1.	Associated with the Counter-Reformation, the Baroque style... maturity with the 17th-centu¬
ry works of Bernini and Borromini.
2.	Theatrical and exuberant, Baroque employed ... and ... flowing curves in plan, elevation, and
section.
3.	As an architect, Bernini spent much of his career working on a number of projects at the
Vatican, including the monumental bronze ... for the major altar of St. Peter’s Cathedral.
4.	The sense of energy and... typical of Baroque sculpture maybe seen in Bernini’s David (1623).
5.	The Comaro Chapel is an excellent example of Bernini’s ability to... architecture, painting and
sculpture, while controlling the lighting to achieve the maximum dramatic effect.
6.	Borromini was involved in a number of... for palazzi and villas, although he is best known for
his churches.

7.	Many masterpieces of Baroque emerged in ... and ... in Rome, but the style soon spread
throughout Europe, changing in character as it did so.
8.	Rococo, an ... of Baroque, was a style of the first three quarters of the eighteenth century,
strangely confined to a Germanic portion of Europe.
9.	Characteristically ornate and intricate in design, ... is seen mainly in furniture, architecture,
and some artwork.
10.	In contrast to the Baroque style, Rococo tended to be used in a secular context on a smaller
scale, expressed in subtle ... colours.
11.	A very few Rococo ... are hidden away inside English houses, but beyond this, its... is restrict¬
ed to the garden.
12.	Its influence in France is confined to a certain lightness and delicacy of form on the ... of some
buildings.
13.	The Westernization of Russian architecture is usually associated with the ‘Moscow’ or
‘Naryshkin’ Baroque: still largely medieval but with some Classical... and application of the
Classical....
14.	During the reign of Peter the Great (1682—1725) and with the ... of St. Petersburg (1703),
Western influences increased.
15.	Bartolomeo Rastrelli (1700—1771), Empress Elizabeth’s architect, was... by Versailles but also
retained the Russian polychromatic decorations.
Я Match the words with the nouns. You may use some words more than once.
continuous, oval, plain, elaborate, grand, light, geometric, to perform, a sense of, pastel, the fluidity of,
to produce, brilliant, undulating
... movement	... a function
a(n)... scale	... the composition
... an effect	... shades
a(n) ...shape	a(n)... interior
a(n)... wall	a(n)... exterior
■Я Complete the following texts with the correct words derived from the words in brackets.
1.	‘Irregular shapes and extravagant ornamentation’ is the hopelessly inadequate ... (define) often
used to describe, in ... (pure) visual terms, an architecture which has to be experienced to be believed.
The Baroque churches of Rome, built by Popes competing to have more and more ... (splendour)
places of worship to their names, were everything that the austere temples of the Reformation were
not: opulent, rich, dramatic and exciting.
2.	Baroque in France comprises the same ... (form) and ... (decorate) elements that are found in
Italy — but a certain French ... (cool) means that the extravagant drama is tempered with a degree of
Classical restraint.
3.	Rococo is often used to describe buildings of the last phase of Baroque,... (main) in Austria and
southern Germany, where Protestantism was slow to take up such an ... (ostentation) style. Rococo
describes a kind of... (decorate): light, white and asymmetrical, often with... (rusticate) scenes,... (nat¬
uralism) curves and shell-like forms. There is also a ... (space) complexity ... (usual) attributed to the
influence of the work of the Italian, Guarino Guarini (1624—1683). Guarini’s work, with a ... (com¬
plexity) use of undulating concave and convex forms, is a synthesis of the geometries of Borromini and
the ... (illusionist) effects of Bernini, together with a rich ... (ornament) of his own.

Translate the following extracts into English using the vocabulary of the texts.
1.	Принципы нового стиля — барокко — складываются прежде всего в итальянской архи¬
тектуре. Для построек в стиле барокко характерна сложная динамика объемов, наслоение
форм, обилие декоративных элементов, тяготение к изогнутой линии. В качестве декоратив¬
ных элементов используются завитки (волюты), скульптура. Ордер также становится чисто
декоративным элементом: колонны стремятся расположиться попарно, иногда утраиваются;
фронтоны, антаблементы, карнизы разрываются, приобретая сложную форму. Большое зна¬
чение получает лестница, подчеркивающая напряженную динамику архитектурных форм.
Скульптура, живопись, декоративно-прикладное искусство, как бы продолжая архитектур¬
ные формы, участвуют в создании единого архитектурного ансамбля, объединенного общей
художественной идеей.
К прекраснейшим примерам барочной архитектуры относятся загородные виллы в окрест¬
ностях Рима.
Архитектура Италии периода зрелого барокко оказала огромное влияние на европейское
зодчество.
2.	На смену величественным формам барокко приходит стиль рококо, проявившийся в ос¬
новном в оформлении интерьера здания. Декор интерьера маскирует конструкцию помеще¬
ний, чему способствует пышная резная орнаментика.
Follow-up Activities
Read the texts again and make notes under the following headings. Then use your notes and the illus¬
trations to talk about the Baroque style.
1.	How to identify a Baroque building.
2.	Around Europe.
3.	Rococo architecture.

Reading Task
Find the following terms in the glossary and memorize their meanings.
uncluttered appearance
free-standing column
roof-line
stone-cutting
setting
geometric pattern
Georgian city
crescent
attached column
contemporary
terraced house
jardin anglais
ШЯ Read the texts carefully paying attention to the terms in bold and to the illustrations in the
Architectural Features section at the back of the book. Six paragraphs have been removed (gaps
1—6) and placed in a jumbled order after the text.
/ Neoclassical arrhitprtnre in the second half of the 18th century was in part a reaction to the excess¬
es of Baroque and Rococo. It was partly a consequence of new discoveries of Greek and Roman archi¬
tecture, and also to some extent reflected a climate of opinion.
In the 18th century travelling became fashionable among those who had plenty of time at their dis¬
posal and the means to support themselves while they made long journeys. Greece, which was a part
of the Ottoman Empire and until then little visited by western Europeans, attracted both antiquarians
and architects, a number of whom published accounts of what they had seen. Two young British archi¬
tects in particular, James Stuart and Nicholas Revett, spent no less than three years in Greece making
accurate drawings of the remains of buildings, which they later published.
(1)

As a result of all this, Neoclassical architects could conform much more closely to the classical
originals than Renaissance architects had been able to. In particular, they could model their work on
the original Greek styles rather than on Roman adaptations of them. Some 18th-century
Neoclassicists did, however, continue to turn to Rome rather than Greece for inspiration, and feelings
between Greek and Roman enthusiasts at times became so heated that their differences were known as
the Battle of the Style.
Neoclassical buildings are characterized by clean, elegant lines and uncluttered appearances, and
also by free-standing columns and colonnades.
The prototype to which Neoclassical architects most commonly turned was the temple, which was
considered to represent classical architecture in its purest form. In the temples the columns served their
original purpose: they were free-standing and carried the weight of the building. It was only in later
years that they were used mainly for decorative purposes.
... (3)
Roof-lines are generally flat and horizontal, the roof itself often being invisible from the ground.
There are no towers or domes.
Facades tend to be long and flat. In front of them might be what was in effect a screen consisting
of a number free-standing columns.
The maintenance of classical proportions on the exterior of the building was of paramount impor¬
tance. The interior had to be adapted by the placing of doors, windows and staircases in such a way that
nothing detracted from the classical perfection of the exterior. In earlier styles doors and windows
might be treated as sculptural elements in their own right. In Neoclassicism they would as often as not
be hidden behind colonnades.
... (4)
Decoration on the exterior of Neoclassical buildings is reduced to a minimum. The craftsmanship
is usually of a very high order. Stone-cutting, plasterwork and woodwork are more severe than in ear¬
lier styles, but no less excellent in execution.
The buildings are often massive and may seem severe. Some of them, particularly in the country,
gained immeasurably from their settings.
In France and Italy the tradition of formal gardens based on geometric patterns was maintained.
But in England there was a new vogue for parks and gardens largely created by man but designed
to emulate nature. To achieve the required effect lakes and lawns were brought into being,
hills were levelled, and streams diverted. Within these settings classical temples and sculpture
were placed.
... (5)
The Neoclassical style, which became fashionable in the second half of the 18th century, lasted
through the 19th century- and is still very much in evidence today. In its purest form, in the 18th cen¬
tury, the finest examples of the style were civic buildings and private houses.
GEORGIAN ARCHITECTURE
In Britain and to some extent in Ireland too, the 18th century left two great architectural legacies:
the country mansion and the Georgian city.
The best of the Georgian cities were carefully planned, the planners having devised an ingenious
method of giving considerable number of people the impression that they were living in large and ele¬
gant mansions. Terraces, crescents and squares were created as single architectural units, all the hous¬
es having identical or closely matching facades.
... (6)

Comprehension Check
|| Read the paragraphs carefully paying attention to the terms in bold. Then skim the gapped texts
again and choose from the paragraphs (A—F) the one which fits each gap (1—6).
A.	In Neoclassical architecture orders are also used structurally rather than as a form of decoration.
Columns, free-standing and supporting entablatures, are more common than pilasters or attached
columns.
B.	It is easy to exaggerate the influence of the 18th-century philosophers. The age was not entire¬
ly one of enlightenment. Nevertheless the concept of man as a creature whose life could be governed
by reason was closer to the mathematical precision of classical architects — and therefore to their
Neoclassical successors — than it was to the spirit of Baroque.
C.	These requirements left the architect with the problem of how to adapt an ancient style to meet
the requirements of his contemporary client, a problem requiring some ingenuity to solve.
D.	Many of the terraced houses, which now give so much delight to the eye, were put up by spec¬
ulative builders. One of the great advantages of the style was that it permitted the creation of houses
which gave continuous aesthetic pleasure but which were not necessarily the work of great architects.
As the supply of great architects is at all times limited, this advantage was not inconsiderable.
E.	New light too was thrown on architectural practices in ancient Rome when the German poet
and classical scholar, Johann Winckelmann, described the extraordinary finds which had been made
at Pompeii, near Naples.
F.	Houses were no longer divided from gardens by formal terraces but were immediately sur¬
rounded by them. The total effect, achieved in fact by careful planning, was of total informality. The
‘jardin anglais’ soon became fashionable throughout Europe.
I Answer the following questions.
1.	When did Neoclassical architecture develop?
2.	What caused the appearance of Neoclassical architecture?
3.	What was the essence of the philosophical concept of man?
4.	Why could Neoclassical architects conform much more closely to the classical originals?
5.	What styles could they model their work on?
6.	What is the Battle of Styles?
7.	What are Neoclassical buildings characterized by?
8.	What building was the prototype for Neoclassical architects?
9.	What was the function of orders in Neoclassical architecture?
10.	How was the roof designed?
11.	How was the fa$ade designed?
12.	What feature was of paramount importance in Neoclassical architecture?
13.	How were the interior and the exterior interrelated?
14.	How is the exterior of Neoclassical buildings decorated?
15.	What were the gardens and parks in different countries based on?
16.	How were houses related to gardens?
17.	What buildings are the finest examples of the style?

18.	What two great architectural legacies did the 18th century leave in Britain and to some extent
in Ireland?
19.	How were the best of the Georgian cities planned?
20.	What was one of the greatest advantages of the style?
Vocabulary Practice
Match the words with their synonyms.
1)	precision
2)	conform
3)	appearance
4)	maintain
5)	paramount
6)	treat
7)	settings
8)	emulate
9)	level
10)	mansion
Match the words with their opposites.
1)	excess
2)	accurate
3)	extraordinary
4)	original
5)	uncluttered
6)	fashionable
7)	gain
8)	civic
9)	advantage
a)	house
b)	flatten
c)	accuracy
d)	deal with
e)	surroundings
a)	copy
b)	lose
c)	religious
d)	insufficiency
e)	vulgar
f)	look(s)
g)	preserve
h)	supreme
i)	compete
j) comply with
f)	inconsiderable
g)	drawback
h)	inexact
i)	disordered
| Fill in the correct prepositions, then choose any seven items and make sentences.
1) to be a reaction ... sth; 2) to be close ... sth; 3) to have ... one’s disposal; 4) to conform ... sth;
5)... particular; 6) to be (excellent)... execution; 7) to bring sth ... being; 8) to be ... evidence;
9)	to refer ... sth.
Language Development
_Ц tflTin the correct word(s) from the list below.
scale, domestic, characterized, harmony, refers, resulted, renewed, revivalism, Neoclassicism, stan¬
dards, discovery, introduced, manner, designed, based, temple, engineering methods, inspired
1.	Neoclassicism ... to the revival of Classicism.
2.	The contemporary architecture of the mid-eighteenth century also reflected the strong influ¬
ence of... as a rebellion against the Baroque and Rococo styles, as seen in Jacques-Germain
Soufflot’s (1713—1780) Neoclassical design of the portico of the Pantheon in Paris.
3.	Though Soufflot utilized Gothic... to build and support the structure, its colonnade design was
likely based upon Roman ruins found at Baalbek.
4.	The design of the structure is that of the Greek cross, with a Neoclassical colonnaded dome
said to have been ... by that of St. Paul’s Cathedral in London.
5.	Inevitably a reaction to the excesses of Baroque and Rococo enthusiasm and lavishness,
Neoclassicism ... in a return to more formal architecture, interior arrangement, and ornament.

6.	Greek art and architecture became the ... by which art and architecture	were judged.
7.	Along with the Neoclassical enthusiasm for Greek art came ... popular	interest in Roman art
and architecture.
8.	This interest coincided with a major archaeological...: two ancient Roman cities of Pompeii
and Herculaneum.
9.	James ‘Athenian’ Stuart (1713—88) and Nicholas Revett (1720—1804) are considered to be
the investigators of Greek ... in England.
10.	Sir Robert Smirke (1780—1876) ... the style with his Covent Garden Theatre (1808, demol¬
ished), the first Greek Doric building in London.
11.	His best-known building is the British Museum, London (1823—47)	with its huge	...	and
imposing Greek....
12.	Robert Adam (1728—82) led the Neoclassical movement in British ... architecture and was the
outstanding exponent of this revived classical style.
13.	Robert Adam ... furniture, carpets, and decorative accessories for his Neoclassical interiors.
14.	His interior designs,... by the use of the oval lines of decorative motifs in plaster, and painted
panels in low relief, were also ... on ancient Greek and Roman designs.
15.	Adam created complete ... of exterior and interior.
16.	The influence of Neoclassicism was felt as far away as America, as seen in Thomas Jefferson’s
design for the state capitol building in Richmond, based upon a Roman ..., as well as in his
design for Monticello, his home in Charlottesville.
Я Match the words with the nouns. You may use some words more than once.
to support, terraced, to give, uncluttered, original, to turn to, to carry, to meet, private, classical,
decorative, consequence of
... the requirements	a(n)... appearance
a(n)... house	a(n)... purpose
... the impression	a ... discoveries
... perfection	... a prototype
... proportions	... the weight
Kl Complete the following texts with the correct words derived from the words in brackets.
1.	Neoclassicism was a ... (define) reaction to the earlier excesses of Baroque and also to the
increasingly ... (fashion) picturesque Neo-Gothic. Both of these styles looked back to the past ‘when
life was simpler’, Gothic to the medieval past and Neoclassical right back to ancient Rome and
Greece. The earliest, Greek Doric order, answered the search for... (pure); it was the simplest and the
most ‘masculine’. Two chaps in particular were in the vanguard: Sir John Soane and John Nash.
2.	The fashion for ... (revive) primitive Greek architecture became ... (firm) established in the late
eighteenth century, and stepped out... (bold) from its British stronghold. ‘Plain, sturdy and mascu¬
line’, with its ... (geometry) forms and ... (absent) of decoration, it provided an alternative to the pic¬
turesque Gothic revival, as well as tying in with contemporary Neoclassicists.
3.	The design ... (able) and business acumen of the Adam family made them highly... (success) as
property ... (develop) and interior ... (design). Between the rigours of the Palladian ... (revive) and the
... (austere) of the Greek revival, the Adam style — much influenced by Italian and Roman buildings —
is less ... (ostentation), calmer, finer, and more elegant. It is an altogether more delicate version of
Neoclassicism.

_Щ| Translate the following extracts into English using the vocabulary of the texts.
1.	Стиль рококо не просуществовал и нескольких десятилетий. Во второй половине
XVIII в. внимание архитекторов вновь привлекают спокойные и уравновешенные формы ан¬
тичной архитектуры.
2.	Возрождение классицизма, получившее название неоклассицизм, в большой степени
повлияло на творчество многих архитекторов. Первые шаги в этом направлении сделал Жак
Анж Габриель (Jacques Ange Gabriel) (1698—1782). Зодчий переосмыслил традиции класси¬
цизма XVII в. Его постройки отличаются большим изяществом и утонченностью. Дворец Ма¬
лый Трианон (the Petit Trianon) в Версальском (Versailles) парке — одна из первых классицис¬
тических построек (1762—64). Главный фасад дворца отмечен классическим портиком корин¬
фского ордера, объединяющим два этажа. Четкие геометрические формы, симметрическая
композиция, мерный ритм горизонтальных и вертикальных членений делают особняк про¬
стым и торжественно-парадным одновременно.
3.	Классицистические постройки Франции XVIII в. не изобилуют декоративными элемен¬
тами. Их композиционное решение просто; архитектурному ордеру возвращается конструк¬
тивное значение. На смену регулярному парку, ухоженному и искусственно приукрашенно¬
му, приходит ландшафтный парк, разбитый по естественной пейзажной системе с рощами,
прудами, аллеями, беседками.
4.	Особого своеобразия английские зодчие достигли в области жилой архитектуры: сельс¬
кие виллы, дворцы, окруженные романтическими ландшафтными парками, в большом коли¬
честве появляются в живописных местах равнинной Англии и среди величественных холмов
Шотландии.
Follow-up Activities
Read the texts again and make notes under the following headings. Then use your notes and the illus¬
trations and talk about the Neoclassical style.
1.	Introduction.
2.	How to identify a Neoclassical building.
3.	Gardens.
4.	Georgian architecture.

Reading Task
Find the following terms in the glossary and memorize their meanings.
town planning
demolish
boulevard
destroy
factory
department store
shopping arcade
warehouse
goods yard
Neo-Gothic
patterned brickwork
ceramic tiling
wrought iron
cast iron
pane
framework
commercial building
conservatory
exhibition hall
steel frame
booking-hall
clad
water-pumping station
Arts and Crafts
revive
floral design
suburb
fittings
Щ Read the texts carefully paying attention to the terms in bold. Look at the illustrations in the
Architectural Features section at the back of the book.
TEXT 1. THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Walk through almost any European city and you will find evidence of the 19th century all around you.
Those people — and there are many of them — who consider Paris the most beautiful of European
cities, must acknowledge how much it owes to imaginative and dictatorial 19th-century у town plan¬
ning. Much of this took place during the reign of the Emperor Napoleon III, when the worst slums of
Paris were ruthlessly demolished and replaced by the great boulevards and grand contemporary build¬
ings which we know so well today.

Similarly in Vienna, with the creation of the Ringstrasse in the 19th century, numerous buildings
were destroyed and a new, monumental grandeur was conferred on a large area of the city.
Comparable transformations took place in Madrid and many other European cities.
European architecture in the 19th century was profoundly influenced by the industrial revolution.
Tasks which had earlier been carried out slowly and painstakingly by hand could now be performed
both more quickly and more cheaply by machinery. Large numbers of people moved from country to
town in search for work in the new factories, and the towns, as they expanded, needed new houses both
for the factory workers and for their employers.
Buildings of other kinds were also needed to meet new demands. Among them were town halls,
museums, concert halls, libraries, hospitals, department stores, shopping arcades, schools, colleges and
universities, banks, offices, warehouses and factories.
Railway travel, which affected social life in so many ways, also influenced architectural practice.
The first passenger-carrying railway in the world was opened in the north of England in 1825, and
somewhat later railways, often constructed by British engineers, spread to other European countries.
This is why in France, although cars drive on the right-hand side, the trains run on the left. With the
railways came a need for new kinds of buildings, such as railway stations, railway hotels, goods yards
and bridges which could carry heavy loads.
There is no single style which is characteristic of the 19th century. Nevertheless there are some
guide-lines which can help one to recognize buildings of the period.
Architects drew their inspiration from and copied virtually every historical style known to them:
Greek, Roman, Romanesque, Gothic, Italian Renaissance, Byzantine as well as Chinese, Indian,
Moorish and Egyptian.
Consequently, buildings are often more easily recognized as belonging to the 19th century by the
function they perform than by the style in which they were built. For example, railway stations and
railway hotels, department stores and office blocks are most unlikely to have been built earlier.
Some buildings were designed in a single historical style, with the fundamental rules of that
style strictly observed. Others incorporated a blend of different styles used freely by the architects
and with a disregard for the established conventions. A mixture of various historical styles within
the same building may indeed be considered one of the characteristic features of 19th-century
architecture.
Some styles were considered especially well suited to particular buildings. Most new churches were
built in a version of the Neo-Gothic, all other styles being deemed to have pagan roots. Civic buildings
were built mainly in the Neoclassical style.
Another recognizable feature is mass-produced decorative detail. Earlier hand-made carvings were
never quite identical. By contrast, some 19th-century buildings have considerable lengths of orna¬
mentation all exactly the same because all came from the same mould.
There was a huge increase in the population of western Europe in the 19th century. New houses
were continually being built, both the mean back-to-back dwellings of the industrial towns, and pres¬
tigious homes for the newly enriched.
The well-to-do could plan their houses in the knowledge that plenty of domestic servants were
available. The houses were spacious, and what today might seem great inconvenience could be over¬
looked. Bathrooms with a direct hot and cold water supply were still a rarity, and hot water normally
had to be carried. Food was sent upstairs from the kitchens.
Most houses, especially the grander ones, followed the general trend in architecture. Stained glass
windows, patterned brickwork and ceramic tiling were all popular. The exteriors of many houses were
notable for their wrought iron balconies and the contrasting colours of bricks.

TEXT 2. STEEL, IRON AND GLASS
Iron had long been in use as a building material, but only from the end of the 18th century
was it available in large quantities and comparatively cheap. Further developments in the technol¬
ogy of cast iron and steel followed which enabled architects to build on a new and massive scale.
There were also advances in the technology of sheet-glass making. The larger the sheets of glass
that could be produced, the larger the windows that could be made. Earlier windows had compara¬
tively small panes of glass set in a framework within a large window. Now windows could be made from
larger sheets and the framework dispensed with. This was helpful both for domestic architecture and
for the construction of shops, offices and commercial buildings.
The use of glass as a building material allowed architects to design conservatories on an unprece¬
dented scale. The techniques used in conservatories could also be applied to another 19th-century cre¬
ation, the large-scale exhibition hall.
Joseph Paxton, architect of the Crystal Palace, which housed the Great Exhibition of 1851 in Hyde
Park in London, began his working life as a gardener in the service of the duke of Devonshire in
Chatsworth, where the largest conservatory in the world at that time was to be found. He later became
a director of the Midland Railway, and it was at one of its board meetings that he sketched on blotting
paper his design for the Crystal Palace based on the Chatsworth conservatory.
Possibly the most extraordinary feature of 19th-century architecture was that so many architects,
while making full use of modern technology, continued to copy historical styles. A railway station
might have a breathtakingly modem span of steel frame and glass over the platforms, but the fa?ade of
the booking-hall would be designed to resemble a Gothic or Tudor building. A bridge with the latest
hydraulic lifting gear would be clad with stone to appear as a sort of fairy-tale castle, and a water-pump-
ing station disguised as a Moorish palace. This blend of the quasi-historical and the new scientific is
unmistakably characteristic of the period.
Although much design was imitative and no single characteristic style was developed, great archi¬
tects did emerge who stamped their personalities on particular buildings. This can be seen clearly, for
example, in some Gothic-inspired late 19th-century church architecture in northern Spain.
TEXT 3. ARTS AND CRAFTS
In 19th-century Britain a closely knit group of designers and writers staged a form of rebellion
against the machine, which they perceived as dehumanizing life and producing ugly objects in large
quantities. To express their beliefs they tried to revive ancient crafts and themselves created furniture
and other objects of everyday use which were well designed and hand-made with loving care.
The name given to their movement was ‘Arts and Crafts’. In architecture it was associated with sim¬
ple, brick-built houses which at first were occupied largely by the middle-class intelligentsia. Features of
these houses were gables, large wooden balconies and terracotta panels incorporating floral designs. The
houses, some of which were set in carefully planned suburbs, all had sizeable gardens. The architects of the
movement also designed some churches, in which the fittings were made by dedicated craftsmen.
Comprehension Check
I Decide whether the following statements are true or false according to the texts.
Text 1.
1.	Many European cities owe much to 19th-century town planning.
2.	The industrial revolution influenced European architecture in the 19th century.

3.	Machinery could carry out tasks more quickly and more cheaply.
4.	Buildings of other kinds were also needed.
5.	The first railway in the world was opened in France.
6.	There are a lot of features which can help to recognize buildings of the 19th century.
7.	Architects were inspired by every historical style.
8.	Buildings are often more easily recognized as belonging to the 19th century by the style in
which they were built.
9.	All buildings were designed in a single historical style.
10.	The architects never used various historical styles within the same building.
11.	Some styles were considered especially suited to particular buildings.
12.	Civic buildings were built in a version of the Neo-Gothic style.
13.	Mass-produced decorative detail is another recognizable feature.
14.	Due to a huge increase in the population of western Europe in the 19th century new houses
were continually being built.
15.	The houses of the well-to-do were spacious but rather inconvenient.
Text 2.
1.	Iron had not been in use as a building material before the end of the 18th century because it was
expensive.
2.	Further developments in the technology of cast iron and steel enabled architects to build on a
grand scale.
3.	Advances in the technology of sheet-glass making allowed to make larger windows.
4.	The techniques of designing conservatories inspired architects to build large-scale exhibition
halls.
5.	The most extraordinary feature of 19th-century architecture was the blend of the quasi-histor-
ical and the new scientific.
6.	19th-century architecture developed a characteristic style based on Gothic church architecture.
7.	As much design was imitative, no great architects emerged in the 19th century.
Text 3.
1.	A lot of British designers and writers protested against the machine in the 19th century.
2.	In their view, machines were dehumanizing and producing ugly objects in large quantities.
3.	They developed the movement known as ‘Arts and Crafts’.
4.	Their beliefs were expressed in reviving ancient crafts.
5.	In architecture this movement was associated with prestigious ‘homes’ for the newly enriched.
6.	The architects of the movement never designed other types of buildings.
| Answer the following questions.
Text 1.
1.	What caused the transformations in Paris, Vienna, Madrid and many other European cities?
2.	What was the influence of the industrial revolution on European architecture?
3.	Why did the towns expand?
4.	What kinds of buildings were needed?
5.	How did railway travel influence architectural practice?
6.	Is there any single style which is characteristic of the 19th century?
7.	Where did architects draw their inspiration from?

8.	How can we recognize buildings of the period?
9.	How were different buildings designed?
10.	What may be considered one of the characteristic features of 19th-century architecture?
11.	How were some styles chosen for particular buildings?
12.	What is another recognizable feature?
13.	Why were new houses continually being built in western Europe in the 19th century?
14.	What kinds of dwellings were they?
15.	How were prestigious homes planned?
16.	How were they decorated both in the interior and on the exterior?
Text 2.
1.	What did further development in the technology of cast iron and steel enable architects to do?
2.	What did advances in the technology of sheet-glass making result in?
3.	What were 19th-century creations based on?
4.	What was possibly the most extraordinary feature of 19th-century architecture?
5.	Was any single characteristic style developed in the 19th century?
6.	Did any great architects emerge in the 19th century?
Text 3.
1.	Why did a group of designers and writers stage a form of rebellion against the machine?
2.	What was the name of the movement?
3.	How did they express their beliefs?
4.	What was their movement associated with in architecture?
5.	What features were characteristic of their houses?
6.	What other structures did the architects of the movement design?
Vocabulary Practice
Щ Find in the texts the synonyms of the following words.
indication — ...	neglect — ....
destroy — ...	do without —	....
change n — ...	draft — ....
fulfil — ...	conceal — ....
manually — ...	considerable	—	....
satisfy — ...	equipment —	....
| Find in the texts the opposites of the following words.
probable — ...	regression — ....
respect — ...	prohibit — ....
decrease — ...	out-of-date —....
unavailable — ...	humanizing —
disliked — ...	small — ....

I Fill in the correct prepositions, then choose any seven items and make sentences.
1)	to owe ... sb/sth; 2)... hand; 3)... search ... sth; 4) a need ... sth; 5) to draw inspiration ... sth;
6)	a disregard ... sth; 7) to suit... sth; 8) an increase ... sth; 9) to be notable ... sth; 10) to dispense
... sth; 11) to make use ... sth; 12) to be associated ... sth.
Language Development
JU FilTin the correct word(s) from the list below.
tension, frame, pioneer, office, price, obsession, styles, made use of, iron, urbanization, materials,
quality, columns, proposed, skin, compression, techniques, glass, exploited, artists, fire resistant, inven¬
tion, population, factories, requirements
1.	The Industrial revolution, which introduced new ... and..., made the 19th century the time of
the vast expansion of cities or... in Europe and America.
2.	The Industrial revolution brought utterly new building ..., which could not be resolved by
repeating traditional means, and while architects faltered, engineers came to the forefront.
3.	First, they exploited new materials such as... and ....
4.	Secondly, they ... the new possibilities of construction and management techniques to build
huge, repetitive structures very quickly.
5.	Thirdly, they... new industrial techniques, such as machine sawing, and mass- produced nails.
6.	Architects holding on to the remnants of their Renaissance status as..., saw themselves as the
purveyors of sensibility and culture.
7.	With the rise of the nouveau-riche bourgeois class, architects had a ready market, and build¬
ings based on mixture of different... proliferated.
8.	The notion of ‘style’ in architecture is an early nineteenth-century ..., and a later nineteenth-
century ....
9.	It was the introduction of coke-smelted iron in England in 1747 that raised the ... and lowered
the ... of cast iron so that it could be used for major building elements.
10.	Between 1770 and 1772, St. Anne’s Church in Liverpool was built with cast-iron ....
11.	The construction of the early cast-iron bridges coincided with the building of the first....
12.	The great American contribution to building in iron was not made in mill construction but in
... buildings.
13.	In 1859, the engineer John Hawkshaw (1811—1891)... to use structural steel for his Charing
Cross railway bridge in London, but he was refused permission.
14.	It was left to the Dutch and the Americans to... the use of the new Bessemer steel.
15.	In 1883, construction was started on the Statue of Liberty, which had a copper ... over a steel
... designed by Gustave Eiffel (1832—1923) and reaching up 147 feet (45 m).
16.	In England, by the middle of the 1820s, the boom in industrial production brought a dramatic
increase in prosperity and ....
17.	Experimentation with cast iron and then later steel bars resulted in a material that works well
in ... and in ..., with the added advantage of being ....

2
Match the words with the nouns. You may use some words more than once.
to express, floral, to follow, decorative, to meet, various, to observe, to carryout, hand-made, modem,
domestic, spacious, historical, a mixture of, social, to fulfil, civic
J	I Complete the following texts with the correct words derived from the words in brackets.
1.	Architects, being as they were preoccupied with style, were slow to grasp the... (possible) offered
by new building techniques. It was engineers, excited by the potential of iron and steel, who first devel¬
oped ... (structure) uses for the new materials. Joseph Paxton’s Crystal Palace was the ... (turn) point
that aroused architectural interest in these materials.
2.	Continuing in the ground-breaking mould of the Crystal Palace, to demonstrate a nation’s pride
and identity and to demonstrate skill and prowess in ... (construct) and ... (engineer), exhibition pavil¬
ions have continued to produce some great... (architecture) and ... (technology) ... (achieve). The Paris
Exhibition of 1889 saw both the widest span and the tallest structure of the time. The Galerie des
Machines, with huge portal frames hinged at the base and the apex, had the widest span at 120 m. The
tallest was the Eiffel Tower, still standing on axis with the buildings at the Trocadero, left from the
Exhibition of 1878. Both Victor Contamin and Gustave Eiffel were... (heavy) criticized by others who
thought their... (dare) steel constructions foolhardy.
3.	The Arts and Crafts... (move) developed in England in the late nineteenth century as a... (react)
against the ... (arrive) of machine-made mass production techniques, the results of which were shod¬
dy and ugly. Its ... (intend) was to revive craftsmanship ... (general) and in architecture to promote ...
(tradition) building techniques using local materials.
1ИЯ""'Translate the following extracts into English using the vocabulary of the texts.
1.	В середине XIX в. в градостроительстве произошли глубокие изменения. Научные и
технические открытия в промышленном производстве, строительство железных дорог
привели к поискам новой структуры городов и возникновению новых сооружений: заводов,
административных зданий, доходных домов (tenements), вокзалов, спортивных сооружений,
выставочных залов, торговых зданий и т. д. Появились новые конструктивные материалы
(чугун, сталь) и новые методы, облегчающие строительство. Чугунные колонны, стропила,
перекрытия начинают сочетать с каменными, кирпичными и деревянными стенами. Впервые
металл конструктивно соединяют со стеклом: крытые рынки, вокзалы, универмаги с
металлическими сводчатыми перекрытиями.
2.	Большое значение для развития архитектуры имели всемирные промышленные
выставки. Здание Всемирной промышленной выставки в Лондоне — Кристалл-палас
(the Crystal Palace) — было сооружено впервые в архитектурной практике только из стали и
стекла. Остекленные элементы и стальные рамы положили начало так называемой
а(п)... life
...the rules
... styles
... tasks
... demands
a(n)... detail
... architecture
...the trend
... buildings
a(n)... technology
a(n)... design
... one’s beliefs

ажурной архитектуре. Памятником архитектуры стала 300-метровая Эйфелева башня
(the Eiffel Tower).
3.	Начиная с 30-х годов XIX в. для композиции и художественной отделки зданий
характерны стилизация (подражание стилям прошлого) и эклектика.
4.	Эклектика — смешение форм различных стилей — привела к нарушению связи между
функцией, конструкцией и обликом архитектуры.
Follow-up Activities
Read the texts again and make notes under the following headings. Then use your notes and the illus¬
trations to talk about 19th-century architecture.
1.	The Industrial revolution.
2.	How to identify a 19th-century building.
3.	New building materials.
3.	The Arts and Crafts movement.

UNIT 11. THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
Reading Task
Find the following terms in the glossary and memorize their meanings.
modem architecture
Art Nouveau
ornamental
structural
prefabricated
underground
decorative design
Art Deco
fashion shop
chromium plate
render
Expressionism
curving roof
spiky tower
decorative brickwork
rough concrete
unfinished
moulding-board
exposed
rough-surface painting
naked
Bauhaus
Functionalism
avant-garde
commercial architecture
reinforced concrete
flat roof
pitched roof
shuttering mark
texture
Constructivism
plate glass
concealed
sun-deck
Hi-Tech
escalator
suspend
pipe
air-conditioning
pipework
stainless steel
clear space
Post-Modernism
Ц Skim the texts.
TEXT 1.
One of the chief difficulties in the way of appreciating classical Greek architecture is that there
are so few buildings by which we can judge it. By contrast, one reason why modern architecture is

difficult to appreciate is that there are so many. Nevertheless, there is clear evidence that many
buildings of true quality and aesthetic appeal have been created and new and exciting styles of archi¬
tecture established.
In many of the best 20th-century buildings the attraction lies in the lines and the shapes and
not, as in many earlier architectural styles, in the decorations. Decoration has indeed been avoid¬
ed, and this is another reason why the best modern architecture may not be immediately as appeal¬
ing as, say, the best Baroque. Many people find that the eye has to be trained to appreciate the out¬
standing qualities of modern architecture, but when this has been achieved, the rewards are
considerable.
Modern architecture, as the term is generally understood, began to make an impact in the years
between the two world wars. There was no single style, and some of the greatest architects cannot be
neatly classified as belonging to a particular movement or group. Nevertheless there were movements
to which names have been attached either by the participants or by their critics. The following may be
thought to be the principle ones.
TEXT 2. ART NOUVEAU
Art Nouveau was the name of a shop in Paris which was opened in 1895 and specialized in the sale
of household objects of new, as opposed to conventional, design.
The principal materials used by Art Nouveau architects were iron and glass, whose application was
at first ornamental and later structural. Decorative features were curved lines and floral and geometric
patterns. Examples are to be found in the flowing lines of prefabricated ironwork in the Paris metro.
Others are in the Vienna underground.
Although some fine buildings were produced in Art Nouveau style, the movement was rather more
effective in the field of decorative design. It was comparatively short-lived and came to an end with the
outbreak of World War I in 1914.
TEXT 3. ART DECO
The term ‘Art Deco’ is derived from an exhibition of decorative arts which was staged in Paris in
1925. The association between Art Deco and jazz is a close one and the style has sometimes been called
Jazz Modeme.
It is to be seen in many buildings constructed between the two world wars, the great majority of
them serving commercial purposes. This style was thought particularly suitable for hotels, cinemas and
fashion shops. Discipline is not very strong, and designers felt encouraged to let their imagination roam
freely.
In essence Art Deco was a simplified form of classical architecture, in which the Greek and Roman
orders were reduced to their simplest and then blended with motifs from other cultures. Such exotic
intrusions tended to follow the fashions of the day: when Howard Carter discovered the tomb of the
14th century BC Pharaoh Tutankhamun in 1922, the press treated it as sensational news, and for a time
there were elements strongly suggestive of Egyptian art in Art Deco designs.
The materials used in Art Deco were predominantly modern, chromium plate being particularly
popular. More traditional materials such as stained glass, coloured tiles and smooth render over brick,
were also used, often in startling, jazzy patterns.
TEXT 4. EXPRESSIONISM
Expressionism was an architectural movement which had a brief vogue in Germany and the
Netherlands shortly after World War I. It was virtually confined to these two countries and was short¬
lived; by 1925 it had effectively come to an end.

There is a quality of fantasy in Expressionist building. They have outlines suggesting movement:
swooping, curving roofs, spiky towers and much decorative brickwork. The shapes were made possible
by the plastic quality of concrete, and the freedom of expression is sometimes more suggestive of sculp¬
ture than of architecture.
TEXT 5. BRUTALISM
The term ‘Brutalism’ is rather misleading. It is in fact derived from the French term ‘bftton brut’,
which means rough concrete — in other words, concrete that is left unfinished, with the marks of the
wooden moulding-boards visible on the surface. Normally concrete is surfaced with another material,
such as brick, stone or smooth cement render, but the Brutalists thought that, in the interests of hon¬
esty or authenticity, it should be exposed.
There is also some connection between the Brutalist movement in architecture and the French
movement ‘L’art brut’, whose followers specialized in rough-surface paintings.
Some buildings which do not show rough, exposed concrete have also been classified as Brutalist.
In these, an exposed steel frame is visible on the exterior. Buildings of this kind are limited in number
for in some countries — in Britain for example — the display of naked steel frames is discouraged by
building regulations.
TEXT 6. BAUHAUS AND FUNCTIONALISM
In the 1920s the Bauhaus art and craft school in Germany became perhaps the most important
centre for the avant-garde in architecture — its director was always an architect — as well as for paint¬
ing and the applied arts in Europe. Walter Gropius, the schoolol’s first director from 1919 to 1928, had
been directly responsible for the construction of some steel and glass buildings before World War I
which were of an entirely novel kind.
Teaching at the school was arranged so that pupils had to engage in a variety of theoretical and
practical studies lasting for several years before they were allowed to design a real building.
Largely under the influence of so-called ‘Constructivists’ from the Netherlands and Hungary,
teaching at the Bauhaus became severely functional. The doctrine was expounded that it is function
which dictates form.
Under the Nazi regime the Bauhaus was closed, and a number of its teachers and pupils fled to
Britain and the United States. As a result, the number of pre-World War II buildings in Europe which
can be directly attributed to the Bauhaus is limited. In the United States, Bauhaus influence was con¬
siderable in both domestic and commercial architecture.
The legacy of the functional approach to architecture can be seen in the new technology using
building materials such as steel, reinforced concrete and glass in large sheets. The adoption too of flat
instead of pitched roofs has removed many restraints in the design of buildings.
Because Functionalists were much more concerned with designing buildings to serve the purpose
of whatever went on inside them than with their exterior appearance, surfaces tend to be impersonal.
Sometimes, however, the shuttering marks on concrete were exposed in order to give an interesting
texture to the external surface. The buildings are frequently asymmetrical, and the purpose they serve
is often easy to deduce.
TEXT 7. CONSTRUCTIVISM
Constructivism was a movement which began in the Soviet Union about the time of the Bolshevik
revolution and spread mainly to Poland and Czechoslovakia, Germany and the Netherlands. In the
Soviet Union itself few Constructivist buildings came into being, largely because of a shortage of the
appropriate building materials.

The movement was the natural successor to Functionalism, to which it was closely allied. The
Constructivists emphasized, and took advantage of, the possibilities presented by new materials. Steel
frames were seen supporting the large areas of plate glass which were being made for the first time. The
joints between various parts of a building were exposed rather than concealed.
In furtherance of the cult of the sun and of the body which was so popular in the years immediate¬
ly following World War I many buildings had balconies and sun-decks. Windows too are large in order
to let in as much light as possible and are framed in metal. The exteriors are commonly white.
TEXT 8. HI-TECH
Hi-Tech is the term applied to a style of architecture in which the services which a building pro¬
vides and the function it fulfils are unashamedly revealed.
One way in which the architect achieves this is by ensuring that certain essential services, which are
normally concealed within the building, are clearly visible from outside. Lifts travel up and down its
front or sides. Escalators are suspended from the structure on to the exterior. Pipes for air-conditioning
and water are not only visible but are designed as decorative features.
Bright colours predominate on the exterior. Pipework may be colour-coded to indicate its various
functions. All the structural parts may be in one distinctive colour or clad in stainless steel.
One advantage of this style of architecture is that it facilitates the provision of large clear spaces
within the building. For this reason it has been found suitable for offices, factories and even art gal¬
leries. The style has been defined simply as one which has ‘the insides on the outside’.
TEXT 9. POST-MODERNISM
Post-Modernism is a reaction or revolt rather than a single clearly definable architectural style. The
reaction has been against the severity and monotony of much 20th-century architecture, and it has
been felt and expressed by clients quite as often as by the architects themselves.
Post-modernist architects have continued to take advantage of the new materials available while
turning to different periods of the past for artistic inspiration. There has for instance been a revival of
the principles of classical architecture with emphasis on proportion and harmony.
Some architects have tried to achieve the surface effects of Art Deco, though with the use of newer
building materials. This has even led to the design of supermarkets in the style of palaces, and offices
in that of temples. It is still perhaps too early to judge where Post-Modernism will lead and the poten¬
tial value of its contribution.
Comprehension Check
ШЯ After the first reading decide which text tells us about '
1)	preference for the lines and the shapes rather than for the decorations.
2)	the beginning of modern architecture.
3)	the principal movements and groups in modern architecture.
4)	the application of new materials.
5)	the movement connected with theoretical and practical studies.
6)	the movement concerned with designing buildings to serve the purpose.
7)	the movement in which the architects ensure that certain essential services are clearly visible
from outside.

8)	the use of bright colours on the exterior.
9)	the movement which facilitates the provision of large clear spaces within the building.
10)	the style suitable for offices, factories and even art galleries.
11)	the movement which revived the principles of classical architecture with emphasis on propor¬
tion and harmony.
12)	a short-lived movement.
13)	the style suitable for hotels, cinemas and fashion shops.
14)	the style seen in many buildings constructed between the two world wars.
15)	the application of the exposed material.
| Read the texts carefully paying attention to the terms in bold and to the illustrations in the
Architectural Features section at the back of the book. Answer the following questions.
1.	What does the attraction lie in in many of the best 20th-century buildings?
2.	When did modern architecture begin to make an impact?
3.	Is there any single style in modern architecture?
4.	What movements or groups are there in modern architecture?
5.	What was Art Nouveau?
6.	What was it characterized by?
7.	Where was it more effective?
8.	What is Art Deco?
9.	What was Art Deco characterized by?
10.	What was it particularly suitable for?
11	.What materials were used in Art Deco?
12.What	was Expressionism?
13.What	were Expressionist buildings characterized by?
14.What	is Brutalism?
15.What	was Brutalism characterized by?
16.What	became perhaps the most important centre for the avant-garde in architecture?
17.What	was Walter Gropius and what was he responsible for?
18.	How was teaching at the Bauhaus arranged?
19.	Why was the Bauhaus closed?
20.Where	can the legacy of the functional approach be seen?
21.	How can we recognize a functionalist?
22.What	was Constructivism?
23.Why	did few Constructivist buildings come into being in the Soviet Union?
24.What	were Constructivist buildings characterized by?
25.What	did furtherance of the cult of the sun and of the body result in?
26.What	is Hi-Tech?
27.What	is Hi-Tech characterized by?
28 .What is one of the advantages of this style?
29.What	is Post-Modernism?
30.How	did Post-modernist architects combine the present and the past?
31 .What is the potential value of Post-modernist contribution?

Vocabulary Practice
Match the words with their synonyms.
1)	appreciate
2)	appeal n
3)	household
4)	conventional
5)	authenticity
6)	unfinished
7)	exposed
8)	regulation
9)	restraint
10)	shortage
11)	appropriate
12)	inspiration
Match the words with their opposites.
1)	considerable
2)	brief
3)	curved
4)	unfinished
5)	exposed
6)	honesty
7)	novel a
8)	discourage
9)	shortage
10)	advantage
11)	bright
12)	limited
a)	deficiency
b)	customary
c)	creative impulse
d)	ordinance
e)	proper
f)	value
a)	sufficiency
b)	concealed
c)	disadvantage
d)	dark
e)	little
f)	encourage
g)	attraction
h)	domestic
i)	raw
j) undisguised
k) genuineness
I)	hindrance
g)	long
h)	straight
i)	boundless
j)old
k) perfect
1) deception
Я Fill in the correct prepositions, then choose any nine items and make sentences.
1) to specialize ... sth; 2) to be derived ... sth; 3)... essence; 4) to be suggestive ... sth; 5) to come...
an end; 6)... the interests ... sth; 7) to be limited ... number; 8) to be responsible ... sth; 9) to be
engaged ... sth; 10) to be attributed ... sb/sth; 11) to be concerned ... sth; 12) to come ... being;
13)	to take advantage ... sth; 14) to turn... sth... sth; 15)... emphasis ... sth.
Language Development
_U FilTiii the correct word(s) from the list below.
Modernism, potential, architectural, derived, functional, inspiration, buildings, fascinating, material,
aim, consideration, properties, movement, to inhabit, environments, figures, proposed, town planning,
vernacular
1.	Futurism is one of the most... areas in twentieth-century art and architecture.
2.	Together with concrete the existing new... at the beginning of the twentieth century was glass.
3.	The interest in new materials and techniques led to an exploration of their... for new forms and
spaces.
4.	The ... of the Bauhaus school was ‘to collect all artistic creativity into a unity, to reunite all
artistic disciplines into a new architecture’.
5.	Walter Gropius was the most important architect of the Bauhaus and one of the most impor¬
tant ... in twentieth-century architecture.
6.	Modernism rejected the whole notion of ‘style’ and ... a new way of thinking.
7.	Villa Savoye (1928—30) and Maison La Roche (1923) are examples of a type that have become
monuments to....

8.	Le Corbusier’s... and ... schemes had people in mind from an early stage.
9.	The idea of being ‘in harmony with nature’ has been an important ... for	many	Modernist
architects — Sullivan, Aalto and Scharoun.
10.	Ancient Egypt was a major ... for Art Deco, especially in the USA.
11.	In contrast to the prim, cool cubic forms of 1930s Modernism, by late 1940s	and	1950s archi¬
tects were beginning to experiment with the ‘plastic’... of concrete.
12.	According to the structuralists, Modern movement architecture is too bland, ill-defined spa¬
tially, neutral, and difficult....
13.	Neorationalism is a contemporary... associated primarily with Italian and German architects.
14.	Modernism, in its search for integrity, has always taken a particular interest in ‘...’ building, or
traditional regional forms.
15.	Postmodernism embraces an architecture that is clearly... from the familiar, the historical, and
the vernacular.
16.	Postmodern buildings borrow styles from the past, without any... purpose.
17.	Modern architecture has been critisized on many counts, not least of which are the many unac¬
ceptable ... and harsh ... which its proponents have produced.
Я Match the words with the nouns. You may use some words more than once.
artistic, decorative, applied, coloured, traditional, the freedom of, floral, reinforced, steel, concrete,
smooth, conventional, to follow, appropriate, to provide, close, geometric, modem, real, available,
jazzy, rough, glass, to serve, to facilitate, unfinished
a(n)... design	a(n)... building
a(n)... pattern	... the purpose
... concrete	... the services
... the fashion	... the provision
... materials	a(n)... feature
a(n)... association	... expression
... arts	... inspiration
Complete the following texts with the correct words derived from the words in brackets.
1.	The ... (develop) of Modernism in Britain is associated with the ... (arrive) of a number of...
(influence) European architects en route for the States. Gropius, Breuer, Chermayeff and Mendelsohn
all completed building projects during their brief sojourns in England before going to the USA.
2.	The ... (express) ‘New Brutalism’ originated in Britain in 1954 and was attributed to Alison and
Peter Smithson (b. 1928 and 1923) who, like many other young architects in Europe, were frustrated
by the problems of getting work in a profession dominated by the established older generation. The
term referred, perhaps... (mocking), to the puritanical approach of a younger generation committed to
the extreme Modernist principles of the visible, honest expression of structures and materials.
3.	‘Critical regionalism’ is Kenneth Frampton’s... (describe) of the development of Modernism in
... (respond) to different physical and ... (culture) contexts. Spain, following ... (re-democratize), the ...
(introduce) of legal... (protect) for historic buildings, the ... (stage) of the Expo in Seville in 1992 and
the Olympic games in Barcelona, has had the opportunity to reassert a cultural... (present) in Europe
with major new buildings.
4.	Freedom from clutter, from the ... (distract) of trivia, allows ... (concentrate) on the fundamen¬
tal — the ... (importance) qualities of form, of space and material. Here, beauty is not found in unnec¬

essary... (adorn) and distracting... (embellish), but in the... (refine) of the... (essence) heart of a build¬
ing, the... (true) minimal.... (Simple) and ... (empty) characterize such Mininalist architecture, recall¬
ing a monastic restraint..
Translate the following extracts into English using the vocabulary of the texts.
1.	Конструктивные и функциональные проблемы высотного строительства разработал
американский архитектор Луис Салливен (Louis Sullivan) (1856—1924), которому
принадлежит крылатая фраза “форма следует функции”, т. е. форма сооружения зависит от
его назначения.
2.	К началу XX в. относится создание больших промышленных комплексов на основе
железобетонных конструкций, стального каркаса, элементов заводского изготовления, что
привело к возникновению идей унификации и стандартизации элементов зданий. Другой
путь, по которому шло развитие архитектуры, был связан с использованием пластических
свойств бетона, т.е. его способности принимать любую форму.
3.	Для периода 1917—26 гг. характерно увлечение формальными элементами,
плоскостями, геометрическими телами (голландская группа “Стиль” ((De Stijl). Под
влиянием этого направления создан “Дом над водопадом” (Falling Water) в Пенсильвании
(Pennsylvania) (1936, Ф.Л.Райт (Frank Lloyd Wright), в котором пересечение прямоугольных
объемов под прямым углом — один из приемов равновесия всей композиции.
4.	В “Баухаузе” — художественно-промышленном училище г. Веймара (Weimar), которое
было основано архитектором В. Гропиусом (Walter Gropius), зарождается новое течение в
архитектуре (1920-е гг.) — функционализм, провозгласивший идею синтеза искусства и техники
основой современного формообразования. Функционализм требовал строгого соответствия
зданий протекающим в них производственным и бытовым процессам (функциям).
Один из лидеров функционализма — немецкий и американский архитектор Л. Мис ван
дер Роэ (Ludwig Mies van der Rohe) (1886—1969) — выдвинул новую концепцию пространства:
стена — не подчиненный элемент, а имеет самостоятельное значение, связывая внутреннее
пространство с окружающей средой. Он развивал идею совершенной “универсальной
формы” в архитектуре, т.е. пригодной для любых зданий.
5.	Один из создателей современной архитектуры французский архитектор и теоретик
архитектуры Ле Корбюзье (Le Corbusier) (1887—1965) — видел основу обновления
архитектуры в современной технике и серийности индустриального строительства. Он
формулирует пять основных принципов новой архитектуры: гибкая планировка, возможная
внутри каркасной конструкции; свободное решение фасада, вынесенного перед каркасом;
сплошные горизонтальные ленты окон; плоская крыша, используемая как сад; постановка
здания на железобетонные столбы с отрывом от земли (pilotis), чтобы продолжить под
зданием зеленую зону.
6.	Новое веяние в архитектуре современного мира — постмодернизм (его популяризаторы
Ч.	Дженкс (Charles Jencks), Р. Стерн (Robert Stern) и Ч. Мур (Charles Moor)) — направление,
ищущее субъективные, сенсационные эффекты благодаря неожиданным формам. Его
принципы: подчинение факторам окружающей среды; введение элементов исторических
ассоциаций; возвращение неконструктивных и нефункциональных элементов архитектуры.
Архитектура провозглашается способом коммуникации с зашифрованной символикой,
многозначностью образа, эклектичностью формальных средств. Появляются и здания —
копии образов прошлого.

Follow-up Activities
Read the texts again and make notes under the following headings. Then use your notes and the illus¬
trations to talk about twentieth-century architecture.
1.	Introduction.
2.	Art Nouveau.
3.	Art Deco
4.	Expressionism.
5.	Brutalism.
6.	Functionalism.
7.	Constructivism.
8.	Hi-Tech
9.	Post-Modernism.

Section II
Supplementary Reading Material

ARCHITECTURE
Architecture belongs to everybody. Unlike painting or music which can be avoided or denied, the
history of architecture, the enduring remains of the past, is all around us. Our experience of architec¬
ture is of the building, the everyday spaces of towns and cities, that frame the lives of ordinary people.
Architecture can be seen as a response to the primary human need for shelter (and comfort).
Different cultures have all produced different kinds of buildings. Variations in climate initially, and
later in religious beliefs and economic systems, resulted in different ‘traditional’ or vernacular build¬
ings, using the most easily available local materials.
Architecture can also be many other things. Architecture as ‘Art’ with a capital A considers itself
to be something more than mere building. Architecture as history illustrates the power of the institu¬
tions, namely the state, the crown or the church with their enduring, preserved monuments, their cas¬
tles, palaces and cathedrals. Architecture might also be physical proof of scientific achievement, of
technological progress, with the tallest buildings and widest spans. At a domestic scale, ordered and
well-serviced living spaces might be seen as representative of a highly evolved civilization.
Many histories of architecture have attempted to explain why buildings look the way they do. To
understand even one building fully it is necessary to learn something of the culture that produced it.
So what is architecture?
On one hand, architecture, like any practical craft, looks to the past for tried and trusted con¬
struction methods and familiar and comfortable imagery; on the other it yearns for originality, and
looks to the future, the daring and excitement of the new.
Architecture is the science — and the art — of creating structures like buildings, bridges, and sta¬
diums. It begins as an idea in an architect’s mind and grows into the reality of concrete or glass or steel.
When you think of architecture, think first of its starting point: an idea. Every architect, modern or
ancient, has drawn upon what has been built before. Architects help us learn about the past even as they
shape the present.
ARCHITECTURE AND THE ARCHITECT
Architecture. Ruskin, in his Seven Lamps (1849), stated that architecture was the ‘art which dis¬
poses and adorns the edifices raised by man... that the sight of them’ contributes ‘to his mental health,
power, and pleasure’, which proposes aesthetic, beneficial, and spiritual aspects rather than a utilitar¬
ian or Functionalist agenda. He also opined, in the same book, that ‘architecture’ should be confined
to ‘that art which,... admitting... the necessities and common uses’ of a building ‘impresses on its form
certain characters venerable or beautiful, but otherwise unnecessary’. He went on to note that ‘no one
would call the laws architectural which determine the height of a breastwork or the position of a bas¬
tion. But if to the stone facing of that bastion be added an unnecessary feature, as a cable moulding,
that is Architecture. It would be similarly unreasonable to call battlements or machicolations architec¬
tural features, so long as they consist only of an advanced gallery supported on projecting masses, with
open intervals beneath for offence. But if these projecting masses be carved beneath into rounded
courses, which are useless, and if the headings of the intervals be arched and trefoiled, which is useless,
that is Architecture’. Such a simplistic and prolix definition is revealing of Ruskin’s attitudes, which,
to a large extent, became the general view of the subject for the next eighty years or so.
Architecture is concerned with the creation of order out of chaos, a respect for organization, the
manipulation of geometry, and the creation of a work in which aesthetics plays a far greater role than
anything likely to be found in a humdrum building. Sir Henry Wotton’s (1568—1639) statement that

well building hath three conditions: Commodity, Firmness, and Delight’ seems to have originated
from Vitruvius, who insisted that architecture derives from order, arrangement, eurhythmy (or har¬
mony of proportion), symmetry, propriety, and economy. Wren spoke of ‘Beauty, Firmness, and
Convenience’ in architecture. These definitions suggest that there is much in the built fabric that falls
into the category of non-architecture. Architecture might be described as the art and science of design¬
ing a building having qualities of beauty, geometry, emotional and spiritual power, intellectual content
and complexity, soundness of construction, convenient planning, many virtues of different kinds,
durable and pleasing materials, agreeable colouring and decorations, serenity and dynamism, good
proportions and acceptable scale, and many mnemonic associations drawing on a great range of prece¬
dents. Doubtless there are many more aspects that some would consider essential other than those sug¬
gested above. Philip Johnson (1906), in the New York Times (1964), went so far as to claim that ‘archi¬
tecture is the art how to waste space’.
Architect. Person capable of preparing the plans, elevations, and sections of the design of a sophis¬
ticated building with an aesthetic content and to supervise its construction in accordance with the
drawings and specifications. Soane described an architect’s business as that of making ‘designs and
estimates’, directing ‘the works’, and valuing ‘the different parts’: he declared the architect as the
‘intermediate agent between the employer, whose honour and interest he is to study, and the mechan¬
ic, whose rights he is to defend’. Soane emphasized the architect’s position as implying great trust,
being ‘responsible for the mistakes, negligences, and ignorance of those he employs’. Ruskin suggest¬
ed that one who is neither a sculptor nor painter could not be an architect, but only a builder, and
Frank Lloyd Wright stated that an architect cannot bury his mistakes, unlike a physician.
THE SEVEN WONDERS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD
The ancient Greeks were probably the first to make up a list of Seven Wonders — those marvellous
structures that no traveller would want to miss. Through the ages, others added to or subtracted from
the list, based on their opinions. Today, however,
the following wonderworks are most often referred
to as the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
The Pyramids, tombs for the Egyptian pharaohs,
are the oldest and best preserved of all ancient won¬
ders. The three most famous pyramids were built at
Giza about 2600 BC. The largest of the three, the
Great Pyramid, stands about 450ft (137m) high. Its
base occupies about 13 acres (5 hectares).
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were built by
King Nebuchadnezzar who ruled Babylonia from
605 to 562 BC. Babylon, the capital of Babylonia,
was located near the city of Baghdad in Iraq. The
walls are in ruins today, but accounts describe
beautiful gardens of flowers, fruit trees, and foun¬
tains. The gardens were laid out on brick terraces about 400ft (120m) square and 75ft (23m) above
the ground.
The Temple of Artemis was built about 550 BC in the Greek city of Ephesus on the west coast of
what is now Turkey. Artemis was the Greek goddess of hunting. The temple was made entirely of

white marble except for its tile-covered wooden roof. It was 377ft (115m) in length and 180ft (55m)
in width. More than one hundred enormous columns, in a double row around the building, sup¬
ported its huge roof.
The Statue of Zeus at Olympia, Greece, was perhaps the most famous statue of the ancient world.
It was made in about 435 BC and dedicated to the King of the Greek gods. The statue was made of
ivory, 40ft (12m) high, and showed Zeus sitting on a huge golden throne set with precious stones.
The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus was located in what is now southwestern Turkey. It was a huge,
white marble tomb for a king named Mausolus. Its size and gold decoration made it so famous that
large tombs are called mausoleums even today.
The Colossus of Rhodes was a huge bronzed statue that stood near the harbour of Rhodes, an island
in the Aegean Sea. The statue honoured the Greek god of the sun, Helios. It stood about 120ft (37m)
tall — about as high as the Statue of Liberty.
The Lighthouse of Alexandria stood on the island of Pharos in the harbour of Alexandria, Egypt.
The lighthouse rose from a stone platform in three sections: the bottom was square, the middle
eight-sided, and the top circular. Light was provided by a bonfire burning continuously at the top of
the tower.
Except for the pyramids at Giza, none of the ancient wonders is standing today. They were
destroyed by humans or nature.
THE IRON AGE
Iron and Steel
Architects, being as they were preoccupied with style, were slow to grasp the possibilities offered by
new building techniques.	It	was	engineers, excited by the potential of iron and steel, who first devel¬
oped structural	uses for	the	new	materials. Joseph Paxton’s Crystal Palace was the turning point that
aroused architectural interest in these materials.
Built to house the Great Exhibition of 1851 in Hyde
Park, London, the Crystal Palace took just nine months to
erect. It was pioneering in its use of iron and was assembled
on the site from a series of prefabricated panels. It was enor¬
mous, measuring 410 x 197ft/125 x 60m in plan and
72ft/22m in height. Built around existing trees, the novel
spatial effect was heightened by its almost complete trans¬
parency.
Building Bridges
Cast iron had first been used structurally in England in
1779 for a bridge at Coalbrookdale, as well as for bridges in
the US and in France. The intense competition between the
new railway companies spurred bridge-building as well as
production of rails, which were also the first source of I-
beams used in buildings. Thomas Telford (1757—1834) was
the first to build arched bridges in cast iron, a material which works well in compression. Wrought iron,
which works better in tension, he used for the chains on the Menai Straits suspension bridge (1819).
Robert Stephenson’s Britannia railway bridge, also across the Menai (1850), used an innovative sys¬
tem of box girders made of wrought iron.
The double-vaulted
Inn framings allows for space 18,9m/62ft high
lightness and complexity	—	—
The lofty transparent enclosure of the Palm House at
the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, London (1845-47),
designed by Decimus Burton and Richard Taylor, can
only hint at the interior of the Crystal Palace

But is it Architecture?
Iron was first used for warehouses, factories and market halls, new building types in the nineteenth
century, and it was some time before it was used for conventional buildings. Train sheds at railway ter¬
mini produced some of the most daring structures — dramatic spaces with huge spans, tall slender
columns and elaborate ironwork. The railway companies’ lack of confidence in the aesthetic quality of
such adventurous structures meant that many of these ‘utilitarian’ spaces were concealed. Gothic,
Tudor and Greek revival booking halls, hotels and fagades shielded the iron structures from public view
as at Paddington (1852), St. Pancras (1865) and Euston (1840). Kings Cross, London (1850) is an
exception. Designed by Lewis Cubitt, it has a simple brick structure with two semi-circular arches fol¬
lowing the line of the train sheds behind. The only revivalist concession is the Italianate tower.
THE HARD MBU
Concrete Structures
Reinforced concrete, which has had such dramatic effect on structure, form and aesthetics in the
twentieth century, has its roots in the nineteenth century and its development was closely linked with
developments in steel technology.
Concrete started to be used again in the late eighteenth-century in France and by the mid-nine¬
teenth century it was routinely used in foundations and for
floors. Concrete — a mixture of sand, stones and water — works
well in compression (it can support heavy vertical loads).
Experimentation with cast iron and then later steel bars result¬
ed in a material that works well in compression and in tension,
with the added advantage of being fire resistant. The sewers
designed by Francois Coignet (1814—88) for Haussmann’s
Paris were among the first experiments to test out the potential
of the new technology.
Malang the Connection
The real break through came when Francois Hennebique
(1842—1921), another Frenchman, solved the problem ofjoints
between columns and beams by using round reinforcing bars
which could be bent and hooked together to form monolithic
joints, enabling large-scale framed structures to be built. The
name of Frangois Hennebique rapidly became synonymous
with reinforced concrete building work all over Europe.
August Perret (1874—1954) was one of the first architects to
employ an all-concrete structure. In his apartment block on the
rue Franklin in Paris (1903), the framed construction is made
visible on the fagade with infill of either windows or panels of
ceramic tiling. The unusual concave form of the fagade, a prag¬
matic response to gain more floor space by putting the obligato¬
ry ‘rear courtyard’ at the front, adds to the ‘Gothic’ impression
created by the tall articulated form.
By the first decades of the twentieth century, frame struc¬
tures of reinforced concrete had become standard. Future

developments were in refinements of shape and surface texture and in other structural forms like the
hyperbolic paraboloids of Freysinet’s (1879—1962) airship hangars or the thin-skin shell structures of
Perluigi Nervi (1891—1971). The most important aspect of monolithic framed construction to the
early modern architects was the possibility of cantilevering the edge of floor slabs away from the
columns to allow fully glazed fasades.
USEFUL AND BEAUTIFUL
Arts and Crafts
The Arts and Crafts movement developed in England in the late nineteenth century as a reaction
against the arrival of machine-made mass production techniques, the results of which were shoddy and
ugly. Its intention was to revive craftsmanship generally and in architecture to promote traditional
building techniques using local materials.
William Morris (1834—96), the most influential figure in the movement, was a designer, a lectur¬
er, a socialist, and a promoter of vernacular architecture. Art, for Morris, was part of life — not the
domain of the rich elite: ‘I do not want art for a few any more than education for a few or freedom for
a few’. Frustrated by the difficulty in obtaining good-quality, well-designed products, Morris set up his
own company Morris, Marshall and Faulkner in 1861 (later Morris and Co.). His designs for wallpa¬
pers and fabric are often highly coloured and intricately decorated, featuring birds and flowers. His call
for better design and handicraft was influenced by the writings of Ruskin and his belief that quality
came from the relationship between a craftsman and his work, that labour should be a pleasurable
activity. He thought that mass production produced ugly goods, and in separating the maker from the
product of his labour, created a wage-dependent working class. By the 1890s, the movement had
spread to Europe and North America.
One of the most influential buildings was Red House at Bexleyheath (1859), designed for Morris
by his architect and friend Philip Webb (1831—1915). Red House is an asymmetrical, free-plan com¬
position, built in red brick (hence its name), with half-hipped roofs and rustic tiles — very different
from the fashionable white-stuccoed ‘Italianate’ villas. Morris went to town on the interior, reworking
everything from first principles — the wall hangings, furniture, and stained glass windows.
Dutch Domesticity
Richard Norman Shaw (1831—1912) represents the
other strand of English country house architecture of the
period. His early work is in the picturesque Gothic revival
style. Leyswood, Sussex (1868) and Cragside,
Northumberland (1870) are in a romantic, ‘old English’
style. He later adopted the ‘Queen Anne’ style, the quin¬
tessential English style, in a series of London town hous¬
es: flat red brick, staggered stone quoins, and hipped
roofs— a revival of mid-seventeenth-century brick
buildings, reminiscent of Dutch architecture. This work
previewed the Arts and Crafts he later adopted.
New Scotland Yard (1887—90), built of red brick
with stone dressing, and elaborated with distinctive cir¬
cular turrets, corbelled out at the corners was his first
public building.
Bedford Park, Chiswick, London was a pioneering and
influential 'Queen Anne'-style suburb of the 1870s and
1880s, with houses, inn, clubhouse, church and studios
designed by a number of major architects as an "aesthetic
Elysium”

HOME SWEET HOME
Domestic Revival
The German architectural theorist Hermann Muthesius, in his book The English House (1904),
remarked that there was ‘nothing as unique and outstanding in English architecture as the develop¬
ment of the house’. Architects in England as in Europe saw the necessity for a unique, regional, or
national style as an alternative to the tide of revivalism and historicism. The vernacular traditions of
the country house, together with the Arts and Crafts principles, was a way to achieve this.
The vernacular tradition of building is related to physical conditions (climate, landscape and local
materials) and the complex social structures of late Victorian England. This is exemplified in the work
of C. F. A. Voysey (1857—1941), a leading proponent of the Arts and Crafts domestic revival in
England and a prolific builder of houses. His country houses are distinctive: long and low with hori¬
zontal windows, steeply pitched roofs and white-painted rough-finished rendered walls. The Orchard,
Chorley Wood (1899) is a typical example. His interiors, white panelling and delicate colours have
come to represent a ‘feminine’, cosy image.
Passing on the Message
William Richard Lethaby (1857—1931) completed
very few buildings, but they are immensely important.
The church of All Saints, Brockhampton (1900—02) is
one of the most original buildings of its time, and other
buildings include Avon Tyrrell, Hampshire (1891) and
Melsetter House, Orkney (1898). Lethaby was the first
director of the Central School of Arts and Crafts, the first
school to include workshops for teaching crafts. As a
scholar and a teacher his influence has been wide-reach-
ing. His History of Architecture (1898) is confirmation of
the Arts and Crafts principle that ‘design... is as nothing
compared to workmanship’ and ‘design should not be a	All Saints, Lethaby’s church at Brockhampton, war built
r.,,	,	|	i	г	\	•	4.	•	л	4.	л	in true Arts and Crafts manner
matter of scholarship, knowledge of historical styles but 	-
a response to immediate needs’.
FOLLOW THE CURVE
Art Nouveau
Art Nouveau originated in two-dimensional graphic and textile design in the 1880s and spread to
furniture and architecture in the 1890s. In common with the Arts and Crafts movement, Art Nouveau
rejected historicism and adopted ideas of truth to materials and the value of craftsmanship. However,
whereas Arts and Crafts tended to look back to a medieval past as its model, Art Nouveau looked for¬
ward to the potential of new building technologies and wealth made possible through the use of new
production techniques.
The ‘New Free Style’ based on organic forms and insrired by nature was associated with youth, free¬
dom and purity. It spread across most of Europe, known by different names — Jugendstil in German and
Stile Liberte in Italian — but it remains most closely associated with Belgium and France, as Art Nouveau.
Art Nouveau’s association with the applied arts and fin de siecle decadence, together with its obvi¬
ous glamorizing intent, has led to its often being dismissed by theorists and historians as merely deco¬

ration. In fact, the long languorous curves and slender stalks of Art Nouveau were ideally suited to the
new metalworking technologies and were able to exploit the potential of materials such as wrought iron
in a simultaneous expression of structure and decoration.
Vive la France
Hector Guimard (1867—1942) based his work
on three principles drawn from the ‘big book’ of
nature — logic, harmony and sentiment — and was
critical of those who used Art Nouveau motifs to
ornament basic structures. His Metro stations in
Paris (1899—1904) are perfect examples of his
principles: organic forms, structural honesty, the
decorative element — the expression of sentiment
is an integral part of the composition.
Baron Victor Horta’s (1861—1947) Maison du
Peuple, Brussels (1896) is important both in terms
of its construction and as a new building type. It
was one of a series of ‘people’s buildings’, run by
workers’ cooperatives, which were introduced in
1894 after the new socialist party gained seats in
parliament for the first time. The plan followed the
contours of the site and an ingenious section, that
included a double staircase, contained all the sup¬
porting service spaces and smaller rooms at lower
levels supported the large, light and airy space of
the main meeting hall that rose three storeys above
floor sloped, the roof undulated and cantilevered bal-
THE LAST OF THE BIG MASONRY TOWERS
America
Henry Hobson Richardson (1838—86) is credited with bringing to an end America’s continuing
uncritical reproduction of miscellaneous European styles (neo-Greek, neo-Palladian etc.) and inspir¬
ing an original American style that was to lead to the development of the skyscraper. His buildings are
massive and solid, with simple strong forms that give a feeling of robustness and reliability. Some crit¬
ics referred to his work as ‘masculine’ in appearance.
Richardson studied in Paris at the ficole des Beaux-Arts (1859—62) and then worked in the atel¬
ier of Henry Labrouste. He built some private houses which appear forward-looking in both an origi¬
nal use of material and irregular forms. His real influence is through his commercial buildings —
down-to-earth, functional places such as railway stations, warehouses and libraries.
The Marshall Field Wholesale Building (1885) is the most important of these buildings. Seven
storeys high, it did not make full use of the latest steel-frame technology but was instead constructed
of solid, richly textured, load-bearing masonry with wide, arched openings. There was an absence of
any applied surface decoration and an uncompromizing clarity of line that was typical of the new ratio¬
nalist approach.
the third floor level. Inside the meeting hall the
conies leant over from inclined walls.

American Revival
While the influence of the originality and rationali¬
ty of Richardson’s work can be clearly seen in the
development of the work of the Chicago School and in
emerging Modernism, his work was also the starting
point for the very different approach of the revivalists of
American colonial architecture, best represented by
the practice of Charles McKim (1847—1909), William
Mead (1846-1928) and Stanford White (1853-1906).
Their work follows Beaux Arts symmetrical planning
but is much more adventurous, drawing on a whole
variety of different European precedents — Moorish
towers from Spain and the Pantheon or Roman baths — depending on the use of the building. The
practice produced an enormous number of important public buildings including the Boston Public
Library (1887) with a fa$ade copied almost directly from Labrouste’s St. Genevieve Library in Paris.
In New York City their masterpiece, the Pennsylvania Railway Station (1904, demolished 1963), was
both a spectacular monument to the success of the railroad company and a utilitarian service.
Aesthetically, it combined both the excitement of the future, with its innovative steel and glass roof
over the concourse, and the reassurance of the past, with its heavy masonry facade based on the ancient
Roman baths of Caracalla.
Boston Public Library by McKim, Mead and White (1887-93)
is a restrainedacademic design, copied from Labrouste’s
St. Geneieve Library in Paris
CHICAGO CHICAGO
High Rise Heaven
Soon after the destruction of the great fire of 1871 and a period of
depression that followed, Chicago was expanding again. Building devel¬
opment was rapid and as space became more difficult to find and land val¬
ues rose, pressure increased to fulfil the demands of commerce for yet
more space. Tall buildings were the inevitable result.
The common element in this group of commercial buildings is the use
of a new and radical invention — a steel skeleton structure — and, more
importantly, the expression of this structure on the exterior of the build¬
ing. These first ‘skyscrapers’, as they were soon to be known, were still
perhaps only 15 storeys high, and it was to be nearly another 30 years
before the real competition to build higher started in earnest and the next
wave of tall buildings was to appear.
Louis Sullivan (1856—1924) is the most important of the designers.
Credited as the originator of the phrase ‘form follows function’, he was
convinced that a logical starting point was a necessity for art. Early exam¬
ples of his work are the Wainwright Building in St. Louis (1890) and the
Guaranty Building in Buffalo (1894—05). In both these buildings, while
the steel structure itself is not actually visible, the rhythm of the framed
construction and organization of the spaces within are expressed on the
exterior of the building. The composition of the facades still refers to the
past: a Classical image with a rusticated base at street level and an attic
Burnham and Root took Chicago
School buildings to New York with
the Flatiron Building of 1902

housing plant and equipment. The facades are constructed in load-bearing masonry with a decorated
frieze that includes bullseye windows as well as a projecting cornice.
The Reliance Building (1895) by David Burnham (1845—1912) and John Root (1850—91) is the ear¬
liest example of the fully fledged steel-frame tall building that is not then dressed up in masonry clothing.
The base and attic are now barely visible as the middle zone of the cellular structure of the offices, the soar¬
ing vertical framing, and the horizontal floor slabs are fully expressed. The most accomplished, however,
is Sullivan’s Carson Pirie Scott Department Store (1904—05) where the rigorous expression of the new
technology is finally achieved in a style which for the first time is completely independent from the past.
Sullivan’s use of surface decoration is sometimes considered contradictory to this rational approach,
although he employs only contemporary Art Nouveau stylization of natural forms of plants and flowers —
an abstraction which can be compared to the spatial abstraction of his fa?ade.
Burnham and Root’s best-known building, and possibly the most popular skyscraper, is the
Flatiron in New York City, the tallest building in the world at the time of its construction in 1902. On
a very prominent and dramatic site at the triangular junction of Broadway and Fifth Avenue, it has all
the recognizable characteristics of the Chicago School. It is 21 storeys high with the latest steel-fram¬
ing system but clad more conservatively with limestone and terracotta.
ART NOUVEAU IN CALH10NSA
Mackintosh
Solid, square, severe and austere; with oriel windows, massive chimneys and battered walls;
Charles Rennie Mackintosh’s (1868— 1928) work has similar characteristics to that of the Secessionists
in Austria, where it was exhibited in 1900. Through the art magazine The Studio (1893) Mackintosh
became an inspiration to Josef Hoffmann and other Art Nouveau exponents in Europe.
The characteristics of the evolving ‘modern’ style in Europe are also typical of the Scottish Tower
houses, the subject of a paper given by Mackintosh to the Glasgow Architectural Association, on
Scottish baronial architecture — a vernacular type much sketched by Mackintosh. This was a rational
architecture with massive stone walls which were structural, insulating and defensive against the high
winds, with small windows to prevent excessive heat loss, and steeply pitched roofs and overhanging
eaves to deal with the wet and snowy weather. Mackintosh’s forms, evocative of dramatic climate and
wild uncultivated landscapes, together with his delicate graphics, were perceived by exponents of Art
Nouveau as a part of their organic and naturalistic
tendency, and allied to the Arts and Crafts Movement
rather than to any modernist or industrial approach.
I Belong to Glasgow
Mackintosh designed interiors for many Glasgow
tea rooms, the fashionable, airy alternative to the dark
and smoke-filled pubs. The Buchanan Street tea room
(1897) was stencilled with elongated figures reminis¬
cent of the work of Klimt.
Mackintosh’s work combines the rationalist ideas
of construction with individual artistic expression.
Space is given priority for the first time. At Hill House
(1903) in Helensburgh, the importance of the design
of the interior space can be seen clearly — the spaces
The curving glass and metalwork in the Willow Tea Rooms,1
Sauciehall Street (1904) typify Mackintosh’s elegant interior
work in Glasgow

appear as carved out from the inside and great care is taken over the relationship between rooms and
views out across the landscape. Rather than the form of the building dictating the space inside (Neo
Classical), the exterior form is a result of the process of internal spatial composition (modern).
Mackintosh won the tender to design his best-known and most accomplished work, the Glasgow
School of Art, in 1896. The handling of the complex relationship between internal spaces and volumes
and the exterior form, the control of the daylighting, and the building’s relationship to the site, set it
apart from any other construction of this date.
GEniNG AWAY FROM IT ALL
Secession
‘Nothing that is not practical can be beautiful’ was the uncompromising statement of Austria’s
most progressive architect, Otto Wagner (1841—1918), at the end of the nineteenth century. In his
inaugural lecture at the Imperial Academy of Art in Vienna in 1894 (subsequently published as
Modeme Architektur), he also called for an end to the continuing reworking of eighteenth- and nine¬
teenth-century ‘styles’ and demanded that a new architecture be developed by a new generation of
architects. They must reject the past, reject historicism, and look for inspiration to ‘modern life’ and
‘the new requirements of our time’.
Wagner started out working in a clearly Neoclassical style and continued in the Art Nouveau style
in the train stations he designed for the Vienna Stadtbahn used on (1894—1901). He achieved a level
of success that earned him the commission to replan the city of Vienna and an appointment to teach
at the Academy. In his later work we can see a clearer demonstration of his principles. Rather than the
use of the symmetrical compositions of Neoclassicism, together with its extensive vocabulary of carv¬
ings and moulding to decorate the fagades that cover and con¬
ceal the structures beneath, we start to see the different build¬
ing materials exposed for the first time. We are invited to see
that the materials used on walls and floors and in waterproof¬
ing and structure can be considered part of the sensual experi¬
ence of a building.
Otto Wagner’s most important building is the Post Office
Savings Bank in Vienna (1906). The exterior cladding is of
marble slabs fixed visibly with aluminium bolts; inside, a glazed
barrel vaulted roof covers the main hall. An effortless elegance
is achieved with a simple, straightforward and efficient design.
Among Wagner’s most well-known pupils are the Vienna
Secessionists Joseph Maria Olbrich (1867—1908) and Josef
Hoffmann (1870—1956). The work of the group is
characrerized by use of cubic forms and attention to the quali¬
ty of materials, although there is still an affinity with the Art
Nouveau of France and Belgium. The Secession Building by
Olbrich established his reputation and demonstrated the new
approach. The form is of a square and solid base, of smooth,
uncluttered surfaces, and the roof sports a hemispherical dome
of filigree metalwork — a combination of both the rationalist
construction and stylized organic decoration of Art Nouveau.
known as 'am Steinhof, has facades clad with
marble slabs visibly fixed with aluminium bolts

SO LONG FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT
An American Genius
The Arts and Crafts movement had declined in England by 1900 but continued in Germany and in
the U SA for another 20 years. Frank Lloyd Wright (1867— 1959), one of America’s most famous archi¬
tects, was a founding member of the Chicago Arts and Crafts Society, which was set up in 1897. He
worked for Louis Sullivan before starting in independent practice. An unlikely American hero, Wright
had a reputation for being arrogant and difficult with clients, colleagues and assistants.
Wright’s early buildings were large suburban houses. In contrast to European architects exploring
ideas of minimum housing and inexpensive workers’ housing, Wright’s houses are luxurious. The
Prairie Style houses, as they are known, have a distinctly horizontal character — long and low. They
are open-plan, with big fireplaces, and have shallow pitched roof and overhanging eaves. The Robie
House (1909) in Chicago is the last of the series.
International Scene
Wright’s early work in the Arts and Crafts style was of interest to European architects, notably the
Dutch such as Hendrik Berlage (1856—1934). By the 1930s Wright’s work was seen as part of the
International Style, both in form and material innovation. Falling Water, the house at Bear Run in
Pennsylvania (1936—37) is a composition of cantilevered concrete
slabs; the Johnson Wax administration building at Racine in
Wisconsin (1936—39), is built with recently developed reinforced
concrete mushroom columns.
New York City
Wright’s most interesting building, unlike anything earlier, is the
Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York City. Wright’s
expressionistic form has a direct relationship with the interior. An
inverted conical spiralling ramp wraps itself around an open atrium.
The continuously sloping floor and the continuously curved vertical
wall makes visitors self-aware; there is no static space in the muse¬
um, the perception is one of continuous movement.
FASTER, FASTER
Italian Futurism
There is little built work to exemplify the Futurist Movement. Architecture is represented princi¬
pally by hundreds of drawings by the Italian architects Antonio Sant’Elia (1888—1916) and his friend
Mario Chiattone (1891—1957).
Like many other architects of their generation across Europe, they were fascinated by the possibil¬
ities offered by new technologies, and were ready to reject the past in favour of a radical new architec¬
ture. Their drawings show perspectives of a world unknown at the beginning of the century — cities on
a massive scale with multi-level roadways and ziggurat forms leading to slender towers pointing
towards the sky. The images have a romantic quality; they present a Utopian vision that has persuad¬
ed many architects since that the world of new technology, of high-speed circulation, and new metro¬
politan landscapes can be exciting.
New York’s Guggenheim Museum (begun
1946, completed 1959) is famous for its
curving profile and interior spiral ramp

Manifestos
The Futurist Movement, which included artists from different disciplines, was led by Filippo
Tommaso Marinetti (1876—1944). The first manifesto was published in 1909, in the Figaro newspaper
in Paris. It stated, ‘We affirm that the world’s magnificence has been enriched by a new beauty: the
beauty of speed’. Further manifestos elaborated on an uncompromising call for a complete break with
the past and the need to find expression for society’s new
concern — speed. Architecture was established in the
manifesto with a contribution from Sant’Elia in 1914, fol¬
lowing an exhibition of his work with the Nuove Tendenze
group of artists in Milan. The messaggio of Nuove
Tendenze called for an architecture that rejected ornament
and historicist form ‘where we see the lightness and proud
slenderness of girders, the slightness of reinforced concrete
... aping the solidity of marble’, which instead should be
meaningful and refined, inspired by the world of
machines, new technologies and new materials.
Influences
Sant’Elia and the sculptor Boccioni (1882—1916)
were both killed in 1916, and it seems that Futurism died
with them. Chiattone lived until 1957 but no further
Futurist works were produced, and exhibitions that	fol¬
lowed showed the same drawings. Nevertheless,	the
visions of Futurism have been of enormous influence in
Italy and across Europe and America. Its formal influ¬
ence has been traced through Constructivism and the
rational architecture of the modern movement, but,	more	importantly,	it	is	the	basis for a	techno¬
logical determinism expounded by such innovators	as Buckminster	Fuller,	Renzo	Piano	and the
avant-garde English group Archigram.
DEUTSCHER WffiKBUND
The Age of Concrete and Glass
The Deutscher Werkbund (German Work Union) was set up in 1907 by a group of like-mind¬
ed architects, artists and industrialists. Architect members, who included Peter Behrens
(1868-1940), Walter Gropius (1883-1969) and Bruno Taut (1880-1938), shared William
Morris’s disdain for the shoddy nature of mass-produced goods and materials. However, unlike the
Arts and Crafts movement, they accepted industrialization as necessary to progress. So they set out
to improve standards through cooperation with industrialists by means of education and design
developments.
There was no particular visual image: the new objects and buildings would evolve out of the new
methods of production, and the use of new materials and techniques. The Werkbund’s annual publi¬
cation included works from diverse fields of handicrafts, applied arts, graphic designs, and painting,
and they continued to promote art-industry cooperation. There was still nonetheless the conflict
between the desire for handcrafted work and the affordability of mass production.
The most detailed of Sant’Elia’s drawings of la Citta
Nuova, 1914. The skyscrapers, high-dencity and
high-level circulation have all become part of town
planning

Walter Gropius worked in Peter Behrens's office for
everal years before setting up on his own. With Adolf
Meyer he designed the Fagus Factory at Alfeld an der
seine in 1911, a prototype of International Modernism
Through the Looking Glass
The first Werkbund Exhibition, in 1914 in Cologne,
included Bruno Taut’s glass pavilion, which explored the
unconventional use of a material that was to become the main¬
stay of the modem movement in architecture. Walter Gropius,
with Adolf Meyer (1881—1929), designed the Werkbund
administrative offices which have staircases contained within
curved glass towers which allow views into the whole height of
the stairwell, and changing views to the outside.
The interest in new materials and techniques led to an
exploration of their potential for new forms and spaces. This
‘expressionism’ resulted in original buildings, often for
industrial use, not based on any historical models. The archi¬
tecture of Peter Behrens’s AEG Turbine factory (1908—09)
is an expression of the power of electricity. Hans Poelzig’s
(1869—1936) water tower and exhibition hall at Poznan
(1910), a circular steel and brick construction, is far removed
from the regularity of Classicism. The work is highly subjec¬
tive, bold and experimental.
The Jahrhunderthalle (1913) in Breslau (now Wroclaw,
Poland) designed by Max Berg (1870—1947), is the most
innovative, using reinforced concrete for its huge dome, 65m
in diameter.
Tatlin’s tower, designed in 1919 as a monument
to the Third International but never built, was
to span the river Neva and outdo Eiffel Tower,
with its spiraling openwork girders and revolving,
suspended halls
HOUSE RB)S
Russian Constructivism
Russian Constructivism embraced the ideas of industrial
production wholeheartedly. The buildings and projects are
machine-like: constructed from machine-made standard com¬
ponents, planned methodically according to use and extended
to include the new technological paraphernalia of signs, search¬
lights, projection screens and radio antennae. The drawings also
have a mechanistic feel, using block-printing techniques, in
sharp contrast to the handcrafted watercolour drawings of con¬
temporaries.
The tower built by Vladimir Tatlin (1885—1953) as a model
for a proposed 1,000ft/300m high building, is the most widely
known Constructivist work. Its dynamic shape of a logarithmic
spiralling, canted conical web evokes a science fiction-inspired
excitement of intelligent machines, speed and the potential
energy of electricity. The various spaces were to be contained
within three pure shapes, a cube, a pyramid and a cylinder sus¬
pended within the structure. Each was to revolve at different
speeds and at different intervals — a visible demonstration of

time through movement withm the exposed structure. Unfortunately the building never saw the light
of day. Tatlin started out as a painter, and was also highly regarded as a sculptor and theatre designer,
often working with found objects.
Konstantin Melnikov (1890—1974) was the first of the Russian Constructivists to achieve recogni¬
tion when he built the Russian pavilion in Paris for the 1925 Exposition Internationale des Arts
DScoratifs et Industriels Modernes. His projects demonstrate what is a highly individual, progressive
approach. At the Rusakov Workers’ Club (1927) in Moscow, the plan is triangular in shape to accom¬
modate auditoriums at each of the three levels. The top-floor auditorium is visible on the fasade, divid¬
ed into three solid forms forcefully thrusting out, cantilevered between the circulation areas, which rise
vertically, clad with transparent glazing.
Back in the USSR
The new Socialism was developing patterns of new social structures and institutions, prompting
architectural research on town planning and communal housing. Moisei Ginzberg’s Narkomfin hous¬
ing block in Moscow (1929) has shared spaces and different-sized apartments, to be taken up later by
the modernist project. The most radical town planner was Nicolai Milyutin (1889—1942), who pro¬
posed a form of continuous linear development. New towns are organized in parallel narrow strips in
a logical order to separate residential areas from industrial — railway and industry, followed by green
belt and highway, followed by housing and park adjacent to farmland. The linear development simply
continued to grow as necessary along the lines of the rail and road, including any existing towns along
its path.
GOING DUTCH
De Stijl
Cubism in art, the new ‘way of seeing’, meant objects and spaces could be represented without
using Renaissance perspective systems. Science that gives us knowledge and analysis of the elements
means we don’t have to see them from one viewpoint. In architecture the ‘modern’ position is an
important beginning, separating visual elements and ideas from conventional representation.
In Holland, in reaction to the quaint sculptural and picturesque work of the Amsterdam School,
the De Stijl movement was about objectivity. The use of naturalistic forms was rejected in favour of an
abstract language composed of straight lines, pri¬
mary colours and black, white and grey. The paint¬
ings of Piet Mondrian, one of the founding members
of the group, are universally recognizable. In archi¬
tecture, lines and planes intersect, suggesting conti¬
nuity of space rather than enclosing boundaries.
Huis ter Heide in Utrecht (1916) by Rob van t’Hoff
(1887—1979) clearly shows these ideas expressed
with vertical glazing disappearing into the oversailing
roof planes.
The most explicit architectural expression of De
Stijl is a house in Utrecht built by Gerrit Rietveld
(1888—1964) in 1924 in collaboration with the
client, the interior designer Truus Schrader
Schroeder. It sits on a plot of land at the end of a sub¬

urban terrace — a diminutive 3D Mondrian painting, more like a piece of furniture than a habitable
building. The materials used and the standards of workmanship employed are irrelevant to the work.
Nothing is machine-finished, nothing is handcrafted, there are no mitred joints, no turned mouldings,
no skilful carvings. Everything is made specially for this house but it could have been made by you or
me. There are no exotic materials, no warm stones, no polished marble, no rich brickwork or polished
wood grain. All the surfaces are paint; the different colours of paint. Form is apparent but insubstan¬
tial. Each of the elevations, with a combination of projecting and receding planes and lines, appears
frail and intangible. The architecture is the experience of the space.
ONE HOUSE IS A VERY VERY VERY BAUHAUS
Gropius and Co.
The Bauhaus, ‘House of Building’, was named by Walter Gropius (1883—1969) in 1919, when he
took over the directorship of the School of Arts and Crafts in Weimar. Gropius had succeeded one of
the Werkbund pioneers, Henri van de Velde (1863— 1957), and work produced by the school was clear¬
ly inspired by the ideas of William Morris. Over a short period, under the directorship of Gropius, and
subsequently Hannes Meyer (1889—1954), the work coming from the school evolved from a nostalgic
craft-based type to the ‘functional’ clean lines now synonymous with the Bauhaus name.
The aim of the Bauhaus school was ‘to collect all artistic creativity into a unity, to reunite all artis¬
tic disciplines ... into a new architecture’. In line with the changing methods of production, teaching
methods were also changing. Work was carried out in teams, collectively, and in workshops rather than
the traditional studios or ateliers led by ‘masters’. There was also a common foundation course for stu¬
dents of all disciplines, basic courses in form, colour and materials, which were taught by artists includ¬
ing painters such as Paul Klee, Wassily Kandinsky and Johannes Itten. Later, industrial design was
taught to students.
The Leader of the Gang
Walter Gropius was the most important architect of the Bauhaus and one of the most important fig¬
ures in twentieth-century architecture. He was commissioned to design the new buildings when the school
moved to Dessau, and the workshop block is a model for Bauhaus modernism. It has mushroom columns
supporting cantilevered concrete floor slabs; the spaces are enclosed by a three-storey-high glass wall.
As well as his investigations into the uses of new
materials — glass and concrete — Gropius was also
involved with spatial and sociological aspects of
developing modernism. His project for a Total
Theatre (1926) was exhibited in Paris in 1930 but was
unfortunately never realized. The theatre was to have
had an interior space that could be modified as
proscenium, circus or amphitheatre to accommodate
different kinds of performance.
Gropius’s housing projects evolved from a con¬
cern with the social needs of people living in ever
denser urban areas. His apartment designs were
evolved as a rational response to the need for fresh air,
daylight, open spaces and so on. The results at Siemenstadt (1929) are five-storey blocks orientated
north-south with planted park-like spaces between which became the model for many similar projects.
Massachusetts, was built by Gropius and his associates
in 1949-50

THE SAGE
Le Corbusier 1
Modernism was not just another style, a different aesthetic; it rejected the whole notion of ‘styles’
and proposed a new way of thinking. In a fast-moving modern society, architecture should be con¬
cerned with the machine culture: a culture of logic, of efficiency and purpose. Modern architecture has
therefore evolved, at first tentatively, alongside developments in construction technologies and exper¬
iments into the uses of different materials.
Le Corbusier (Charles Edouard Jeanneret, 1887—1965) was a Swiss architect of exceptional bril¬
liance. He worked for Behrens in Berlin and Auguste Perret in France, settling permanently in Paris.
His early works have all the modern characteristics of the Bauhaus ‘style’ of Gropius — white planes
and cubic forms.
In 1923 he published Vers une Architecture, a strident manifesto for a new architecture that used
examples of ocean liners, aeroplanes and cars to support his arguments for logical design. Fundamental
to the new architecture was the use of a framed structure, developed with vertical columns supporting
horizontal floor slabs. The theory that evolved through a
series of practical projects was published later as the ‘5
points’. Columns (pilotis) on individual foundations raise
the house above ground level; flat roofs can be used as roof
gardens or terraces, as useful space and insulation; without
the constraints of supporting the upper floors, walls can be
anywhere, allowing a free (or open) plan; long windows
stretch full length between the vertical columns, allowing
daylight and fresh air to flood into the spaces; the free
fa9ade can be composed independent of main structure.
Houses
Villa Savoye (1928—30) and Maison La Roche (1923)
are examples of a type that have become monuments to
Modernism. Lofty double- or triple-height spaces often
appear alongside the more customary standard ceiling
heights, and conventional corridors have been replaced
with ramps, bridges and galleries. Movement from one
space to the next allows interaction with the main spaces of
the house. All rooms are filled with daylight, and dramatic
shafts of sunlight enter from carefully placed windows.
Exterior spaces around the building are as much a part of the composition as the interior spaces, with
outside views being carefully framed and controlled. These ‘machines for living in’ have the spatial
richness and luxury Le Corbusier intended for all dwellings.
EXPRESSIONISM
Natural Geometries
The architecture of the Werkbund at the beginning of the twentieth century is linked to the develop¬
ment of Modernism — from Gropius and Meyer’s model factory at Alfeld an der Leine and Gropius’s
move to the Bauhaus. However, not all architects followed this line. The Expressionist ideas of Bruno

Taut (1880—1938) and Hans Poelzig (1869—1936) were an alternative to the easily adopted formalism
that resulted in International Modernism, with its pure geometries, symmetries and rational planning.
Expressionism’s icon is the Einstein Tower at Potsdam built by Erich Mendelsohn (1887—f953)
in 1920. The building is conceived as a sculptural object: a plastic and naturalistic form, curvaceous
and unlike any pure geometrical shape. Mendelsohn was concerned about the polar opposition at the
Werkbund. Noting the same division in Holland, he described the work of Berlage and Michel de
Klerk in Amsterdam as ‘visionary but with no objectivity’, and architecture in Rotterdam as ‘func¬
tional without sensibility’. Neither extreme was satisfactory and Mendelsohn continued to work to
achieve a synthesis of both: the rational and functional together with the expressive or dynamic.
His 1921 Hat factory at Luckenwalde is highly articulated, having a long, low production area with
undulating, multiple pitched roofs juxtaposed with a smooth-faced, tall, flat-roofed and angular cubic
block. Mendelsohn’s late work increasingly uses pure
geometries but retains characteristically confident
sweeping curves in plan, heavy and powerful horizon¬
tals, and extensive glazing.
The Utopian
As a young architect and a member of the ‘Glass
Chain’ (the group of 14 architects launched by Bruno
Taut for the exchange of ideas), Hans Scharoun
(1893—1972) produced some of the most enduring
visionary sketches of the time — dream-like images of
a Utopian future. During the 1930s and 40s,
Scharoun’s work was limited to private houses. All
show an originality of form and asymmetrical compo¬
sition related to the specifics of a particular site.
In the 1950s and 60s, he had the opportunity to
build a series of larger buildings. The Philharmonie
and the National Library in Berlin are both enor¬
mously important, with an inventiveness and original¬
ity which remain individual to Scharoun. Neither
conforms to any recognizable formal geometry or any
type — the experiential quality is paramount. The importance of the individual, whether focusing on
the orchestra or in the library looking at a book, is as much a part of the total architecture as the shared
spaces of foyers and entrance halls.
DOWN WITH GEOMETRY
Organic
‘Organic architecture’ is a term loosely applied to anything that isn’t composed of pure geometric
forms, but looks as if it could be natural. Its roots are in the late nineteenth-century search by archi¬
tects for an alternative to the endless copying of other styles.
As with Expressionist architecture, there is an emphasis on the specifics of climate and topography
in determining relationship with the landscape. The idea of being ‘in harmony with nature’ has been
an important consideration for many Modernist architects — Sullivan, Aalto and Scharoun, for exam¬
ple, although their approach is related to process (the evolution of form in response to a series of issues

related to the brief, the site and anticipated use) rather than a direct visual interpretation of ‘natural-
looking’ forms.
Natural Harmony
For Hugo Haring (1882—1958), the natural world legitimized the concerns of architects like
Mendelsohn about the apparent opposition of the rational and the allusive. Nature has room for
both — efficient forms, such as the streamlined greyhound dog breed, as well as flamboyant and
assertive stag antlers. Haring’s Gerkau Farm (1924) has barns and other buildings for animals laid out
without reference to either geometry or symmetry.
Others discussed in this context are Eero Saarinen (1910—61), whose TWA terminal at New York’s
Kennedy Airport (1962), with its free-flowing curves, has been likened to a bird in flight, and Jom
Utzon’s (1918) Sydney Opera House (begun 1957), with its shell-like forms.
In the 1990s the term organic has become popular again. It has been used for the architecture of
the Hungarian Imre Makovec (1935), who achieved international recognition for his pavilion at the
Seville Expo of 1992. Makovec’s buildings are visually anthropomorphic, generally using timber in all
its different applications. The nave inside the Farkaset Mortuary Chapel could be the rib-cage of a
huge animal; the entrance to the church at Siofok (1986—90) looks like the face of an inquisitive owl.
All his buildings have rough timber shingles resembling crocodile skins or scaly fish. The forms, devel¬
oped primarily through the roof, are supposedly symbolic of a primitive Hungarian culture; most look
like upturned boats. His work has been criticized for colluding with the romanticized version of
Hungary’s past, promoted by the politics of the new capitalism in an attempt to eradicate internation¬
al Modernism, with its Socialist overtones.
Le Corbusier 2
Le Corbusier was very much involved with twentieth-century Modernism’s greatest project — the
provision of housing for everyone. A socially motivated project, it developed from the slum-clearance
programmes of overcrowded nineteenth-century cities, started in earnest after World War I, and
became a pressing political issue after the bomb damage of World War II. It was also part of the chang¬
Lounges overlook	Pre-cast concrete ribs
the harbour	support the vaults
The great shells of the Sydney Opera House, designed by Jom Utzon and completed in 1973
THE LIVING MACHINE

The roof line of the Unite d*Habitation displays a huge funnel-like chimney, and is also an area for recreation
ing aspect of architectural production. Modernism, within the context of mass production, meant
cheaper and more efficient production of housing for all.
Le Corbusier’s mass-housing projects pursued the same ideas as his individual houses in terms of
the importance of space and light, and also re-examined the way we inhabit our homes in a changing
society. The outcome of all his ideas was the Unite d’Habitation in Marseilles (1947—52): a suburban
town of 1,800 inhabitants all within one building. The vast concrete building, which has been likened
to an ocean liner by many critics, is raised up on giant pilotis to let the landscape continue underneath.
It has a roof terrace which, like the deck of a ship, has vast funnel-like chimneys and a pool for chil¬
dren. The apartments, on two levels (duplex), are ingeniously organized across the width of the build¬
ing to allow sun to enter both morning and evening. The Unite includes shops, hairdressers, laundry
and creche — all the facilities normal to a small town, as well as the apartments. A successful ‘type’,
several more were built in France and Germany.
Building Blocks
Many other architects had the opportunity to design public housing schemes, and developed new
patterns of dwelling in response to changing patterns in society. Sir Denys Lasdun (1914) evolved a
‘cluster’ block in the 1950s, where outdoor access spaces were grouped together to promote neigh¬
bourliness.
Powell and Moya’s Churchill Gardens in London (1947—60) has some particularly elegant slab
blocks next to the River Thames. The apartments, in nine-storey-high blocks, are accessed in pairs from
independent stairways encased in glass, set at right angles to the main structure. The flat roofs have ter¬
races in the comers, and circular forms and railings recall the ‘ship’ aesthetic of Corbusier’s Unites.
A STAR IS BORN
Mies van der Rohe
‘I don’t want to be interesting; I want to be good’. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (1886—1969), quot¬
ed above, managed both. Building throughout the first half of the twentieth century in Europe and in
America, Mies was responsible for probably the most-feted building of the modem movement, the

German Pavilion at the Barcelona Exhibition of 1929. His famous dictum ‘less is more’ can be clear¬
ly seen in the severe outward simplicity of his buildings, which understates the elegance and subtle pro¬
portions.
The German Pavilion is a development of his earlier De Stijl work in its painterly approach to the
use of detached planes and lines to articulate space and imply enclosure. It goes further, with its use of
exquisite materials — marble, onyx, glass, steel — proof that architecture can have a vitality, a monu¬
mental quality through material presence. The building is small in scale, single-storey, and forms a sin¬
gle rectangle in plan. The horizontal plane of the roof slab is supported on a regular grid of columns
with the walls appearing as if randomly placed as perfect entities, separate elements independent of the
structure.
Airborne
Two other buildings from a later period, The Farnsworth House,
Plano, Illinois (1950), and the New National Gallery, Berlin (1962—
68), demonstrate Mies’s continuing commitment to the same ideas.
The Farnsworth House takes the idea of the horizontal plane to its
extreme. In this single-storey building, the floor slab is raised on
columns but just enough so that it appears to be floating. This effect of
detachment, of complete separation from structure, is enhanced by
the slabs being attached to the sides of the columns.
The Gallery in Berlin has clear glass walls all round, allowing an
uninterrupted view of the underside of the dominating roof slab,
which seems to hover above the supporting columns. In contrast to
the light, airy, spacious, open feeling of the ground level, the base¬
ment level contains a walled garden, an enclosed, secluded and secret
space.
Glass Houses
Mies eventually built his skyscrapers. The Seagram Building, New
York (1954—58, with Philip C. Johnson) is an office tower of sheer
bronze, raised above a wide plaza. The quality of the material and per¬
fection of the detailing is more powerful than any elaboration of form or decoration. The Lake Shore
Drive apartments, Chicago (1950—51), are a successful application of the same ideas to residential
development.
TECTON WAITER
Modernism in Britain
The development of Modernism in Britain is associated with the arrival of a number of influential
European architects en route for the States. Gropius, Breuer, Chermayeff and Mendelsohn all com¬
pleted building projects during their brief sojourns in England before going to the USA.
Berthold Lubetkin (1901—90), a Russian, settled in London in 1931 and was a founding member
of Tecton, a group of architects dedicated to the development of Modernism. Tecton’s best known
work is the Penguin Pool at London Zoo. This project was an opportunity to apply scientific, analyti¬
cal methods to design: the architecture could provide for actual needs rather than exist as a romanti¬
cized simulation of a natural habitat.
Building (1954-58) by Ludwig Mies van
der Rohe and Philip Johnson was a new
architectural symbol when it was built

The resulting building is a paragon of Modernism. Thin, curving walls form an elliptical enclosure
containing the pool, which is embellished with the sinuous curves of two interlocking spiralling ramps.
The concrete was the thinnest seen at the time, and the completely unsupported ramps seem to defy
gravity. The continuos curves of the ramps, steps and pool mean there is uninterrupted activity as the
penguins move around.
Good Health
Tecton built several other extremely important Modern buildings. The Finsbury Health Centre,
London (1938—39), used a mural and a series of architectural sketches to inform the public of the ben¬
efits of fresh air, daylight and sunshine. The building itself,
a crisp white curving form with glass block walls, is sym¬
bolic of the new imperatives towards health and fitness cur¬
rent at the time.
Two notable London buildings in the same functional¬
ist Modernist style are the Daily Express building , Fleet
Street (1933), by Ellis and Clark, and the Peter Jones
department store at Sloane Square (1936), by Slater,
Moberly, Reilly and Crabtree. The key icon of 1930s
British Modernism is the De La Warr Pavilion at Bexhill-
on-Sea by Mendelsohn and ChemayefF (1935), with its
expressed horizontality and cubic shape articulated with
curved glazed stairwells.
Only the more progressive of British architects adopted
Modernism. Others were still steeped in the Neoclassical
and neo-Gothic. Tecton’s flats at Highgate, High Point I and II, follow all the Corbusian principles,
but most housing built in the 1930s picked up only on formal aspects such as geometric shapes and
white walls. Art Deco sunbursts became common on gates and doors, but steeply pitched roofs and
pokey plans showed the prevailing Gothic inspiration.
Society (London Zoo) was designed by Lubetkin and
Lindsey Drake
THE NORTHERN UGHT
Aalto
Alvar Aalto’s (1898—1976) recognition as part of the architectural avant-garde dates from 1929
after his work with Erik Bryggman on the Turku 700th anniversary exhibition and his participation in
the CIAM meeting. The best example of his early work is the
Paimio Sanatorium (1929), built in reinforced concrete, with
flat white walls and strip windows. It has all the cool elegance of
the best Modernist works.
Aalto’s later works are visually very unusual. Like many
other modern architects in the postwar period, he moved away
from the International image of 1930s Modernism to investigate
other materials and the specifics of location that tie a building to
the landscape. He used timber and brick construction rather
than the concrete and steel commonly associated with
European Modernism. When Germany and France were devel¬
oping a steel industry and pre-cast concrete production,
The intimately scaled civic centre at
Stiynatsalo was built by Alvar Aalto in
1949-52 when the architect returned to
Finland after working in the USA

Finland with its vast natural timber sources developed the mass production of plywoods and laminat¬
ed timber beams. The rules of Modernism rigorously applied allowed Aalto to develop projects in rela¬
tion to the specifics of the geography, culture and building traditions of his native Finland. Two pavil¬
ions, one for the 1937 Paris Exposition and one for the 1939 New York World’s Fair, raised Aalto’s
international profile, leading to a visiting professorship (1940—48) at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology. While there he designed Baker House (1947) on the Charles River.
Two significant buildings from among Aalto’s later works give a good illustration of his originality
and individual approach. As part of his plan for Saynatsalo, a new town for 3,000 people, Aalto
designed the town hall and library (1950). These comprised small-scale brick buildings grouped around
an open courtyard planted with grass, directly accessible, via wide steps from the marketplace. The
informal arrangement and small, almost domestic scale is a deliberate contrast to the idea of town hall
as imposing monument. The architecture of Saynatsalo is not a symbol of the town council’s power,
but a symbol of democracy, a truly public space.
The Vouksenniska Church at Imatra (1952) has a clever plan with sliding partitions that allows the
main nave space to be extended or reduced along its length to accommodate varying size of congrega¬
tions. The main roof is divided into three vaults following these divisions, lifted above the surrounding
solid walls to provide clerestory glazing. The entrance and other ancillary spaces are grouped at the
side. The church has a tall slender tower close to the pine trees among which it stands.
INTERNATIONAL STYLE
US Modernism
The International Style: Architecture since 1922 was first published in 1932 in conjunction with an
exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. Written by Philip Johnson (1906) and the his¬
torian and critic Henry-Russell Hitchcock, it included work by architects such as Gropius, Le
Corbusier, Rietveld and Mies van der Rohe and was instrumental in introducing the new European
architecture to the USA.
The book sets out the aesthetic principles of the style using built works to illustrate various points,
and it reads almost as a design guide. The principles enumerated are ‘volume (space enclosed by thin
planes) rather than mass; regularity as opposed to symmetry; elegant materials; technical perfection
and fine proportions in place of applied ornament’.
The style is characterized by white flat walls with no
extra applied decoration, severely cubic forms, large
areas of glazing and open planning.
The People’s Architecture
Henry-Russell Hitchcock had previously used the
term ‘International’ in America, to distinguish certain
works from ‘Modem’ architecture or ‘the new tradi¬
tion’, which, according to his analysis, still showed
evidence of a continuity with the past — that is to say,
a concern with mass and ornament although perhaps
with some simplification. The International Style had no continuity with the architectural past or with
history, avoided decoration altogether, and placed emphasis on space and plane rather than mass.
The term had been used by Europeans in the context of the Socialist and Bolshevik International
who saw architecture as a fundamental part of the forming of a new social order. ‘International’ repre¬

sented an ideal of widening communities and an end of nationalism. The style had developed through
different building types but was especially associated with research into new kinds of housing where the
functional and social aspects of the design were of major importance. In the hands of the Americans it
became a formula for an aesthetic style not concerned with anything other than form. Twenty years
later, however, Hitchcock wrote that the International Style had been ‘probably the major achievement
of the 20th century’. Its continued development in the US has been mainly in the development of office
buildings, where form is a part of corporate identity and buildings are representative of successful capi¬
talism: an ironic result for a style that was originally motivated by social concerns.
THE JAZZ AGE
Art Deco
Art Deco was the popular version of the cool sophistication and austerity of early 1930s
Modernism. Buildings have the same basically simple cubic forms relying on a juxtaposition of hori¬
zontal and vertical elements to create dramatic effect. The various volumes are usually articulated with
‘setback’ stepped forms.
Instead of continuing the historicist/modernist debate, Art Deco accepted the new technologies,
embraced the Bauhaus philosophy, and employed a rich variety of machine-inspired geometric deco¬
ration. Immensely popular, the style spread to fashion, furniture and graphics and included influences
from all areas of popular culture: streamlining inspired by
the motor-car, faceted and refracted images from the cine¬
ma, and the rhythms of jazz music.
The style, and its name, originated in Paris at the 1925
Exposition des Arts Decoratifs et Industriels Modernes.
Robert Mallet-Stevens (1886— 1945) was a founder member
of the Union des Artistes Modernes who promoted the style
in Europe.
In America, where there was less reluctance to embrace
new technologies, the ‘jazz’ era saw the second wave of sky¬
scrapers that were symbolic of the important new wealthy
patrons: the big corporations. Raymond Hood’s (1881—
1934) McGraw-Hill Building (New York, 1929) and the
Empire State Building by Shreve and Lamb (1931) are
examples of the new type. The most famous is the Chrysler
Building (1929) by William Van Alen (1882-1954). With its
homage to the motor car — its sparkling beaten metal doors,
stainless steel panels and gargoyles modelled on radiator
caps — it has become the icon of Art Deco style.
Rockefeller Centre introduced significant new urban
design ideas. Set back from the streets, in the middle of the
development, which covers three city blocks, the offices are grouped into the slenderest, soaring RCA
building. The street level provides, for the first time, public open spaces and a shopping mall. Inside,
Radio City Music Hall, home of the famous Rockettes show dancers, is the epitome of 1930s opu¬
lence, with its exotic timber veneers, bold patters, reflective mirrors and polished metalwork glittering
in the skilfully subtle lighting.

ЕГ TU BRUTE?
Brutalism
The expression ‘New Brutalism’ originated in Britain in 1954 and was attributed to Alison and
Peter Smithson (b. 1928 and 1923) who, like many other young architects in Europe, were frustrated
by the problems of getting work in a profession dominated by the established older generation. The
term referred, perhaps mockingly, to the puritanical approach of a younger generation committed to
the extreme Modernist principles of the visible, honest expression of structures and materials.
The Hunstanton School in Norfolk (1949—54) is the original British Brutalist building. Here the
Smithsons took their ideas of truth to materials to the extreme. They exposed not only the materials of
construction but also the services: the pipes, conduits, and fixings. They have had enormous influence
both through their buildings and by participation in groups such as Team X within CIAM, and the
Independent Group. Of their built work The Economist Building, London (1964) is an innovative
composition for a city block, and Robin Hood Gardens, London (1972), a good example of public
housing based on Corbusian principles of maisonettes and streets in the air.
European Brutes
The other use of the term Brutalism is derived from the French beton brut, literally translated as
unfinished or raw concrete. In contrast to the prim, cool cubic forms of 1030s Modernism that exploit¬
ed the monolithic qualities of concrete to make precise, white, machine-like planes and surfaces, by
the late 1940s and 1950s architects were beginning to
experiment with the ‘plastic’ properties of concrete.
With adequate steel reinforcement, it could be poured
on site into any shape and in variable thicknesses to
form curves and slopes. Moreover, its surface could
take on any number of textures, mirroring the surface
of the ‘shutter’, the formwork of wood or metal into
which the concrete was poured.
Several of Le Corbusier’s buildings fall into this
category, reflecting his move away from the rationalist
formalism of early Modernism. The Unite
d’Habitation at Marseilles, the culmination of Le
Corbusier’s ambition to reinvent the idea of a town or
suburb within one structure, was realized in concrete.
The basic structure, including the enormous angled
pilotis that hold it above ground, is formed of concrete cast in situ. The knots in the wood used to make
the shutters are clearly visible, giving a surreal texture to the structure.
SBIIOUS STRUCTURALISTS
Order a la Carte
According to the structuralists, Modem movement architecture is too bland, ill-defined spatially,
neutral, and difficult to inhabit. Expressionism or Formalism is the opposite — too subjective, emotive
and idiosyncratic. The structuralists proposed something between the two: an intelligible complexity.
A non-hierarchical ‘structural’ framework provides the order within which there is some flexibility,
allowing individual choice.

The movement is largely limited to Holland and to
architects such as Aldo Van Eyck (1918), Herman
Hertzberger (1932) and Piet Blom (1934), although the
basic idea, to include individual variety and complexity
within a structured or ordered framework, can be identi¬
fied in the work of other modern architects. Between 1959
and 1963 Aldo Van Eyck, with Hertzberger and Joseph
Bakema, edited the journal Forum, an important mouth¬
piece for the movement. Both Van Eyck and Bakema were
members of Team X who had challenged the authority and
relevance of CIAM in 1956, the end of its second period of
great influence.
Structuralist Structures
The Apeldoorn offices of the Centraal Beheer by
Hertzberger (1968—74), based on the idea of office as a
community, are modelled on a cell-like honeycomb
structure. All the interior spaces are only partially
enclosed, still visibly part of the whole — the excitement
of labyrinthine space without the fear of being lost. The
exterior is unusual for ‘offices’ — a jumble of small cubes
jostled together, more like the image of a Mexican
Indian village. The Municipal Orphanage (1958—60) by
Aldo Van Eyck was conceived as a small city with different-sized buildings. Piet Blom’s ‘Kasbah’
housing scheme in Hengelo (1965—73) and‘t Speelhuis community centre and housing in Helmond
(1975—78) show a development of structuralism in town planning, with densely clustered houses
and free-flowing open spaces.
GLASS MENAGERIES
Skyscrapers
Tall buildings defy stylistic classification. As a type, they are usually glass-skinned and air-condi-
tioned — familiar bland forms in cities all over the world, only noticeable as they assume, if only
briefly, the title of ‘tallest building in the world’. Since the early tall buildings of the Chicago School
and the 1930s in the USA, few have provoked the same excitement as the Empire State Building or
achieved the same tectonic quality as Mies’s Seagram Building.
Lever House in New York (1952), which organizes the offices into a glass-skinned slab set back
from the street and raised above a two-storey podium, has been imitated by many. Its architects, Louis
Skidmore (1897—1962), Nathaniel Owings (1903—84) and John Merrill (1896—1975), who were
uniquely organized on a commercial model known as SOM, established their reputation with this
building. Since their development of sophisticated steel framing techniques, SOM has completed
many more including the John Hancock Centre in Chicago (1970), which was the first to include dif¬
ferent uses in one tower, and the Sears Tower (1974), at 1,500 feet tall.
The World Trade Centre in New York (1974, destroyed 2001) by Minoru Yamasaki (1912) has two
identical towers, square in plan and beautifully proportioned. The facades, unusually, are structural
with wide, closely spaced mullions which give an appearance of solidity and dramatically reflect the

sun. Their precarious siting on the very edge of Manhattan Island has
unfortunately been obscured by the collection of mediocre Postmodern
buildings that now fill the reclaimed land at their base. (The stone
removed for the very deep foundations was used to build extra land
around the island.)
New Developments
The skyscraper is still fertile territory for technological research. In a
proposal for a tall building in Shanghai, China, Kenneth Yeang has sug¬
gested reductions in energy consumption. With the skyscraper’s sealed
skin, an air-conditioned interior would seem inevitable. However, a
double-layered facade allows different parts to be opened during differ¬
ent seasons for ventilation and heat control. ‘Sky courts’, several storeys
high and planted with trees, oxygenate the air. The design for this com¬
plex multi-layered facade is not just a response to functional require¬
ments or climatic controls, but is also an attempt to evoke memories of
Chinese tradition.
BE REASONABLE
Neo-Rationalists
The intellectual principles of Neorationalism are a combination of
Renaissance theories and early twentieth-century ideas of reason and
logic. Beauty is a result of order, truth and reason, not Baroque illusion
or Expressionist symbolism. Architecture, as a science, has its own nat¬
ural laws, which can be recovered from analysis of the sprawling city as
the physical embodiment of history, and buildings as a series of arche¬
types.
This contemporary movement is associated primarily with Italian
and German architects. Aldo Rossi (1931) is the principal advocate. He
published his theory L’architettura della cittd in 1966, followed by
Architettura razionale (with other contributors) in 1973. Opposed to the
‘false embalming process’ of historical restoration, his buildings are
carefully considered in the context of the surrounding structures of the
city to create a new circumstance.
Theatre of Life
The residential development in the Gallaretese Quarter in Milan
(1969—78) is a bold composition with a fa$ade that is almost complete¬
ly open, with arcades at street level and loggias and courts above, allow¬
ing direct physical contact between residents and shoppers in the adja¬
cent street market. In his primary school building in Falgano Olana
(1972) there are other clues to what Rossi calls ‘the theatre of life’ that
have a reading in two directions. The courtyard steps are also the seats
for the school photographs; a huge clock tells the present time but also
refers to the I ~>c of childhood; the books that contain knowledge are
contained w;tbj re cylindrical form of the library which is contained
After 25 years the firm Skidmore}
Owings and Merrill were still
innovating, as at the John Hancock
Center, Chicago, 1970
Siidliche Friedrichstadt Housing■
Complex by Aldo Rossi (Berlin,
Germany)

within the internal courtyard of the school, the playground for the children. The theatrical idea — the
reciprocity between the audience that watches and that at the same time is watched — appears con¬
stantly in his works, including his many drawings.
In Germany the Neorationalist movement is represented by О. M. Ungers (1926), J. P. Kleihues
(1933) and the Krier brothers, Leon (1946) and Robert (193?). Under the directorship of Kleihues, the
Berlin IBA offered an opportunity to implement urban ideas on a large scale. The exhibition uses a cat¬
alogue of rational typologies or archetypes to describe the different projects, such as ‘corner house’,
‘row house’, ‘gateway buildings’, or ‘urban villa’. On Fridrichstrasse an ‘open block plan’ has eight
‘urban villas’, based on an eighteenth-century model. The ‘villas’, designed by Rossi, Grassi and
Hollein, are actually small apartment blocks and are all the same basic size and shape. Green spaces
and old and new buildings are all treated as separate parts that make up the whole.
BIG IN JAPAN
Japanese Architecture
Modern Japanese culture has had a great influence on contemporary Western architecture. Frank
Lloyd Wright built the Juygaken Kindergarten (1921) and the Imperial Hotel in Tokyo (1922), and
Bruno Taut wrote about Japanese culture and architecture. The history of the growth of Modernism in
Japan is similar to that in Europe and North America. The earliest modern buildings started to appear,
as an alternative to traditional building, in the 1920s. By the 1930s a call for a Japanese national style
had resulted in a hybrid — bare classical forms with
curved roofs imitating traditional timber construction.
Kenzo Tange (1913) was vociferous in his criticism of
both nostalgic historicism and boring international
Modernism, stating ‘only the beautiful can be function¬
al’. His work uses symbolic form based on Japanese tra¬
dition, combined with modern technology. He was rec¬
ognized as an important figure in the Modern movement
when he was invited to present his winning entry for the
Hiroshima Peace Centre (1949—56) at the 1951
CIAM — ‘The Love of the City’. Later projects contin¬
ued to develop urban core systems and the idea of com¬
ponents.
Metabolism
Under Tange’s direction, the Metabolist group had a
great influence on architectural production and theory
during the 1960s and early 1970s, primarily in establish¬
ing the importance, especially in urban situations, of the
relationship between the public realm and private spaces.
The Nagakin Capsule Tower in Tokyo (1972), by Noria
Kurokawa (1934) shows a culmination of these ideas and
is typical of the futuristic and science-fiction-like
imagery of his work. The tower stands as part of the infra¬
structure of the city. Living units are mass-produced,
minimal ‘pods’, or ‘capsules’, clustered around it.
shows Kurokawa *s Metabolist theories in action

An Outdoor Living Room
In a series of wonderful houses and chapels built during the 1980s, Tadeo Ando (1941) has estab¬
lished himself as an accomplished architect, rejecting Metabolism and returning to Le Corbusier,
Louis Kahn (1901—74), and early Modernism for inspiration. Spaces and forms have a simple puri¬
ty, evolved in relation to the landscape. The poured concrete he invariably uses is beautifully
detailed.
VERY COOL
Postmodernism
The specific task of the architect, according to Charles Jencks in his Language of Postmodern
Architecture (1977), is ‘seeing that the environment is sensual, humorous, surprising and coded as a
readable text’. The way to achieve this was to abandon the universal notions of Modernism derived
from functionalism and rationalism. Postmodernism embraces an architecture that is clearly derived
from the familiar, the historical, and the vernacular. The result is an ambiguous, and often ironic, ‘rad¬
ical eclecticism’. The recipe: take easily recognizable bits of buildings (which are often Classical) from
a whole variety of places and eras, and reuse them at will.
Philip Johnson (1906), who began by promoting the International Style in the 1930s, became
one of the leaders of Postmodernism 40 years later. His AT&T Building in New York (1978—83),
with John Burgee is most often used to illustrate the style: a modern skyscraper with a principal
fagade of Classical symmetry and composition. The arched, semi-circular central entrance is
flanked by smaller openings. The framed structure is disguised by masonry in imitation of Classical
stonework.
Fun, Fun, Fun
Criticism of Modernism for its blandness, anonymity and bogus functionalism had increased both
in America and in Europe, especially following problems with social housing schemes.
Postmodernism, with its legible, familiar forms, was
expected to provide a workable alternative. Ricardo
Bofill’s (1939) housing schemes in France, such as
Les Arcades du Lac St. Quentin — en-Yvelines
(1972—75) and Les Espaces d’Abraxas Marne-La-
Vallde (1978—83), employ monumental forms
which Bofill believes promote a sense of intimacy
and collective identity. The facades are composed of
simplified concrete versions of Classical carved
motifs with bizarre alterations.
Bofill’s earlier work, with the Taller de
Arquitectura group in Spain, was much more inter¬
esting. A large-scale housing project in Barcelona,
Walden Seven (1970—75), uses industrial forms
and a more romantic imagery — half-built or half¬
ruined.
With no rules, no expanded theory and a reliance on commercialism and taste, Postmodernism has
been condemned as kitsch by European architects favouring other developments within Modernism.
Les Espaces d’Abraxas (1978-83), Bofill’s attempt to
transform the Classical orders to a contemporary language

HI-TECH
Rogers and Foster
Buildings that look like machinery, with hard shiny metallic surfaces, industrial elements like
gantries and walkways, and moving parts, are described as Hi-Tech. Structures are often exposed.
Overall forms and shapes of different elements are not notably different from those seen in other mod¬
ern buildings, but the palette of materials is widened to include those more commonly associated with
other technologies like industrial production or aerospace research. Its reliance on only the visual
means is often considered as self-conscious stylization.
The model of Hi-Tech is the CNAC (Centre National d’Art et Culture, formerly the Centre
Pompidou) in Paris (1974), designed by Renzo Piano (1937) and Sir Richard Rogers (1933).
Escalators in curved glass tubes climb the five storeys, precariously cantilevered on the outside of the
glass facade between the huge steel girders of the structure. Inside, the ground floor is all hustle and
bustle, with bookshops and ticket sales and temporary exhibitions forming an extension of the piaz¬
za outside; beyond, there is emptiness. Flexibility — the ability to change internal layouts of
rooms — was an important concern during the 1970s. Putting all the structures and services on the
outside of a building achieved this: the internal space can be adapted to suit any kind of temporary
exhibition. Rogers developed this model, in which the display of services and structure is of funda¬
mental importance, with buildings such as Lloyds
(1979—84) and the Channel 4 offices (1990), both in
London.
Another important early Hi-Tech building is the
Sainsbury Centre for the Visual Arts in Norwich
(1977) by Rogers’ contemporary and one-time col¬
league, Sir Norman Foster (1935). In a less flam¬
boyant vein, there is the Financial Times Print
Works, London (1988), by Nicholas Grimshaw
(1939), where the moving print machinery is visible
through the glazed fagade.
Origins
The origins of the Hi-Tech can be linked to the
work of the American Richard Buckminster Fuller
(1895—1983), and to the group of English architects
called Archigram. Buckminster Fuller built little, but
his ideas had enormous influence through his teach¬
ing. Projects for a Dymaxion (dynamic and maxi¬
mum efficiency) House (1927) and for a Dymaxion
Three-wheeled Auto (1933), were a real attempt to
cast off the history and aesthetics of convention to
deal with production only in the modern context. He
went on to develop geodesic domes, which were similarly ahistorical, using a standardized kit of parts.
The best-known dome is the US Pavilion at the 1967 World’s Fair in Montreal.

POSTMODERN FORMALISM
The New York Five
The work of the New York Five was first exhibited at the Museum of Modern Art in New York
in 1969. Their early works, the ‘white’ houses, imitate the form of International Style buildings, with
simple volumes and white, flat surfaces. The concrete of the European buildings was replaced with
the ‘traditional’ timber frames and boarding of American houses.
Drawing on Italian Rationalism, Peter Eisenman’s (1932) early work is preoccupied with meaning
in form. His contempt for the idea that architecture should be merely ‘functional’ is clear in his series
of houses, which he numbers as if they are art works. Number
VI, the Frank House (1972), has a staircase that cannot be
climbed, that leads nowhere. Michael Graves’s (1934) con¬
cern with form has developed away from the Rationalist view
towards the more obvious Postmodern neohistoricism, as
seen in the Public Services Building in Portland, Oregon.
Charles Gwathmey (1938), in practice since 1971 with
Robert Siegel (1939), has designed numerous private houses,
including his own at Amagansett in Long Island (1965—67),
as well as public buildings such as the East Campus of
Columbia University in New York (1981).
The most prolific of the five is Richard M eier (1934). As
well as numerous individual houses and housing projects he
has completed public buildings such as the Museum of
Applied Art in Frankfurt am-Main (1979—80) and the
Getty Museum in Los Angeles (1984). The most interesting
of the five is John Hejduk (1929). He has a far more exper¬
imental approach, as shown by his alterations to the Cooper
Union School in New York (1975) and his IBA housing in
Berlin.
Europe
Early Norman Foster buildings are always classified
with the Hi-Tech style of Sir Richard Rogers. However,
Foster’s more recent work is harder to classify. The library and art gallery at Nimes in France (1993)
visibly uses the same form as the Maison Carree opposite, one of Europe’s best preserved Roman
temples. The third London Airport at Stansted (1992) is a simple rectangle in plan and, taking
advantage of the sloped site, puts all the workings of the building at low level. Free from the para¬
phernalia of ductwork and pipes, the simple roof, supported on a grid of branching tree-like
columns, allows the concourse to be filled with natural daylight. Glazed walls afford views to the air¬
field and aircraft taking off and landing.
HOW DOES IT FEEL?
Sensual Response and Sustainability
The way we perceive a place is not just a visual experience. The form of the building is important
but the texture^ smells and sounds play an equal or greater role. The combination of these sensory
The IBM Building by Gwathmey, Siegel, Greenboro,
North Carolina

experiences — the way wood feels to the touch and the resonance of our footsteps as we walk across
the polished timber floor — are a major part of our reading of a place. This concern for the sensual
quality of the materials (a phenomenological appraisal rather than a stylistic classification), togeth¬
er with recent concerns for sustainability and disdain for increasing globalization, has inspired dif¬
ferent architectures in response to specific locations and climates, and gives us another way to look
at buildings.
The recent work of Sir Michael Hopkins (1935), who was associated with Hi-Tech in the 1970s and
early 80s , is very different. The Mound Stand at Lords Cricket Ground in London (1987), firmly root¬
ed in the ground with load-bearing brick colonnades,
physically and metaphorically rises up through
enclosed levels to open up again beneath light white
fabric canopies, like so many umbrellas that come out
on a wet day at the match. More recently, the
Glyndebourne Opera House (1994) uses bricks (the
local material) and mortar with traditional laying
technique which make continuity possible without the
expansion joints of modem brickwork. In the interior,
curved and polished plywood, the material of so many
musical instruments, is used for seats and balustrades.
Fuksas
In France the work of the Italian architect
Massimiliano Fuksas shows the same consideration
for location and for materiality. In the densely pop¬
ulated Bastille area of Paris, the Rue de Candie
Sports Centre (1994) fills a ragged site with a series of interlinked volumes. The main structures are
of raw concrete, with the sports hall wall exposed with a series of blind windows — recalling a famil¬
iar view of empty buildings in a city. The fa9ade is clad with zinc panels that follow gentle curves,
reminiscent of so many Mansard roofs. The Maison des Arts at Michel de Montaigne University in
Bordeaux ’(1997) again uses metal; this time the rich green colour of oxidized copper covers the
whole facade. Shutters contained within the skin modulate the surface, which is interrupted only by
two vertical slots of glass and a window running in a deep cut all the way around it.
VIVAESPANA
Spanish Regionalism
‘Critical regionalism’ is Kenneth Frampton’s description of the development of Modernism in
response to different physical and cultural contexts. Spain, following re-democratization, the introduction
of legal protection for historic buildings, the staging of the Expo in Seville in 1992 and the Olympic Games
in Barcelona, has had the opportunity to reassert a cultural presence in Europe with major new buildings.
The architecture at the Seville Expo was very different from the previous one in Osaka in 1970, with
its Metabolists, Archigram, and pneumatic structures. In many exhibits, a concern for history and cul¬
tural identity was expressed through a specific materiality and formal metaphor. As well as the Expo
site, Seville has a new airport by Jose Rafael Moneo (1939) and a new railway station by Antonio Cruz
and Antonio Ortiz. Both buildings have solid masonry forms with arched structures, reminiscent of
Moorish buildings, in pale terracotta colours.

Buildings in the old industrial areas of Barcelona have
been inventively restored. Lapena and Torres Workshops
and Josep Lluis Mateos sports hall both occupy redundant
factories.
Glorious Gaudi
Most of the work of Spain’s best-known architect
Antoni Gaudi (1852—1926) is in Barcelona. ‘The straight
line belongs to men, the curved one to God’ — his own
assertion — is probably the best explanation of his work.
In pursuit of his vision, his buildings demonstrate a
unique and original use of materials and forms, a rejection
of rigid geometry to determine form, and an inspired dec¬
orative ability.
The complexity and individuality of his work, with no
precedent and no imitators, has meant a problem for his¬
torians looking for links between the past and the future.
In the context of Art Nouveau, he is rated as a genius, the
only one employing a three-dimensional version of a style
often criticized for its superficiality. Relying heavily on
hand labour and craft work, his work is also linked to the
Arts and Crafts Movement in England and the Romantic
Modernisme in Spain. Naturalistic or organic inspiration
is evident but there are also similarities, in the depth and
layering of the surfaces, with the rich geometric carvings
of the Moorish palaces in southern Spain.
The facade of the Nativity (1892-1930), Church <
the Sagrada Familia, Barcelona, by Gaudi. He
began work on the church in 1884, and the building
is still unfinished
THE ESSENCE OF THINGS
Minimalism
Freedom from clutter, from the distraction of
trivia, allows concentration on the
fundamental — the important qualities of form,
of space and of material. Here, beauty is not
found in unnecessary adornment and distracting
embellishment, but in the refinement of the
essential heart of a building, the truly minimal.
Simplicity and emptiness characterize such
Minimalist architecture, recalling a monastic
restraint.
The work of designers, according to John
Pawson (1949), is to ‘clear up the chaotic world’.
This has been a concern since the late nineteenth
century, but has become more pressing as a
response to the ‘avalanche of consumerism’. The
Pawson is a perfect complement to its hot, dry setting. An air
of intellectual repose is created by its confident forms

beautiful photographs in Pawson’s book Minimum (1996) provide an eloquent argument. Among the
paradigmatic images are monasteries and convents, including Le Corbusier’s Dominican friary of
Sainte Marie-de-la-Tourette (1957—60) and the Cistercian Romanesque abbey at Le Thoronet.
Pawson’s Neuendorf house in Majorca (1989) uses the simple geometry of a cube, and the ochre
colouring helps to unite the building with its setting.
Pure and Simple
Edouardo Souta De Moura (1952) spent five years working for Alvaro Siza (1933), Portugal’s best-
known modem architect, whose work combines a Rationalist approach with a Mediterranean stark¬
ness. Souta De Moura works with simple forms and elegant detailing combined with the earthy rich¬
ness of natural materials closely related to the traditional buildings of Portugal. The market building in
Braga (1980—84) and the Cultural Centre in Oporto (1981—88) both employ empty spatial simplici¬
ty and subtle natural materials. Typical of De Moura’s houses, the Bom Jesus House in Braga (1989—
94) simply juxtaposes ‘a stone cube ... and a concrete cube’.
The Swiss architects Jacques Herzog (1950) and Pierre De Meuron (1950) have developed their
purist approach during the last twenty years, through a whole variety of different projects. The private
collector’s gallery in Munich (1991—92) (with Mario Meier) is a simple, free-standing, two-storey
rectangular block. Ingeniously dug into the ground, all that is visible of the ‘ground’ floor are the
clerestory windows all around. Clerestory windows on the upper level leave the solid band of plywood
cladding suspended. The glass varies from opaque to reflective and black, depending on the light and
the seasons. In 1996 they won the competition for the extension to London’s Tate Gallery of Modern
Art in the Bankside Power Station (1955) designed by Sir Giles Gilbert-Scott.
BITS AND PIECES
Deconstruction
Deconstruction (or Deconstructivism) is not a style but ‘part of a research into the dissolving lim¬
its of architecture’, according to Bernard Tschumi’s words at the 1988 First International Symposium
on Deconstruction in London. It is looking for ‘the between’. According to Peter Eisenman, at the
same symposium, architects who ‘fracture’ are merely illustrative; they are not challenging any pre¬
conceptions. The ideas dre borrowed from the work of the French philosopher Jacques Derrida.
While the theory, the ‘new way of seeing’ for architects and academics may be viewed as a deca¬
dence, it more importantly offered an alternative influence to the increasing banality of Postmodern
Formalism. The resulting buildings actually seem
to fit the world — a dismantled, fractured disassem¬
bles with no visual logic, no attempt at harmo¬
nious composition of facades, no pragmatic reason.
For Peter Eisenman this can be seen as a develop¬
ment from his abstract Formalism of the 1970s. In
a critique of Eisenman’s Aronoff Centre at the
University of Cincinnati (1989—96), Frank
O. Gehry is dismissive: ‘The best thing about
Peter’s buildings is the insane spaces he ends up
with. All that other stuff, the philosophy and all, is
just bullshit as far as I’m concerned’.
No overall harmony of composition
Frank O. Genry’s museum for Vitra. White plastered walls
contrast with roofs clad in titanium zinc

La Folie
The garden folly returns to its French roots in Bernard Tschumi’s Deconstructivist work, the Parc de
la Villette in Paris (1984—89). Sitting at the intersections of a 100 x 100 m square grid, and interrupted
by existing buildings and by the overlaying of pure polygons and meandering pathways, the folie like
Eisenman’s houses, contains ‘ideas’, not ‘functions’.
Daniel Libeskinds’s major building is the Jewish Museum (1997), an extension to the Berlin
Museum. Referred to as ‘between the lines’ by Libeskind, the form and spatial organization of the build¬
ing are derived from the history of the German-Jewish relationship in Berlin. The zigzag plan represents
the continuity of history. The overlaid straight line becomes invisible where it crosses the zigzag — rep¬
resentative of absence. Recently Libeskind has won the competition for the extension to the Victoria and
Albert Museum in London — a similarly Deconstructivist proposal that has sparked controversy.
THE GREAT EIGHT
To make a listing of the greatest buildings in history is an impossible task. The eight selected here
would at least give a good basis for discussion.
The Pantheon, Rome AD 120
Hadrian
This giant rotunda, 43m in diameter and 43m high, is
an amazing piece of construction. Apparently simple,
the wall supporting the vast dome zigzags around niches,
effectively forming buttresses, and the spring line inside
is a whole one third of the height lower than the outside.
The concrete dome is coffered to reduce the weight. All
of this is clever, but the vast emptiness of the interior vol¬
ume, lit only by the daylight through the circular open¬
ing at the top of the dome, still rates as one of architec¬
ture’s most dramatic experiences.
Church of the Sacred Heart, Prague, 1928—33
Joze Plecnik (1872-1957)
An elegant simplicity of form and composition; a basilican rectangular
block with clerestory windows houses the main nave space with a single, full-
width tower on the west elevation. Behind the huge circular glass clock faces a
long, slow ramp zigzags up to the bells at the top of the tower. The simple forms
are embellished with stylized Classical motifs and the large, windowless areas of
wall leaning as if to yield up the interior is patterned with protruding bricks that
distort the perspective. Plecnik studied under Wagner in Vienna, and much of
his most notable work is in Ljubljana, Slovenia in the former Yugoslavia, where
the nationalist culture favoured his brand of regionalism.
Royal College of Physicians, Regents Park, 1960
Denys Lasdun (1914)
The Royal College of Physicians is a perfect example of modern architecture. The various volumes
of the building housing the different activities of the college are described by different structures and

Ш/L
materials. Dark blue earthy bricks meander over the sunken conference
room, part of the ground and the park, the public space of the building.
A slim white slab raised high up on slender columns contains the
library, the permanent element of the college. Only narrow slit win¬
dows in the extreme corners allow views out across the park. The heart
of the building is empty apart from the staircase — the place for the
procession to pass, the ritual of access to the profession.
Mueller House, Prague, 1930
Adolf Loos (1870-1933)
The cubic, rectilinear, austere exterior of the Mueller House in
Prague offers little clue to the intriguing spaces of the interior. The
introverted, intimate spaces are interconnected — the Raumplan —
and seem as if carved out of a solid form. Loos is as important for his
extensive writings as for his built works; his major essay, published in
1908, is Ornament and Crime, one of architecture’s most influential
works.
Whitney Museum of American Art, New York, 1963—66
Marcel Breuer (1902—81)
Leaving his native Hungary behind, Breuer was one of the first gen¬
eration of Bauhaus students, moving from painting to furniture and tak¬
ing over that department before moving on to architecture. He eventual¬
ly joined Gropius as an associate professor at Harvard, following work in
London for F.R.S. York and a short period in Berlin. The robust and
strongly articulated forms and rich textures of raw materials at the
Whitney are typical of Breuer’s work.
Kimbell Art Museum, Fort Worth, Texas, 1966—72
Louis Kahn (1901-74)
The Kimbell galleries in Fort Worth, Texas, consist of a series of majestic
vaults that ‘fulfilled his greatest dream, defining spaces through the unification of
light and structure’. A series of little courtyards open to the sky interrupt the rigor¬
ous alignment of the vaults. Kahn’s work stands alone; it has been linked to
Brutalism due to his use of raw materials, a ruggedness of form and monumental-
ity and the skilful manipulation of natural light. His work is also linked to that of
neo-rationalists through their shared interest in elementary forms and archetypes.
Ford Foundation Offices, New York, 1963—68
Kevin Roche (1922) and John Dinkeloo (1918-81)
Both of these worked for Eero Saarinen and took over the office on his death
in 1961. The Ford Foundation has a sensual tactile presence, with rusty Corten

steel and pink granite juxtaposed with delicately detailed filigree air grilles, balustrades and concealed
lights in brass. The covered courtyard, the threshold to New York’s 42nd Street, is a veritable oasis of
dense greenery.
Notre Dame-du-Haut, Ronchamp, 1950—54
Le Corbusier (1887-1965)
The chapel at Ronchamp, a highly specific build¬
ing created in response to a particular programme for
a particular location, shows a refinement of the ideas
in Le Corbusier’s earlier work. Functional planning
is combined with sculptural, curving concrete work
to form some of his most beautiful spaces.
BUILDING IN CYBBtSPACE
Virtual Worlds
Cyberspace, or virtual space, the space created by our computers, can exist anywhere and is not
bound by any physical or cultural context. According to Michael Benedict in Cyberspace: First Steps
(1991), the concretization of the world we dream and think in the ‘venue for our consciousness’, can
be whatever we want it to be. With the right software and some keyboard skills, escape from the ‘real’
world into medialand. It is hard to imagine a world where the tangible, sensual experience is replaced
by thought, a world where the body is redundant.
Ironically, the new generation of buildings, which rely on computers to aid design, have an
extremely highly developed sense of the physical. The new Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, Spain
(1997), by Frank O. Gehry (1929) uses computer technology to make such surreal spaces, such stuff of
Future Systems Footbridge at Canary Wharf, London Docklands is designed by Jan Kaplicky

dreams, ‘real’. With no architectural paradigms, Gehry’s
buildings are difficult to describe. The sparkling metallic sur¬
face of the titanium cladding panels, and the building’s rela¬
tionship to the edge of the river, has been likened to a great
ocean liner.
Shunning the now-commonplace software based on pure
geometries of the Renaissance, Gehry designed the museum
with software developed for the aerospace industry, which is
based not on form but on surface. Mechanical technology that
made repetition cheap is replaced by electronic technology:
laser surveying and cutting equipment, and bar coding of each
piece all handled by the computer, meant this ‘one-off is just
as economical to produce as a series. Internally there is a logi¬
cal arrangement of different-sized galleries, which are able to
accommodate a wide variety of artists’ works. These galleries
are connected to a pivotal atrium rising up majestically
through the whole height of the building.
It could be argued that Bilbao achieves the ahistorical
functional aims of the Modernist project by employing electronic technology and breaking down the
form into primary elements in Cubist fashion. Spatially it offers a subjective physical experience —
open-ended spaces, blurred edges and unexpected places.
The new Guggenheim Museum at Bilbao,
by Frank Gehry, has a surreal one-offitess

Appendix
Architectural features

EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE 34oo—эоо вс
Pyramid
1—king's chamber; 2—queen's chamber; 3—air passage; 4—coffin chamber
Pyramid site
1—funerary temple; 2— valley temple; 3—pylon, a monumental gateway; 4— obelisks
Egyptian sphinx

Lotus column *
1-knob-leaf capital (bud-shaped capital)
Im column

The temple contained two
inner chambers: one small',
in the rear (the treasury
and a larger chamber (the
naos), which contained a
statue of the god to whom
the temple was dedicate

Doric Order from the Temple of “Theseus”, Athens (C5 BC). (After Normand)
entablature

Ionic Order from Eleusis. (After Normand)
lion-mask
section through cornice
9- о
cyma reversa
s—адппппп
cyma recta
Detail of capital and volute
Elevation of Order

Corinthian Order
elevation: base of column
capital	Д	entablature	^ antefixa^

Greek decoration (vase, detail)

Greek-based horizontal and vertical construction
Doorway with columns and grille

Roman Doric ‘mutule’ Order of Vignola. (After Normand)
_ mutule
JUWUG
>000001
ЮОООО
ЮОООО
Ю OOOQ
ЮОООС
pelta
I	--I.
•тип
? - -
1
{у—fasciae
- thunderbolt
soffit of cornice
abacus -
echinus with .
egg-and-dart
enrichment
hypotrachelium'
with ornaments Г“^
astragal —I
o'
•fi
plan of
column
from below
entablature

Roman Corinthian Order
- I 1 гг^ры?
mill и Щ | |[ | Ilf
Roman Corinthian Order from the Pantheon, Rome. (After Normand)
cornice
(cyma recta)
modillions
egg-and-dart
bead-
and-reel
cyma
reversa
' architrave-
. cornice
fascia
volutes or
helices
acanthus
leaves
X astragal
-V—
elevation of square column
elevation of capital and entablature
shaft
■ф* Attic base
with
additional
reeding
plinth
plan ofsquare column	plan of circular column from below	elevation of column base

Tuscan Order
Tuscan Order. (After Palladio)
— capital
cornice
frieze
architrave
abacus
echinus
astragal
fillet
apophyge
apophyge
fillet
torus
plinth
elevation of Order
Composite Order
egg-and-dart
abacus
volute
J— bead-and-reel
acanthus leaves
Plan and elevation of circular and square capital of the Order. (After Langley)

Elaborate Corinthian orders and colonnade
Roman temple (ground-plan)

Shops occasionally flanked
the street entrance (bottom),
from which a passage led to
a covered court (the atrium).
Further back, an inner court
(the peristyle), consisted of a
colonnaded walk surrounding
a garden.
цП tl nl
m\
Roman house (interior)

THE EARLY CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE PERIOD 3rd—11th Century
Basilica
/—nave; 2—aisle; 3—apse; 4—campanile; 5—atrium; 6—colonnade; 7—fountain;
8—altar; 9—clerestory; 10—triumphal arch; 11—nave; 12—aisle
Dome system
1—main dome; 2—semidome; 3—pendentive; 4—eye, a lighting aperture

Basilica (ground-plan)
Basilica (interior)

Romanesque church, a cathedral
I—nave; 2—aisle; 3—transept; 4— choir (chancel);
5—apse; 6— central tower; 7—pyramidal tower roof;
8—arcading; 9—frieze of round arcading; 10—blind
arcade (blind arcading); 11—lesene, a pilaster strip;
12—circular window; 13—side entrance
Romanesque system of vaulting
1—transverse	arch;
2—barrel	vault (tunnel vault);
3—pillar
Cushion capital
Barrel vault
Groin vault

Three-tier arrangement
Three-tier arrangement—exterior (left), interior (right)

Capital with carved figures
Animal figures incorporated into a design
The tower of Pisa
In England the Romanesque is known as Norman

THE GOTHIC STYLE
13th—14th Century
Gothic church, a cathedral
1—rose window; 2—church door
(a recessed portal); 3—archivolt;
4—tympanum
Gothic structural system
1—buttress; 2—flying buttress; 3—pinnacle; 4—gargoyle; 5, 6— cross vault
(groin vault); 5—ribs (cross ribs); 6—boss (pendant); 7—triforium;
8—clustered pier (compound pier); 9—respond (engaged pier)
6
Pediment
1—finial; 2—crocket; 3, 4, 5— tracery window,
a lancet window (3—quatrefoil; 4— cinquefoil;
5—mullions)

Gothic church

THE RENAISSANCE isth—ieih century
Renaissance church
7—projection; 2—drum; 3—lantern; 4—pilaster (engaged pillar)
Renaissance palace
/—comice; 2—pedimental window; 3—pedimental window
with round gable; 4—rustication (rustic work); 5—stringcourse

Window with а
central column
Window with engaged
columns and curved \
pediment j
Doorway with columns and
entablature

THE BAROQUE PERIOD	Late 16th—mid 18th Century
Baroque church
1—bull's eye; 2— bulbous cupola; J—dormer window;
4—curved gable; 5—twin columns; 6—cartouche
4
Rococo wall
7—coving, a hollow moulding; 2—framing;
5—ornamental moulding; 4—rocaille

Convex/concave alternation and different
sized columns on a Baroque facade

Rococo arch with scrolls and floral wreaths
S-	and C-curves
in decoration

THE NEOCLASSICAL STYLE 18th Century

THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
‘Brutalist’ church (le Corbusier)

Arches
Arch
1—abutment; 2—impost; 3—springer, a voussoir (wedge stone);
4— keystone; 5—face; 6—pier; 7—extrados
Round arch
Segmental arch	Parabolic arch Horseshoe arch
(basket handle)
ЛЛАД
Lancet arch
Trefoil arch
Shouldered arch
Convex arch
Tented arch	Ogee arch (keel arch)	Tltdor arch
/—crown; 2—side
1—side
Rib vault (ribbed vault)
Net vault
Fan vault
Trough vault
1—trough; 2—side
Cavetto vault
1—cavetto

Glossary
т

А
a la carte {фр.) порционно, на заказ, по заказу
abacus (pi. -ci, ses) абак(а) (верхняя плита капи¬
тели колонны)
abandon 1) покидать, оставлять 2) отказываться
от 3) (to) предаваться
abbey аббатство, монастырь
abbey church главная церковь аббатства
abiding постоянный; неизменный; прочный
abode жилище, местопребывание
absence 1) отсутствие 2) недостаток
abutment 1) пята арки или свода 2) контрфорс
acanthus акант
acanthus leaves листья аканта; архитектурный
орнамент в виде листьев аканта
accept 1) принимать 2) допускать; соглашаться;
признавать
access 1) доступ 2) проход; подход; проезд
accessible доступный; достижимый
accession 1) прирост; прибавление; пополнение
2) доступ 3) вступление
accessories принадлежности; аппаратура
accident 1) несчастный случай; катастрофа; ава¬
рия 2) случай; случайность
accommodate давать пристанище; предоставлять
жилье; вмещать
accomplished 1) совершенный, завершенный
2)	законченный
account 1) отчет; доклад 2) описание, рассказ
3)	счет
accumulate накапливать; собирать
accurate точный, правильный
accustomed привыкший
achieve 1) достигать, добиваться 2) успешно вы¬
полнять; доводить до конца
achievement 1) достижение 2) выполнение
3) подвиг
acknowledge 1) признавать, допускать; сознавать
2)	выражать признательность
acumen проницательность, сообразительность
AD anno Domini (лат.) нашей эры
adapt приспосабливать, пригонять, прилажи¬
вать
adaptation 1) адаптация, приспособление 2) пе¬
ределка
add to добавлять, увеличивать, прибавлять, уси¬
ливать
adequate 1) соответствующий, адекватный
2)	достаточный 3) отвечающий требованиям
adjacent (to) примыкающий, смежный, соседний
adjustment 1) регулирование, приспособление
2)	регулировка, пригонка 3) корректирова¬
ние 4) поправка
admit 1) допускать; принимать 2) впускать
adopt 1) принимать 2) усваивать, перенимать
adorn украшать
adornment украшение
advance 1. л 1) продвижение вперед 2) прогресс,
успех 3) опережение 2. v 1) продвигаться, ид¬
ти вперед 2) делать успехи, развиваться, про¬
двигаться 3) выдвигаться вперед, выступать
advanced передовой, прогрессивный
advantage 1) преимущество 2) выгода, польза
advent приход, прибытие; пришествие
adventurous 1) безрассудно смелый 2) опасный,
рискованный 3) предприимчивый
aerospace research аэрокосмическое исследо¬
вание
affect действовать; воздействовать, влиять
affinity (with) родственность, близость; родовое
сходство
affordability возможность; допустимость
afterlife загробная жизнь, жизнь после смерти
agenda повестка дня
aggrandizement возвеличивание; восхваление
agreeable 1) приятный, милый 2) приемлемый,
подходящий, соответствующий
ahistorical неисторический; антиисторический
aid 1. п помощь; содействие; поддержка 2. v по¬
могать, оказывать помощь, поддержку; со¬
действовать, способствовать
air-conditioning кондиционирование воздуха
air grille воздухораспределительная решетка
air passage вентиляционный канал
air shaft 1) вентиляционная шахта 2) световая
шахта
airborne находящийся на борту самолета; борто¬
вой; самолетный
airfield 1) летное поле 2) посадочная площадка
3)	(грунтовый) аэродром
airy 1) полный воздуха 2) воздушный, легкий,
грациозный 3) нереальный, фантастический
aisle боковой неф, придел
alien чуждый, несвойственный
alignment 1) выравнивание по одной оси 2) цент¬
ровка, обеспечение соосности

allegorical аллегорический, иносказательный
alley 1) узкая улица, переулок 2) аллея, дорожка
(в парке) 3) проход, проезд
allot распределять; предназначать
alloy сплав
allusive символический
ally быть связанным общностью происхож¬
дения
altar алтарь, престол; жертвенник
alter изменять, переделывать, менять; видоиз¬
менять, вносить изменения; изменяться
alteration изменение; перемена; переделка, пе¬
рестройка, реконструкция
alternate чередоваться
alternating чередующийся; перемежающийся;
сменяющий друг друга; сменяющийся
alternation чередование; (регулярная) смена
alternative 1. п альтернатива, выбор, вариант
2. а взаимоисключающий, альтернативный
altogether 1) вполне, всецело 2) в общем, в це¬
лом 3) всего
amalgamate соединять(ся); объединять(ся); сли¬
ваться)
amalgamation слияние, объединение
amazing удивительный, изумительный, порази¬
тельный
ambiguous 1) двусмысленный 2) сомнительный;
неопределенный, неясный
ambition 1) честолюбие, амбиция 2) стремление,
цель, предмет желаний
ambulatory крытая галерея или аркада
ammunition store склад боеприпасов
amphitheatre амфитеатр
ancient древний, античный, старинный
ancillary подсобный, вспомогательный
ancillary space подсобное помещение
angle 1. п угол 2. v 1) помещать, размещать под
углом или по углам 2) образовывать угол
angled 1) угловой; с углом или углами 2) поме¬
щенный под углом
angular угольный; угловой; угловатый
annual ежегодный; годовой
annulet поясок, валик (колонны)
anta анта, угловая пилястра
antefix (pi. -es, -а) антефикс (стоячая фигурная
карнизная черепица античного храма, прикры¬
вающая стыки кровельной черепицы)
anthropomorphic антропоморфический; челове¬
коподобный
anticipate ожидать, предвидеть; предчувство¬
вать, предвкушать
antiquarian антиквар
antique 1. и произведение древнего (античного) ис¬
кусства 2. а I) древний; старинный 2) античный
antiquity 1) древность; старина 2) классическая
древность, античность
antithesis полная противоположность
antler олений рог; отросток оленьего рога
apartment (амер.) квартира
apartment block (амер.) многоквартирный дом;
многоэтажное жилое здание
apartment house (амер.) многоквартирный дом
аре подражать
aperture отверстие; проем
apex вершина (сооружения)', конек (крыши)
apophyge апофига, выкружка у низа или верха
ствола колонны
apparent 1) видимый 2) явный, очевидный,
несомненный; наглядный 3) видимый, кажу¬
щийся
appeal 1. п привлекательность 2. v привлекать,
притягивать; нравиться
appealing привлекательный
appearance 1) внешний вид 2) появление
application 1) применение 2) нанесение, нало¬
жение (напр, слоя краски)
applied 1) прикладной, практический 2) прило¬
женный, прикладываемый
applied art прикладное искусство
apply 1) использовать, применять 2) приклады¬
вать, накладывать
appraisal оценка
approach 1. п подход, приближение 2. v подхо¬
дить, приближаться
appropriate подходящий, соответствующий
approximate 1) приближать(ся), почти соответ¬
ствовать 2) приблизительно равняться
apse апсида, абсида, полукруглая часть здания
aqueduct акведук
arabesque арабеска (орнамент)
arc дуга
arcade аркада, сводчатая галерея; сводчатая ни¬
ша в стене
arcading аркада
arch 1. п арка; свод 2. v перекрывать аркой или
сводом
arched арочный, дуговой, сводчатый
arched moulding арочный облом

archetype прототип; оригинал, образец (с кото¬
рого снимаются копии); модель
Archigram “Архиграм” (группа дизайнеров, обра¬
зованная П.Куком и др. в 1960 г. и создавшая
прецедент стилю Хай-Тек. Просуществовала
до 1975 г.)
architrave архитрав (нижняя часть антаблемен¬
та, представляющая собой горизонтальную
балку, лежащую на колоннах)
archivolt архивольт (профиль, обрамляющий арку)
arena 1) арена 2) круглая сцена (без авансцены)
3)	место действия
arguable 1) спорный, требующий доказательств
2)	могущий быть доказанным
arouse 1) будить, пробуждать 2) вызывать, воз¬
буждать
arrange 1) располагать в определенном порядке,
компоновать 2) устраивать
arrangement 1) расположение в определенном
порядке, композиция 2) устройство 3) схема
планировки
arris 1) ребро, кромка 2) острый угол
arrival прибытие
arrogant 1) высокомерный, надменный 2) само¬
надеянный
art искусство
Art Deco “ар деко” (декоративный стиль, отли¬
чающийся яркими красками и геометрически¬
ми формами, в 20—30гг. XXв.)
Art Nouveau (фр.) стиль “модерн”, “ар нуво”
(художественный и архитектурный стиль
конца XIX — начала XX в.)
articulate 1. а 1) ясный, отчетливый 2) вычле¬
ненный, стоящий отдельно, ограниченный
от других 2. v ясно выражать
articulated 1) ясно выраженный 2) сочлененный
arts and crafts 1) прикладное искусство 2) на¬
родное творчество; кустарные ремесла
ashlar тесаный камень (для кладки или облицовки
стен)
Asia Minor Малая Азия (п-ов)
assemble 1) созывать 2) собирать 3) монтировать
assertion утверждение; притязание
assertive 1) утвердительный 2) чрезмерно нас¬
тойчивый, напористый
associate professor адъюнкт-профессор
astonish удивлять, изумлять
astragal астрагал, сочетание полочки с валиком
astride по обеим сторонам
asymmetical асимметричный
at a glance с одного взгляда
at will по желанию, как угодно
atelier (фр.) 1) ателье 2) студия (художника)
atrium 1) атриум, атрий 2) крытый портик
attach прикреплять; привязывать
attached column полуколонна; пилястр; привя¬
занная колонна
attic 1) чердак 2) чердачный или мансардный
этаж, мансарда, мансардное (чердачное) по¬
мещение 3) аттик, фронтон
attic storey чердачный этаж
attribute to относить, приписывать
auditorium аудитория (помещение); зрительный зал
austere 1) строгий, суровый, аскетичный 2) про¬
стой, без украшений
austerity 1) строгость 2) суровость, аскетизм
3)	простота
authenticity подлинность, достоверность; аутен¬
тичность
available 1) доступный; имеющийся в распоря¬
жении, наличный 2) пригодный, полезный
avalanche 1) лавина 2) град 3) поток; масса;
лавина
avant-garde 1. п авангард 2. а авангардистский
avoid 1) избегать, сторониться 2) уклоняться
awakening пробуждение
axis (pi. axes) геометрическая ось
В
back 1. п задняя часть, обратная сторона
2. а задний 3. v поддерживать; отступать;
примыкать
back-to-back вплотную, впритык
background задний план, фон
bailey 1) стена замка 2) двор замка
baldachin балдахин
balcony балкон, лоджия
baluster (фигурная) стойка перил, балясина
balustrade 1) балюстрада 2) перильное ограждение,
перила 3) парапет, парапетное ограждение
banality банальность
band 1) полоса 2) лента 3) полочка; поясок (ар¬
хитектурный облом)
banded 1) имеющий кайму, кромку, полосу;
окаймленный 2) ленточный

baptistery баптистерий
baptize крестить
bar 1) стержень, арматурный пруток; мн. стер¬
жневая арматура 2) полоса (металла); брусок
3)	стропильная балка 4) оконный переплет
bar coding нанесение штрихового кода
barely 1) только, просто 2) едва, лишь
barn 1) сарай; легкое укрытие; 2) амбар; хлев
3)	некрасивое здание
baronial 1) баронский; относящийся к верхушке
феодального дворянства 2) пышный, рос¬
кошный
Baroque барокко
barrel vault цилиндрический (бочарный) свод
barrel vaulted roof цилиндрическое сводчатое
покрытие
base цоколь, пьедестал, основание (колонны);
база (колонны)
basement подвал; цокольный этаж; цоколь
2) основание; фундамент
basilica (pi. -ае) базилика (прямоугольное в плане
знание, разделенное колоннадой или аркадой на
нефы или корабли)
basilican базиликальный
basket capital византийская капитель
basket handle arch трехцентровая арка
basket-weave переплетение “рогожка”
bas relief барельеф
bastion бастион
bath баня
battered wall стена, отклоненная от вертикали
(внутрь здания)
battering-ram таран, стенобитное орудие
battlement 1) парапетная стена с бойницами;
зубчатая стена 2) амбразура
Bauhaus “Баухауз” (высшая школа строитель¬
ства и художественного конструирования, ос¬
нованная в 1919 г. в Веймаре (Германия), в
1925 г. переведена в Дессау, в 1933 г. упраздне¬
на фашистами. Руководители (В. Гропиус,
X. Мейер, JI.Muc ван дер Роэ) разрабатывали
эстетику функционализма, принципы совре¬
менного формообразования в архитектуре и
дизайне, формирования материально-бытовой
среды средствами пластических искусств.)
bay 1) пролет (промышленного здания, моста)
2) секция или отсек (жилого здания) 3) эркер
4)	глубокая ниша в комнате (часто с окном)
5)	карман, площадка 7) шаг колонн
ВС before (the birth of) Christ до нашей эры
be concerned with заниматься, интересоваться
be in conformity with быть в соответствии с
be involved with 1) углубляться, погружаться;
быть занятым, увлеченным 2) увлекаться
be preoccupied with быть поглощенным мысля¬
ми; озабоченным
be referred to as называться
be related to быть связанным
bead-and-dart moulding лепное украшение в виде
шариков (бусинок) и стрелок (дротиков)
bead-and-reel лепное украшение в виде шариков
(бусинок) и катушек
beam 1) балка; прогон; ригель 2) брус; попере¬
чина, траверса
bear нести; выдерживать; поддерживать
beast зверь, животное
beaten metal раскованный (чеканный; расплю¬
щенный, фольговый) металл
Beaux Arts (фр.) изящные искусства; художества
bell-shaped capital капитель в форме колокола
(колоколообразная капитель)
bell-tower колокольня
bench скамейка
beneath 1. adv внизу 2. prep, под, ниже
beneficial 1) благотворный 2) выгодный, полез¬
ный
bent изогнутый
Bessemer steel бессемеровская сталь
between, the промежуточное положение
binding agent вяжущее (вещество)
bit кусочек, небольшое количество
bizarre (фр.) странный, причудливый, эксцен¬
тричный
bland мягкий; слабый
blandness мягкость
blend 1. п смесь; смешивание 2. v смешивать(ся)
blind arcade глухая (декоративная) аркада
blind arcading глухая аркада
blind window 1) ложное окно 2) глухое окно
block 1) блок 2) квартал (города) 3) многоквар¬
тирный дом
block-printing technique метод ксилографии
blotting paper промокательная бумага; фильтро¬
вальная бумага
blunt 1. а тупой 2. v притуплять
blur 1. п расплывшееся пятно; неясные очерта¬
ния 2. v делать неясным, затуманивать; сти¬
рать, изглаживать

blurred неясный, туманный; расплывчатый,
смазанный
board meeting заседание правления
board 1. п 1) доска 2) плита, панель; лист 2. v об¬
шивать досками
boarding дощатая обшивка
body 1) главная, основная часть чего-л.; корпус
2)	главный корабль, неф церкви
bogus поддельный, фиктивный, фальшивый
bold отчетливый; подчеркнутый, рельефный
booking-hall билетная касса
border 1) край; граница; кромка 2) окантовка;
бордюр; фриз
bore сверлить; растачивать
borrow 1) занимать 2) заимствовать
boss рельефное украшение; орнамент, покры¬
вающий места пересечения балок
boulevard (фр.) бульвар
boundless безграничный, беспредельный
bowman стрелок из лука, лучник
box girder (главная) балка коробчатого сечения,
коробчатая балка
brace связь (жесткости); подкос, раскос (в кон¬
струкции фермы или любой деревянной рамной
конструкции)
bracket кронштейн; консоль; опора
branch 1. п 1) ветка 2) ответвление 2. v 1) раски¬
дывать ветви 2) разветвляться; расширяться
brand сорт, качество
brass латунь, желтая медь
breastwork 1) кладка камина 2) парапетная стен¬
ка (здания) 3) оборонительный вал
breathtakingly поразительно, захватывающе
breed порода
brick кирпич
brickwork кирпичная кладка, сооружение из
кирпича
brief I техническое задание (заказчика) на стро¬
ительство объекта
brief II 1) короткий, недолгий 2) краткий, сжа¬
тый, лаконичный 3) отрывистый
briefly кратко, сжато
brighten 1) полировать; придавать блеск 2) про¬
ясняться 3) улучшать(ся)
broach шпиль (церкви)
broken разорванный
broken entablature разорванный антаблемент
broken pediment разорванный фронтон
bronze бронза
bronze work изделия из бронзы
Brutalism брутализм
bud-shaped capital капитель в форме бутона
building 1) здание; сооружение; постройка;
строение; корпус 2) строительство; возведе¬
ние зданий
building project строительный объект, объект
строительства
built fabric застроенная среда
bulbous cupola выпуклый купол
bulk 1) величина; масса; объем 2) основная мас¬
са, большая часть
bull’s eye круглое окно
bullseye window круглое (слуховое) окно
bullshit (неприст.) вздор
burial chamber заупокойная камера
bury 1) хоронить, зарывать в землю 2) прятать
business transactions деловые операции, сделки
buttress контрфорс, опора
by contrast в противоположность
Byzantine 1) византиец 2) византийский
Byzantium Византия
с
с. (лат. от circa ) примерно, около (особ, о да¬
тах)
С-curve С-образная кривая
cable moulding облом в форме многопрядного
каната
call for требовать
camera 1) небольшое помещение со сводчатым
потолком 2) свод
campanile колокольня, звонница (особ, отдельно
стоящая)
campus территория университета, колледжа и
т.п. (включая парк)
canalis спиралевидный желобок, расположенный
между маленькими выпуклыми профилями, вы¬
ходящими из “глазка” вслед за витками волю¬
ты, и переходящий к другой волюте между
абакой и эхином ионического ордера
candle свеча, свечка
сапе камыш, тростник
canopy 1. п балдахин; навес; полог; тент; козы¬
рек 2. v 1)накрывать балдахином, навесом,
пологом, тентом 2) укрывать

cant 1) скашивать 2) наклонять 3) опрокиды¬
ваться); ставить под углом 4) кантовать
cantilever консоль; консольная балка; консоль¬
ная плита
cantilevered заделанный одним концом; кон¬
сольный; свободнонесущий
cap 1. п венчающий элемент; капитель; насадка;
ростверк 2. v завершать, венчать
capital капитель
capitol building здание законодательного собра¬
ния штата
capture взять в плен; захватить, взять силой
carry out доводить до конца; выполнять, про¬
водить
cartoon картон, этюд для фрески
cartouche картуш, орнаментальный завиток (на
капители)
carve резать, высекать
carved резной
carving 1) резьба 2) резное украшение, орнамент
caryatid кариатида
cast отливать, формовать
cast iron литейный чугун
cast off бросать; покидать
castle замок
cathedral собор; кафедральный собор
caulis (pi. -les) главный стебель, выступающий
из-за верхнего ряда акантовых листьев в ко¬
ринфской капители, из которого появляются
маленькие ветви, поддерживающие волюты
или завитки
cavetto 1) выкружка (архитектурный облом)
2) зеркало свода
cavetto vault зеркальный свод
ceiling потолок
cell-like structure ячеистая конструкция; много¬
камерная конструкция
cellular structure ячеистая структура; ячеистая
конструкция; многокамерная конструкция
cement-lined облицованный цементом
centering 1) центрирование, выверка по осям
2)	кружало (временный каркас для поддержа¬
ния свода или арки во время их возведения)
3)	опалубка
central heating центральное отопление
central tower центральная башня
centralized building центрическое здание
centrally-planned building центрическое здание
centre-point центральная точка, центр
ceramic керамический
ceramic tiling облицовка керамической плиткой
challenge 1. п вызов 2. v вызывать, бросать вызов
chamber камера, погребальная камера; комната,
помещение
chancel алтарь
change 1. п перемена, изменение 2. v менять(ся),
изменять(ся); сменять, заменять
changeableness 1) непостоянство, изменчивость;
неустойчивость 2) заменяемость
changing room гардеробная
channel 1. п 1) выемка, паз, желоб, канавка
2)	каннелюра 2. v направлять (в определенное
русло)
chapel часовня; придел; капелла
chater house здание капитула; помещение для
собраний капитула
characteristic 1. п характерная черта, признак,
особенность, свойство 2. а характерный;
типичный (of)
chariot колесница
chateau (pi. -teaux) 1) замок, загородный дворец
2)	вилла, шато
chevet end апсидальное литургическое восточ¬
ное окончание (большой церкви с аркадой вок¬
руг полукруглого окончания клироса, от кото¬
рого лучами расходятся часовни)
chevron шеврон (орнамент)', зигзагообразный
узор
chimney 1) дымовая труба 2) камин
choir 1) церковный хор 2) хоры (верхняя откры¬
тая в интерьер галерея или балкон в парадном
зале или в церкви) 3) клирос (в православной
церки место на возвышении перед иконоста¬
сом, где находятся певчие)
chorus хор
chromium хром
chunky короткий и толстый
church церковь
church architecture культовая (церковная) архи¬
тектура
church door церковная дверь
CIAM (Congres International d’Architecture
Moderne) СИАМ (международная организа¬
ция, основанная в 1928 г. в Швейцарии. Зани¬
малась проблемами планировки и социальной
роли архитектуры. В период ее наибольшего
влияния (1930-е гг.) среди ее членов были В.Гро¬
пиус, Jle Корбюзье и А.Аалто.)

cinquefoil пятилистник
circle круг, окружность
circular имеющий форму круга, круглый
circular window круглое окно
circulation 1) циркуляция, круговорот 2) потоки
движения в здании
circumference 1) окружность 2) периметр; пери¬
ферия
circumstances обстоятельства; условия; положе¬
ние дел
cistern 1) цистерна, резервуар 2) водосборный
резервуар
city-scape городской пейзаж
civic гражданский
civic building здание городской администрации,
ратуша
civic centre городской административный
центр, где находится муниципалитет и др.
городские учреждения
civil 1) гражданский 2) штатский, невоенный
3)	мирской
clad (past и р. р. от clothe) покрытый
cladding 1) наружное ограждение (здания); за¬
полнение каркаса 2) обшивка, облицовка
(стен); тонкое покрытие для укрепления или
украшения
clarity чистота, прозрачность; ясность
clear 1) ясный, четкий 2) свободный
clear space свободное пространство
clearance расчистка, очистка
clerestory = clearstory 1) стена с ленточными ок¬
нами чердачного этажа или надстройки над
крышей; ленточные окна в стене чердачного
этажа 2) верхний ряд окон, освещающий
главный неф
clerestory window окно верхнего света; окно в
верхней части стенки (для освещения чердач¬
ного помещения)
clergy духовенство, клир
clever 1) умный 2) талантливый; удачный
3)	ловкий, искусный
clever plan удачный план
climate 1) климат 2) атмосфера; настроение;
состояние общественного мнения
cling прилипать; цепляться; держаться
clock face циферблат часов
cloister (cloistered) vault монастырский (сомкну¬
тый) свод
cloister 1) монастырь 2) крытая аркада или галерея
close 1) близкий 2) плотный, компактный
3)	тщательный, подробный; точный
close-knit связанный тесными узами, сплочен¬
ный
closely 1) близко; тесно, плотно 2) внимательно
clothing 1) одежда 2) наружная обшивка
(здания)
clue ключ (к разгадке)
cluster 1) группа, скопление 2) группа домов с
общим двором и садом
cluster-pier пучковый пилон; групповой пилон;
составная колонна
clustered расположенный группами, сгруппиро¬
ванный
clustered pier пучковый пилон; групповой пи¬
лон; составная колонна
clutter 1. п 1) суматоха 2) беспорядок; хаос
2. v 1) приводить в беспорядок, наваливать
2)	перегружать, загромождать
coating покрытие; слой; покров
coffer 1. п кессон (потолка) 2. v кессонировать
coffered ceiling кессонный потолок
coffered roof кессонная крыша
coffering кессонный потолок, кессон
coffin chamber камера с саркофагом
coincide совпадать
coke-smelted iron железококс
collapse 1. п крушение; гибель; падение; крах; про¬
вал 2. v рушиться, обваливаться; терпеть крах
collar (металлический) “воротник” (надеваемый
на колонну)
collect собирать
collective коллективный, совместный, общий;
совокупный
collegiate church коллегиальная церковь, собор¬
ная церковь (с коллегией или капитулом)
collude тайно сговариваться
colonnade 1) колоннада (аркада) 2) двойной ряд
деревьев
colonnette маленькая колонна
colossal колоссальный, громадный, исполин¬
ский
colour-code условная окраска (проводов и т.п.)
coloured 1) раскрашенный 2) цветной
colouring колорит, тональность
column колонна
column figure колонна-скульптура, колонна-
статуя

column shaft ствол колонны
columnar колоннообразный
combat бой, единоборство, поединок
combine 1) объединять, сочетать 2) объединять¬
ся; сливаться, соединяться
commemorate устраивать в память, в честь; оз¬
наменовывать; служить напоминанием
commercial architecture коммерческая архитек¬
тура, архитектура торговых зданий
commercial building коммерческое здание
commercialism торгашеский дух, меркантилизм
commission 1. п заказ 2. v дать заказ
commit поручать, вверять
commitment 1) вручение, передача 2) затраты,
капиталовложения; обязательства
commodity предмет потребления, товар
commonplace банальный, избитый
communal 1) общинный 2) коллективный, ком¬
мунальный, общественный
community 1) община; общество; объединение
2)	местность, населенный пункт, округа;
микрорайон; жилой массив
comparatively сравнительно; относительно
compete 1) состязаться, соревноваться 2) конку¬
рировать
competition 1) соревнование, состязание 2) кон¬
куренция 3) конкурс
comply with подчиняться (правилам)
Composite order композитный ордер
compound составной
compound pier составная колонна (групповой
пилон)
compression сжатие
concave вогнутый, впалый
concave moulding вогнутое лепное украшение
concavity вогнутая поверхность, вогнутость
conceal 1) скрывать 2) маскировать, прятать
concentric концентрический
conceive задумывать
concern 1. n 1) интерес 2) забота; беспокойство
3)	дело, отношение 4) значение, важность 2.
v 1) касаться, иметь отношение 2) заботить¬
ся, беспокоиться 3) заниматься, интересо¬
ваться (чем-л.)
concession уступка
concourse зал ожидания {напр, в аэропорту)
concrete бетон
condemn 1) осуждать, порицать 2) приговари¬
вать 3) браковать
conduit 1) канал; водовод, водопровод, акведук
2)	желоб, лоток 3) трубопровод 4) кабеле¬
провод
cone конус
confer присваивать (звание), присуждать (сте¬
пень); предоставлять
configuration конфигурация; очертание; форма
confine ограничивать
confirmation 1) подтверждение 2) утверждение
3)	подкрепление
conform (to) 1) согласовываться с чем-л. 2) соот¬
ветствовать чему-л. 3) приспосабливать(ся)
4)	подчиняться
congregation 1) скопление, собрание 2) прихо¬
жане; молящиеся; паства
conical 1) конический 2) конусный, конусооб¬
разный
consciousness сознание
consequence 1) (по)следствие 2) вывод, заключе¬
ние
consequently следовательно; поэтому; в резуль¬
тате
conservatory 1) теплица, оранжерея 2) зимний сад
consider 1) рассматривать, обсуждать 2) обду¬
мывать 3) полагать, считать 4) принимать во
внимание, учитывать
consideration 1) рассмотрение, обсуждение
2) соображение 3) внимание
console консоль; кронштейн
constraint принуждение
construct 1) строить, возводить, сооружать
2) конструировать, создавать
construction 1) строительство, стройка, пос¬
тройка, возведение 2) конструкция, кон¬
структивная система; сооружение
Constructivism конструктивизм
consumerism стимулирование потребительских
интересов
contempt презрение, неуважение
continue 1) продолжать(ся); оставаться; сохра¬
няться) 2) простираться 3) служить продол¬
жением
continuity непрерывность; неразрывность; це¬
лостность
continuous 1) непрерывный; постоянного дей¬
ствия; длительный 2) сплошной
continuous movement непрерывное движение
contribution вклад
controversy спор, дискуссия, полемика

convent монастырь (преим. женский)
convention 1) общее согласие 2) принятое пра¬
вило, обычай 3) условность
conventional 1) традиционный 2) условный
convert 1) превращать 2) обращать(ся) в другую
веру
convex выпуклый
convex arch арка двойной кривизны
convexity выпуклость
convey выражать, передавать
convince убеждать, уверять
cool охлаждать(ся); остывать
coolness 1) прохлада 2) хладнокровие; спокой¬
ствие 3) холодок, охлаждение (в отношени¬
ях)
coping 1) перекрывающая плита 2) парапетная
плита 3) гребень (стены, парапета) 4) вер¬
хний ряд кладки (стены)
copper медь
corbel 1. л 1) поясок, консоль, выступ 2) крон¬
штейн 2. v расположить на кронштейне; под¬
держивать кронштейном
corbel table горизонтальный ряд кладки, образу¬
ющий парапет, опирающийся на консоль¬
ные выступы
core остов; каркас; ядро; стержень
Corinthian column коринфская колонна
Corinthian order коринфский ордер
corner house дом на углу, угловой дом
cornice карниз
corona отлив (карниза, облома); венец; венчаю¬
щий карниз
corporate корпоративный; коллективный
Corten steel кортеновская сталь
cosmos 1) космос, вселенная 2) упорядоченная
система, гармония
cosy уютный, удобный
count 1. я 1) счет, подсчет, учет 2) пункт 2. v счи¬
тать, подсчитывать
Counter-Reformation 1. п контрреформация
2. а направленный против (протестантской)
Реформации; прокатолический
counteract противодействовать
counterbalance уравновешивать, служить проти¬
вовесом
counterpart 1) копия, дубликат 2) что-л., допол¬
няющее другое, хорошо сочетающееся с дру¬
гим 3) противная сторона
country 1. я 1) страна 2) деревня, сельская мес¬
тность 3) территория, район, местность
4)	рельеф, ландшафт 2. а деревенский,
сельский
countryside сельская местность
course 1) курс, направление 2) горизонтальный
ряд кладки
courtyard двор
cover 1. п 1) крышка 2) верхний слой, покрытие
2. v 1) закрывать 2) покрывать
covered (за)крытый, покрытый
covered with inlaid marble инкрустированный
мрамором
coving выкружка (в штукатурных работах)
craft work 1) ремесленное производство 2) кус¬
тарная продукция
craftsmanship мастерство, искусство
cramped 1) стиснутый, стесненный 2) тесный
create творить, создавать
creation 1) созидание, творчество 2) произве¬
дение
creator творец, создатель
creature создание, творение, живое существо;
человек
creche (фр.) детские ясли
credit 1. п доверие, вера 2. v 1) доверять, верить
2) (with) приписывать
crepidoma крепида, крепидома (приподнятое ос¬
нование, на котором обычно возводились древ¬
ние греческие храмы), стереобат
crescent дома, стоящие полукругом
crisp ясно очерченный, четкий
critique (фр.) 1) критика 2) рецензия, критичес¬
кая статья
crocket готический архитектурный орнамент в
виде листьев
crop = сгоре венчающее украшение
cross 1. п крест 2. а поперечный 3. v пересекать
cross-braced с крестовой связью, с поперечной
связью
cross rib поперечное ребро
cross vault крестовый свод
crossing 1) пересечение 2) перекресток 3) сре-
докрестие
crouch припасть к земле (от страха или для на¬
падения)
crown 1. п 1) вершина; венец 2) шелыга арки или
свода 3) распалубка свода 2. v венчать, увен¬
чивать, заканчивать собою верхнюю часть

crucifiction распятие
cruciform крестообразный
crude необработанный, грубый
crypt крипта; подземный тайник; склеп
cube куб
cubical имеющий форму куба
cubical capital капитель в форме куба, кубиковая
капитель
culminate достигать высшей точки или степени
cupid купидон, амурчик
cupola купол
curl 1. п скручивание, закручивание; завиток
2.	v скручивать(ся), закручивать(ся); зави¬
ваться), виться
curling закручивающися, вьющийся
current текущий; нынешний; современный
curvaceous искривленный; изогнутый
curvature 1) курватура (незначительное от-
клонение от геометрической прямолинейнос¬
ти очертаний отдельных частей здания)
2)	закругление (линия) 3) кривизна, изгиб,
кривая
curve 1. п 1) кривая 2) изгиб; закругление; кри¬
визна 2. v гнуть, сгибать; изгибать(ся)
curved 1) изогнутый, кривой 2) криволинейный
curved gable криволинейный щипец
curved roof криволинейная крыша
curvilinear криволинейный
curving изгиб; изгибание; искривление
cushion 1) подушка 2) подкладка 3) опорный
элемент; пята свода
cushion capital капитель романской архитек¬
туры в форме куба с закругленной нижней
опорной поверхностью, капитель с пятой
свода
customary обычный, привычный; основанный
на опыте, обычае
cyberspace кибернетическое пространство
cylindrical vault цилиндрический свод
cyma 1) архитектурный облом двоякой кривиз¬
ны; профиль, фасонный элемент 2) киматий
(верхняя плита венчающего карниза)
cyma recta гусёк (<архитектурный облом)
cyma reversa каблучок (<архитектурный облом)
cypress кипарис
D
damp влажный, сырой
daring смелый, дерзкий
daylight дневной свет, естественное освещение
De Stijl “Стиль” (<объединение голландских архи¬
текторов и художников в 1917—1931гг. Поиски
строгих, геометрически четких композицион¬
ных решений объединили архитекторов-рацио-
налистов (ПЛуд, Г.Ритвелд) и представителей
абстрактного искусства (П.Мондриан))
deal with 1) иметь дело 2) рассматривать 3) стал¬
киваться, бороться
decadence 1) упадок, ухудшение 2) декаден¬
тство, упадочничество, декаданс
decay 1. п распад, упадок 2. v приходить в упадок
deception обман; ложь; хитрость
decide решать(ся), принимать решение; делать
выбор
deck палуба
decline 1. л 1) склон, уклон 2) падение, упадок,
спад 2. v 1) наклоняться, клониться 2) прихо¬
дить в упадок
decor декор, украшение, орнамент
decorate украшать, декорировать
Decorated style английская готика XIV века
decoration украшение
decorative декоративный
decorative art декоративное (прикладное) ис¬
кусство
decorative design декоративный узор
decrease 1. п уменьшение, убывание 2. v умень¬
шаться), убывать
dedicate посвящать
dedicated преданный; увлеченный
dedicatory посвящающий, посвятительный
deduce выводить, делать вывод
deem полагать, думать, считать
deep 1) глубокий 2) серьезный, не поверх¬
ностный
defective 1) несовершенный 2) недостаточный
3)	поврежденный, дефектный
defence оборона, защита
defensive works оборонительное сооружение
deficiency 1) отсутствие, нехватка, дефицит
2)	недостаток
definable поддающийся определению, опреде¬
лимый

define 1) определять, давать, определение
2)	очерчивать, обозначать
definition 1) определение 2) ясность, четкость
defy 1) бросать вызов 2) игнорировать, пренеб¬
регать 3) не поддаваться
dehumanize 1) делать бесчеловечным 2) делать
безликим; лишать душевного тепла
deity 1) божество 2) божественность
deliberate 1) преднамеренный 2) обдуманный
3)	осторожный, осмотрительный 4) нетороп¬
ливый
delicate утонченный, изысканный
demolish разрушать; уничтожать; сносить
dense 1) плотный; компактный 2) частый;
густой
densely густо, плотно, компактно
dentil дентикула, зубчатый орнамент
deny 1) отрицать, отвергать 2) отказывать, не
давать
department store универсальный магазин
departure 1) отъезд, уход 2) уклонение, отклоне¬
ние, отступление
depict изображать
deprecate энергично возражать, протестовать;
резко осуждать
deprecation возражение; протест; осуждение,
неодобрение
depression 1) угнетенное состояние; депрессия
2)	понижение местности; впадина; след от
вдавливания
depth 1) глубина 2) высота 3) толщина
derive from происходить
derogate умалять
derogatory умаляющий; подрывающий; ослаб¬
ляющий; унижающий
describe 1) описывать, изображать, характери¬
зовать 2) описать, начертить
description 1) описание, характеристика, изоб¬
ражение 2) вычерчивание, описывание
descriptive описательный, изобразительный,
наглядный
design 1. и 1) конструкция 2) план, замысел;
проект, проектное решение 3) чертеж, эскиз
4)	проектирование; расчет 5) дизайн 2. v про¬
ектировать; рассчитывать
design guide руководство по проектированию
designer 1) конструктор, проектировщик 2) кон¬
структор одежды, модельер 3) декоратор
4)дизайнер
destroy разрушать, уничтожать
destruction разрушение, уничтожение
detached отдельный, стоящий особняком
detachment отделение; выделение; разъедине¬
ние
detailing деталировка
detract from отнимать, уменьшать
development 1) застройка; освоение (террито¬
рии) 2) развитие, разработка 3) проект за¬
стройки квартала или микрорайона
device 1) план, схема, затея 2) узор, рисунок,
композиция 3) прием 4) устройство, приспо¬
собление, прибор
devise задумывать, придумывать, изобретать
devote 1) предаваться, отдавать себя целиком
2)	посвящать
devotion 1) преданность, привязанность 2) мн.
молитвы
diamond алмаз; бриллиант
diamond-cutting огранка алмаза
dictatorial диктаторский
dictum изречение, афоризм
differentiate 1) различать(ся), отличать(ся) 2) ви¬
доизменять
dig копать
dignitary сановник, лицо, занимающее высокий
пост
dignity достоинство, чувство собственного дос¬
тоинства
diminutive маленький, миниатюрный
dirigible mooring mast причальная мачта для ди¬
рижаблей
disadvantage 1) невыгода, невыгодное положе¬
ние 2) вред, ущерб, убыток; неудобство
3)	помеха
disassemblage разборка, демонтаж
disconcert приводить в замешательство; смущать
discord разногласие, разлад
discourage 1) расхолаживать, отбивать охоту
2) отговаривать, отсоветовать
discover 1) узнавать, обнаруживать, раскрывать
2) делать открытия, открывать
discovery 1) открытие 2) раскрытие, обнаруже¬
ние
disdain 1) презрение; пренебрежение 2) надмен¬
ность
disguise маскировать; скрывать, не показывать
dismantle разбирать, демонтировать; лишать
оборудования

dismiss отпускать, освобождать
dismissive дающий освобождение, освобож¬
дающий
disorder беспорядок
disordered 1) приведенный в беспорядок, спу¬
танный 2) расстроенный, нарушенный
dispense (with) обходиться (без чего-л.)
display 1. п выставка, показ 2. v 1) выставлять,
демонстрировать 2) проявлять, обнару¬
живать
dispose располагать, размещать, расставлять
disposition расположение, размещение
disregard 1. п невнимание, равнодушие, пренеб¬
режение 2. v не принимать во внимание; не
обращать внимания, игнорировать; пре¬
небрегать
dissolve 1) разрушать, уничтожать
2) исчезать
distance расстояние, дистанция
distantly на расстоянии; вдалеке, в отдадении;
отдаленно
distinct отдельный; особый; отличный (от дру¬
гих)
distinction 1) различие; отличие 2) выдающиеся
качества 3) оригинальность; индивидуаль¬
ность
distinctive отличительный
distinguish 1) различать, распознавать 2) харак¬
теризовать, отличать
distinguish 1) различить; разглядеть 2) видеть или
проводить различие, различать, распозна¬
вать 3) характеризовать, отличать
distort 1) искажать; искривлять; перекашивать
2) деформировать
distorted 1) искаженный; искривленный; пере¬
кошенный 2) деформированный
distortion 1) искажение; искривление; искрив¬
ленная, неправильная форма 2) деформация
distract 1) отвлекать, рассеивать 2) сбивать с
толку; смущать; расстраивать
distribute распределять
disturb 1) нарушать ход 2) беспокоить, достав¬
лять хлопоты, причинять беспокойство
divert отклонять, отводить; направлять в другую
сторону
do without обходиться без (чего-л.)
doctrine учение, доктрина
domain 1) владения, территория 2) область, сфе¬
ра, поле деятельности
dome 1. п купол 2. v венчать куполом
dome system система купольных сводов
dome-shaped куполообразный
domed с куполом или с куполами
domestic architecture архитектура жилища, жи¬
лищная архитектура
domestic building жилое здание
domesticity привязанность к дому
door screen дверная решетка
doorknocker дверной молоток
doorway дверной проем
Doric column дорическая колонна
Doric order дорический ордер
Doric temple дорический храм
dormer слуховое, мансардное окно
dormer window слуховое окно
double door двупольная дверь
double-layer двухслойный
doubtless 1) несомненно, вне всяких сомнений,
без сомнения 2) вполне вероятно
down-to-earth 1) упавший до предела 2) (пре¬
дельно) популярный, не требующий специ¬
альной подготовки
downward спускающийся, нисходящий, направ¬
ленный вниз
downward(s) вниз, книзу
draft 1) чертеж, эскиз 2) проект документа
dramatic 1) волнующий, яркий 2) эффектный,
бросающийся в глаза
drapery 1. п драпировка 2. v драпировать, укра¬
шать (тканями)
draw on черпать, заимствовать
drawing чертеж; рисунок; эскиз
dream-like сказочный, фантастический; при¬
зрачный
dressing 1) о(б)теска (камня); придание декора¬
тивной фактуры (камню) 2) орнамент
dressing room туалетная комната; гардеробная
drill сверлить, просверливать, высверливать
drum 1) барабан 2) (расширяющаяся кверху)
часть капители
ductwork система (сеть) воздуховодов
duplex двойной, спаренный
durable долговечный, стойкий; прочный, на¬
дежный
dwarf карликовый
dwelling жилище, дом

Е
E-shaped Е-образный
early English раннеанглийский архитектурный
стиль, раннеанглийская готика (XII—XIII вв.)
early Gothic ранняя готика
early Renaissance ранний Ренессанс
earthy 1) земляной, землистый 2) земной, жи¬
тейский
echinus эхин (часть капители дорической колон-
ны в виде круглой в плане каменной подушки с
выпуклым криволинейным профилем)
eclecticism эклектицизм; эклектика
edge 1) край, кромка 2) бордюр 3) грань
edict указ
Edward the Confessor Эдуард Исповедник
effect 1. п 1) результат, следствие 2) воздействие,
влияние; действие, эффект 2. v осущес¬
твлять, выполнять, совершать, проводить
(в жизнь)
efficiency действенность, эффективность
egg-and-dart украшение иониками и стрелками;
ионик — орнаментальный мотив, применяю¬
щийся на капителях и на карнизах в ионичес¬
ком и коринфском ордерах
Egypt Египет
Egyptian 1) египтянин, египтянка 2) египетский
Egyptian sphinx египетский сфинкс
elaborate 1. а тщательно разработанный; проду¬
манный; искусно сделанный 2. v тщательно
разрабатывать, разрабатывать в деталях
elaborated 1) тщательно разработанный 2) ис¬
кусно сделанный; тонкой работы
elaborately 1) тщательно, продуманно 2) ис¬
кусно
elaboration тщательная разработка; выработка
elevated высокий, возвышенный, поднятый;
надземный
elevated platform высокая (приподнятая, над¬
земная) платформа
elevation 1) вид спереди; фасад 2) вертикальная
проекция, профиль
eliminate 1) устранять, исключать 2) ликвидиро¬
вать, уничтожать
Elizabethan елизаветинский (относящийся к эпо¬
хе английской королевы Елизаветы I)
elongated растянутый, удлиненный
eloquent 1) красноречивый 2) выразительный
Elysium, the 1) элизий, элизиум; поля блажен¬
ных 2) рай, мир блаженства
embalm 1) бальзамировать; 2) сохранять от заб¬
вения
embellish 1) украшать 2) приукрашивать
embellishment 1) украшение 2) приукрашивание
embodiment воплощение
embody 1) воплощать; изображать, олицетво¬
рять 2) осуществлять 3) заключать в себе
embrace 1) охватывать 2) включать, заключать в
себе, содержать
emerge 1) появляться 2) выясняться 3) вставать,
возникать
emphasize придавать особое значение; подчер¬
кивать; акцентировать
employ употреблять, применять, использовать
emptiness пустота
emulate 1) соревноваться, состязаться, стре¬
миться превзойти; соперничать 2) подра¬
жать, следовать примеру
en route (фр.) по пути
enable 1) давать возможность 2) облегчать
encase полностью закрывать; заключать
encircle окружать; опоясывать; делать круг
enclose окружать, огораживать; заключать
enclosed закрытый, замкнутый; огороженный
enclosure 1) огороженное место 2) ограждение,
ограда
end 1. п конец, окончание; край; торец 2. v за¬
канчиваться), оканчивать(ся), завершать
3.	конечный, крайний, концевой
endure длиться, выдерживать испытание време¬
нем
enduring 1) длительный, продолжительный
2) прочный; постоянный
enframe 1) вставлять в рамку 2) обрамлять
engage (in) заниматься (чем-л.)
engaged column полуколонна; пилястр(а)
engaged pillar пилястр(а), полупилон
engineering 1) техника; технология 2) строи¬
тельство 3) проектирование; разработка
enhance увеличивать, усиливать
enlightenment просвещение
enliven 1) оживлять 2) делать интереснее, разно¬
образить
enormous громадный, огромный, грандиозный
enrich украшать
enrichment украшение, отделка
enslave порабощать, делать рабом

entablature антаблемент
entasis энтазис
entertainment 1) зрелище, представление 2) раз¬
влечение, увеселение
entirely всецело, вполне, совсем, совершенно,
полностью
entity 1) нечто реально существующее, объект
2)	целостность
environment окружающая среда; природно-лан-
дшафтная среда
epistyle эпистиль (архитрав)
epitome изображение в миниатюре
equal 1. а равный, одинаковый 2. v 1) равняться,
быть равным 2) приравнивать, уравнивать
equidistant равноотстоящий
equilateral равносторонний
equip снаряжать, оборудовать
equipment оборудование, оснащение
era эра, эпоха
eradicate 1) вырывать с корнем 2) искоренять,
уничтожать, истреблять
erect возводить
erection возведение (сооружений)
escalator эскалатор
escape 1) бежать 2) избежать
essence сущность, существо
establish 1) основывать, учреждать, организовы¬
вать 2) создавать, устанавливать 3) упрочи¬
вать, укреплять
established 1) установленный, доказанный 2) уп¬
рочившийся, установившийся, укоренив¬
шийся
establishment 1) основание, введение 2) учреж¬
дение, заведение; ведомство
estimate подсчитывать приблизительно, прики¬
дывать
eurhythmy эвритмия (гармоничная соразмер¬
ность всех частей архитектурной компо¬
зиции)
evaluate оценивать, давать оценку; определять
качество, важность
even 1. а ровный, гладкий 2. v выравнивать,
сглаживать
evenly ровно, гладко
evidence 1) очевидность
2)	основание; данные, признаки
evident очевидный, явный, ясный; наглядный
evil 1) зло, вред 2) бедствие, несчастье 3) грех,
порок
evocative (о!) восстанавливающий в памяти
evoke вызывать
evolve 1) эволюционировать 2) развиваться; раз¬
вертываться 3) развивать
evolved развитый
exaggeratedly преувеличенно; подчеркнуто
exalt возвышать, возносить, возвеличивать
example пример
excavate делать раскопки, раскапывать
excavation раскопки
excess 1) избыток, излишек 2) излишество;
чрезмерность
excessive чрезмерный
excite возбуждать, волновать
excitement возбуждение, волнение
exclude исключать; не допускать
execution исполнение, выполнение
exemplar 1) образец, пример для подражания
2)	тип, образ
exert оказывать давление, влиять
exhibit 1. и 1) экспонат 2) выставка, экспозиция
2. v 1) показывать, обнаруживать, проявлять
2)	выставлять, экспонировать; участвовать в
выставке
exhibition выставка
expand расширять(ся); увеличивать(ся) в объе¬
ме; развивать(ся); распространяться
expansion 1) расширение, удлинение 2) раз¬
витие
expansion joint температурный (компенсацион¬
ный) шов
expansion of cities развитие городов за предела¬
ми существующих границ
experience 1. и 1) (жизненный) опыт 2) пережи¬
вание 2. v испытывать, знать по опыту
experiential основанный на опыте
explicit ясный; явный; точный, определенный
exploit 1) эксплуатировать 2) использовать
exponent 1) истолкователь 2) представитель
3)	образец, тип 4) экспонент, участник вы¬
ставки
expose выставлять; оставлять незащищенным;
раскрывать
exposed обнаженный, открытый; незащищен¬
ный
exposed concrete наружные зоны бетона в соору¬
жении
expound 1) излагать 2) разъяснять, толковать
express выражать, изображать, отражать

expression выражение
Expressionism экспрессионизм
expressive выразительный, экспрессивный
exqusite изысканный, утонченный
extend 1) простирать(ся), тянуть(ся) 2) протяги¬
вать 3) расширять; продолжать; удлинять
extension 1) пристройка 2) расширение; удлине¬
ние 3) развитие (города за пределами сущес¬
твующих границ) 4) выступающая (консоль¬
ная) часть
extensive 1) обширный, широкий, пространный
2)	далеко идущий
exterior 1. п внешний, наружный вид; внешняя,
наружная сторона 2. а внешний, наружный
exterior space наружное пространство
external наружный, внешний
extrados верхняя (наружная) поверхность арки
или свода
extraordinary необычайный; исключительный,
замечательный, выдающийся, незаурядный
extreme 1. п крайность; чрезмерность; крайняя
степень 2. а крайний, предельный; самый
дальний
extremely крайне
exuberant 1) роскошный 2) излишний, избыточ¬
ный 3) пышный, цветистый (о стиле)
eye 1) световое отверстие (в вершине купола);
смотровое окошко; круглое слуховое окно
2)	глазок (круглая или почти круглая централь¬
ная часть волюты в ионической капители)
F
fabric 1) ткань 2) сетка 3) каркас здания 4)
структура
fagade = facade фасад; главный фасад (здания)
face 1. п 1) лицевая поверхность; грань; обли¬
цовка 2) фасад 2. v 1) облицовывать, отделы¬
вать 2) стоять лицом к (<чему-л.), быть обра¬
щенным в определенную сторону; выходить
фасадом к (чему-л.)
facet 1. п грань (алмаза) 1. v шлифовать, гранить
faceted граненый, шлифованный
facilitate облегчать, помогать, способствовать
facilities возможности, благоприятные условия
facing 1) облицовка 2) облицовочные работы
factory завод, фабрика
fail терпеть неудачу, не сбываться, не удаваться
fair I 1) честный, справедливый 2) красивый
3)	чистый, незапятнанный
fair II ярмарка; выставка
fairy-tale 1) сказка 2) сказочный
faith 1) вера, доверие 2) вера, вероисповедание
3)	честность; верность
faithful 1) правдивый, достоверный 2) точный,
верный
fall down 1) падать 2) рушиться, обваливаться
falter действовать нерешительно, колебаться;
дрогнуть
fan vault веерный свод
fan-shaped веерообразный
fascia (pi. -iae) 1) поясок; валик; полочка (архи¬
тектурный облом) 2) фасций, фасция (одна из
трех полос, на которые членится ионический
или коринфский архитрав)
fascinating 1) очаровательный, обворожитель¬
ный, пленительный 2) увлекательный, захва¬
тывающий
fashion мода, стиль
fashion shop ателье мод (высокого класса)
fashionable модный, фешенебельный
fast-moving 1) скоростной 2) стремительный,
динамичный
faulty 1) несовершенный 2) неправильный,
ошибочный
favour 1. п 1) расположение, одобрение 2) одол¬
жение, любезность 2. v 1) оказывать внима¬
ние, любезность 2) помогать, поддерживать
feasible 1) выполнимый, осуществимый 2) воз¬
можный, вероятный, правдоподобный
feature 1. п особенность, характер; признак,
свойство, черта 2. v являться характерной
чертой, свойством
feeling чувство, эмоция, чутье
female женский
feminine женский
fertile 1) плодородный, изобильный 2) плодови¬
тый, насыщенный
fertility 1) плодородие 2) богатство 3) плодови¬
тость
fete (фр.) чествовать; праздновать
field of vision поле зрения
filigree 1) филигранная работа 2) накладные де¬
ревянные ажурные украшения (выштампо-
ванные из фанеры, древесно-волокнистой пли¬
ты и т.п.)

fill in заполнять, заделывать
fillet полочка, поясок
fin de siecle (фр.) характерный для конца XIX в.,
декадентский
find находка, обнаружение
fine утонченный, изящный; красивый
fine art изобразительное искусство
finely изящно; красиво
finial заканчивающее украшение, флерон, фиал
(декоративное завершение шпилей, фронтонов)
finish 1. п 1) конец, завершение 2) закончен¬
ность, завешенность 3) отделка 2. v 1) закан¬
чивать, завершать 2) доводить до совершен¬
ства 3) отделывать
fire обжигать; сушить
fire resistant огнеупорный, огнестойкий; несго¬
раемый
firm крепкий, твердый, прочный
firmness крепость; прочность, устойчивость
fit соответствовать, годиться; совпадать; приго¬
нять, прилаживать
fixing 1) (при)крепление; закрепление 2) мн.
принадлежности, оборудование 3) мн. зак¬
ладные детали
flamboyant 1) “пламенеющий” (стиль поздней
готики) 2) яркий, пылающий, огненный
3)	вульгарный, кричащий
flame пламя
flank 1. п бок, сторона 2. v быть расположенным
сбоку, располагаться по бокам
flare 1) расширять, раздвигать 2) постепенно
расширяться к краю, расклешиваться 3) вы¬
ступать наружу, выдаваться; быть выпуклым
flat I квартира
flat II плоский
flat roof плоская крыша, плоское покрытие
flatten делать(ся) ровным, плоским; выравни¬
вать, разглаживать
fleuron флерон (архитектурный орнамент в виде
стилизованного цветка)
flight of steps лестничный марш
float 1) плыть 2) нежестко крепить
floating 1) плавающий 2) “плавающая” кон¬
струкция; самоустанавливающаяся, жестко
не закрепленная деталь
flood затоплять
floor 1) пол 2) перекрытие 3) этаж
floor slab 1) плита (бетонного) пола 2) плита
(железобетонного) перекрытия
floor space площадь пола; площадь (здания или
помещения)
floral design цветочный узор
flourish расцветать, процветать
flowering расцвет
flowing текущий
fluid 1) текучий, неустойчивый, изменяющийся
2)	плавный, гладкий
fluid line плавная линия
fluidity текучесть, подвижность, изменчивость;
гладкость, плавность
flute каннелюра 0колонны); канавка; паз; бороз¬
дка; желобок; гофр
fluted column колонна с каннелюрами на стволе
fluting система каннелюр (на колонне), канавка,
бороздка
flying buttress арочный контрфорс, аркбутан
foil 1. п лиственный орнамент в готике 2. v укра¬
шать лиственным орнаментом
foliage листва; листья
follow следовать, быть преемником, привер¬
женцем
follower последователь, приверженец
folly искусственные руины (парковое украше¬
ние)', причудливо украшенная беседка
font купель
foolhardy безрассудно храбрый, отчаянный, лю¬
бящий ненужный риск
forbidding непривлекательный, отталкивающий
forefront передний край, центр деятельности
form 1) форма, конфигурация 2) форма (для
литья) 3) опалубка
formal 1) официальный 2) формальный 3) пра¬
вильный, симметричный; строго расплани¬
рованный
formal garden английский сад
formalism формализм; педантичность
former 1) прежний, бывший 2) (the ~) первый
(из двух)
formerly прежде, раньше, некогда
formwork опалубка
fortified укрепленный
fortress крепость
forum форум, общественный центр древнерим¬
ских городов
foundation основание; фундамент
founder member член-основатель, член-учре-
дитель
fountain фонтан

fracture 1. n трещина, излом; разлом; разрыв
2. v ломать(ся); давать трещину
frail хрупкий, непрочный; неустойчивый
frame 1. л 1) рама 2) каркас, остов 2. v обрамлять
framed construction рамная конструкция; кар¬
касная деревянная конструкция
framed structure стержневая конструкция; рам¬
ная конструкция; каркасная конструкция;
фахверк
framework каркас (здания); стержневая кон¬
струкция
framing 1) каркас; стержневая несущая кон¬
струкция; остов; обвязка 2) обрамление
проема
free plan свободный план
free-plan composition свободная композиция
free-standing свободно стоящий
free-standing column свободно стоящая колонна
freeman 1) свободный, независимый, полноп¬
равный гражданин 2) почетный гражданин
города
fresco фреска
fresco painting фресковая живопись
friary мужской монастырь
frieze фриз
frieze of round arcading фриз из полукруглых
арок
frivolous 1) пустой, легкомысленный; фриволь¬
ный; поверхностный 2) пустячный, незначи¬
тельный
front фасад, лицевая сторона
front door наружная входная дверь
frustrate расстраивать, срывать (планы)', делать
тщетным, бесполезным
frustration 1) расстройство (планов); крушение
(надежд) 2) разочарование
fulfil выполнять; исполнять, осуществлять
fully fledged законченный, развившийся
Functionalism функционализм
funerary погребальный, траурный
funerary temple погребальный храм
funnel-like chimney воронкообразная дымовая
труба
furnace печь
furnish обставлять мебелью, меблировать
furniture мебель
furtherance продвижение, помощь; поддержка
G
gable фронтон; щипец
gain 1) выигрывать, добиваться 2) получать,
приобретать
gang 1) бригада; партия 2) компания
gantry 1) портал козлового или портального кра¬
на; балка мостового крана; портал над желез¬
нодорожными путями 2) рабочая платформа
3)	козловой или портальный кран
gap зазор, промежуток, интервал
garden design пейзажное садоводство, садовая
архитектура
gargoyle горгулья, выступающая водосточная
труба в виде фантастической фигуры (в готи¬
ческой архитектуре)
garment 1) предмет одежды 2) одежда 3) покров,
одеяние
gateway воротный проем, ворота
gateway buildings здание-ворота
generation поколение
genius 1) гений, гениальный человек 2) гениаль¬
ность, одаренность
genuineness подлинность, аутентичность
geodesic dome геодезический купол (соору¬
жение)
geometric projection геометрическая проекция
geometry 1) геометрия 2) геометрические харак¬
теристики; геометрическая форма, конфигу¬
рация; внешнее очертание предмета
Georgian эпохи одного из английских королей Ге¬
оргов; георгианский (архитектурный стиль
XVIII- начала XIXвв.)
giant великан, гигант, исполин
gigantic гигантский
gilded позолоченный
gilding позолота, золочение
gilt позолоченный
girder горизонтальный конструктивный эле¬
мент; главная балка; ферма; прогон
give up 1) оставить, отказаться (от работы и
т.п.) 2) бросить (привычку) 3) уступить
given при наличии; с учетом, принимая во вни¬
мание
glamorize = glamourize приукрашивать
glass block стеклоблок
glass-skinned застекленный; одетый в стекло
glass-wall застекленная стена

glazed 1) застекленный 2) глазурованный
glazing остекление
glitter блестеть, сверкать
globalization принцип взаимозависимости всех
стран и народов мира
globe 1) шар 2) (the - ) земной шар
glorious 1) славный, знаменитый 2) великолеп¬
ный, чудесный, восхитительный
glow светиться; сверкать
good добро, благо
goods товар, товары
goods yard склад; площадка (для открытого хра¬
нения); сортировочная станция
gorge 1) выкружка, гусёк (архитектурные обло¬
мы) 2) валик ствола колонны или капители;
валик, отделяющий ствол колонны от капи¬
тели 3) слезник
Gothic готический
Gothic revival готическое возрождение, неоготи-
ческий стиль архитектуры (распространен¬
ный в XVIII в.)
Gothic S-curve готическая S-образная кривая
gradual постепенный, последовательный
grand 1) грандиозный, большой, величествен¬
ный 2) великолепный, пышный; роскошный
grandeur великолепие; пышность; гранди¬
озность
granite гранит
graphic design графика; графический проект
grasp 1) схватывать 2) охватить, понять; осоз¬
нать; усвоить
gravity сила тяжести; гравитация; сила веса
Greece Греция
Greek 1) грек, гречанка 2) греческий
Greek cross греческий крест, равноконечный
крест
Greek theatre греческий театр
green belt зеленая зона (вокруг города)
Gregorian chant григорианские песнопения
greyhound борзая
grid 1) сетка 2) решетка
griffin грифон (мифическое существо с тулови¬
щем льва и головой и крыльями орла)
grille 1) решетка (ограждения или заполнения
проема, декоративная) 2) ограждение; перила
3)	нерегулируемая вентиляционная решетка
grilled window окно с решеткой
groin (groined) vault крестовый свод
groin ребро (крестового свода)
groove 1) паз, канавка; выточка 2) каннелюра
(колонны)
grooved shaft ствол (колонны) с каннелюрами
grotto грот, пещера
ground floor цокольный этаж, первый этаж (на
уровне земли)
ground level уровень земли
ground-plan план здания на нулевой отметке,
план первого этажа
grouped сгруппированный, расположенный
группами
grouped column несколько колонн на одном пье¬
дестале
grouping группирование, группировка; созда¬
ние ансамбля сооружений
guide-line установка, принцип
gutta (pi. -ае) гутта или капелька (украшение)
н
habitable 1) удобный для жилья; жилой 2) обита¬
емый
habitat 1) жилище; место жительства 2) среда
обитания
half-hipped roof полувальмовая крыша
hall of justice зал правосудия
hammer-beam 1) подбалочник 2) консольная
балка, опорный консольный брус
hammer-beam roof балочное покрытие
hand labour ручной труд
handcrafted ручной, кустарной работы
handicraft 1. я 1) ремесло, ручная работа 2) ис¬
кусность, мастерство 2. а 1) искусный 2) руч¬
ной, кустарный
handle управлять, регулировать
happen случаться, происходить
happily успешно, удачно
harsh 1) грубый, шероховатый 2) резкий,
неприятный 3) режущий глаз, раздражаю¬
щий 4) строгий, суровый
heat loss теплопотери
heat-proof теплостойкий, жаропрочный
heavy traffic интенсивное движение
height высота
heighten 1) повышать(ся); усиливать(ся) 2) по¬
вышать, делать выше или высоким
helix (pi. helices) волюта, завиток

Hellenic эллинский, греческий
Hellenistic эллинистический, относящийся к
эллинизму
hem 1) подрубочный шов, рубец (на платке и
т.п.) 2) край, кромка; кайма
hemispherical полусферический
heterogeneous гетерогенный, разнородный
Hi-Tech хай-тек
hidden спрятанный, скрытый; тайный
hide 1) прятать(ся), скрывать(ся) 2) закрывать,
загораживать, скрывать
hieroglyph иероглиф
high Gothic высокая готика
high Renaissance Высокое Возрождение
highway большая дорога; шоссе, автомагис¬
траль, автострада
hinge петля (дверная или оконная); шарнир
hint намекать; давать понять
hipped roof вальмовая крыша; четырехскатная
крыша; шатровая крыша
historicism историзм
hold on 1) держаться за что-л. 2) продолжать де¬
лать что-л.
hold up поддерживать, подпирать
hole отверстие; дыра; полость
hollow пустой, полый
hollow moulding выкружка, покрытая лепным
украшением
homage почтение, уважение; преклонение, бла¬
гоговение
homogeneous однородный, гомогенный
honesty честность, правдивость
honeycomb structure ячеистая (сотовая) кон¬
струкция
hood зонт, навес; козырек
hook 1) крюк, крючок 2) крутой изгиб
hopelessly безнадежно, без (всякой) надежды
horseshoe arch подковообразная арка
hospice приют, богадельня
house 1. п индивидуальный (одноквартирный)
дом 2. v хранить, содержать, помещать
household god бог-покровитель семейного
очага
household word ходячее выражение; хорошо зна¬
комое, повседневное слово
housing 1) здание; жилище; помещение 2) жи¬
лищное строительство, застройка 3) дома,
жилье 4) жилищные условия, обеспечен¬
ность жильем
housing project 1) проект застройки 2) объект
жилищного строительства 3) жилой мик¬
рорайон; участок, застроенный жилыми до¬
мами
housing scheme 1) план, проект застройки (мик¬
рорайона) 2) застраиваемый микрорайон
(объект застройки)
hover парить; нависать
hovering парящий; нависающий
human человеческий
humane гуманный
humdrum скучный, банальный
hustle and bustle давка и сутолока
hyperbolic paraboloid гиперболический парабо¬
лоид
hypostyle hall гипостильный зал (обширное кры¬
тое помещение, потолок которого опирается
на многочисленные и часто поставленные ко¬
лонны)
hypotrachelium = gorgerin гипотрахелий, гипо-
трахелион (горизонтальный кольцеобразный
врез, отделяющий шейку капители дорическо¬
го ордера от фуста колонны)
I-beam двутавровая балка, двутавр
icon предмет поклонения, идол, кумир; знак,
символ
identical 1) тот же самый (об одном предмете)
2)	одинаковый, идентичный, тождественный
identify отождествлять, устанавливать тождес¬
тво; определять
identity 1) тождественность, идентичность,
тождество; 2) личность 3) отличительные
черты, особенности; индивидуальность, са¬
мобытность
idiosyncratic своеобразный, уникальный
ill-defined недостаточно определенный; неточно
указанный
image вид; образ, изображение; отпечаток,
оттиск
imagery 1) образы 2) скульптура, резьба 3) об¬
разность
imitate копировать, подражать
imitation копия, подражание
immeasurably неизмеримо, безмерно

immediate 1) непосредственный, прямой 2) не¬
медленный, безотлагательный
immensely в огромной степени
immerse погружать, окунать
impact влияние, воздействие, эффект
imperative 1. п обязанность, долг; приказание;
требование; императив 2. а настоятельный,
необходимый, срочный
imperfect несовершенный
imperfection несовершенство
impersonal 1) безличный 2) бескорыстный;
объективный, беспристрастный 3) обезли¬
ченный, безликий
imply 1) заключать в себе, значить 2) подразуме¬
вать, предполагать
impose 1) налагать, навязывать 2) производить
сильное впечатление
imposing производящий сильное впечатление;
внушительный, импозантный
impost 1) импост, пята арки или свода 2) импост
{окна)
imprint печать, след, отпечаток
improve улучшать, совершенствовать
improvement улучшение, усовершенствование
imtermediate agent вспомогательное средство
in accordance with в соответствии с чем-л., со¬
гласно чему-л.
in conjunction with совместно с; в сочетании с; во
взаимодействии с
in earnest всерьез, серьезно
in effect в действительности, в сущности
in favour of в пользу
in line with быть в согласии, соответствовать
чему-л.
in one’s own right по праву
in place of вместо
in pursuit of в поисках; в погоне за, преследуя
in response to в ответ на
in situ {лат.) 1) на месте, на строительной пло¬
щадке 2) монолитный {о бетоне)
in terms of на языке, с точки зрения
inadequate не отвечающий требованиям;
недостаточный; несоразмерный; неадек¬
ватный
inaugural speech речь при вступлении в дол¬
жность, на открытии выставки, музея и т.п.
incised вырезанный; высеченный; выгравиро¬
ванный; украшенный резьбой, резной
inclined wall наклонная стена
incorporate 1) соединять(ся) 2) объединять(ся)
3)	включать {в состав)
increase 1. п возрастание, рост; увеличение 2. v
возрастать, увеличивать(ся); расти
indicate 1) показывать, указывать 2) служить
признаком, означать
indication указание
indispensable 1) необходимый 2) обязательный
industrial design 1) промышленный дизайн, про¬
мышленная эстетика 2) проект промышлен¬
ного объекта
industrialist промышленник
inevitable неизбежный, неминуемый
inferior находящийся ниже; низший; подчи¬
ненный
infill заполнение
influence 1. п влияние, воздействие 2. v оказы¬
вать влияние, воздействие, влиять
inform 1) сообщать, информировать 2) напол¬
нять (чувством и т.п.); одушевлять
informal 1) неофициальный, неформальный;
без соблюдения формальностей 2) непри¬
нужденный, простой, обычный
informality несоблюдение установленных фор¬
мальностей, отступление от формы
ingenious 1) изобретательный; искусный 2) ос¬
троумный; оригинальный
ingeniously 1) искусно 2) остроумно; ориги¬
нально
ingenuity изобретательность
ingredient составная часть, ингридиент
inhabit жить, обитать, населять
inhabitant житель, обитатель
inlaid инкрустированный, с инкрустацией
inlay 1. п инкрустация; мозаика 2. v инкрустиро¬
вать; покрывать мозаикой
inn гостиница (обычно за городом)
innermost глубочайший, лежащий глубоко внут¬
ри; самый отдаленный (от какой-л. повер¬
хности, границы)
innovative новаторский, рационализаторский,
передовой
inquisitive пытливый, любознательный
insane безумный, безрассудный, абсурдный
inscription надпись; краткое посвящение
insert 1. п вставка, закладная деталь (в бетоне)
2. v вставлять, вкладывать
inspiration вдохновение, вдохновенная идея,
мысль

inspire внушать (мысль, идею), заронить, пробу¬
дить (чувство, мысль); вдохновлять, стимули¬
ровать
insubstantial 1) нереальный, иллюзорный
2)	непрочный 3) неосновательный
insufficiency недостаточность
insulate изолировать
insulating изоляционный, изолирующий
intact нетронутый; неповрежденный, целый
intangible 1) неосязаемый, не воспринимаемый
на ощупь 2) неуловимый, непостижимый,
смутный; неясный
integrated интегрированный, объединенный,
комбинированный
intelligent 1) умный, разумный, понимающий
2)	понятливый, смышленый
intelligentsia (рус.) интеллигенция
intelligible понятный, вразумительный, доступ¬
ный; ясный, четкий
intent намерение, цель
intention намерение, стремление, цель; замысел
inter-penetrating взаимопроникающий
intercolumniation 1) интерколумний (расстояние
в свету между колоннами) 2) система разбив¬
ки колонн
interior 1. п внутренняя часть здания, интерьер
2. а внутренний
interior design внутреннее убранство, оформле¬
ние интерьера
interior space внутреннее пространство
interlace переплетать(ся), сплетать(ся), соеди¬
няться)
interlinke связывать
interlock соединять(ся), сцеплять(ся), смыкать¬
ся
intermittent 1) прерывающийся, прерывистый
2)	перемежающийся; периодический
internal внутренний
International Modem = International Style Интер¬
национальный модерн или Интернациональ¬
ный стиль (термин, появившийся в 1932 г. для
определения архитектурного стиля, сформи¬
ровавшегося еще до первой мировой войны, но
особенно ярко проявившегося в послевоенные
годы в творчестве В.Гропиуса, Й.Хоффмана,
Ф.Л. Райта и Л.Мис ван дер Роэ)
interpret интерпретировать, толковать
interpretation толкование, объяснение, интер¬
претация
interrupt 1) прерывать 2) препятствовать, пре¬
граждать, мешать
intersect пересекать(ся), перекрещивать(ся)
intersection 1) пересечение 2) точка или линия
пересечения
intertwined сплетенный, переплетенный
interwoven переплетенный
intimacy 1) тесная связь, близость, интимность
2)	глубокие знания; хорошие знакомства
intimate 1) хорошо знакомый (с чем-л.), глубо¬
кий основательный 2) близкий, тесный
3)	внутренний 4) уютный 5) однородный (о
смеси)
intricacy запутанность, сложность
intricate запутанный, сложный, замысловатый
introduce 1) вводить, вставлять 2) вводить в
употребление, привносить, применять
3)	представлять, знакомить
introvert сосредотачиваться на самом себе; об¬
ращать, заворачивать внутрь
intrusion 1) вторжение 2) навязывание своего
мнения
invention изобретение, нововведение, открытие
inverted опрокинутый; перевернутый
investigation исследование
involve 1) вовлекать 2) углубляться (во что-л.)
3)	включать, содержать
inward 1. п внутренняя часть, сторона 2. а внут¬
ренний 3. adv внутрь; внутренне
inwards внутрь; внутренне
Ionic column ионическая колонна
Ionic order ионический ордер
iron железо
ironwork 1) железное изделие 2) железная часть
конструкции
irregularly shaped неправильной формы
irrelevant (to) неуместный, не относящийся к
делу
irrespective of безотносительный, независимый
от
issue проблема: спорный вопрос
Italianate 1) свойственный итальянцу 2) италь¬
янский
ivory слоновая кость
ivy плющ

J
Jacobean относящийся к эпохе английского ко¬
роля Якова I
jamb 1) вертикальная боковая грань (проема в
стене); боковой откос (оконного или дверного
проема) 2) вертикальный брус (оконной или
дверной коробки, обрамления проема)
jardin anglais (фр.) английский парк
jazzy 1) джазовый 2) живой, оживленный
3)	пестрый, яркий 4) сверхмодный
joint соединение, шов; стык
joist балка (перекрытия, подвесного потолка, по¬
ла, крыши); вспомогательная балка
jostle толкать(ся), теснить(ся)
jovial веселый, живой; общительный
judge судить о чем-л., оценивать что-л.
Jugendstil Югендстиль (название немецкого сти¬
ля “модерн”, от названия мюнхенского журна¬
ла “Югенд”, основанного в 1896 г.)
jumble беспорядочная смесь, куча; путаница,
беспорядок
junction 1) соединение, примыкание 2) пересе¬
чение, скрещивание 3) пересечение дорог,
примыкание дороги; дорожная развязка
jut (out) выдаваться, выступать
juxtapose 1) помещать рядом, бок о бок; нак¬
ладывать друг на друга 2) сопоставлять
juxtaposition 1) соприкосновение; наложение
2)	сопоставление
к
keel arch килевидная арка
keep to придерживаться
key 1) ключ (во всех значениях слова) 2) экспли¬
кация 3) тон, оттенок 4) замковый камень
арки или свода
keyboard клавиатура
keystone замковый камень арки или свода
kiln печь для обжига и сушки
king-post средняя стропильная стойка
king’s chamber погребальная камера фараона
kit набор
kitsch кич, сентиментальщина, дешевка
knit соединять(ся), скреплять(ся); объеди¬
няться)
knob 1) выпуклость, шишка, выступ 2) ручка,
головка, кнопка; набалдашник 3) рельефное
украшение
knob-leaf capital капитель в форме бутона
knot 1) узел 2) сучок; сук
label 1. п ярлык; этикетка, бирка 2. v 1) прикреп¬
лять или наклеивать ярлык 2) относить к ка-
кой-л. категории, приклеивать ярлык
labyrinthine 1) подобный лабиринту 2) запу¬
танный
lack (of) недостаток, нужда; отсутствие
lagoon 1) лагуна 2) отстойный бассейн или пруд
laity миряне, светские люди
lame хромой; увечный; парализованный
laminated timber beam дощатоклееная балка
lancet arch стрельчатая (ланцетная, остроконеч¬
ная) арка
Lancet style ланцетовидный стиль
lancet window узкое окно с остроконечной ароч¬
ной перемычкой, сводчатое окно
land 1) земля; земельный фонд 2) территория,
участок
landmark 1) заметный объект местности, назем¬
ный ориентир, веха 2) архитектурный памят¬
ник; здание, сооружение исторического зна¬
чения
landscape ландшафт; пейзаж
languorous вялый; апатичный; усталый
lantern фонарь (на крыше)-, верхний свет
large-scale в крупном масштабе, крупномас¬
штабный
laser лазер
late Gothic поздняя готика
late Renaissance поздний Ренессанс
lateral support боковая (горизонтальная) опора
Latin cross латинский крест, (четырехконечный
крест, у которого нижнее крыло значительно
длиннее трех остальных)
latter 1) недавний 2) (the ~ ) последний (из двух
названных)
launch начинать, пускать в ход, предпринимать
laundry прачечная

lavish обильный; чрезмерный
lavishness 1) щедрость; расточительство 2) оби¬
лие; чрезмерность
lay класть, накладывать
layer 1) слой; пласт 2) ряд (напр, кирпичной
кладки)
layering наслаивание
laying укладка (бетона), кладка (кирпича)
layout схема; план; расположение
lead I вести, приводить; руководить
lead II свинец
leaf лист
lean (against) 1) наклоняться 2) прислоняться,
опираться
legacy наследство; наследие
legible разборчивый, четкий
legitimize узаконивать, признавать законным
length длина
lesene штукатурная полоса
lessen уменьшать(ся), убавлять(ся)
let off сдавать в аренду по частям, по участкам
level 1. и 1) уровень 2) плоскость, ровная гори¬
зонтальная поверхность 2. а ровный, плос¬
кий, горизонтальный 3. v выравнивать, де¬
лать ровным, гладким
liable подверженный
lifting gear подъемное устройство, подъемное
оборудование
light 1) свет 2) светильник, фонарь 3) световой
проем 4) фрамуга, застекленная створка (ок¬
на); форточка,окно
lighthouse маяк
lighting aperture световое отверстие
liken to уподоблять; сравнивать; приравнивать
limb конечность, член (тела)
lime известь
limestone известняк
limit 1. п граница, предел 2. v ограничивать; ста¬
вить предел
limitation ограничение, предел
line 1. я 1) линия 2) контур, очертание
2. v 1) проводить линию 2) строить, выстраи¬
вать в ряд, в линию 3) стоять, тянуться вдоль
(чего-л.)
line поведение; образ действий; направление,
установка
linear линейный
linear development линейное развитие; линейная
застройка
linear perspective линейная перспектива
linearity линейность, линейная зависимость
link 1. я 1) звено 2) связь, соединение 2. v связы¬
вать, соединять
lintel перемычка (над оконным или дверным про¬
емом)
list список, перечень, каталог
listing составление списков
literate 1) грамотный 2) образованный
littoral 1) прибрежный, приморский 2) побе¬
режье, приморский район
living quarters квартира, помещение, жилище
living room столовая, гостиная, общая комната
living space жилое помещение
load-bearing несущий
load-bearing capacity несущая способность
local местный, локальный
location 1) (место)положение 2) обнаружение,
нахождение
lock замок
lodge временное жилище
lofty возвышенный
loggia 1) лоджия 2) аркада 3) открытая галерея с
аркадой 4) лоджия, крытый балкон, крытая
веранда
long-lived долгоживущий; долговечный
look like выглядеть как, походить на, быть похо¬
жим на
looking glass зеркало
lose терять, лишаться
loss потеря, утрата
lotus лотос
lotus column лотосообразная колонна
Low Countries Нидерланды (охватывали терри¬
торию современных Нидерландов, Бельгии и
Люксембурга)
low-pitched roof пологая крыша
low-relief барельеф
lower torus (нижний) торус (полукруглый фриз)
luxurious роскошный
[Д
machicolation навесная бойница
mainland материк
mainstay главная поддержка, опора, оплот

maintain поддерживать, удерживать, сохранять
maintenance поддержание, сохранение, продол¬
жение
maisonette небольшой дом или небольшая квар¬
тира
majestic величественный, статный, импозан¬
тный
make use of использовать
making изготовление; производство
male мужской
mall молл (свободная от транспорта пешеходная
зона с выходящими на нее предприятиями роз¬
ничной торговли)
man of consequence важное, влиятельное лицо
manner манера, стиль
Mannerism маньеризм (течение в европейском ис¬
кусстве 1520—1580-х гг., отличительными чер¬
тами которого являлась нетрадиционная трак¬
товка традиционных архитектурных форм)
mansard roof мансардная крыша
mansion большой особняк, большой дом; дворец
manually вручную
marble мрамор
marigold ноготки
marigold window большое круглое окно с ради¬
альными резными горбыльками (напоминаю¬
щее ноготки)
marked 1) имеющий какие-л. знаки, вехи; заме¬
ченный, отмеченный 2) заметный
marketplace рыночная площадь
martyrium мавзолей
masculine мужской
mason 1. п каменщик, каменотес 2. v строить из
камня или кирпича, вести кладку
masonry 1) каменная или кирпичная кладка
(1. процесс 2. конструкция) 2) монолитный
бетон
masonry construction каменная кладка (кон¬
струкция)
masonry wall каменная стена, стена ручной
кладки
mass production массовое, серийное, поточное
производство
mass-produced массового производства
masterpiece шедевр
match подходить, соответствовать
materiality материальность
maturity 1) зрелость, полное развитие 2) завер¬
шенность
mean II) предназначать 2) иметь намерение
3)	иметь в виду 4) значить
mean II1. л середина 2. а средний
meander I меандр, геометрический орнамент
meander II 1. л 1) извилина, изгиб (о дороге, ре¬
ке) 2. v извиваться, изгибаться
meandering извилистый, изгибающийся
means средство, способ
measure 1. п мера 2. v измерять, мерить
measurement измерение, замер
measurements размеры
medialand медиалэнд, виртуальный мир
medieval средневековый
mediocre посредственный; заурядный
meet the requirements удовлетворять, соответ¬
ствовать требованиям
memorable (досто)памятный, незабвенный, не¬
забываемый
menagerie бродячий зверинец
merely только, просто, единственно
message 1) проповедь 2) идея; идейное содержа¬
ние; мысли, взгляды
Metabolism метаболизм (направление в архитекту¬
ре и градостроительстве, возникшее в Японии в
1960г. (КТанге, К.Кикутакэ и др.) и выдвигаю¬
щее принцип динамической изменчивости, органи¬
ческого роста как систем расселения, так и архи¬
тектурных ансамблей и сооружений, сочетания
долговременных структур с недолговечными заме¬
няемыми элементами (проекты “плавающего го¬
рода”, “города-башни”, “капсульного дома”)
metalwork 1) металлообработка 2) художествен¬
ная работа по металлу
metaphor метафора
metope метоп(а) (прямоугольная плита, украшен¬
ная рельефом или росписью, которая распола¬
галась во фризе дорического ордера между дву¬
мя триглифами)
metropolitan 1) столичный 2) относящийся к
столице или крупному центру
mezzanine антресоль; полуэтаж (преим. между
первым и вторым этажом)
mill 1) завод 2) мельница
millenium тысячелетие
minute 1) мелкий, мельчайший 2) подробный,
детальный
mirror отражать, отображать
miscellaneous 1) смешанный, разнообразный
2)	разносторонний

misinterpretation неправильное истолкование,
толкование или понимание
mitred joint угловое соединение в ус (под углом
45°)
mnemonic мнемонический
moat ров (с водой); крепостной ров
mob толпа, сборище
mock поддельный; притворный; мнимый;
ложный
mockingly насмешливо, с издевкой
mod cons (сокр. от modem conveniences) все
удобства
modern architecture современная архитектура
Modernism модернизм (обобщенное наименова¬
ние ряда художественных течений в искусстве
и архитектуре XXв., которые пытались пор¬
вать все стилистические и исторические связи
с прошлым — футуризм, конструктивизм,
“Стиль” и т.п.)
modernist модернист
Modernist Style архитектурный стиль (модер¬
низм 1920—1930-х гг.), сочетавший в себе де¬
коративные средства стиля “ар деко” с древ¬
неегипетскими и ацтековскими мотивами.
Навеян Парижской выставкой 1925 г.)
modernistic модернистский
Modern Movement = Modernism
Modern Style = Art Nouveau
modify видоизменять, модифицировать
modillion модильон или модульон (архитектур¬
ная декоративная деталь типа кронштейна
или консоли S-образной формы, поддержи¬
вающая выносную плиту венчающего карниза
коринфского или композитного (иногда рим¬
ского ионического) или прямоугольную плиту
дорического модильонного ордера. Нижняя
часть модильона может быть украшена гут-
тами, а промежутки между местами примы¬
кания карнизной плиты к модильону на ниж¬
ней поверхности плиты декорированы кес¬
сонами)
modulate модулировать
module 1) модуль (размер) 2) объемный (про¬
странственный) блок; модульная секция
здания
monastic монастырский; монашеский
monochrome монохромный, одноцветный, од¬
нокрасочный
monumental gateway монументальные ворота
Moorish мавританский (стиль) (условный тер¬
мин для обозначения искусства, созданного за-
воевателями-арабами и местным населением в
южных областях Испании, в странах северной
Африки и Сицилии в XII—XVвв.)
mortar строительный раствор
mortuary temple погребальный храм
mosaic мозаика
mosque мечеть
motif 1) основная тема, лейтмотив; главная
мысль; сюжет 2) мотив, элемент орнаметна,
повторяющийся узор или цвет
motive повод, мотив, побуждение
motor-car легковой автомобиль
motte зеленый “остров”, небольшая роща в
прериях
mould 1. п 1) форма, шаблон 2) профиль, архи¬
тектурный облом 2. v формовать, лепить, от¬
ливать
moulding 1) архитектурный облом, профиль
2)	формовка, отливка 3) лепное украшение
moulding-board модельная доска; модельная
плита
mound 1) насыпь 2) могильный холм, курган
3)	холм, возвышенность
mouthpiece рупор; выразитель (мнения, интере¬
сов и т.п.)
movement 1) движение 2) течение, направление
(в искусстве и т .д.)
mud 1) ил 2) глинистая масса; глина
mud-brick саманный кирпич, сырец
mullion 1) вертикальный импост (в проеме,
дверной или оконной коробке); средник;
притворный брус, притвор 2) стойка фах¬
верка (для крепления навесных стеновых
панелей)
multi-layered многослойный, многоярусный
multi-layered fagade многоярусный фасад
multiple 1) составной, складной 2) многократ¬
ный, многочисленный
multiple pitched roof многоскатная крыша
multistoreyed многоэтажный, многоярусный
multitude множество, большое число; масса
mural фреска, стенная роспись
mushroom column грибовидная колонна, колон¬
на в виде гриба
mutule мутул(а), модильон дорического ордера

ш
о
nail гвоздь
naked 1) обнаженный 2) голый, непокрытый,
открытый
naos наос (главное помещение античного храма)
nature 1) природа 2) характер
naval battle битва на море
nave неф, корабль (церкви)
neck шейка (колонны)
need 1. п надобность, нужда 2. v нуждаться,
иметь потребность; требоваться
neglect 1) пренебрегать 2) упускать, забывать
3)	не обращать внимания, не замечать, игно¬
рировать
negligence небрежность, халатность; неряшли¬
вость
neighbourliness добрососедское отношение;
приветливость, дружелюбие, общительность
Neo-Gothic неоготический^ стиль; современная
готика
Neo-Rationalism неорационализм
Neoclassical неоклассический
Neoclassicism неоклассицизм (доминирующий
стиль в европейском и американском ис¬
кусстве и архитектуре в конце XVIII — нача¬
ле XIXв., важнейшей чертой которого было
обращение к формам античности как к
эталону)
neohistoricism неоисторизм
net vault сетчатый свод
network сеть
newly enriched нувориш; свежеиспеченный
богач
niche ниша
Norman style нормандский стиль (английская
архитектура XII в.)
not least не в самую последнюю очередь
notable замечательный; выдающийся, видный
notably 1) исключительно, особенно 2) весьма,
заметно, значительно
noticeable заметный, приметный; примечатель¬
ный
nouveau riche (pi. nouveaux riches) (фр.) нувориш
novel новый, неизвестный
numerous многочисленный
oak-panelling обшивка дубовыми панелями
obelisk обелиск
obscure 1. в 1) мрачный, темный; тусклый 2) не¬
ясный, смутный 3) непонятный 4) незамет¬
ный 5) скрытый, уединенный 2. v 1) затем¬
нять 2) делать неясным 3) затмевать 4) заго¬
раживать
observe 1) наблюдать 2) соблюдать
obsession 1) навязчивая идея; неотступная
мысль 2) одержимость; наваждение
obvious очевидный, явный, ясный
ochre охра
octagonal восьмиугольный
offence нападение, наступление
offering 1) пожертвование 2) жертвоприно¬
шение
ogee arch килевидная арка
omit 1) пренебрегать 2) пропускать, не включать
on site на месте
one-off одноразовый, одноразового употреб¬
ления
one-time бывший; былой, прошлый
onslaught бешеная атака, нападение
опух оникс
opaque непрозрачный, светонепроницаемый;
темный
open arcade открытая аркада
open plan открытая планировка здания (с ми¬
нимальным количеством внутренних пере¬
городок)
open planning открытая планировка
open space открытое пространство; незастроен¬
ное пространство
open-air на открытом воздухе
open-air theatre открытый театр
open-ended неограниченный; свободный; не
связанный условиями
opening проем; отверстие
openwork = open-work 1. п ажурная работа; ажур¬
ное изделие 2. а ажурный
opine высказывать мнение, полагать
opulence изобилие, богатство
opulent 1) богатый 2) обильный; пышный 3) на¬
пыщенный (о стиле)
orchestra орхестра (место хора в древнегреческом
театре)

order 1. л 1) архитектурный ордер 2) порядок
3)	заказ 4) приказ 2. v 1) приводить в поря¬
док; располагать, распределять (в определен¬
ном порядке) 2) заказывать 3) приказывать
orderliness 1) аккуратность, порядок 2) подчи¬
нение законам
orderliness аккуратность, порядок
ordinance 1) декрет, закон, постановление 2) ар¬
хитектоника; соотношение конструктивных
элементов
organic architecture органическая архитектура,
архитектура ансамблей
oriel window консольный эркер
oriental восточный
origin источник, происхождение
original 1. л 1) оригинал, подлинник 2) прототип
2. а 1) первый, первоначальный 2) подлин¬
ный, оригинальный 3) оригинальный, само¬
бытный
originally 1) первоначально 2) по происхожде¬
нию 3) оригинально, самобытно
originate 1) давать начало, порождать; создавать
2) брать начало, происходить, возникать
ornament 1. л орнамент; декоративное украше¬
ние 2. а украшать
ornamental орнаментальный, декоративный
ornamental moulding лепное украшение
ornamental panel декоративная панель
ornamentation украшение (действие)
ornamented column расписная колонна
ornate 1) чрезмерно украшенный 2) витиева¬
тый, нарядный (о стиле)
ornately 1) цветисто, витиевато 2) пышно, аля¬
повато
orphanage 1) сиротство 2) приют для сирот
orthogonal прямоугольный, ортогональный
ostentation показное проявление (чего-л.)
ostentatious показной
Ottoman оттоманский, турецкий
Ottoman Empire Оттоманская империя
out-of-date устарелый, старомодный
outbreak (внезапное) начало
outcome результат, последствие, исход
outcrop 1) выявление 2) внезапное проявление,
вспышка
outdoor space открытое пространство
outline 1. л очертание, силуэт, контур 2. v 1) об¬
вести, нарисовать контур 2) оттенять, очер¬
чивать
outstanding выдающийся
outward 1. л внешний вид 2. а внешний, наруж¬
ный 3. adv наружу; снаружи
outwards наружу; снаружи
over-decorated чрезмерно украшенный
overall 1) полный, общий, предельный
2) всеобщий, всеобъемлющий, всеохваты¬
вающий
overcrowded city перенаселенный город
overdecorated чрезмерно украшенный
overhanging eaves выступающий (нависающий,
выдающийся, свешивающийся) карниз
overlay 1. л поверхностный слой (напр, покры¬
тия пола) 2. v 1) перекрывать; накладывать
2)	покрывать (краской, лаком)
overlook 1) выходить на, в 2) не замечать; не
придавать значения; пренебрегать; недооце¬
нивать
oversailing roof plane парящая плоскость крыши
oversized слишком большого размера
overtone нотка, намек, подтекст
owe быть должным, быть обязанным
owl сова
oxidized copper оксидированная медь
oxygenate насыщать кислородом
pagan times языческие времена; времена язы¬
чества
painstakingly старательно, усердно; тщательно,
кропотливо
paint 1. л краска 2. v заниматься живописью, пи¬
сать, раскрашивать
painterly живописный; относящийся к живо¬
писи
painting 1) живопись 2) окрашивание, окраска
palace дворец
palazzo (ит.) палаццо, дворец
pale 1. а 1) бледный 2) слабый, тусклый (о цве¬
те) 2. v бледнеть, тускнеть
palette 1) палитра 2) палитра, цветовая гамма
Palladian палладианский, относящийся к нас¬
ледию Андреа Палладио
palm пальма
palm column пальмообразная колонна
рапе оконное стекло

panel 1. n 1) панель, плита; щит (элемент кон¬
струкции) 2) панель (обшивки); филенка 3)
панно 4) нижняя часть стены, имеющая
иную отделку, чем верхняя 2. v обшивать па¬
нелями; отделывать филенками
panel work панельная обшивка, филенка
panelling обшивка, облицовка, отделка панеля¬
ми, филенками; панельная обшивка, филенка
pantheon пантеон, место погребения знамени¬
тых людей
Pantheon, the Пантеон (в Риме, храм i(ecex
богов'7)
papyrus column папирусообразная колонна
paradigmatic образцовый
parabolic arch параболическая арка
paragon образец (совершенства)
paramount первостепенный
parapet парапет; парапетное ограждение
paraphernalia 1) личное имущество 2) убранство
3)	принадлежности, атрибуты
parchment пергамент
park-like парковый
Parthenon, the Парфенон
particular 1. п частность, подробность, деталь
2. а 1) особый, особенный; специфический;
исключительный 2) индивидуальный, част¬
ный, отдельный
passable хороший, достаточный; сносный,
удовлетворительный
passage-way проходной коридор
pastel пастель
pastel-shaded пастельных тонов (оттенков)
pathway дорожка
pattern 1) рисунок, узор 2) шаблон, модель, тра¬
фарет 3) образец
patterned украшенный узором или узорами
pearl жемчуг
pebble dash 1) декоративная “каменная” штука¬
турка 2) гравийная засыпка
pedestal пьедестал, цоколь, основание колонны
pediment фронтон, щипец, сандрик
pedimental window фронтонное окно
peep заглядывать; подглядывать; выглядывать
pelta греческий или римский легкий щит
pendant рельефное украшение, висячий ор¬
намент
pendentive парус (свода или купола)
penetrate 1) проникать в суть 2) проникать
внутрь, проходить сквозь, пронизывать
perceive воспринимать, понимать, осознавать;
постигать 2) ощущать; чувствовать, различать
perfect 1. а совершенный; точный 2. v 1) совер¬
шенствовать 2) завершать, заканчивать
perfection совершенство
peripteral периптеральный, периптерический,
окруженный колоннами
perish погибать, умирать; исчезнуть, кануть в
вечность
peristyle перистиль (колонны, окружающие зда¬
ние или внутренний двор)
permanent постоянный, неизменный; долговре¬
менный
permeate 1) проникать, проходить сквозь, про¬
питывать 2) распространяться
Perpendicular style перпендикулярный стиль
(третий и последний стиль английской готи¬
ческой архитектуры)
pervasive проникающий, распространяющийся
повсюду; всеобъемлющий, глубокий
pew церковная скамья со спинкой
piano nobile этаж, на котором в большом доме
расположена главная комната
piazza (ит.) 1) пьяцца, базарная площадь 2) ар¬
када; крытый проход; портик; колоннада
picture 1. п картина 2. v 1) изображать 2) пред¬
ставлять
picturesque 1) яркий, образный 2) живописный
piece 1) кусок 2) определенный (отдельный)
предмет, штука 3) деталь, фрагмент 4) обра¬
зец, пример 5) произведение
pier 1) стойка; столб; устой; пилон 2) контр¬
форс, пилястр(а) 3) простенок
pierce пробивать (отверстие)
pilaster пилястр(а)
pilaster strip штукатурная полоса, лопатка
pilgrimage паломничество
pillage грабить
pillar столб, стойка, колонна; устой; стойчатая
опора; пилон
piloti наружная колонна; колонна, поддержива¬
ющая здание над землей
pine tree сосна
pink розовый
pinnacle бельведер, остроконечная башня,
шпиц
pipe труба
piping сеть трубопроводов
pitched roof скатная крыша, крыша со скатами

pivotal центральный, осевой
plain 1) простой, без узора, без украшений 2) от¬
крытый, ясный
plan 1. л 1) план; чертеж; проект; схема; плани¬
ровка 2) замысел, намерение 2. v 1) проекти¬
ровать; делать чертеж 2) планировать; сос¬
тавлять план
plane 1. п плоскость 2. а плоский, плоскостной
plane tree платан
planned garden спланированный сад
planner проектировщик
plant I завод, фабрика
plant II1. п растение 2. v сажать; засаживать
planted засаженный
planted space территория, засаженная деревья¬
ми и кустарником
planting озеленение (городской территории)
plaster 1. и 1) строительный гипс 2) штукатурка
(обычно гипсоизвестковая) 2. v штукатурить,
оштукатурить
plasterwork штукатурная работа, штукатурка
plate glass (полированное) листовое стекло
plate tracery ажурная каменная работа по цело¬
му камню (в ранней готической архитектуре)
plateresque слишком пышный, вычурный, аля¬
поватый
plaza (исп.) площадь
pleasing приятный, доставляющий удовольс¬
твие; привлекательный
pleasurable доставляющий удовольствие, при¬
ятный
pliable 1) сгибаемый; гнущийся, гибкий 2) ков¬
кий; мягкий; пластичный
plinth 1) плинтус 2) цоколь; постамент; база;
нижний пояс (стены) 3) плинт (массивная
квадратная плита, лежащая в основании ко¬
лонны)', подколонник
plot земельный участок
plywood фанера
plywood cladding обшивка, облицовка фанерой
pod 1) стручок; лопатка; коробочка 2) кокон
podium подиум
point 1. я 1) точка 2) кончик; острие, острый ко¬
нец 2. v 1) указывать 2) (за)точить, (за)острить
pointed остроконечный; острый, заостренный
pointed arch стрельчатая арка
pointed pediment двускатный фронтон
pokey 1) стиснутый; стесненный 2) чрезмерно
сжатый
pokey plan стесненный план
polish полировать
polished полированный
polygon многоугольник
polygonal многоугольный
pommel заканчивающее украшение, флерон (в
форме шара)
pond пруд
pool (плавательный) бассейн
populace простой народ; массы
porch 1) подъезд, крыльцо 2) портик; крытая га¬
лерея
portal портал, главный вход
portal frame портальная рама
portico портик, галерея
portray изображать
positioning расстановка; установка в определен¬
ном положении, позиционирование
post столб; стойка; подпорка
post-and-lintel стоечно-балочный
Post-Modernism постмодернизм
pour 1. п бетонирование, укладка бетонной сме¬
си 2. v 1) укладывать бетонную смесь, бето¬
нировать 2)заливать
poured concrete монолитный бетон
practical практический, утилитарный ; целесо¬
образный, полезный
practice 1) практика, применение 2) практика,
упражнение 3) привычка, обычай 4) методи¬
ка, прием
practise 1) применять, осуществлять 2) зани¬
маться 3) практиковаться
practitioner 1) практикующий врач или юрист
2) тот, кто делает что-л. по привычке или
постоянно
pre-cast concrete сборный (железо)бетон
pre-eminent выдающийся, превосходящий других
preaching 1) проповедь 2) проповедование
precarious 1) случайный; ненадежный, сомни¬
тельный 2) рискованный, опасный 3) нео¬
боснованный
precedent 1. п прецедент 2. а предшествующий
precision точность
preconception 1) предвзятое мнение; предубеж¬
дение 2) предрассудок
predominant преобладающий, доминирующий,
господствующий
predominate господствовать, преобладать, пре¬
валировать

prefabricated сборный, готовый (об элементе
конструкции построечного или заводского из¬
готовления)
prefabricated panel сборная панель, панель за¬
водского изготовления
prefabrication изготовление и/или монтаж сбор¬
ных конструкций
preoccupy занимать, поглощать внимание
preocupation озабоченность; занятость, погло¬
щенность
prescribe предписывать
preserve сохранять, охранять, оберегать
presumably предположительно; по-видимому
prevail 1) преобладать; господствовать 2) быть
распространенным, признанным, принятым
prevent 1) предотвращать, предохранять, пред¬
упреждать 2) мешать, препятствовать (from);
не допускать
preview предварительное рассмотрение
prim 1) чопорный 2) аккуратный
primary colour первичный, основной цвет
primitive 1) первобытный 2) примитивный, про¬
стой, несложный 3) примитивистский, при¬
митивный 4) первичный, основной
principal главный, основной
print печатать
proceccional axis путь, по которому движется
процессия
produce 1. п 1) продукция, изделия, продукт
2) результат 2. v 1) производить 2) вызывать,
быть причиной
profile 1) профиль, вид сбоку 2) очертание, кон¬
тур 3) вертикальный разрез, поперечное
сечение
profound глубокий, основательный
project 1. п 1) проект 2) строительный объект;
стройка 2. v 1) проектировать 2) выдаваться,
выступать
projecting выдающийся, выступающий
projecting cornice выступающий (нависающий)
карниз
projecting plane выступающая плоскость
projection выступ, выдающаяся часть, выступа¬
ющая часть
proliferate расти; распространяться
prolific 1) плодородный 2) плодовитый 3) изо¬
билующий
prolix 1) многословный; нудный; скучный
2)	(излишне) подробный
prolonged 1) длительный, затянувшийся 2) про¬
дленный; удлиненный
prominent 1) выступающий, торчащий 2) выда¬
ющийся, известный
promote 1) выдвигать, продвигать 2) способ¬
ствовать, помогать, поддерживать
promoter покровитель, патрон; учредитель,
основатель
prompt побуждать; толкать
proof доказательство
proponent защитник, сторонник
proportion 1. п пропорция, соотношение, сораз¬
мерность 2. v соразмерять
proposal предложение, план
propriety правильность, уместность
propylaea пропилеи (вход в Акрополь)
proscenium 1) авансцена 2) проскениум, просце¬
ниум
prosperity процветание, преуспевание
proto- в сложных словах имеет зачение 1) пер¬
вичный 2) главный
proto-Doric протодорический
protrude 1) высовывать(ся) 2) выдаваться,
торчать
protruding 1) выдающийся, выступающий впе¬
ред, торчащий 2) высунутый наружу
provision снабжение, обеспечение
provoke 1) вызывать, возбуждать 2) провоци¬
ровать
prowess 1) доблесть, отвага, удаль 2) мастерство,
совершенство
pseudo-peripteral псевдопериптеральный, псев-
допериптерический, с полуколоннами
public house паб, бар, пивная, закусочная
public housing жилье, принадлежащее муници¬
палитету или общественным организациям
public housing scheme план, проект застройки жи¬
лого микрорайона муниципальными домами
public space пространство для общественного
пользования
pulvinus (pi. -ni) пульвин, балюстра, подушка,
полочка (элемент пластического оформления
капители ионической колонны, напоминающий
свиток, перетянутый посередине ремешком, и
соединяющий волюты; в византийской архи¬
тектуре— каменная плита трапециевидной
формы между капителью и пятой арки, увели¬
чивающая площадь опирания пяты арки на
верхнюю поверхность капители)

purist пурист
puritanical пуристический, склонный к пуризму
purity чистота
purlin прогон (крыши), перекладина, продоль¬
ная балка; обрешетина
pursue преследовать, неотступно следовать
purveyor 1) поставщик 2) распространитель,
разносчик
put up строить, воздвигать
pylon пилон; опора; опорная стойка
pyramid пирамида
pyramid site территория пирамиды
pyramidal tower roof пирамидальная крыша
башни
Q
quaint 1) приятный, привлекательный своей не¬
обычностью или стариной 2) причудливый,
эксцентричный
quarter квартал; район, часть города
quarters помещение, жилье; квартира, жилище
quasi- в сложных словах имеет значение подоб¬
ный чему-л., напоминающий что-л.\ квази-,
полу-
quasi-historical квазиисторический
quatrefoil четырехлистник
queen-post бабка висячих стропил; вертикаль¬
ная или немного наклонная опора, распо¬
ложенная на нижнем поясе стропильной
фермы и поддерживающая горизонтальные
прогоны
queen’s chamber погребальная камера царицы
quintessential основной, наиболее сущес¬
твенный
quoin 1) внешний угол (здания) 2) угловой ка¬
мень кладки (стен здания) 3) ключ свода или
арки
R
radiate расходиться лучами; исходить из одной
точки
radiator cap крышка радиатора
rafter стропило, стропильная нога
ragged 1) неровный, шероховатый; зазубрен¬
ный 2) небрежный, неотделанный, шерохо¬
ватый (о стиле)
rail 1) рельс; железная дорога 2) поручень
railway железная дорога, железнодорожный
путь
raise поднимать
raised рельефный, выпуклый, лепной
ramp 1) скат, уклон; наклонная плоскость
2)	наклонный въезд или съезд 3) пандус, рам¬
па 4) платформа, эстакада
randomly наугад, случайно; беспорядочно
range (from) колебаться (в определенных пред¬
елах)
rarely 1) редко, нечасто 2) исключительно
rarity редкость, редкое явление, раритет
rate 1. п 1) скорость, темп; режим 2) норма,
производительность 3) класс, сорт 4) по¬
казатель 2. v 1) оценивать, исчислять, опре¬
делять, устанавливать 2) считать, расце¬
нивать
raw сырой; необработанный, неотделанный
raw materials сырьевые материалы, сырье
Rayonnant style лучистый стиль
reach 1) протягивать, простирать 2) доставать,
брать 3) достичь, добиться
readily легко, без труда
reading толкование, истолкование; интерпрета¬
ция, понимание
realm область, сфера
reason причина, повод, основание; соображе¬
ние, мотив; довод, аргумент
reassert подтверждать, вновь заявлять; заверять
reassurance 1) уверение, заверение 2) восстанов¬
ленное доверие 3) вновь обретенная уверен¬
ность
rebellion 1) восстание, бунт 2) открытое непови¬
новение; сопротивление; протест
rebirth второе рождение, возрождение
recapture 1. п взятие обратно 2. v взять обратно
recede отступать; удаляться
receding уходящий, удаляющийся
receding plane удаляющаяся (отступающая)
плоскость
reception room 1) приемная 2) гостиная 3) общая
комната; жилая комната
recess 1. п углубление (в стене); ниша; альков
2. v отодвигать назад
recessed отодвинутый назад

recessed portal углубленный портал
recipe средство, (верный) способ (достигнуть
чего-л.)
reciprocity 1) взаимность 2) взаимодействие
3)	взаимный обмен
reclaimed восстановленный, регенерированный
recognizable узнаваемый, опознаваемый
recognize узнавать, опознавать
recover 1) получать обратно 2) вновь обретать
3)	восстанавливать, возрождать
rectangle прямоугольник
rectangular прямоугольный
rectilinear прямолинейный
rediscovery новое открытие, обнаружение, рас¬
крытие
reduce понижать, ослаблять, уменьшать, сокра¬
щать
redundant излишний, чрезмерный; лишний, не¬
нужный
reed камыш, тростник
reeded column колонна с поясками
reeding пояски (архитектурные обломы)
refer 1) ссылаться на что-л. (to ) 2) упоминать
(to) 3) относиться, иметь отношение к (to )
4)	относить (к классу, периоду и т. д.)
refer to as называть; считать
refine делать более изящным, утонченным
refined утонченный, изысканный
refinement утонченность, изысканность
reflective отражающий
refracted преломленный
reglet плоский поясок
regression 1) возвращение в прежнее состояние
2)	возврат к более ранней стадии развития;
регрессия
regula регула (короткая полочка, расположенная
под триглифом; к ней крепятся гутты, или
капли)
regular правильный; регулярный; размеренный;
равномерный
regularity правильность; регулярность; разме¬
ренность; равномерность
regulation 1) регулирование, приведение в поря¬
док 2) мн. правила, нормы
reinforce 1) усиливать' 2) армировать
reinforced concrete железобетон
reinforcing bar арматурный стержень
rejection отказ; отклонение, непринятие
relation отношение, связь
relevance 1) уместность 2) значимось, акту¬
альность; важность, необходимость; сущест¬
венность
reliability надежность, безотказность (в эксплуа¬
тации)
reliable надежный, безотказный
reliance (on) 1) доверие, уверенность 2) опора,
надежда
relief 1. п рельеф 2. а рельефный
relief carving рельефная резьба
relieve облегчать, уменьшать (тяжесть, давле¬
ние)
reluctance неохота, нежелание; нерасположение
remains остаток; остатки
reminiscent (of) напоминающий (о чем-л.), вы¬
зывающий воспоминания
remnant 1) след, пережиток 2) остаток
remove 1) передвигать; перемещать; убирать,
уносить 2) отодвигать, убирать
Renaissance эпоха Возрождения, Ренессанс
render 1. п первый слой штукатурки; обрызг
2. v штукатурить без драни; обмазывать; на¬
носить обрызг
rendering 1) штукатурка наружной поверхности
стены 2) нанесение обрызга
renewed 1) обновленный, новый 2) возобнов¬
ленный, возрожденный
repellent 1) вызывающий отвращение, отталки¬
вающий; возмутительный 2) водоотталкива¬
ющий
repetition повторение
representation изображение, образ
representative представитель
reproduce 1) воспроизводить 2) делать копию
reproduction 1) воспроизведение 2) репродук¬
ция, копия
requirement 1) требование, необходимое усло¬
вие 2) спрос, нужда, потребность
resemblance сходство
resemble походить, иметь сходство
reserve резервировать, бронировать, заказывать
заранее
resident постоянный житель
residential жилой; жилищный
residential development жилая застройка, зас¬
тройка жилыми домами
resolve 1. п решение, намерение 2. v 1) ре¬
шаться), принимать решение 2) разрешать
(сомнения и т.п.)

resonance резонанс
respect 1. n уважение 2. v уважать
respond II) отвечать 2) реагировать, отзываться
(to)
respond II пилястр(а), полупилон
response ответ; отклик; ответная реакция
rest 1. п опора; упор; стойка 2. v лежать на, опи¬
раться
restoration восстановление, реставрация
restore восстанавливать, реставрировать
restored восстановленный, реставрированный
restraint 1) сдержанность 2) замкнутость
3)	строгость
restrict ограничивать; заключать в пределы
restricted узкий, ограниченный
restriction ограничение, запрет
result in кончаться, иметь своим результатом
retain 1) удерживать; поддерживать 2) сохранять
retreat 1. п отступление 2. v 1) отходить; отсту¬
пать 2) удаляться
reveal обнаруживать, показывать; раскрывать
revival возрождение
revivalism стремление к возрождению
revivalist возрождающий старые методы
revolt 1) восстание, мятеж 2) протест, бунт 2) от¬
вращение
reward награда, вознаграждение
rewarding 1) вознаграждающий 2) стоящий, по¬
лезный
rhythm ритм, гармония
rib (ribbed) vault ребристый свод
rib 1) ребро 2) нервюра, гурт (профилированное
ребро) 3) фланец, буртик, поясок
rib-cage (сленг) скелет
rich 1) богатый 2) густой, интенсивный, яркий
richly 1) богато, роскошно 2) вполне, осно¬
вательно
richly grained marble мрамор, изобилующий
кристаллами
richness богатство; яркость, живость
ridge 1) край, ребро 2) конёк (крыши); конь¬
ковый брус
right angle прямой угол
rigid 1) жесткий, негнущийся; твердый 2) не¬
подвижный 3) непреклонный 4) строгий;
суровый
rigid geometry строгая геометрическая форма
rigorous 1) суровый 2) строгий 3) точный 4) тща¬
тельный, скрупулезный
ringside 1) первые ряды 2) удобная точка для об¬
зора; место, положение и т. п., откуда все
видно
riotuous 1) необузданный, безудержный
2) пышный, буйный
ritually 1) ритуально; по обряду 2) традиционно;
по традиции, по обычаю
roam странствовать, бродить
robust прочный; устойчивый, надежный в экс¬
плуатации
robustness эксплуатационная надежность; про¬
чность
rocaiUe рокайль, орнамент в стиле рококо
rock 1) скала, утес 2) горная порода 3) камень,
булыжник
Rococo стиль рококо
roll 1) рулон, свиток 2) завиток
Roman 1. п римлянин, римлянка 2. а римский
Romanesque романский
Rome Рим
rood screen крестная перегородка (отделяет
клирос от нефа)
roof garden сад на крыше здания
roof slab плита покрытия здания; плита крыши
roof terrace терраса на крыше здания
roof-line контур свода
rose-window круглое окно-розетка (большое
круглое окно с радиальными резными горбылъ-
ками)
rotunda 1) ротонда 2) круглый зал с куполооб¬
разным потолком
rough 1) неровный, шероховатый 2) черновой
rough-finished с фактурой бетонной поверхнос¬
ти после распалубки
rough-surface 1) необработанная поверхность
2)	шероховатая поверхность
round (rounded) arch полукруглая арка
round круглый, шарообразный, сферический
round gable круглый щипец
route маршрут, курс, путь, дорога
row 1) ряд 2) проход
row house дом рядовой (ленточной) застройки
royal tomb надгробие фараона
rugged неровный, шероховатый; негладкий
ruggedness неровность; шероховатость
run руководить, управлять; вести (дело); экс¬
плуатировать
russed roof крыша с висячими стропилами
rustic 1) рустик(а) 2) грубо отесанный камень

rustic masonry кладка из неотесанного камня,
рустовка
rustic tile рустованная черепица
rustic work рустовка
rusticate рустовать (облицовывать стены либо
грубо отесанными (рустами), либо выпуклыми
камнями)
rusticated рустованный
rustication рустовка, рустика
rusty 1) заржавленный, ржавый 2) цвета ржав¬
чины; порыжевший
ruthless безжалостный, жестокий
S
S-curve = S-shaped curve S-образная кривая
sacred священный, святой; неприкосновенный
sacrifice 1. п жертва 2. v приносить в жертву; со¬
вершать жертвоприношение
sacrificial жертвенный
sacrificial altar жертвенный алтарь
sage 1) мудрец 2) ирон. ученый муж
saint святой
salone (фр.) гостиная; салон
sample образец; шаблон; модель
sanctuary храм; святилище
saucer dome плоский купол
scale 1. л 1) масштаб; шкала; масштабная ли¬
нейка 2) размер, охват, размах 2. v 1) изобра¬
жать в определенном масштабе 2) сводить к
определенному масштабу 3) быть соразмер¬
ным, сопоставимым, иметь общий масштаб
scaly fish чешуйчатая рыба
scene сцена
scent запах
schematism 1) схематизм 2) расположение в ви¬
де схемы или системы
scheme 1. л 1) проект; план; программа 2) схема;
чертеж; диаграмма 2. v планировать, про¬
ектировать
scholar ученый
scholarship ученость, эрудиция
science наука
science fiction научная фантастика
scientific научный
sci-fi (сокр. от science fiction) разг. 1. п научная
фантастика 2) а научно-фантастический
scotia скоция (архитектурный облом)
scrape down отчищать, отскабливать
screen сетка; решетка; экран
scroll 1. п завиток, волюта 2. v украшать завит¬
ками
scrollwork орнаментальный завиток
sculpt ваять, лепить; украшать скульптурной ра¬
ботой
sculpted figure изваяние, скульптурное произве¬
дение; статуя
sculpture 1. п скульптура, ваяние 2) изваяние,
скульптурное произведение, статуя 2. v 1) ва¬
ять, лепить; высекать (на камне, мраморе)
2)	украшать скульптурами, скульптурной
работой
sculptured скульптурный
sculptured figure изваяние, скульптурное про¬
изведение; статуя
sculptured group скульптурная группа
sealed герметизированный, уплотненный
seam шов
search 1. л 1) поиски 2) исследование; изыска¬
ние 2. v искать
searchlight прожектор
seat 1. п место (для сидения) 2. v 1) сажать, уса¬
живать 2) вмещать, помещать
secession выход; раскол; отделение
Secession = Sezession Сецессион (название объе¬
динений художников в Мюнхене (1892), Вене
(1897), Берлине (1899), отвергавших академи¬
ческие доктрины, выступивших провозвестни¬
ками стиля “модерн”)
secessionist раскольник, отступник
seclude отделять, изолировать
secluded уединенный; укромный
section 1) сечение, разрез (на чертеже) 2) сек¬
ция; отрезок; участок 3) квартал (города)
secular светский, мирской, нецерковный
segmental arch лучковая (сегментная, пологая)
арка
self-aware 1) обладающий самосознанием
2)	поглощенный самим собой
self-conscious 1) неловкий, застенчивый 2) обла¬
дающий самосознанием; самосознающий
selling продажа
semi в сложных словах имеет значение половина,
полу-
semi-circle полукруг, полуокружность
semi-circular полукруглый

semi-elliptical полуэллиптический
semi-elliptical dome полуэллиптический купол
semi-precious полудрагоценный, самоцветный
semidome полукупол
sense чувство; ощущение
sense of intimacy ощущение тесной связи, бли¬
зости, интимности
sense of movement ощущение движения
sensibility чувствительность; восприимчивость
sensory 1) чувственный, относящийся к чув¬
ствам 2) относящийся к смыслу, значению
sensual 1) чувственный 2) воспринимаемый
чувствами, материальный
sensuous чувственный (о восприятии); эмоцио¬
нальный
sentiment чувство; отношение, настроение,
мнение
sequence последовательность; ряд; порядок
(iследования)
serenity ясность, безмятежность
series серия, ряд
set 1) ставить, класть, помещать; расставлять,
устанавливать; располагать, размещать
2)	твердеть,застывать, затвердевать; схваты¬
ваться (о цементе, бетоне)
set apart 1) отдалять 2) отделять
set back отступать, помещать в глубине, отодви¬
гать
setback отступ, уступ фасада
setting окружение, окружающая обстановка;
положение
settle 1) поселить(ся) 2) регулировать(ся); ула¬
живаться) 3) решать
severe 1) строгий, суровый 2) жесткий 3) тща¬
тельный 4) простой, строгий, выдержанный
(о стиле)
severely 1) строго, сурово 2) сильно, тяжело
3)	сильно, чрезвычайно; значительно, су¬
щественно 4)строго, просто
severity 1) строгость, суровость 2) простота,
строгость (стиля)
sewer коллектор, канализационная труба; сточ¬
ная труба
sgraffito сграффито (разновидность настенной
живописи)
shade 1. л 1) оттенок, тон 2) тень 2. v 1) штрихо¬
вать 2) затенять
shaded тенистый; затененный
shading 1) затенение 2) штриховка 3) отмывка
shaft ствол, стержень (колонны)
shallow низкий, пологий
shallow buttress пологий контрфорс
shallow pediment низкий (пологий) фронтон
shallow pitched roof крыша с пологими скатами
shape 1. п форма, очертание 2. v придавать фор¬
му, формовать
shaped фасонный, фигурный, профилирован¬
ный
shared совместного пользования, коллек¬
тивный
shared interest общий интерес
shared space помещение совместного пользо¬
вания
shed навес, укрытие
sheer bronze блестящая бронза
sheet лист
sheet glass листовое стекло
shell 1) оболочка 2) остов, каркас 3) раковина,
скорлупа 4) обшивка
shell structure оболочковая (оболочечная) кон¬
струкция, оболочка
shell-like подобный ракушке
shelter кров, убежище, укрытие
shield 1. п щит, экран, защита 2. v защищать
shingle гонт; кровельная дранка; тонкая доска
shoddy 1. п претенциозность 2. а 1) притворный,
фальшивый, поддельный 2) дрянной, низ¬
копробный
shopping arcade торговый пассаж
shopping mall торговый пассаж
short-lived 1) живущий недолго, недолговечный
2)	мимолетный, преходящий
shortage нехватка, недостаток; дефицит
shorten укорачивать(ся), сокращать(ся)
shouldered arch клинчатая перемычка на двух
консолях
shrine место поклонения, святыня
shrub кустарник, куст
shun избегать, остерегаться
shutter опалубка
shuttering marks следы опалубки
side 1) сторона; бок; край 2) лоток свода
side entrance боковой вход
silhouette 1. п силуэт, очертания 2. v вырисовы¬
ваться
silver work изделия из серебра
similar сходный, подобный
similarity сходство, подобие

similarly подобным образом, так же
simple 1) простой, строгий 2) простой, неслож¬
ный
simplicity простота
simplification упрощение
simulation моделирование
simultaneous одновременный
sinuous гибкий (о фигуре)
sinuous curve синусоида
site 1) местоположение 2) участок; место
3)	строительная площадка
siting 1) выбор места для строительства, выбор
строительной площадки 2) разбивка зданий
на местности; расположение зданий на мес¬
тности
sizeable значительных размеров
skeleton structure каркасная конструкция
sketch Д. я эскиз, набросок 2. v делать эскиз,
набросок
skilful искусный, умелый
skilfully искусно, умело
skill умение, мастерство
skin наружный (поверхностный) слой; оболоч¬
ка; покрытие; пленка
skylight 1) фонарь (на крыше или покрытии),
световой люк, застекленная крыша 2) вер¬
хний свет, потолочное освещение
skyscraper небоскреб
skyword(s) к небу
slab плита (элемент конструкции )
slab block многоквартирный дом секционного
типа
slant 1. я 1) уклон, косина; скос 2) наклонная
плоскость 2. v наклонять(ся), отклонять(ся)
slanting наклонный, косой
slate 1) сланец 2) асбестоцементная кровельная
плитка, шифер
slender тонкий, стройный
slenderness тонкость, стройность, изящность
sliding partition раздвижная перегородка
slit window узкое окно
slope 1. я 1) наклон 2) склон, скат, откос,
крутизна 2. v 1) иметь наклон, отлого под¬
ниматься или опускаться 2) клониться
3)	наклонить
sloped site строительная площадка на территории
с большим уклоном (ра склоне, на косогоре)
sloping наклонный, покатый; скошенный,
косой
sloping beam наклонная балка
sloping roof скатная крыша
sloping wall наклонная стена
slot паз; канавка; прорезь, вырез; щель
slow неровный, затрудняющий быстрое движе¬
ние (о дороге, поверхности и т.п.), не рассчи¬
танный на большую скорость
slum трущобы
slum-clearance programme программа сноса вет¬
хих зданий (трущоб)
small-scale 1) небольшой 2) маломасштабный;
в малом масштабе
smooth 1. а гладкий 2. v разглаживать
so long as если только; при условии, что
soaring 1) парящий, летящий ввысь 2) высокий,
выше обычного уровня, возвышающийся
soffit софит; нижняя поверхность (свода, по¬
толка)
software программное или математическое
обеспечение, программные средства
sojourn (временное) пребывание
solid 1. я твердое тело, вещество 2. а 1) твердый
2)	сплошной; цельный, однородный 3) мас¬
сивный (не полый) 4) прочный, крепкий
solid wall глухая (сплошная) стена
solidity 1) твердость, плотность 2) прочность,
крепость 3) цельность, неразрывность, мас¬
сивность 4) непроницаемость
SOM ( Skidmore, Owings, & Merrill) (американ¬
ская архитектурная фирма, основанная
Л.Скидмором и Н.А.Оуингсом в Чикаго (1936) и
Нью-Йорке (1937). Позже к ним присоедини¬
лись Дж.О.Меррилл и Г.Буншафт)
sonorous 1) звучный, звонкий 2) высокопарный
(о стиле)
sophisticated 1) лишенный простоты; изощрен¬
ный; утонченный 2) отвечающий изощрен¬
ному вкусу 3) сложный, тонкий
sophistication изощренность, утонченность,
изысканность
soundness прочность, крепость
space 1. я 1) пространство 2) помещение 3) ин¬
тервал 4) промежуток 2. v оставлять проме¬
жутки; расставлять с промежутками
spacing 1) размещение, расположение 2) интер¬
вал, зазор; шаг
spacious обширный, просторный
span 1) пролет 2) перекрывать пролет (аркой,
сводом)

spandrel 1) антревольт (поле стены между двумя
соседними арками, часто заполненное рельеф¬
ным орнаментом) 2) парус или пазуха свода
3)	надсводное строение 4) подоконная часть
стены 5) несущая стена
spark 1) искриться 2) зажигать, воодушевлять;
вызвать
sparkle 1. п блеск, сверкание 2. v искриться,
сверкать, переливаться
sparkling сверкающий, блестящий, искрящийся
spatial пространственный
spatial composition пространственная компо¬
зиция
spatial depth глубина пространства
specifications технические условия
spectacle зрелище
spectacular 1) эффектный, импозантный 2) за¬
хватывающий
speculative созерцательный, умозрительный;
мыслительный; склонный к абстрактному
теоретизированию
spiky 1) колосовидный 2) колючий 3) заострен¬
ный, остроконечный стержнеобразный
spiky tower остроконечная башня
spiral 1) спираль; предмет спиральной формы
2)	винтовая линия
spiralling закручивание в спираль
spiralling ramp винтообразный пандус
spire шпиль, шпиц; остроконечная верхушка
spiritual 1) духовный 2) одухотворенный, возвы¬
шенный
splendid великолепный, роскошный, блес¬
тящий
splendour 1) блеск 2) великолепие, пышность
sport выставлять напоказ
sprawling 1) растянувшийся; растянутый 2) раз¬
вивающийся беспорядочно
sprawling city беспорядочно растущий город
spread 1. я 1) распространение; рост 2) протя¬
женность; широта, размах 2. v 1) распростра¬
нять (по поверхности) 2) распространяться,
простираться
spring line линия, соединяющая пяты (арки, сво¬
да), линия пят; линия наклона пяты арки;
линия примыкания пяты арки к опорной по¬
верхности
springer пятовый камень
sprinkle брызгать, кропить
spur побуждать
square 1. п 1) квадрат 2) площадь 2. а квадратный
squat короткий и толстый, приземистый
stable I стойкий, устойчивый; прочный,
крепкий
stable II конюшня
stag олень-самец
stage 1. п сцена 2. v 1) ставить 2) организовы¬
вать, осуществлять
stagger располагать в шахматном порядке; рас¬
полагать ступенями, уступами
staggered расположенный в шахматном поряд¬
ке или ступенями; неравномерно располо¬
женный
staging I подмости, леса
staging II постановка
stained glass цветное стекло
stained glass window витраж
stainless steel нержавеющая сталь
staircase 1) лестничная клетка 2) лестница
3)	лестничный марш
stairway 1) лестница 2) лестничный марш
stairwell лестничная клетка; лестничный колодец
stalk ствол
stance поза, положение
stand 1) подставка; штатив; стойка; пьедестал
2)	кронштейн, консоль
standard of living уровень жизни
standardize стандартизировать
standardized kit стандартизированный (стан¬
дартный) набор
starkly 1) резко, решительно 2) явно
starkness 1) неподвижность 2) холодность
3)	простота, строгость (о стиле и т.д. без укра¬
шений)
starting point отправной пункт, отправная точка
startling поразительный, потрясающий
stately величавый, величественный
statuary собир. скульптура
statue статуя, изваяние
steel bar сортовая сталь
steel frame стальная рама
steel framing стальная рама, стальной каркас
steel reinforcement стальная арматура
steel skeleton structure конструкция со стальным
несущим каркасом
steel-frame building здание со стальным каркасом
steep (in) погружаться, уходить с головой;
погрязнуть
steep крутой

steep roof скатная крыша, крыша с крутыми
скатами
steeply pitched roof крутая скатная крыша, кры¬
ша с крутыми скатами
stellar vault звездчатый свод
stencil 1) трафарет, шаблон 2) наносить узор или
надпись по трафарету
step 1) ступень, этап, стадия 2) ступень (лестни¬
цы), ступенька 3) шаг
step out выходить
stepped ступенчатый, уступчатый; ярусный;
со ступенями
stepped gable ступенчатый щипец
stereobate стереобат, цоколь (основа, на которой
возводились древнегреческие храмы)
stocky приземистый
stone dressing обтеска камня, придание декора¬
тивной фактуры камню
stone quoin угловой камень кладки
stone-cutting резка, тесание, гранение камня;
высечка из камня
stonemason каменщик
store-room кладовая
storey этаж, ярус
straight прямой
straight line прямая (линия)
straightforward 1) прямой; открытый 2) простой,
несложный
stray 1) сбиться с пути 2) отклониться
streamline 1. п обтекаемая форма 2. v 1) прида¬
вать обтекаемую форму; иметь обтекаемую
форму 2) рационализировать, модернизиро¬
вать; упрощать
streamlined 1) обтекаемый 2) хорошо налажен¬
ный; модернизированный 3) упрощенный
4)	элегантный, с красивыми формами
streamlining придание телу обтекаемой формы
strength 1) сила 2) прочность, предел прочности
stretch растягивать, вытягивать, удлинять
strictly строго
strident резкий
striking поразительный
string course междуэтажный пояс
strip window ленточное остекление
strong-knit крепко сколоченный, сбитый; спло¬
ченный
stronghold крепость, твердыня, цитадель; оплот
structural строительный; конструктивный; кон¬
струкционный
structure 1) конструкция; конструктивная
система (здания, сооружения) 2) соору¬
жение, здание 3) структура 4) мн. леса, под¬
мости
stucco 1) наружная штукатурка 2) штукатурный
цементный раствор
stucco ornamentation лепной орнамент
stuff вещество, материя, материал
stunningly великолепно, потрясающе, шикарно
sturdy 1) сильный, крепкий 2) стойкий,
твердый
stylize стилизовать
stylized стилизованный
stylobate стилобат, подножие колонны (верхняя
поверхность ступенчатого цоколя (стереоба¬
та) древнегреческого храма)
subject I подвергать (воздействию, влиянию)
subject II сюжет, тема
subordinate подчиненный; второстепенный,
низший
subsequent последующий
subsidiary 1) вспомогательный, дополнитель¬
ный 2) второстепенный
substance вещество
substitute 1. л 1) замена 2) заменитель 2. v заме¬
нять, замещать
subtle 1) тонкий, нежный, неуловимый 2) утон¬
ченный 3) искусный 4) едва различимый,
трудно уловимый
suburban town провинциальный город
subvert 1) свергать; разрушать 2) нарушать (за¬
кон), извращать (принцип) 3) опрокидывать,
переворачивать
succeed 1. v 1) следовать за; сменять; 2) быть
преемником 2. v достигать цели, преуспевать
(in); иметь успех
success успех
successful успешный, преуспевающий
successor преемник, наследник
sudden внезапный, неожиданный
suffer страдать; испытывать, претерпевать
suggest 1) предлагать, советовать 2) внушать
(мысль); вызывать (ассоциацию); подсказы¬
вать (мысль, идею); намекать, наводить на
мысль 4) навеять
suggestive (of) вызывающий мысли, напомина¬
ющий
suit 1) удовлетворять требованиям 2) годиться;
соответствовать, подходить

summit вершина, верх, наивысшая точка
sun-deck открытая веранда на солнечной сто¬
роне
sun-lit залитый, освещенный солнцем
sunbreaker внешнее солнцезащитное устрой¬
ство (напр, навес, козырек, ребра)
sunburst ювелирное изделие в виде солнца с лу¬
чами
sunk ниже какого-л. уровня, погруженный; по¬
топленный
sunken ниже какого-л. уровня; опущенный
superficial поверхностный
superficiality поверхностность
supersede 1) заменять; смещать 2) вытеснять, за¬
нимать чье-л. место
supervise 1) наблюдать; надзирать 3) руководить
supplementary дополнительный
supply 1. л 1) снабжение, поставка 2) запас 3) по¬
дача, подвод 2. v 1) снабжать (with) 2) постав¬
лять 3) восполнять 4) подавать, подводить
support 1. п опора 2. v поддерживать, подпирать;
нести
supporting post несущая стойка
supreme 1) высший 2) высочайший; величайший
surface поверхность
surmount 1) преодолевать 2) увенчивать
surreal сюрреалистический
surreal space сюрреалистическое пространство
surround окружать
survey съемка (топографическая)
survival выживание
survive пережить, сохраниться
suspend вешать, подвешивать
suspended 1) подвешенный, висящий 2) подвес¬
ной, висячий 3) надземный
suspension bridge висячий мост; цепной мост
sustainability 1) длительность, непрерывность
2)	выносливость, стойкость
sweep простираться, тянуться
sweeping 1) широкий; с большим охватом
2)	стремительный 3) плавный, округлый
4)	не делающий различий, огульный
sweeping curve сглаженная кривая
swoop устремляться вниз
swooping roof крутая скатная крыша
synonymous 1) синонимический, синонимич¬
ный 2) тождественный; олицетворяющий
собой
system of vaulting система сводов
т
tabernacle 1) башенка с колоннами и игловидной
кровлей (помещающаяся на опорных пилонах,
контрфорсах католических храмов, часто до¬
полняющаяся скульптурой) 2) архитектурно
оформленная ниша со статуей святого в ин¬
терьере храма 3) дарохранительница (остро¬
верхий шкафчик на алтаре, где хранятся мощи)
tablet) карниз, поясок 2) пластинка; плитка
tactile 1) осязательный 2) ощутимый, осязаемый
taenia тения, листель (горизонтальная тяга ти¬
па полочки, завершающая архитрав)
take advantage of воспользоваться чем-л.
take off 1) снимать 2) удалять
take over 1) принимать (что-л.) от другого
tangible 1) осязаемый, материальный 2) ясный,
ощутимый; реальный
tea room кафе(-кондитерская)
Team X союз архитекторов, организованный для
проведения 10-й конференции СИАМ в 1956 г.
technique техника, методика, метод, способ,
прием; технология
Tecton ассоциация лондонских архитекторов, уч¬
режденная в 1932 г.
tectonic архитектурный
tectonics тектоника (архитектурно выраженная
структура здания, соотношение нагрузки и
опоры)
temper регулировать, умерять, смягчать
temple храм
temple wall храмовая стена
temporary временный
tend иметь тенденцию к чему-л.
tender 1) предложение 2) тендер, договор-
подряд
tendril завиток
tension 1) растяжение 2) напряжение 3) натяже¬
ние; усилие натяжения
tentative 1) пробный, опытный, эксперимен¬
тальный 2) гипотетический, предполагаемый
3)	предварительный 4) нерешительный, неу¬
веренный
tentatively 1) экспериментально 2) предвари¬
тельно 3) нерешительно, неуверенно
tented arch шатровая арка
terminate кончать(ся), завершать(ся)
terminus {pi -ni) конечная станция; вокзал

terraced террасированный, сделанный в виде
уступов, идущих по рельефу
terraced house дом, составляющий часть сплош¬
ного ряда домов, имеющих общие боковые
стены
terraced houses дома рядовой застройки, дома
периметральной застройки, дома строчной
застройки
terracotta терракота
textile design конструирование изделий их тек¬
стиля (одежды)
texture текстура; фактура; структура 2) прида¬
вать структуру
textured текстурный, фактурный
thatch 1) соломенная или тростниковая крыша,
крыша из пальмовых листьев 2) солома,
тростник или пальмовые листья (для кровли)
thereby 1) посредством этого; таким образом; с
помощью этого 2) в связи с этим
three-dimensional трехмерный; объемный
threshold порог
thrust 1) распор 2) напор, нажим
thrust out высовывать
thunderbolt классический орнамент, атрибут
Юпитера, в форме спиралевидного свитка, за¬
остренного с обоих концов, часто удерживае¬
мого в когтях орла или с крыльями, с клинооб¬
разными, разветвленными или зигзагообразны¬
ми стрелами-молниями
thymele (altar) алтарь
tide волна
tie привязывать
tier ряд, ярус
tiered seating места для сидения, расположен¬
ные ярусами
tile 1) керамическая облицовочная плитка, ка¬
фель, изразец 2) кровельная черепица
tiling облицовка плитками
timber 1) лесоматериал 2) деревянный брус;
бревно, балка
timber grain текстура дерева
time 1) время 2) период 3) раз
time-consuming трудоемкий, требующий много
времени
timeless 1) не относящийся к определенному
времени; вневременный 2) вечный, беско¬
нечный; непреходящий; постоянный 3) не¬
устаревающий, неменяющийся
titanium титан
tomb 1) могила 2) гробница 3) надгробный па¬
мятник
tool 1. п инструмент 2. v обрабатывать; обтесывать
top 1. п верх, верхняя часть 2. v быть завершени¬
ем, увенчивать; возвышаться
torch факел
torus торус (архитектурный облом)
tower 1. п 1) башня 2) высотное здание, небо¬
скреб 2. v возвышаться, выситься
town hall ратуша, здание муниципалитета
town planner градостроитель
town planning градостроительство, планировка
городов, поселков и сельских населенных
пунктов
trabeated стоечно-балочный
trace усматривать, находить, обнаруживать
tracery ажурная каменная работа (в средневеко¬
вой архитектуре)
tracery window ажурное окно
traffic транспорт; движение транспорта
transept трансепт, поперечный неф
transom горизонтальный импост (в проеме,
в дверной или оконной коробке), ригель
transparency прозрачность
transverse arch поперечная арка
traverse 1. п поперечина; перекладина; траверса
2. а поперечный 3. v пересекать
treasury сокровищница
treat 1) обрабатывать 2) относиться 3) тракто¬
вать, рассматривать, обсуждать
treatise 1) трактат 2) научный труд
treatment 1) обработка 2) обращение, обхожде¬
ние 3) трактовка, обсуждение
tree-like древовидный
trefoil орнамент в виде трилистника
trefoil arch трехлопастная арка
trend тенденция, направление
trestle подмости, козлы
triangle треугольник
triangular треугольный
tried испытанный, проверенный, надежный
triforium трифорий (узкие невысокие галереи,
расположенные в толще стены над арками,
отделяющими боковые нефы от среднего)
triglyph триглиф (деталь фриза дорического орде¬
ра в виде прямоугольной плиты с двумя верти¬
кальными бороздками треугольного сечения)
triple тройной, утроенный
triumphal arch триумфальная арка

trivia (лат.) мелочи; пустяки
trochilus трохиль, выкружка (архитектурный
профиль, имеющий очертание вогнутой чет¬
вертой части окружности)
trouble 1. п беспокойство, хлопоты 2. v беспоко¬
ить, тревожить
trough лоток
trough vault лотковый свод
truss ферма (балочная, стропильная)
trussed timber roof деревянная крыша с висячи¬
ми стропилами
trusted надежный
Tudor тюдоровский, эпохи Тюдоров
Tudor arch стрельчатая арка (очерченная дугами
из четырех центров)
tunnel vault цилиндрический свод
turn to 1) обратиться к кому-л. 2) превратиться
3)	окончиться чем-л.
turned -изготовленный на станке, машинного
производства
turned moulding изготовленный на станке, обто¬
ченный профиль
turning point поворотный пункт, решающий мо¬
мент
turning staircase с маршами в разных направ¬
лениях лестница
turret башенка (на крыше)
Tuscan order тосканский ордер
twin columns двойные (спаренные, сдвоенные,
парные) колонны
twist 1. п кручение, скручивание 2. v 1) крутить,
сплетать(ся) 2) виться; изгибать(ся)
twisted сплетенный; переплетенный; вплетен¬
ный; витой
twisted column витая колонна
two-dimensional двухмерный; плоский; поверх¬
ностный
tympanum тимпан (треугольное поле фронтона)
и
unadorned неукрашенный
unashamedly бессовестно, бесстыдно, нагло
uncluttered surface неперегруженная повер¬
хность
uncompromising 1) непреклонный 2) бескомпро¬
миссный
unconventional нетрадиционный
uncultivated 1) необработанный 2) дикий
undercoating грунтовочное покрытие, грунтов¬
ка, грунт
underground метрополитен
underneath 1. adv вниз, внизу, ниже 2. prep под
underside нижняя часть (предмета); низ, дно
understate преуменьшать
undisguised незамаскированный
undulate 1. а волнистый, волнообразный
2. v быть волнистым, быть холмистым (о мес¬
тности)
undulated волнистый, волнообразный
undulating волнистый, волнообразный
undulating fagade волнообразный (волнистый)
фасад
undulating wall волнообразная (волнистая) стена
uneven неровный, негладкий, шероховатый
unevenly неровно, негладко
unevenness неровность, шероховатость
unexpected неожиданный, непредвиденный,
внезапный
unfinished незаконченный, незавершенный; не¬
обработанный, неотделанный; грубый, неот¬
шлифованный
unfortunately к несчастью, к сожалению
unification 1) объединение 2) унификация
uniform 1) однородный; однообразный; едино¬
образный 3) постоянный
unique уникальный; единственный в своем роде
unlikely 1. а 1) неправдоподобный, невероят¬
ный, маловероятный 2) малообещающий
3)	непривлекательный 2. adv вряд ли, едва ли
unprecedented не имеющий прецедента, беспре¬
цедентный; беспримерный
unrestricted неограниченный
upper torus (верхний) торус (полукруглый фриз)
upright 1. п стойка; вертикальный элемент кон¬
струкции 2. а вертикальный
upward направленный или движущийся вверх
upward(s) вверх
urban городской
urban area городская территория; территория,
пригодная для градостроительства
urban core городское ядро
urban villa городская вилла, городской особняк
urbanization урбанизация; рост городов (за счет
сельской местности); отток населения в город
useful полезный, пригодный

useless бесполезный, никуда не годный
utilitarian 1) утилитарный 2) практический, пра¬
гматический 3) полезный
utilize использовать, утилизировать
utmost 1. п большее, предел возможного; верх
(чего-л.) 2. а 1) самый отдаленный 2) край¬
ний, предельный
v
valley temple храм долины
value 1. п 1) ценность, важность 2) стоимость,
цена 3) значение, величина 2. v 1) давать
оценку, ценить 2) оценивать
vanguard авангард, передовой отряд
vanish исчезать, пропадать
vanquished побежденный
variable 1) изменчивый, непостоянный 2) пере¬
менный
vast обширный, огромный, громадный
vault 1. п свод 2. v покрывать сводом, возводить
свод, перекрывать сводом
vaulted сводчатый; арочный
vaulted ceiling сводчатый потолок
vaulted roof сводчатая крыша
vaulted space сводчатое пространство, помещение
vaulting 1) возведение свода 2) свод; своды,
сводчатые покрытия
vegetation растительность; растительный покров
vein тон, стиль
veneer 1. л 1) шпон; фанера 2) фанерная обшив¬
ка 3) прислонная кирпичная или каменная
облицовка стены 2. v 1) облицовывать шпо¬
ном 2) фанеровать 3) облицовывать
venerable почтенный
venue место встречи, место совершения дей¬
ствия
veritable настоящий, истинный
vernacular характерный для данной местности
vertical glazing остекление вертикальных по¬
верхностей
via (лат.) через
viaduct виадук, путепровод
viewpoint точка зрения
villa особняк (в городе или проигороде)
Virgin, the библ. дева Мария, богородица,
мадонна
virtual space виртуальное пространство
virtually фактически, практически^ действи¬
тельности; по существу, наделе, в сущности
virtue 1) добродетель 2) достоинство; преиму¬
щество
vision 1) зрение 2) проницательность, предвиде¬
ние 3) зрелище, вид 4) мечта
visionary призрачный; воображаемый, фантас¬
тический
visual наглядный, визуальный
visual means наглядные средства, изобразитель¬
ные средства
vitality жизнеспособность, жизненность
vivid 1) яркий; 2) ясный; четкий
vocabulary 1) словарь 2) лексика 3) терминология
vociferous 1) громкоголосый; горластый
2)	громкий, шумный; громогласный
vogue мода
void пустота
volume объем
volute волюта, завиток
volute cushion подушка волюты
voussoir клинчатый камень (для кладки арок и
сводов)
vulgar 1) грубый, вульгарный 2) неоригиналь¬
ный, заурядный, избитый, тривиальный
3)	относящийся к простым людям 4) обще¬
народный 5) широко распространенный
W
wage-dependent зависимый, зависящий от зара¬
ботной платы
wagon 1) повозка, телега 2) тележка 3) колес¬
ница
wagon ceiling сводчатый потолок
wagon vault цилиндрический свод
walk галерея; колоннада; портик
walkway 1) пешеходный переход 2) пешеходный
мостик 3) стремянка (на крыше) 4) дорожка
5)	тротуар
wall arcade сводчатая ниша в стене
wall hanging стенная драпировка или гобелен,
портьеры; обои
wall-panelling обшивка (облицовка) стен
walled garden сад, обнесенный стеной (оградой)
wallpaper обои

warehouse склад, складское помещение; товар¬
ный склад; оптовый магазин; большой роз¬
ничный магазин
warfare война
waste 1) тратить впустую, расточать 2) портить
watchtower сторожевая башня
water channel водяной канал
water supply водоснабжение; водопровод
water-pumping station водонасосная станция
water-tower -водонапорная башня
watercolour 1) акварельные краски 2) акварель
(рисунок или картина)
wavy 1) волнистый; волнообразный 2) неров¬
ный, холмистый
weaken 1) ослаблять, снижать эффективность
2)слабеть
weakness 1) слабость, ослабление 2) недостаток
3)	неубедительность
wealth 1) богатство 2) изобилие
weather-resistant защищенный или защищаю¬
щий от непогоды, атмосферных воздействий
web 1) стенка (балки); решетка (фермы) 2) пере¬
мычка; перегородка 3) сеть, сплетение 4) па¬
утина 5)ткань
wedge stone клинчатый камень
weight 1) вес, масса 2) груз, нагрузка
well колодец; скважина; источник
well-serviced имеющий хорошее обслуживание
well-to-do состоятельные, обеспеченные слои
населения
westernization вестернизация (введение западной
цивилизации)
wet draping “мокрая” драпировка
wharf 1) верфь 2) причал, пристань 3) набереж¬
ная
whitewash 1. п побелка; белильная известь
2.	v белить
wholeheartedly беззаветно, искренне, от всей ду¬
ши, полностью
wide-reaching широко простирающийся
widen раширять(ся); распространяться)
widespread широко распространенный
width 1) ширина; расстояние 2) пролет
wind-blown несущийся по ветру; развевающийся
winding staircase винтовая лестница
window screen оконная решетка
window-aperture оконный проем
winning entry выигрышная конкурсная работа
withstand противостоять, выдержать
wonderwork чудо (поразительное достижение)
wood grain волокно древесины
wooden деревянный
woodwork 1) деревянные части (строения) 2) де¬
ревянные изделия 3) столярная работа
workable 1) подходящий для работы; годный для
обработки 2) выполнимый, осуществимый,
реальный
workmanship искусство, мастерство
worldly мирской, суетный, земной (в противопо¬
ложность небесному)
worship 1. п 1) культ; почитание; поклонение
2) богослужение 2. v поклоняться, почитать;
боготворить, обожать
worthy достойный, заслуживающий
wrap обертывать; обматывать
wreath венок
wrought iron 1) ковкий чугун 2) сварочное железо
Y
yearn 1) томиться, тосковать 2) жаждать, стре¬
миться
yield up отказываться от; сдаваться; отдавать;
передавать
z
ziggurat зиггурат, зиккурат (ступенчатая пира¬
мидальная башня)
zigzag 1. п зигзаг; ломаная линия 2. а зигзагооб¬
разный 3. adv зигзагом, зигзагообразно
4.	v делать зигзаги; располагать зигзагом

REFERENCES
Arnold, V.A., Smith, C.B. Wonderworks. N.Y.: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1989.
Curl, S.C. A Dictionary of Architecture. Oxford University Press, 1999.
Chambers Thesaurus of Synonyms and Antonyms. Edinburgh: Larousse pic., 1995.
Foster, M. The Principles of Architecture. Styles, Structure and Design. Oxford: Phaidon Press
Limited, 1983.
French, H. Architecture. A Crash Course. London: Simon & Schuster Ltd, 1998.
Hornby, A.S. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English. London: Oxford
University Press, 1976
Howarth, E. Crash Course in Architecture. Orpington: Eric Dobby Publishing Ltd, 1994.
Nateman, D.S. Introduction to Art. McGraw-Hill, Inc.,1994.
The New American Roget’s College Thesaurus. New American Library, 1978.
The Oxford-Duden Pictorial Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press, Mannheim:
Bibliographisches Institut, Moscow: Russki Yasyk, 1985.
Белова О.Ю. История искусств. М.: Аквариум, 1997.
Волошин В.В., Зельтен НА. Словарь архитектурно-строительных терминов. Мн.: Вы-
шэйш. шк., 1990.
Килъпе T.JI. Основы архитектуры. М., Высш. шк., 1989.
Корчемкин С.Н., Кашкин С.К., Кубатов С.В. Англо-русский строительный словарь. М.:
Рус. яз. 1995.
Мужжевлев Е.А., Рыдник В.И. Англо-русский тематический словарь. М.: Рус. яз., 1994.
Новый большой англо-русский словарь / Под общим руководством Ю.Д.Апресяна,
Э.М.Медниковой. М.: Рус. яз., 1999.
Юсупов Э.С. Словарь терминов архитектуры. СПб.: Фонд “Ленинградская галерея”,
1994.

Учебное издание
Денисёнок Николай Егорович
Английский язык для архитекторов
Пособие
Редактор А. И.Гуторова
Технический редактор М. В. Соболь
Художественный редактор О. В. Полесскова
Компьютерная верстка Раковой А. А.
Издательство ООО “Лексис”.