Н. Л. Утевская
English
Grammar
Book
Грамматика английского языка
для VII-X1 классов школ
с углубленным изучением
английского языка
HntHofoqii
PUBLISHER SCJ -J
ББК 81.2Англ
У 84
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Утевская Н. Л.
У 84 English Grammar Book = Грамматика английского язы-
ка : Учебное пособие. - СПб. : Антология, 2007. - 544 с.
ISBN 978-5-94962-117-2
Пособие по грамматике современного английского языка
предназначено для учащихся VII-XI классов школ с углубленным
изучением английского языка, а также для студентов универси-
тетов и лиц, совершенствующихся в изучении английского языка
на курсах или путем самостоятельной работы.
Цель пособия - помочь учащимся выработать навыки грам-
матически правильной английской речи.
ББК 81.2Англ
ISBN 978-5-94962-117-2
© Утевская Н. Л., 2006
©Антология, 2007
От автора
Настоящее пособие представляет собой полное и системати-
ческое описание морфологического строя современного англий-
ского языка и узловые темы синтаксического строя, часто пред-
ставляющие значительные трудности для учащихся при изуче-
нии. Оно предназначено для учащихся VII-XI классов школ с
углубленным изучением английского языка, гимназий, лицеев,
колледжей, а также для студентов университетов и лиц, занима-
ющихся английским языком на курсах или самостоятельно.
Цель пособия - познакомить изучающих английский язык с
системой грамматических правил, чтобы способствовать улуч-
шению навыков правильной устной и письменной речи. При со-
ставлении пособия использовался традиционный подход, но при
этом учитывались последние достижения грамматической мыс-
ли. Описывая грамматические явления, их формы и функции,
автор стремился представить самую современную языковую нор-
му, используемую в новейшей английской учебной литературе.
Каждой новой теме предпослана краткая характеристика опи-
сываемого грамматического явления. Пройденный материал зак-
репляется упражнениями. Основные виды упражнений: анализ
грамматической формы, определение её функций и значений, пе-
ревод с английского языка на русский и с русского на англий-
ский. Характер упражнений определяется как общими целями
пособия, так и спецификой каждой конкретной формы. Упраж-
нения типа “Translate into English”, имеющие целью контроль
усвоения грамматического материала, предусматривает употреб-
ление лексики, доступной учащимся, на которых рассчитано дан-
ное пособие. Все упражнения направлены на практическое и ак-
тивное владение английской грамматикой.
Пособие состоит из основной части и приложений, которые
включают краткое изложение глагольных времен, список выра-
жений с предлогами, список фразовых глаголов и упражнения
на их использование, список идиом, таблицу неправильных гла-
голов, список соединительных слов и фраз, сведения по слово-
образованию, материал о различиях в грамматике английского
языка в Великобритании и США, словарь грамматических тер-
минов и основных слов пособия.
Contents
The Word
The Parts of Speech................................................9
The Noun ........................................................9
Kinds of Nouns..............................................12
Proper Nouns............................................12
Common Nouns............................................12
Class Nouns..........................................13
Collective Nouns.....................................13
Mass Nouns...........................................13
Abstract Nouns.......................................13
Gender......................................................16
Masculine Gender........................................16
Feminine Gender.........................................16
Neuter Gender...........................................16
Ways of Indicating Gender............................16
Number......................................................17
The Formation of the Plural.............................17
Nouns Used Only in the Singular or in the Plural,
or in Both Singular and Plural...........................20
The Plural of the Compound Nouns........................21
The Plural of Abbreviations.............................21
The Plural of Foreign Words.............................22
Nouns with Two Plurals, Each with a Different Meaning...23
Nouns Having One Meaning in the Singular
and Another in the Plural................................23
Case........................................................28
The Use of the Possessive Case..........................28
The Article.....................................................33
The Use of the Indefinite Article......"....................33
The Use of the Indefinite Article with Nouns
in Set Expressions...........................................35
The Use of the Definite Article..............................35
The Use of the Definite Article with Nouns
in Set Expressions..........................................38
The Absence of the Article..................................39
Nouns Used in Set Expressions without an Article............41
The Adjective...................................................51
Word Order of Adjectives....................................56
Comparison of Adjectives....................................58
Two Ways of Forming the Comparative and
the Superlative Degrees.....................................58
Adjectives of One Syllable..................................58
Adjectives of Two Syllables.................................60
Adjectives of Three and More Syllables......................60
Irregular Forms of Comparison...............................61
Constructions with Comparisons..............................62
Use of Some Adjectives......................................63
4
The Adverb........................................................70
The Formation of Adverbs......................................70
Adverbs with Two Forms and Differences in Meaning.............71
Kinds of Adverbs..............................................72
Comparison of Adverbs.........................................73
Word Order of Adverbs in the Sentence.........................74
The Use of Adverbs............................................76
The Numeral.......................................................83
Cardinal Numerals.............................................83
Ordinal Numerals..............................................84
Words and Expressions Used in Mathematics.....................85
The Pronoun.......................................................88
Personal Pronouns................................-............88
Possessive Adjectives/Pronouns................................89
Demonstrative Pronouns........................................94
Interrogative Pronouns........................................98
Relative Pronouns............................................100
Conjunctive Pronouns.........................................103
Reflexive/Emphatic Pronouns..................................105
Reciprocal Pronouns..........................................108
Indefinite Pronouns..........................................110
Negative Pronouns............................................113
Much, Many, Little, Few, a Little,	a	Few.....................123
The Verb.........................................................127
To Be in the Present Simple Tense........................127
There Is (Are)	Construction..............................129
To Have in the	Present Simple Tense......................131
The Use of Tenses............................................134
Simple Tenses............................................134
The Present Simple Tense..............................134
The Past Simple Tense.................................138
The Future Simple Tense...............................144
Continuous (Progressive) Tenses..........................150
The Present Continuous (Progressive)	Tense............150
The Past Continuous (Progressive) Tense...............159
The Future Continuous (Progressive)	Tense............166
Perfect Tenses...........................................168
The Present Perfect Tense.............................169
The Past Perfect Tense................................178
The Future Perfect Tense..............................182
Perfect Continuous Tenses................................185
The Present Perfect Continuous........................185
The Past Perfect Continuous...........................194
The Future Perfect Continuous.........................203
The Sequence of Tenses...........................................207
Direct and Reported Speech...................................212
Changing from Direct into Reported Speech................212
The Tense Shift when Changing from Direct Speech
to Reported Speech........................................214
5
Reported Questions/Indirect Questions....................216
Reported Commands/Requests/Suggestions...................217
Modal Verbs in Reported Speech...........................224
Reporting a Dialogue or a Conversation...................225
Exclamations/Yes/No Short Answers/Question Tags...........225
Conversational Formulas..................................226
The Voice .......................................................230
The Formation of the Passive Voice...........................231
The Use of the Passive Voice.................................232
Modal Verbs......................................................240
Can..........................................................241
May..........................................................248
Must.........................................................253
To Have to - Have Got to.....................................262
To Be to.....................................................265
Need.........................................................268
Ought to.....................................................271
Should.......................................................272
Shall........................................................277
Will/Would...................................................278
Dare.........................................................282
The Mood ........................................................288
The Indicative Mood..........................................288
The Imperative Mood..........................................288
The Subjunctive Mood.........................................289
The Subjunctive Mood after the Verb Wish.....................289
The Subjunctive Mood in Conditional Sentences................294
Unreal Conditions in the Present.........................294
Unreal Conditions in the Past............................295
Mixed Conditionals.......................................296
Inversion in Conditionals................................296
The Subjunctive Mood after but for in Conditionals...........296
Implied Conditionals.........................................296
The Subjunctive Mood after the Conjunctions as if (as though).304
The Subjunctive Mood after the Verbs Expressing Orders,
Commands, Suggestions....................................308
The Subjunctive Mood after It is necessary;
It is natural etc........................................311
The Subjunctive Mood after It’s (about) time;
It's high time...............................................314
The Subjunctive Mood in Adverbial Clauses of Purpose..........316
The Verbals (Non-Finite Forms of the Verb).......................325
The Infinitive...............................................325
The Use of the Infinitive................................326
The Use of the Infinitive without the Particle to........326
The Functions of the Infinitive in the Sentence..........327
The Infinitive Constructions.................................337
The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction
(The Complex Object)......................................337
6
The For-to-Infinitive Construction..........................344
The Subjective Infinitive Construction
(The Nominative-with-the-Infinitive Construction)...........349
The Gerund......................................................360
The Forms of the Gerund.....................................360
The Functions of the Gerund in the Sentence.................360
The Tense and Voice Distinctions of the Gerund..............361
Noun Characteristics of the Gerund..........................362
Verb Characteristics of the Gerund..........................362
Constructions with the Gerund...............................363
Rendering of the Gerund in Russian..........................363
The Use of Gerund...........................................364
Verbs Used with the Gerund and the Infinitive...............368
Verbs Used with the Gerund and the Infinitive
without a Change in Meaning...............................  370
Verbs Followed by the Gerund or That-Clause.................370
Verbs Followed by the Gerund, the Infinitive and
That-Clause.................................................371
The Gerund and the Verbal Noun..............................372
The Participle..................................................382
The Forms of the Participle.................................383
The Functions of the Present Participle (Participle I)......383
The Functions of the Past Participle (Participle II)........384
The Tense and Voice Distinctions of
the Present Participle and the Past Participle..........384
Verb Characteristics of the Participle......................386
Adjective Characteristics of the Participle.................386
The Objective Participial Construction
(The Complex Object)........................................403
The Subjective Participial Construction.....................407
The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction............409
The Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction.........410
The Nominative Absolute Construction
(without a Participle)......................................415
The Prepositional Absolute Construction
(without a Participle)......................................415
The Preposition.....................................................417
Kinds of Prepositions...........................................417
The Place of Prepositions.......................................418
The Use of More Frequently Met Prepositions.....................418
Prepositions of Place.......................................418
Prepositions of Movement and Direction......................421
Prepositions of Time........................................421
Verbs, Adjectives, Nouns, Participles	with Prepositions.........430
The Conjunction.....................................................438
Coordinating Conjunctions.......................................438
Subordinating Conjunctions......................................438
The Particle........................................................443
Kinds of Particles..............................................443
7
The Interjection...............................................444
The Sentence...................................................445
Kinds of Sentences.........................................445
Interrogative Sentences................................445
Yes/No Questions.......................................446
Wh-Questions...........................................446
Subject/Object Questions...............................447
Question Tags..........................................447
Alternative Questions..................................449
Indirect Questions.....................................449
Short Answers..........................................449
Emphatic Structures............................................456
Inversion .....................................................458
Punctuation....................................................464
The Full Stop..............................................464
The Comma..................................................465
The Semicolon..............................................467
The Colon..................................................467
The Question Mark..........................................467
The Exclamation Mark.......................................467
The Brackets...............................................468
The Hyphen.................................................468
The Dash...................................................468
The Inverted Commas........................................468
The Apostrophe.............................................469
Abbreviations..................................................469
Letter-Writing.................................................469
Appendices.....................................................471
Appendix 1	Summary of Tenses.............................471
Appendix 2	Irregular Verbs...............................475
Appendix 3	Prepositional Phrases.........................481
Appendix 4	Linking Words/Phrases.........................486
Appendix 5	Phrasal Verbs.................................491
Appendix 6	Word Families.................................513
Appendix 7	Idioms........................................518
Appendix 8	American English..............................525
Appendix 9	List of Grammar Terms and Key Words...........526
Sources........................................................542
The Word
The Parts of Speech
A word is the smallest unit of speech that can express a
thought. The different kinds of words used in any language are
called the parts of speech.
There are eleven main parts of speech in the English lan-
guage.
Name
1.	The Noun
2.	The Article
3.	The Adjective
4.	The Pronoun
5.	The Numeral
6.	The Verb
7.	The Adverb
8.	The Conjunction
9.	The Preposition
10.	The Particle
11.	The Interjection
Examples
Moscow, a man, bread etc.
the, an, a
Russian, English, good, black etc.
I, you, she, this, no etc.
one, six, twenty, the first etc.
to work, to go, to write etc.
here, there, now, then, well etc.
and, but, neither...nor etc.
on, in, at, under, below etc.
but, only, too, also etc.
Oh, yes! Of course etc.
The Noun
The noun is a part of speech which denotes things (a table,
a book), living beings (a girl, a boy), materials (air, gold), quali-
ties (kindness, strength) processes (conversation, writingJ, abstract
notions (beauty, love, peace) and states (sleep, consciousness).
Nouns can be divided into simple nouns, derived nouns and
compound nouns.
Simple nouns consist of only one stem: dog, chair, room.
Derived nouns are composed of one stem and prefixes or
suffixes: freedom, cruelty, friendship, visitor, brotherhood etc.
Compound nouns consist of at least two stems.
There are a great many compound nouns in English such as:
newspaper, seaman, bluebell, forget-me-not, passer-by etc.
9
The main noun forming suffixes are:
Suffix	Examples
-er -ist -ment -ness -ion/tion/sion -dom -hood -ship -ty -ess -or -ance -ence	worker, teacher, writer dramatist, telegraphist development, government happiness, kindness connection, production freedom, wisdom childhood, brotherhood friendship, leadership property, cruelty actress, hostess sailor, visitor importance, resistance difference, dependence
The main prefixes are:
Prefix dis- in- re- co- mis- over- sub- ex- un-	Examples disorder inability reconstruction coeducation misunderstanding overproduction subcommittee ex-president unemployment
0 EXERCISES
Exercise I
State the part of speech of each word in bold type giving
a reason for your answer.
1.	I like spring flowers.
2.	The cat springs on the mouse.
3.	Spring is the first season of the year.
4.	I haven’t any doubt about the result.
5.	I doubt whether you can do this work.
6.	The boy is a very hard worker.
7.	You must work hard.
8.	That firm is a very good one.
10
9.	He spoke in a firm voice.
10.	The fly walked over the table and then began to fly round
the room.
11.	The pond is round.
12.	Give me a drink of water.
13.	I <im going to water the garden, it is very dry.
14.	I am going to paper my bedroom.
15.	The boy wore a paper hat.
16.	Did you read the paper this morning?
Exercise II
State to what part of speech each word in bold type belongs.
1. We have received a wire from Moscow. 2. Wire me as soon
as you arrive in Moscow. 3. I iron my clothes with an iron.
4. The iron bars were covered with rust. 5. Iron is heavy.
6. Let me drive as quick as possible. 7. We had a long drive in
a motor-car. 8. Your hat wants a brush. 9. I brush my hair
with a hair-brush. 10. He headed the movement. 11. He has a
good head. 12. He is a forward boy for his age. 13. He has
promised to forward your letters. 14. Paper the walls with white
paper. 15. Light the lamp. 16. The lamp gives a poor light.
17. You have got wet paint on the back of your coat. 18. Now
let’s paint.
Exercise III
Form nouns from the given words with the help of suffixes
-er and -or.
Model: to buy <=> buyer; to direct <=> director
To inspect, to invent, to produce, to sell, to teach, to supply,
to translate, to visit, to work, to write, to interpret, to lead,
to sail, to drive, to ride.
Exercise IV
Form nouns from the given words with the help of suffixes:
-ment, -ance, -ence, -dom, -hood, -ness, -ist, -ion, -tion.
Model: to develop <=> development
important <=> importance
To agree, dark, free, different, child, wise, to govern, kind,
to improve, resistant, neighbour, to move, material, science,
to collect, to dictate, to produce, weak.
11
Exercise V
Give words opposite in meaning to the following; use nega-
tive prefixes: dis-, un-, in-.
Model: honesty c> dishonesty
Appearance, armament, comfort, certainty, dependencejustice,
trust, truth, decision, ability, easiness, employment, agreement,
comfort, convenience.
Exercise VI
Form compound nouns from these phrases.
Model: a machine for sewing = a sewing-machine
a stick for walking
a desk for writing
a room where we sit
a room where we dress
a room where we dine
a bath where we can swim
a lamp for reading
Kinds of Nouns
The main kinds of nouns are:
1)	proper nouns;
2)	common nouns.
Proper Nouns
Proper nouns are individual names given to separate per-
sons and things (personal names, geographical names etc):
Ann, Peter, London, Moscow, September, Tuesday.
Proper names are always written with a capital letter.
Common Nouns
A common noun denotes not one person or thing, but is com-
mon to all persons and things of the same kind: girl, book, house,
table, eat, family, coal, oil, love, navy etc.
Common nouns are divided into:
a)	class nouns,
b)	collective nouns,
12
c)	mass nouns,
d)	abstract nouns.
Class Nouns
Class nouns denote persons or things of the same class: book,
man, dog, engineer, doctor.
Class nouns are countables for they can be counted.
Therefore they have two numbers: the singular and the plural.
Collective Nouns
Collective nouns denote a number of individuals or things
considered as one complete whole:
nation, army, cattle, machinery.
Collective nouns fall under the following groups:
a)	nouns used only in the singular and denoting a number of
things considered as one object:
machinery, people, crowd',
b)	nouns which are singular in form but have plural meaning:
people, police, cattle',
c)	group nouns that refer to a group of people. They may be
both singular and plural depending on whether we see the group
as a whole or as individuals.
Such nouns are: army, audience, crew, crowd, family, press,
public, team etc.
Note: The plural form peoples means nations.
Mass Nouns
Mass nouns denote different kinds of material: coal, iron,
gold, milk, coffee, tea, honey etc.
These nouns may be used in plural number to denote differ-
ent sorts of that material:
Different kinds of coals are excavated in Siberia.
Mass nouns can’t be counted, and therefore they are called
uncountable nouns.
Abstract Nouns
Abstract nouns denote some quality, action or idea: kind-
ness, friendship, liberty, love, knowledge, freedom, sorrow,
courage etc.
13
Abstract nouns may become class nouns when used with
the article. Then they can be used in the plural number too:
beauty - a beauty - beauties
The girl is a beauty.
coal - a coal - coals
Coal is mainly composed of carbon.
A coal fell out of the fire.
iron - an iron - irons
Iron is heavy.
I have bought a new iron.
Many uncountable nouns can be made countable by means
of partitives:
A piece of cake/information/advice/fumiture; a jar of jam;
a glass/bottle of water; a tin of beans; a pint of milk; a box of
chocolates; a packet of biscuits/tea; a slice/loaf of bread; a pot of
yoghurt; a pot/cup of tea; a kilo of meat; a bottle of vinegar;
a tube of toothpaste; a bar of chocolate/soap; a bit/piece of chalk;
an ice cube; a lump of sugar; a sheet of paper; a bag of flour; a pair
of trousers; a game of soccer; a(n) item /piece of news; a drop/can
of oil; a can of cola; a carton of milk; a block of wood etc.
0 EXERCISES
Exercise I
Write (c) countable or (u) uncountable.
1. sugar	11.	house
2. pen	12.	boy
3. bird	13.	fruit
4. transport	14.	luggage
5. housework	15.	chess
6. ball	16.	food
7. soap	17.	dog
8. bridge	18.	furniture
9. news	19.	weather
10. water	20.	sausage
Exercise II
Write the countable and uncountable nouns into two columns.
Air, aviation, hair, bread, darkness, water, glass (стекло), glass
(стакан), iron (железо), iron (утюг), happiness, hero, sand,
14
music, friend, friendship, coffee, coin, money, ink, watch, tree,
ice, horse, speed, umbrella, butter, cow, heat, chalk, armchair,
sand, idea, ship, meat.
Exercise III
State whether the nouns in bold type are countable or un-
countable. Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. The box is made of iron. 2. A red-hot iron pressed her hand.
3. He saw a light in one window on the ground floor.
4. The moon gave good light though it was low in the sky.
5. The boys stood on the bank throwing stones into the river.
6. When I think of this my heart turns to stone*. 7. Her hair has
gone quite grey. 8. Among the guests I saw a man with hardly
a hair on his head. 9.1 prefer fish for supper. 10. All the water
rushed out and the reeds were full of fishes. 11. The doctor
says that the patient is past danger. 12. Old seamen like to talk
about past dangers at sea. 13. The Crimea is famous for its
wines. 14. Wine is made of grapes. 15. Ice is frozen water.
16. Ices are made of cream, sugar and eggs.
Exercise IV
State whether the nouns in bold type are proper or common.
Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. By the time the clock on the tower struck midnight the streets
of the city were almost deserted. 2. The group of ancient fortified
buildings, called the Tower, is of the greatest historical interest.
3. The picture we spoke about is in the Hermitage.
4. The Albatross dropped anchor at a small port to get a new
supply of fresh water. The albatross is a large sea-bird.
5. The snow-covered summit was glistening in the rays of
the rising sun. 6. There was a town, down there, called Summit.
7. Isaac Newton was a great British physicist. 8. The unit of
power is called the newton.
15
There are three genders of nouns:
1)	masculine,
2)	feminine,
3)	neuter.
Masculine Gender
Masculine gender is used for all male persons, animals, birds
etc: boy, actor, poet, cock, son, father, man, husband, brother
etc.
Note: In fairy-tales and folk-lore in general big and strong
animals always are considered as masculine: the bear,
the lion, the elephant, the tiger.
But the cat, the hare, the mouse is considered to be femi-
nine.
Feminine Gender
Feminine gender is used for females: girl, daughter, mother,
sister, wife, woman, hen, bee etc.
Neuter Gender
Neuter gender is used for names of inanimate objects and
abstract notions: table, bed, pen, tree, stone, road, storm, fear.
Note: Very young children and animals are usually con-
sidered as neuter: baby, horse, sheep.
Most nouns describing people have the same form whether
they are male or female: teacher, student etc.
Some nouns have different forms, though: actor - actress,
groom - bride etc.
Ways of Indicating Gender
There are usually three ways of showing the gender of dif-
ferent nouns.
a)	by using different words:
boy - girl	nephew - niece	gentleman - lady
brother - sister	son - daughter	king - queen
16
father - mother
husband - wife
widower - widow
groom - bride
lord - lady
barman - barmaid
monk - nun
uncle - aunt
cock - hen
b) by adding the suffix (usually -ess):
actor - actress lion - lioness
author - authoress mister - mistress
duke - duchess
tiger - tigress
host - hostess
poet - poetess
waiter - waitress
emperor - empress
prince - princess
steward - stewardess
host - hostess
hero - heroine
usher - usherette
c) by adding a word denoting gender (after or before):
cock-sparrow - hen-sparrow
grandfather - grandmother
tom-cat - tabby-cat
he-bear - she-bear
man-servant -
billy-goat -
male-child -
pea-cock
boy-friend -
man-student -
maid-servant
nanny-goat
female-child
pea-hen
girl-friend
woman-student
man-teacher - woman-teacher etc.
In poetry or in folk-lore many things are often personified
and considered as being either masculine or feminine:
The Sun, time, day, death, names of rivers, mountains are
masculine;
The Moon, the Earth, night, nature, names of countries, names
of vessels (ship, boat, steamer, ice-breaker etc), names of vehi-
cles (car, carriage, coach), abstract nouns (beauty, peace, wis-
dom) are feminine.
Number
English nouns have two numbers: the singular and the plu-
ral. A noun that names only one thing is in the singular number.
A noun that names more than one thing is in the plural number.
Proper, material and abstract nouns, unless used as com-
mon nouns, have no plural.
17
The Formation of the Plural
The different ways of forming the plural of nouns are
a) by adding -5 to the singular;
-5 is pronounced like [s] after voiceless consonants:
book - books; map - maps;
like [z] after vowels and voiced consonants:
table - tables; girl - girls;
b)	by adding -es to the singular, if the noun ends in -s, -x,
-z, -sh, -ss or ch;
-es are pronounced like [iz]:
class - classes
bus - buses
watch - watches
box - boxes
brush - brushes;
•c) by changing final -y into i + the ending -es:
copy - copies
country - countries
berry - berries
fly - fifes.
Note. A final -y is changed into -ies only when it is pre-
ceded by another consonant.
Otherwise, i. e. if the -y is preceded by a vowel, the plural is
formed by adding simply -s
day - days
monkey - monkeys
toy - toys;
d)	by adding -es to nouns ending in -o which is preceded by
a consonant:
hero - heroes
potato - potatoes
echo - echoes
Exceptions
piano - pianos
canto - cantos
photo - photos
concerto - concertos
dynamo - dynamos
tango - tangos
18
solo - solos
tobacco - tobaccos
grotto - grottos
auto - autos
kilo - kilos
memo - memos
If -o is preceded by a vowel, then the plural is formed by
adding simply -5:
studio - studios
cuckoo - cuckoos
portfolio - portfolios
e)	Some nouns ending in -o can take -es or -s. These are: buf-
faloes/buffalos, mosquitoes/mosquitos, volcanqes/volcanos,
zeroes/zeros, tornadoes/tornados etc.
f)	by changing final -f or -fe into -ves:
thief- thieves
wolf - wolves
self - selves
leaf - leaves
life - lives
calf - calves
half - halves
knife - knives
shelf - shelves
Exceptions
roof - roofs
cliff - cliffs
proof - proofs
chief - chiefs
safe - safes
gulf - gulfs
belief - beliefs
reef - reefs
grief - griefs
handkerchief - handkerchiefs
In a few cases both -fs and -ves are possible:
scarf - scar/s/scarves
dwarf - dwar/s/dwarves
hoof - hoo/s/hooves
g)	by changing the root vowel:
man - men
woman - women
tooth - teeth
foot - feet
goose - geese
mouse - mice
louse - lice
h)	by adding -en or -ren\
ox - oxen
child - children
19
i)	Nouns ending in -th after a long vowel or a diphthong have
[dz] in the plural:
baths [bcudz
paths [pcudz
oaths [avdz]
Exceptions
youths [ju:0s]; births [b3:0s]
Nouns Used Only in the Singular or
in the Plural, or in Both Singular and
Plural
1. Some nouns are used only in the singular form:
weather, advice, air, peace, knowledge, strength, business,
luggage, money, information, progress, news, research, fur-
niture.
2. Some nouns are used only in the plural form:
compasses, pyjamas, binoculars, outskirts, congratulations,
wages, spectacles, scissors, trousers, tongs, contents, proceeds,
thanks, sweets, goods, stairs, oats, riches.
3. The following nouns have the same form in the singular and
in the plural:
sheep - sheep,
deer - deer,
swine - swine,
fish - fish,
trout - trout,
salmon - salmon,
grouse - grouse,
means - means,
species - species,
series - series,
aircraft - aircraft,
spacecraft - spacecraft,
hovercraft - hovercraft,
corps [кэ:] - corps [ko:z].
4. Names, indicating number, such as: pair, couple, dozen, score,
stone (мера веса: 14 англ, фунтов = 6,35 кг) and head have
the same form for both the singular and plural when they are
preceded by a numeral: two dozen of handkerchiefs, five pair of
shoes, one thousand head of cattle.
But when they are not preceded by a numeral they take
the usual plural form: to go in pairs, dozens of times.
20
5. Nationality nouns ending in -ese, -ss have the same form in
the singular and in the plural:
Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, Swiss.
We met a Japanese. We met many Japanese on our holiday.
The Plural of the Compound Nouns
Compound nouns form their plural by adding -sl-es\
1.	to the second noun if the compound consists of two nouns:
pocket-knife - pocket-knives,
tooth-brush - tooth-brushes;
2.	to the noun if the compound consists of an adjective and
a noun:
flying pan - flying pans,
walking stick - walking sticks;
3.	to the first noun if the compound consists of two nouns con-
nected by a preposition or to the noun if the compound has
only one noun:
mother-in-law - mothers-in-law,
passer-by - passers-by;
4.	at the end of the compound if it does not include any nouns:
forget-me-not - forget-me-nots,
grown-up - grown-ups.
The Plural of Abbreviations
MP (Member of Parliament) - MPs ['em'pi:z]
MD (Doctor of Medicine) - MDs ['em'di:z]
Co (Company) - Cos [kavz]
The plural of abbreviations is sometimes formed in spelling
by doubling a letter:
Ms(manuscript) - MSS
p. (page) - pp
Mr (Mister) - Messrs ['mesoz]
21
The Plural of Foreign Words
A number of foreign (particularly Latin and Greek) nouns
have their original plural endings.
Singular	Plural
-is [is]	c> -es [i-z]
analysis axis basis crisis diagnosis thesis	analyses axes bases crises diagnoses theses
-on, -urn	Ф -а[э]
phenomenon criterion datum stratum maximum minimum	phenomena criteria data strata maxima minima
-us	Ф -z[ai] -ora [ora] -era [ara]
focus radius nucleus genus corpus	foci radii nuclei genera corpora
-a	-ae [i:]
formula antenna corona	formulae antennae coronae
- ex, -ix	c> -ices [aisiz]
index appendix	indices - appendices
22
Some foreign nouns may have two plural forms: the English
plural and the original foreign one:
curriculum
formula
memorandum
memoranda
memorandums
curricula
curriculums
formulae
formulas
Nouns with Two Plurals, Each
with a Different Meaning
Some nouns have two plurals used with some difference of
meaning:
brother 1) brothers (sons of the same mother)
2) brethren ['bredrm] (members of the same society)
cloth 1) cloth (kinds of cloth)
2) clothes (articles of dress)
penny	1) pennies (coins)
2) pence (amount of pennies in value)
staff 1) staff (military staffs, staffs of an institution)
[stu:f]	2)	staves (sticks)
genius	1)	geniuses (men of talent)
['djimjos] 2)	genii ['djmiai] (spirits)
index	1)	indexes (tables of content)
2) indices ['mdisi:z] (mathematical terms)
Nouns Having One Meaning
in the Singular and Another in the
Plural
compass (magnetic instrument) - compasses (mathematical
instruments )
beef (meat) - beeves (live animals)
custom (habit) - customs (import duties)
colour (tint) - colours (flag)
23
force (strength) - forces (troops)
spectacle (sight) - spectacles (eye-glasses)
work (action) - works (plants, factories)
pain (ache) - pains (effort)
damage (injury) - damages (compensation for injury)
quarter (fourth part) - quarters (lodgings)
paper (material) - papers (documents)
scale (proportion) - scales (weighing machine)
glass (drinking vessel) - glasses (spectacles)
0 EXERCISES
Exercise I
Give the plural of the following nouns.
1)	man, woman, tooth, foot, mouse, goose, child;
2)	fly, city, toy, key, fox, watch, clock, bus, bush, thief, life,
wolf, roof, shelf, company, country, valley;
3)	formula, antenna, basis, crisis, phenomenon, nucleus, se-
ries, datum, index, apparatus, medium;
4)	fellow-student, passer-by, brother-in-law, merry-go-round,
man-of-war, room-mate.
Exercise II
Give the plural of the following nouns.
1)	hero, piano, calf, proof, chief, stitch, bath, Negro, belief,
berry, family;
2)	boot, ox, mouth, ship, deer, cheese, sheep, leaf;
3)	corps, criterion, analysis, curriculum, stratum;
4)	room-mate, fellow-worker, sister-in-law, woman-doctor.
Exercise III
Give the plural of the following nouns.
class	death	language	fellow-student
house	cliff	tomato	story
tower	village	child	storey
judge	month	berry	brush
hope	hoof	pie	stepmother
sea	truth	brush	bee
shoe	scarf	postman	wife
pin	tooth	textbook	genius
24
Exercise IV
State the number of the following nouns and give the corre-
sponding singular or plural, if any.
Brethren, memoranda, antenna, means, scissors, school-
inspector, pence, sanatoria, strata, fish, photo, axes, physics,
cloth, cpmmander-in-chief, works, forget-me-not, swine, halves,
staff, sleeves, grief, mice, species, contents, sledges, business,
knowledge, feet, corps, phenomena, clothes, bases, sheep,
information, louse, copy, oxen, shelves.
Exercise V
State the number of each noun in bold type and say whether
the noun has the corresponding singular or plural form.
1. What is the news? 2. These scissors are made long ago.
3. Under the great oaks a flock of sheep was feeding, and
behind a steel fence a herd of deer. 4. The fruit is not yet ripe.
5. She gave me some good advice. 6. My friend spends much
money on education. 7. He gave me all the necessary
information. 8. Her hair is dark. 9. These data are quite correct.
10. He took five or six fish out of the net. 11. A series of English
classics has recently been published. 12. Optics is a branch
of physics. 13. Such phenomena as we saw last night are rarely
to be seen. 14. Several strange species of animals exist in
Australia. 15. The cattle were driven home.
Exercise VI
Fill in the plural.
I wonder who decides what sort of...........(animal) are kept
in.............(zoo)?	You expect to see a lot of...........
(monkey),.............(rhino),	and............(lion),	but you
rarely see............(ox),............(sheep),.............
(deer) or...........(goose), probably because these can be seen
commonly enough in the wild. Each day large.................
(delivery) of food arrive for........... (beast)	to eat. Not
expensive items like..........(salmon)	or.........(trout),
but ordinary things like...........(potato) and.............
(tomato) - although the............(panda) like.............
(bamboo). The whole family...............(man),.............
(woman) and..............(child) can take...........(photo)
or make ................. (video) of them eating with their
....................(paw)...............and.(tooth), since animals do
not use....................................................(knife) and.(fork) to eat.
25
Exercise VII
State the number of the nouns in bold type and give the cor-
responding singular or plural, if any.
1. The doctor told me not to read without eye-glasses. 2. He
remembered Pete and his brethren. 3. Once she got an offer,
but the wages were only fourteen shillings a week. 4. Do you
ski? - Used to. But I haven’t any skis now. 5. You did not
witness any of these phenomena yourself, did you? 6. One of
the air hostesses was making a count of heads. 7. These was
hardly a white hair on her head. 8. A wire fence ran all around
to keep our rabbits and deer. 9. He walked out of the room
and towards the stairs. 10. She was one of those actresses
who were quite sure of themselves from the first rehearsal.
11. Three mouthfuls of soup convinced him that he could not
eat. 12. The sheep were silent; the only sound in the darkness
was from the stream.
Exercise VIII
Change the number of the nouns in bold type making all the
necessary changes.
1. The ox drove a cart of hay. 2. Her hair was soft and curly.
3. A very strange phenomenon was observed by astronomers
yesterday. 4. She gave a dog a fish. 5. He showed me a photo of
his country house. 6. That girl had a pet sheep. 7. The roof of
the house is made of slate. 8. The fox stole a goose from
the farmyard. 9.1 lost the key to the cupboard. 10. The hunter
got a prize for killing a wolf. 11. The child was bitterly crying
over the broken toy. 12. At the festival there was a Swiss,
a German, a Frenchman and others. 13. I was presented with
a dozen handkerchiefs. 14. The scout brought some valuable
information. 15. The boy must have two teeth pulled out.
Exercise IX
Change the nouns in bold type into the singular and make
other necessary changes.
1. In this shop the girls bought two pair of very good scissors.
2. My mother put two loaves of bread on the table. 3. We saw
black sheep in the field. 4. Deer are grazing in the valley. 5. In
the library we saw long shelves with books. 6. The wolves have
been shot. 7. The leaves of the flower were darkgreen. 8. The mice
were caught. 9. The keys to the boxes were lost. 10. These factories
produce furniture. 11. Women and children came to the shore.
26
12. Where are the knives? 13. Some copies of the contract were
sent to the factory. 14. Put these boxes on the shelves.
Exercise X
Translate into English.
1. Мне нужен ваш совет в этом вопросе. 2. Многие из этих
советов нам очень пригодились. 3. Все сведения были очень
важные. 4. Мы получили такие же сведения. 5. Эти деньги
не мои. 6. Сколько у тебя денег? - У меня мало денег; их не
хватит на покупку приемника. 7. Его знания в этой области
поразили нас. 8. Ваших знаний недостаточно, чтобы выпол-
нить эту работу. 9. Его работы в области физики широко
известны. 10. Какая интересная работа! 11. Какие вы нам
принесли новости? 12. Эти новости уже всем известны.
13. Какая дождливая погода! 14. В детстве её волосы были
совсем светлые; теперь они потемнели. 15. Я могу расска-
зать вам очень интересную новость.
Exercise XI
Translate into English.
1. Фрукты в нашем саду уже созрели. 2. Мне очень нравятся
эти часы. Где вы их купили? 3. Волосы растут быстрее в дет-
стве. 4. Какая приятная новость: к нам приезжают друзья,
которых мы давно ждали. 5. Каково содержание этой кни-
ги? 6. Знания, приобретенные в молодом возрасте, остают-
ся в памяти на долгие годы. 7. Деньги держат в бумажнике
или кошельке. 8. Когда мы спим, наша одежда обычно ле-
жит на стуле около кровати. 9. Какие из этих овец будут
посланы на выставку? 10. Рыбаки были довольны: они пой-
мали много рыбы. 11. Мои попутчики были веселые и инте-
ресные люди. 12. Возьмите эти ножницы, они острые.
13. Мальчик вырос, и брюки стали ему коротки. 14. В ко-
робке было шесть пар чулок. 15. Его одежда совсем новая.
Exercise XII
Translate into English.
1. Фрукты и овощи полезны для здоровья. 2. Молодой спе-
циалист всегда следовал советам своих друзей. 3. Ваш брат
делает большие успехи в учебе. 4. Я могу рассказать вам
очень интересную новость. 5. Купите для детей несколько
пар перчаток и две дюжины шерстяных носков. 6. Какая
ваша заработная плата? 7. В этом лесу водятся олени.
27
8. Не знаю, насколько важны эти сведения. 9. Это очень
трудная, но интересная работа. 10. Твои часы неправиль-
но идут. 11. Я не мог войти в сад, так как ворота были
закрыты. 12. Товар только что прибыл. 13. Содержание
его письма было совсем неожиданным. 14. Кому принад-
лежат эти деньги? 15. Какого цвета у неё волосы? 16. Это
твои деньги, не так ли?
Case
English nouns have two cases:
1) the common case with no ending: father, boy, sister,
2) the possessive case which is marked by the apostrophe s('s):
father's, sister's;fathers', sisters'.
The possessive case usually shows possession. In the singu-
lar it has ending -'s. It is pronounced [s] after voiceless conso-
nants: the student's book', and [z] after voiced consonants and
vowels: the dog's tail, the boy's cap. In the plural it is formed by
- (e) s': the boys' caps, the horses' hoofs.
When a proper noun ends in -5, -ss, -x, only apostrophe
is added, and the ending is pronounced [iz]: Burns's [ Zb3:nziz] po-
ems, Dickens's ['dikmziz] novels. Sometimes -'s is added,
the pronounciation remains [iz]: Bum’s poems, Dickens’s novels.
In compound nouns the ending's is added to the final word:
the editor-in-chief's office, my mother-in-law's garden.
Nouns denoting inanimate objects and sometimes abstract
notions form the idea of the possessive case by the of + noun
phrase: The roof of the house was brown. She asked a glass of
water.
The Use of the Possessive Case
1.	As a rule, the possessive case is used with nouns denoting
persons and animals: John's idea, the swallow's nest.
2.	In the following instances the possessive case may be used
with names denoting inanimate objects.
a)	With nouns denoting time and distance, such as: minute,
moment, hour, day, week, month, year, inch, foot, mile and ad-
verbs: today, yesterday etc:
today’s newspaper, a, month’s absence, a week’s time,
a mile’s distance, a njght’s rest,	a few minutes’ silence.
28
b)	Often with the nouns town, city, country, river, water,
ocean, world, life', the country's camps, the water's edge,
the town's streets.
c)	With the nouns ship, boat, car. the ship's crew.
d)	With nouns denoting planets sun, moon, earth: the sun's
rays, the earth's life.
e)	With the names of newspapers and nouns denoting dif-
ferent kinds of organizations: the Tribune 's role, the government's
policy.
f)	With some inanimate nouns in a few set expressions: at
death's door (при смерти); at arm's length (на расстоянии
вытянутой руки); for order's sake (порядка ради); at a stone's
throw (в двух шагах); at one's fingers end (до крайности); for
pity's sake (умоляю вас); a pin's head (ушко иглы) etc.
There are some cases when the noun in the possessive case is
not followed by the head noun and then it stands for the whole
noun phrase. It is used:
1.	to avoid repetition: Our house is better than Mary's.
2.	after the preposition я/if there is an attribute before the noun
modified by the ^/-phrase: an old friend of my mother's, that cousin
of my husband's',
3.	to denote places where business is conducted such as: at
the butcher's, at the baker's, at the grocer's, at the chemist's or
institutions, where the possessive is usually a saint’s name:
St Paul's (Cathedral), St James's (Palace), or places of resi-
dence: at Timothy's, at my uncle's, at old Jolyon's.
1И EXERCISES
Exercise I
Use the nouns in bold type in the possessive case.
1. The room of my friend. 2. A meeting of workers. 3. The novels
of Dickens (2 variants). 4. The rights of women. 5. The poems of
Byron. 6. The flat of my brother-in-law. 7. The interval of three
hours. 8. The rights of a judge. 9. Rights of judges. 10. A book
which belongs to James. 11. Coats for men. 12. A coat for a man.
13. The hammer of a worker.
29
Exercise II
Replace the ^/-phrases by the noun in the possessive case.
1. The new club of the workers. 2. The poems of Lermontov.
3. The clothes of the boys. 4. The streets of the town.
5. The plays of Shakespeare. 6. The voice of his sister. 7. The orders
of the Commander-in-Chief. 8. The pages of the book.
9. The watch of my friend Peter. 10. The birthday of my daughter
Helen. 11. The parents of all the other boys. 12. The boats of the
fishermen. 13. The opinion of the lawyer. 14. The house of my
father-in-law. 15. The rights of women. 16. The fathers of Peter
and John. 17. The poems of Byron and Shelly.
Exercise III
Replace the ^/-phrases by the noun in the possessive case
where possible.
1. I spent a fortnight in the house of my sister. 2. Never shall
I forget those words of my father. 3. We could not tear our eyes
Qff the hands of the pianist. 4. The girl was nicely dressed for
the ceremony of the evening. 5. He did not want to hurt
the feelings of the girl. 6. The river was at a distance of a mile
and a half from the camp. 7. The supper of the children is ready.
8. The house of my daughter-in-law is within a stone’s throw
from here. 9. There was a great variety of books for children on
display. 10. There was a spot of ink on the table cloth. 11. We
visited the village of Mikhailovskoye where Pushkin, the great
poet of Russia, lived in exile. 12. He told me of the return of his
brother Mike. 13. Will you join the excursion of today? 14. Before
I could say a word, the sound of carriage wheels was heard.
Exercise IV
Put the apostrophe, comment upon use of the possessive case
and translate into Russian.
1. These are Pushkins poems. 2. For politeness sake stay
a little longer. 3. Goats milk contains more fat than cows milk.
4. Dickens novels are true to life. 5. Ann has gone to the
butchers. 6. Kate is Peters friend. 7. A lot of ladies and
gentlemens shoes are on sale. 8. My younger brothers wife is
a singer. 9. It is todays literature that we are studying. 10. We
kept him at arms length. 11. What kind of girl was Toms
wife? 12.1 went to the chemists with the doctors prescription.
13. Many Scotts novels are very romantic. 14. Four sheeps
heads appeared above the hedge.
30
Exercise V
Put s, ’s, or s’ instead of the hyphens where necessary.
1. This is a new adition of Pushkin_ poem_. 2. That man was
Pete_ and Mary_ old teacher_ of music. 3. Those were Nick_
and Kate_ parent. . 4. We spent a week, holiday in Britain.
5. We spent a two week, holiday with the Petrov.. 6. The book
is neither John, nor Helen.. 7. Father took some money from
his pocket and gave it to my younger brother.. 9. Esenin, life
was short but bright. 10. Tchaikovsky, house in Klin is now
a museum. 11. The wall, in the hunter, club were decorated
with mountain goat, and wild deer. horn.. 12. A great many
musician, took part in the competition. 13. Many times he
rewrote some of his novel, chapter, before publishing them.
14. His eyes narrowed like a cat..
Exercise VI
Use’s or s’ where it is possible.
1.	the exercise-books of the pupils
2.	a voyage of a month
3.	the birthday of her son
4.	the days of the week
5.	work of three years
6.	theatres of Moscow
7.	the decision of the government
8.	the crew of the ship
9.	the best museums of our city
10.	the clothes of the girls
11.	the windows of the room
12.	the success of the company
Exercise VII
Translate into English.
1. Вы знаете телефон Петра? 2. У вас есть карта Европы?
3.	Рабочий день моего брата начинается в 9 часов утра.
4.	Вы знаете мнение вашего учителя? 5. Муж моей сестры
уехал в Москву. 6. Они сообщили нам о прибытии такси.
7.	Учащиеся выполнили советы учителя. 8. Я еще не знаю
решения директора. 9. Мы еще не получили ответы поку-
пателей. 10. Сестра моего мужа работает в школе.
11. Давай зайдем в кондитерскую. 12. Он все еще у твоей
матери.
31
Exercise VIII
Translate into English.
1. Лагерь туристов был расположен на берегу реки. 2. Они
пошли в отдел детской обуви. 3. Чье предложение вы под-
держиваете - директора или главного инженера? 4. Как
зовут сестру вашего друга? 5. У него не было своего ве-
лосипеда, он брал велосипед у соседа. 6. Глаза её были
такие же красивые, как у её матери. 7. Мы с братом ку-
пили башмаки в одно и то же время. Мои уже износи-
лись, а у брата совсем еще новые. 8. В санатории после
обеда необходимо отдыхать в течение часа. 9. Мнения
разошлись. Одни предлагали встречать Новый год у Пет-
ровых, а другие - у Никитиных. 10. По дороге домой мы
купили большой букет роз - любимые цветы моей мате-
ри. 11. Население Лондона составляет более восьми мил-
лионов. 12. Портрет жены Рембранта - один из шедев-
ров художника.
Exercise IX
Translate into English.
1. Книги Ильфа и Петрова очень популярны в нашей стра-
не. 2. Я очень люблю пьесы Шекспира. 3. Её лицо было
маленькое, как у ребенка. 4. Он один из ближайших дру-
зей моего отца. 5. Мне не нравится новая подруга Анны.
6. Я провела зимние каникулы у тети. 7. Как я люблю этот
портрет отца! 8. Вчера у меня не было времени пойти в
парикмахерскую. 9. Сегодня мы собираемся к дедушке и
бабушке. 10. На лестничной площадке было четыре две-
ри. Я не знала, которая из них была дверь моих друзей.
11. Каково ваше мнение о сегодняшнем путешествии?
12. Несколько дней тому назад я встретила старую под-
ругу моей мамы. 13. Вчера я отдала мои часы часовщику.
14. У меня была пятиминутная беседа с преподавателем
литературы. 15. Я очень хорошо помню эту улыбку Ма-
рии! 16. Глаза доктора встретились с его глазами. 17. Не
люблю я эту новую приятельницу Мэри!
Exercise X
Translate into English.
1. Я провел неделю в гостях у друга моей матери, который
живет в Нью-Йорке. 2. В сегодняшней газете есть длинная
статья моего учителя. 3. До его работы было несколько ми-
32
нут ходьбы. 4. Он никогда не забудет доброту своей ба-
бушки. 5. Хозяин дома не живет в нем, но иногда сюда при-
езжает. 6. Тон его голоса был очень добрым. 7. Он отпра-
вился в аптеку купить лекарство. 8. Это не мои друзья. Они
друзья моей матери и отца. 9. Я сейчас не дома. Я у Елены.
10. Кого вы встретили у моих родителей? 11. Он все еще у
своей матери. 12. Я встретил их, когда они возвращались
от друзей. 13. Чье сочинение вам больше нравится: Ника
или Елены? 14. Она одна из двоюродных сестер моего отца.
15. Это одна из любимых книг моей мамы. 16. Маленький
Том улыбался. Его улыбка была похожа на улыбку отца.
17. У меня нет своего фотоаппарата. Это фотоаппарат мо-
его дедушки. 18. Филипп был одним из старых школьных
друзей Джона.
The Article
The article is used as a determiner of the noun. There are
two articles in the English language:
1) the indefinite article and
2) the definite article.
A [o] and an [on] are called indefinite articles. They have
developed from the old cardinal numeral one. It is pronounced
[o] before consonants and [on] before vowels: a table [o ' teibl];
an apple [on 'aepl].
The definite article the [do, di] has developed from the de-
monstrative pronoun this. The definite article is pronounced
do] before consonants and [di] before vowel sounds: the pen
do 'pen]; the hour [di 'avo]
The use of articles in English is a difficult thing, but gram-
mar rules can help in this work.
The Use of the Indefinite Article
The indefinite article is used:
1.	before common nouns in the singular used in a general sense:
I have a chair in my room.
2 H. Утевская
33
Note. In the plural no article is used in this case: I have
chairs in my room.
2.	before nouns showing time, number, weight, measure, price:
Summer comes once a year.
I go to the cinema once a week.
I bought a kilogram of sugar.
3.	before the words dozen, hundred, thousand, million etc:
I want a dozen of eggs.
A hundred students took part in the festival.
4.	before the words few and little in the meaning of some:
There were a few apples in the tree.
I have a little time for you.
5.	after the words many, such, quite, rather followed by a noun
in the singular:
He is such a clever boy.
She is quite q good girl.
This is rather a difficult problem.
6.	after what in exclamatory sentences:
What a nice day!
7.	after the verbs be and have*.
She is a teacher.
8.	before a noun in apposition:
Pete, a sixth-form pupil, is our best chess player.
9.	it is often used in the sense of every '.
The students have two English lessons a week.
A child can understand it.
A square has four sides.
10.	after adjectives preceded by so and too'.
It is riot so simple a question as it seems.
There was too difficult a problem for the child to solve.
11.	before Mr/Mrs/Miss + surname when we refer to an unfa-
miliar person:
There's a Mr Smith waiting for you.
34
The Use of the Indefinite Article
with Nouns in Set Expressions
at a speed of co скоростью
at a time when в то время когда
for a short (long) time в течение короткого (долгого)
времени
in a loud (low) voice громким (тихим) голосом
on a large (small) scale в большом (малом) масштабе
all of a sudden внезапно
in a hurry второпях
to be in a position быть в состоянии
to be at a loss быть в растерянности (недоумении)
it’s a pity жаль
as a result of в результате
as a matter of fact фактически
to have a good time хорошо провести время
to have a mind to do something намереваться что-либо
сделать
to have a look взглянуть
to have a headache испытывать головную боль
to take a seat сесть
to go for a walk пойти гулять
to have a cold быть простуженным
to fly into a passion прийти в бешенство
to fly into a fury (rage) прийти в ярость
to take a fancy to проникнуться симпатией
it’s a shame стыдно
it’s a pleasure приятно
at a glance сразу, с первого взгляда
to tell a lie говорить неправду
The Use of the Definite Article
The definite article is used:
1)	before common nouns in the singular and the plural in
a particular sense:
How did you like the film?
I have got the dictionary, you gave me.
The performances at this theatre are of great artistic
value.
35
2)	before nouns denoting only one thing of its kind:
the Sun, the Moon, the Earth, the sky, the world, the ground,
the cosmos, the universe, the horizon.
3)	before nouns preceded by an adjective in the superlative
degree:
the best pupil, the worst news, the most difficult thing.
Note. Most used as a determiner followed by a noun, does
not take the*. Most children like animals.
4)	before family names meaning all its members:
The Petrovs moved to a new flat.
The Smiths left London for the USA.
5)	before the names of certain buildings which are unique:
the Kremlin, the Hermitage, the British Museum etc.
6)	before the names of ships, railways, planes etc:
the “Aurora”, the Great Midland Railway.
7)	before the names of public institutions, theatres, cinemas,
museums, libraries and hotels:
the Bolshoi Theatre, the Russian Museum,
the Russian National Library.
8)	before the names of English-language newspapers:
The Times, the Morning Star.
9)	before the names of nationalities in plural ending in -sh,
-ch or -ese:
the English, the Japanese, the Dutch.
Other plural nationalities are used with or without the:
(the) Russians, (the) Germans, (the) Italians.
10)	before an individual representing the whole class:
The tiger is a fierce fighter.
11)	before the names of four cardinal points and winds:
the north, the south, the west, the east, the north wind.
But when these words show direction, the is not needed:
The expedition moved north.
36
12)	before geographical names of rivers, seas, groups of islands,
oceans, canals, deserts, mountain ranges and the names or
nouns with of\
the Thames, the North Sea, the Alps, the Pacific Ocean,
the Suez Canal, the Sahara Desert, the Bahamas,
the Tower of London, the Statue of Liberty.
13)	before the names of states which contain either a preposi-
tion or the words Kingdom, States, Republic:
the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland,
the United States of America, the Yemen Arab Republic.
Exceptions
the Netherlands, the Argentine, the Hague, the Ukraine,
the Crimea, the Caucasus, the Transvaal, the Congo.
14)	before musical instruments, dances:
the piano, the tango
15)	before the words: station, shop, cinema, pub, library, city,
village etc.:
She went to the station to see Peter off.
16)	before the words: morning, afternoon, evening, night'.
I'll be at home in the evening.
17)	before historical references/events:
the Renaissance, the Middle Ages, the Second World War.
18)	before adjectives used as plural nouns:
The rich can 7 understand the poor.
19)	before titles: the Queen, the Prince. The is omitted before
titles with proper names: Queen Victoria.
20)	before the nouns preceded by same and very:
I should like to read the same story.
He read the book to the very end.
21)	before the words: only, last, first (used as adjectives):
He was the last person to come.
37
22)	after the expressions: one of, some of many of each of most
of all, both:
Both of the girls won a prize.
Some of the children got a five for a test.
The Use of the Definite Article
with Nouns in Set Expressions
the other day на днях
the day after tomorrow послезавтра
by the dozen (hundred) дюжинами (сотнями)
in the morning утром
in (during) the night ночью
in the afternoon днем
in the evening вечером
what’s the time? который час?
the day before yesterday позавчера
in (the) summer летом
in (the) winter зимой
in (the) spring весной
in the country за городом
in the singular в единственном числе
in the plural во множественном числе
in the past в прошлом
in the present в настоящее время
in the future в будущем
in the original в оригинале
on the whole в целом
on the one hand с одной стороны
on the other hand с другой стороны
it’s out of the question об этом и речи быть не может
to tell the time сказать, который час
to pass the time проводить время
to tell the truth говорить правду
to break the record побить рекорд
to run the risk подвергаться риску
to play the piano (the violin, the harp) играть на пианино,
скрипке, арфе
to take the trouble to do something потрудиться
to keep the house сидеть дома
to keep the bed соблюдать постельный режим
38
to be on the safe side для верности
to take (seize) smb by the shoulder схватить кого-либо за
плечо
to pull smb by the hair тащить кого-либо за волосы
to kiss smb on the cheek (on the forehead etc.) поцеловать кого-
либо в щеку (в лоб)
to be wounded in the knee (in the arm etc.) быть раненым в
колено (в руку)
just the same точно такой же
by the by кстати, между прочим
by the way между прочим, кстати
The Absence of the Article
Usually the article is omitted:
1)	before proper nouns:
Peter, Ann, Mary, John
2)	before the nouns of material:
Iron is a very useful metal.
Some children don 7 like milk.
But: The milk in this bottle is sour.
3)	before abstract nouns:
After the day's work we needed rest.
4)	before common nouns in the plural used in a general sense:
Cows are useful domestic animals.
5)	before the names of years, months, days:
My work begins on Monday.
Last winter was rather warm.
6)	before the names of meals:
Our first meal is breakfast.
I usually drink tea at supper.
7)	before the names of sciences and languages:
Mathematics is my favourite subject.
My sister studies English.
39
8)	before the names of natural substances:
We can 7 live without oxygen.
9)	before the names of sports and games:
Figure-skating is popular in this country.
10)	before the names of different kinds of arts:
The exhibition of Dutch painting is open in the Hermitage.
11)	before the names of continents:
Asia, Europe, South America.
12)	before the names of countries and states:
Japan, France, Texas.
13)	before the names of cities, towns, villages:
London is the biggest city in England.
14)	before the names of individual mountains, islands and lakes:
Everest, Ben Nevis, Easter Island, Lake Michigan.
15)	before the names of holidays:
Easter is a religious holiday.
16)	before the names of planets and constellations:
Mars, Pluto.
17)	before the names of streets, roads, squares, bridges, parks:
Red Square, Broadway, Piccadilly Circus, Tower Bridge, Hyde Park.
18)	before the words: bed, church, college, court, hospital, prison,
school, university, when we refer to the purpose for which they exist:
Tom was sent to prison.
But: She went to the prison as a visitor.
19)	before the words: pubs, restaurants, shops, banks and hotels,
which have the name of their founder and end in -s or -’s\
Lloyds Bank, John s shop.
20)	before the names of airports, stations and universities where
the first word is usually the name of a person or place:
Cambridge University, Victoria Station, Kennedy Airport.
40
21)	before the words: home, father/mother when we talk about
our own home/parents:
I'll ask Father about it.
22)	before cardinal numerals:
Three and four is seven.
23)	before countable nouns in the singular when they show
a post or a rank:
We'll discuss the matter with Petrov, dean of our faculty.
24)	before the names of illnesses: malaria, bronchites.
But: mumps/the mumps, measles/the measles, flu/the flu.
25)	Work (place of work) never takes the'.
She s at work.
Nouns Used in Set Expressions
without an Article
out of doors на улице, вне дома
to take to heart принимать близко к сердцу
at heart в глубине души
to take offence обижаться
to give (to get, to ask) permission дать (получить, попросить)
разрешение
to lose heart терять мужество
from time to time время от времени
from morning till night с утра до вечера
from day to day co дня на день
from shop to shop из магазина в магазин
from head to foot с головы до ног
from beginning to end с начала до конца
at first sight с первого взгляда
at sunrise на рассвете
at sunset на закате
at work за работой
at night ночью
at home дома
at peace в мире
41
at war в состоянии войны
at dinner (breakfast, supper) за обедом (завтраком, ужи-
ном)
at table за столом (т. е. за обедом, завтраком, ужином)
at school в школе (на занятиях)
by chance случайно
by mistake по ошибке
by land, by sea, by air сушей, морем, по воздуху
by tram (train, boat, bus etc) трамваем (поездом, пароходом,
автобусом и т. д.)
by air воздушным путем
by water водным путем
by post (airmail) по почте (воздушной почтой)
by heart наизусть
by name по имени
by order of по приказу кого-либо
by means of посредством
to be in town быть в городе
to go to town поехать в город
to go to bed ложиться спать
to be in bed лежать в постели
to go to sea стать моряком, выходить в море
for hours часами
for ages целую вечность
in time во время
in debt в долгу
in demand пользоваться спросом
on demand по требованию
in sight в поле зрения
in fact в действительности
in conclusion в заключение
on deck на палубе
on board the ship на борту судна
on credit в кредит
on sale в продаже
day after day день за днем
day and night днем и ночью
to be at hospital быть в больнице
to be in church быть в церкви
to be at prison быть в тюрьме
to put to prison посадить в тюрьму
to make use of использовать
to pay attention to обратить внимание
42
to set fire to поджечь
to shake hands with поздороваться
to take care of заботиться
0 EXERCISES
Exercise I
Insert a or an if necessary.
1.	My neighbour is.....photographer; let’s ask him for ...
advice about colour films.
2.	We had ... fish and...chips for.....lunch. That doesn’t
sound.....very interesting lunch.
3.	I had.....very bad night; I didn’t sleep..wink.
4.	He is .... vegetarian; you won’t get ..... meat at his
house.
5	travel agent would give you......... information about
....hotels.
6.	We’d better go by...taxi - if we can get...taxi at such
....hour as 2 a.m.
7.	Do you take.....sugar in.....coffee? I used to, but now
I’m on....diet. I’m trying to lose..weight.
8	man suffering from.......shock should not be given any-
thing to drink.
9	Mr Smith is.........old customer and......honest man.
Why do you say that? Has he been accused of....dishon-
esty?
10	friend of mine is expecting......baby. If it’s..girl she
is going to be called Helen.
11.	I have....hour and......half for lunch. I only have half
....hour.....time for....cup of coffee.
12.	I hope you have...lovely time and...good weather. But
I’m not going for...holiday; I’m going on....business.
13.	He looked at me with.....horror when I explained that
I was.....policeman.
14.	I won’t climb...mountain because I have......horror of
....heights.
Exercise II
Insert a or an if necessary.
1.	I have....headache and......sore throat. I think I’ve got
....cold. I think you’re getting the flu.
43
2	Mr Jones called while you were out. He wants to make
....complaint about......article in the paper. He was in
........................very bad temper.
3.	If you go by...train you can have quite....comfortable
journey, but make sure you get....express, not.....train
that stops at all the stations.
4.	I’m having ..... few	friends in to ...coffee tomorrow
evening. Would you like to come? - I’d love to, but I’m
afraid I’m going to...concert.
5.	It’s time you had....holiday. You haven’t had......day
off for...month.
6.	He broke......leg in ...skiing accident. It’s still in .
plaster.
7.	I want....assistant with....knowledge of French.
8.	I see that your house is built of.wood. Are you insured
against...fire?
9.	I had.....amazing experience last night. I saw.....dino-
saur eating..........................................meat pie in London Park. - You mean
you had.....nightmare. Anyway, dinosaurs didn’t eat.....
meat.
10.	I’ll pay you...hundred......week. It’s not....large sal-
ary but after all you are.........................completely unskilled man.
11	little is known about the effect of this medicine; yet
...chemist will sell it to you without...prescription.
12.	I have....little money left; let’s have dinner in.restau-
rant.
13.	Would it be....trouble to you to buy me......newspaper
on your way home?
14	man is.........clever animal.
Exercise III
Insert the if necessary.
1.....youngest boy has just started going to.school.....
eldest boy is at.college.
2.	She lives on.top floor of an old house. When.wind
blows, all...windows rattle.
3	darkness doesn’t worry.......cats;......cats can see in
...dark.
4.	My little boys say that they want to be.spacemen, but
most of them will probably have...less dangerous jobs.
5.	Do you know...time? - Yes, ....clock in....hall has
just struck nine. Then it isn’t.time to go yet.
44
6.	He was sent to..prison for.....six months. When.......
six months are over he’ll be released.....difficulty then
will be to find....work.
7.	I went to..school to talk to.....headmistress. I per-
suaded her to let Ann give up..........gymnastics and take
...ballet lessons instead.
8...... ballet isn’t much use for....girls; it is much better
to be able to play.....piano.
9.	I am on..night duty. When you go to.......bed, I go to
...work.
10.	Peter’s at.office but you could get him on....phone.
There’s a telephone box just round....corner.
11.	He got ..bronchitis and was taken to ..... hospital. I
expect they’ll send him home at...end of.....week. Have
you rung......hospital to ask how he is?
12.	Ann’s habit of riding a motorcycle up and down...road
early in....morning troubled......neighbours and in......
end they took her to court.
13.	He first went to..sea in a Swedish ship, so as well as
learning....navigation he had to learn.....Swedish.
14	family hotels are.....hotels which welcome.......par-
ents and................................................children.
15.	On..Sundays my father stays in.....bed till ten o’clock,
reading.....Sundays papers.
16.	Then he gets up, puts on....old clothes, has..break-
fast and starts.......................................work in.garden.
17.	My parents have...cold meat and....salad for.....sup-
per in..................................................winter and.summer.
Exercise IV
Insert the if necessary.
1.	We have a very good train service from here to......city
centre and most people go to.....work by train. You can
go by....bus too, of course, but you can get a season
ticket on...bus.
2.	I’d like to see....Mr Smith please. Do you mean..........
Mr Smith who works in ........ box office or .... other
Mr Smith?
3.	Did you come by......air? - No, I came by......sea. I had
a lovely voyage on....Queen Elizabeth II.
4	most of.........stories that...people tell about....Irish
aren’t true.
45
5	married couples with.........children often rent...cot-
tages by.............................................seaside for.summer holidays. The men hire
boats and go for....trips along coast;  children
spend....day on.....beach and......poor mothers spend
...most of the time doing...cooking and cleaning.
6.	It’s usually safe to walk on...sand, but here, when.....
tide is coming in,..sand becomes dangerously soft......
people have been swallowed up by it.
7.	When ..... Titanic was crossing.....Atlantic she struck
an iceberg which tore a huge hole in her bow....captain
ordered....crew to help.....passengers into.....boats.
8.	Everywhere......man has cut down........forests in order
to cultivate...ground or to use....wood as......fuel or
as...building material.
9	people think that.........lead is...heaviest metal, but
...gold is heavier.
10.	Our air hostess said, “...rack is only for...light arti-
cles, ...........................................heavy things such as.bottles must be put on
...floor”.
11	windows are supposed to let in.........light; but...win-
dows on this house are so small that we have to have elec-
tric light on all.time.
12.	They’ll always be a conflict between..old and....young.
...young people want.....change but....old people want
.......................................things to stay.same.
13.	You can fool some of....people all......time, and all...
people some of....time; but you cannot fool all...peo-
ple all ..........................................time.
Exercise V
Insert a, an or the if necessary.
I knew....man who had travelled very much in his life. He had
visited many countries in....East in.....West. He loved......
children and often told them....interesting stories. I remember
some of...... stories which he told me. One of them was
about... ad venture he had in...London. He was........young
man at that time and was interested in history of architecture.
One day he visited one of.....towers of......Houses of.......
Parliament. He came out on to......balcony of.....tower and
began to look at....ornaments on......walls. Then he climbed
up on.....roof. Suddenly......man came running to him and
seized him by.....arm. He began shouting something in........
46
English, but my friend knew only.....few words of......English
and did not understand him...........Englishman called ........
policeman......fact was that he thought that...Russian tourist
wanted to kill himself by jumping from......top of.....tower.
Later, when everything became clear, they laughed a lot over it.
Exercise VI
Insert a, an or the if necessary.
1.	... thunder and... lightning are caused by... electricity.
2.	.. .last time I saw you was in.. .2002.
3.	We met.. .last year.
4.	Have you ever seen such.. .terrible weather?
5.	Is there.. .bus to.. .town where.. .Browns live?
6.	What.. .terrible noise they are making.. .next door.
7.	What.. .pity you didn’t see.. .film. It was.. .most interesting.
8.	Please do shut...window;...flies come in from...garden
in... evening.
9.	There is.. .old tree in.. .front of.. .house, with.. .very pretty
flowers in...spring.
10.	Do you go to.. .school? Do you go to.. .school on.. .hill?
11.	They usually sell.. .eggs by.. .dozen.
12.	They made him...secretary of...club; they had already
chosen.. .chairman.
13.	I went for...walk after...dinner.
14.	.. .people in.. .photo, from.. .left to...right, are Tom, Dick
and Harry. Harry is standing on...left of Dick.
15.	She always liked...good conversation and...company
of...interesting people.
16.	There is.. .very pleasant country round our town.
17.	I have not forgotten.. .promise you made me.. .last week.
18.	...water is very hard in our part of.. .country.
19.	He does not like to take.. .advice, even.. .advice of.. .clever
people.
20.	Tom’s family could not afford to give him.. .education.
Exercise VII
Insert a, an or the if necessary.
1.	Mrs Ivanova is......director of.....school №12.
2.	Peter’s father is...experienced engineer.
3.	My friend has pronouncing dictionary by.........Dr Jones,
...professor of......phonetics in......University of......
London.
47
4.	It is too important...matter to be discussed by....chil-
dren alone.
5.	I simply could not reject so inviting..offer.
6	Popovs started on their trip on........following day.
7	two gentlemen in the carriage were greatly frightened.
8	31st of...December is last day of...........year.
9.	This is.. .only road to..village.
10.	It is...very book I need.
11	last winter I visited......Tretyakov Gallery.
12	rubber is...juice of.......rubber plant.
13.	It is...great pleasure to listen how you play....piano.
Exercise VIII
Insert a, an or the if necessary.
1......fog was so thick that we couldn’t see...side of.....
road. We followed.....car in front of us and hoped that
we were going.....right way.
2......postman’s little boy says that he’d rather be..den-
tist than..............................................doctor, because.dentists don’t get called
out at......night.
3......day after.....day passed without.....news, and we
began to lose.....hope.
4.	We’re going to.tea with.....Smiths today, aren’t we?
Shall we take.....car? - We can go by....car if you wash
....car first. We can’t go to..Mrs Smith’s in....car all
covered with.....................................mud.
5.	He got..job in...south and spent.....next two years
doing.......work he really enjoyed.
6.	It was .windy morning but they hired......boat and
went for.....sail along....coast. In.....afternoon......
wind increased and they soon found themselves in...dif-
ficulties.
7.	Don’t give the same task to.strongest and...weakest
students.
8.	Both.junior and.. .senior members of the family were
present at the dinner-party.
9.	It was..wonderful concert:..conductor and......vio-
linist both were a great success with the public.
10.	It was..blue night with..full moon hanging over.....
city.
11.	Don’t give me.milk. You know I hate it at this time of
....day.
48
12.	They had two children, one of them still at...school,
...other in her first year at....university.
13.	He looked clean and brushed; he was going to.....town
for....day.
Exercise IX
Translate into English.
1. Я познакомился с ним в одном маленьком южном го-
роде. 2. Какой-то человек ждет вас около дома. 3. Кто
принес это письмо? - Какой-то мальчик. 4. Где словарь?
- Он в книжном шкафу. 5. Кто эта женщина? - Она жена
одного инженера, который работает на нашем заводе.
6. Какой-то человек звонил вам по телефону сегодня ут-
ром. 7. Я знал их, когда они были студентами. 8. Он ро-
дился в одном маленьком городе недалеко от Москвы.
9. Дверь открылась, и в комнату вошел молодой чело-
век с чемоданом в руке. 10. Когда профессор вошел в
аудиторию, студенты встали. 11. Ребенку легко изучать
иностранный язык. 12. Какой прекрасный день! 13. Ка-
кая теплая погода! 14. Это такой интересный рассказ.
15. Это слишком легкий текст для вас. 16. Они такие об-
разованные люди!
Exercise X
Translate into English.
1. Прошлым летом мы жили в деревне, расположенной
на берегу Волги, в маленьком домике, окруженном боль-
шим садом. 2. Перед домом росли огромные старые липы.
3. Вчера я разговаривал с человеком, который провел не-
сколько лет в Китае. 4. Я не помню цифр, которые он упо-
мянул в своем докладе. 5. Человек, который хочет овла-
деть иностранным языком, должен работать очень
усердно и систематически. 6. Я только что прочел рас-
сказ, который мне очень понравился. 7. Рассказ, который
я только что прочел, очень интересный. 8. Мы встретим-
ся после школы? - Где? - У входа в школу. 9. Была уже
ночь; но, к счастью, это была летняя ночь, и погода сто-
яла сухая. 10. День только что начался, и воздух был чист
и прохладен. 11. Я зайду после обеда. 12. Он просил меня
передать вам, что они пойдут на экскурсию в Эрмитаж
на следующей неделе. 13. Нам его рекомендовали как че-
ловека с хорошим знанием языка. 14. Некоторые люди
49
едят мороженое на улице даже зимой. 15. Такие сведения
всегда нужны.
Exercise XI
Translate into English.
1. В маленькой комнате книжная полка удобнее, чем шкаф.
2. Он любит пить не из чашки, а только из стакана. 3. Про-
блема такого рода должна вас интересовать. 4. Они вошли
в вагон, в котором не было свободных мест. 5. Я еще ни-
когда не видел дружбы крепче, чем дружба этих двух лю-
дей. 6. Она посмотрела на часы на углу и поняла, что опоз-
дает на поезд. 7. Сегодня группа журналистов, которая
состоит в основном из студентов, начнет подниматься на
Эльбрус. 8. Вашего сына будет оперировать хирург, кото-
рый сейчас работает над диссертацией на эту тему. 9. Рано
утром, до завтрака, спортсмены ходили на речку купать-
ся. 10. Что у нас будет на ужин? 11. В этой столовой вы
всегда можете получить горячий завтрак. 12. По субботам
у них обычно бывают гости к ужину. 13. Экскурсанты при-
езжают сюда днем и ночью сушей и морем. 14. Мы прове-
ли лето на Днепре. 15. Будьте внимательны, вы сделали
ошибку.
Exercise XII
Translate into English.
1. Мне нужен совет в этом трудном деле. 2. Жалко сидеть
дома в такую прекрасную погоду. 3. Не сидите так долго
на солнце, у вас заболит голова. 4. Черное море очень бур-
но зимой. 5. Она очень любит музыку. 6. Небо было ясное,
а звезды ярко светили. 7. Какие приятные новости вы нам
принесли! 8. Волга самый важный водный путь в нашей
стране. 9. Было раннее утро, и трава была покрыта росой.
10. Молоко, которое я купила сегодня утром, скисло.
11. Было теплое утро; легкий ветер дул с моря. 12. В Кры-
му растут очень хорошие сорта винограда. 13. Был вечер и
семья сидела за столом. 14. Чай очень крепкий, долейте
немного воды. 15. Я надеюсь, что вы не будете проводить
свои каникулы в городе.
50
The Adjective
Adjectives describe nouns. They have the same form in both
the singular and the plural. They normally go before nouns.
They also go alone (without nouns) after the verbs appear, be,
become, feel, seem, smell, taste, look, get etc.
The egg smells awful. The soup tastes delicious.
Adjectives can be common, derived and compound.
Some common adjectives (good, red, sad) do not have end-
ings but many derived adjectives formed from nouns and verbs
have a particular ending (or suffix). These are:
-able	comfortable	-ent	dependent
-al	accidental	-esque	picturesque
-ant	reluctant	-ful	useful
-ar	popular	-ian	Italian
-ary	imaginary	-ible	horrible
-ate	passionate	-ic	historic
-ical	historical	-like	businesslike
-ions	victorious	-iy	friendly
-ish	childish	-ory	compulsory
-ist	racist	-OUS	humorous
-ive	attractive	-some	wholesome
-less	useless	-y	sunny
Adjectives are also formed with prefixes which generally have
a negative meaning: possible - impossible.
These are:
un- untrue, unwise	im-	immoral, impractical
in-	incorrect, insincere dis-	dishonest, disagreeable
il- illegal, illegible ir- irregular, irresponsible
Note. Adjectives derived from proper nouns are written
with a capital letter and are called proper adjectives: Rus-
sian, Indian, Hungarian etc.
There are also compound adjectives which are formed with:
1.	present participles: a never-ending story,
2.	past participles: worn-out shoes,
3.	cardinal numerals .+ nouns: a three-week holiday,
4.	an adjective + an adjective: a dark-blue dress,
51
5.	well, badly, ill, poorly + past participle: a well paid job,
6. a noun/pronoun + a verbal: a heart-breaking decision,
7. an adjective/adverb + a noun + the suffix -ed: a fair haired
Certain adjectives can be used as plural nouns referring to
a group of people in general.
These are: the poor, the rich, the blind, the young, the old,
the disabled, the hungry, the strong, the deaf, the living,
the dead, the sick, the elderly etc.
The rich should help the poor.
0 EXERCISES
Exercise I
Study the list of adjectives formed from nouns. Say how ad-
jectives can be formed, what suffixes can be used for that.
Noun
adventure
athlete
beauty
boy
continent
courage
coward
noise
poet
star
terror
value
sun
Adjective
adventurous
athletic
beautiful
boyish
continental
courageous
cowardly
noisy
poetic
starry
terrible
valuable
sunny
Noun	Adjective
faith	faithful
fool	foolish
friend	friendly
gold	golden
hero	heroic
metal	metallic
music	musical
mistery	mysterious
nation	national
nature	natural
person	personal
skill	skilful
Exercise II
Complete these phrases using the adjectives formed from
the nouns:
a.............................sea (storm)
a.............................sound (metal)
............................behaviour (child)
............................forests (value)
a...........................wonder (nature)
a.............................place (mystery)
52
a.............................phrase (poet)
a.............................armchair (comfort)
a...........................class (friend)
a.............................deed (courage)
	streets	(centre)
an..............................trip	(adventure)
Exercise III
Form adjectives from the given words with the help of
the suffixes:
Wonder, friend, trouble, blood, harm, care, green, wool, tire,
truth, comfort, faith, shame, sun, wood, attract,fool, humour,
occasion, rain, natural.
Exercise IV
Complete each sentence by inserting the adjective formed
from the noun in brackets:
1.	This has been a very.......................decision (fool).
2.	The shop was situated in a...........................square
(centre).
3.	Gold is a very.......................metal (value).
4.	The runner was a man of....................build (athlete).
5.	We studied the.....................sky	through a telescope
(star).
6.	He feels quite....................in	this warm, light room
(comfort).
7.	Mark Twain wrote many.....................stories	(humour).
8.	A......................person soon puts you at your ease
(friend).
Exercise V
a)	Study this list of proper adjectives. Say how they are
formed.
Proper	Proper	Proper	Proper
Noun	Adjective	Noun	Adjective
Britain	British	Italy	Italian
Canada	Canadian	Japan	Japanese
China	Chinese	Scotland	Scottish
Europe	European	Spain	Spanish
France	French	Wales	Welsh
Germany	German	Greece	Greek
Ireland	Irish	Mexico	Mexican
53
b)	Insert the correct proper adjective in each phrase below.
.............................athletes (Canada)
.............................traditions (Japan)
.............................Isles (Britain)
.............................humour (France)
.............................dances (Spain)
.............................championship (Europe)
.............................songs (Scotland)
.............................music (Italy)
Exercise VI
In each space insert the adjective formed from the proper noun.
The humour of Ireland .......................humour
The lakes of Canada	................lakes
The people of China	................people
The mountains of Scotland ..................mountains
A village of Mexico	................village
The population of France ...................population
The plants of Germany ......................plants
Computers of Japan	................computers
The tourists of Italy	................tourists
The Armada of Spain	................Armada
The coast of Greece	................coast
Exercise VII
Suffixes -able, -ous, -al, -ful, -y, -less, -ic are often used
to form adjectives. Make adjectives from each of the follow-
ing words.
geography	person	understand	experiment
hero	patriot	luck	health
enjoy	truth	classic	remark
mystery	glory	nerve	fun
noise	wonder	colour	harm
greed	grass	care	fantasy
eat	delight	artist	fear
Exercise VIII
Form adjectives from the given ones with the help of the pre-
fixes.
Certain, pleasant, attentive, capable, legal, successful, definite,
moral, visible, important, friendly, convenient, logical, polite,
happy, patient, grateful, educated.
54
Exercise IX
Use adjectives with the negative prefix in place of the adjec-
tives with the preceding not.
1. It was not probable that more than one child would win the
scholarship a year. 2. The scholarship examination was not fair.
3. I do not feel well in this climate. The climate here is not
agreeable. 4. His handwriting was so bad that the notes he
usually took were not legible to anybody but himself. 5. His
knowledge in the subject does not seem to be satisfactory.
Exercise X
Translate into English using the negative prefixes.
Неспособный, неудобный, несоединенный, неофициаль-
ный, неудовлетворительный, несправедливый, неподвиж-
ный, нерешенный, незначительный, нетерпеливый, негра-
мотный, неблагодарный, неестественный, нерелигиозный,
независимый.
Exercise XI
Translate into Russian the following compound adjectives.
1. A broad-brimmed hat. 2. A tile-floored kitchen. 3. A fat
merry-looking little old man. 4. The kind old man never comes
to the children empty-handed. 5. Red-hot steel. 6. A dark-
complexioned young girl. 7. It was a weather-beaten old ship.
8.	A marble-topped table. 9. A ten-thousand-dollar car. 10. A
twenty-year-old building.
Exercise XII
Make compound adjectives to describe the following.
1.	A book which is written badly.
2.	A city that has no pollution.
3.	An announcement which has been awaited for a long time.
4.	A course that lasts three years.
5.	A worker who works hard.
6.	A bus journey that takes two hours.
7.	A hotel with five stars.
8.	A room that has good ventilation.
55
Word Order of Adjectives
Adjectives normally go before nouns. Sometimes there are
two or more adjectives in the sentence.
My friend has a nice new flat.
There was a beautiful large round wooden table in the dining
room.
Adjectives like new, large, round, wooden are fact adjectives.
They give us objective information about something (age, size,
colour etc.).
Adjectives like nice, beautiful are opinion objectives. They
tell us what someone thinks of something.
Opinion adjectives usually go before fact adjectives.
Opinion	Fact	Noun
a nice	sunny	day
delicious	hot	soup
an intelligent	young	man
a beautiful	large round wooden	table
If there are two or more fact adjectives, we put fact adjec-
tives in this order:
size c=>	age Ф	shape c=>	colour	> origin c=>	material c=;	> noun
a tall	young	—	—	—	—	girl
big	—	—	grey	—	—	eyes
a small	—	—	blue	—	plastic	bag
a large	—	square	—	—	wooden	table
—	an old	—	—	English	—	song
—	a new	—	black	—	woollen	skirt
Adjectives of size and length (big, small, tall, short, long etc.)
usually go before adjectives of shape and width (round, thin,
fat, wide etc.): a small round table, a tall thin woman, a long
white street.
The adjectives afraid, alike, alive, alone, ashamed, asleep,
content, glad, ill etc. are never followed by a noun.
The child was never left alone.
The adjectives chief, elder, eldest, former, indoor, inner, main,
only, outdoor, outer, principal, upper can only be used before nouns.
He is the eldest son.
Nouns which express purpose, material or substance (cotton,
gold, shopping etc.) can be used as adjectives before other nouns.
/ bought a new woollen hat.
56
Note. Golden hair (hair like gold) but gold watch (watch made
of gold), wooden table, woollen scarf, silk dress but silky hair,
stone wall but stony look, feather pillow but feathery leaves.
Й EXERCISES
Exercise I
Put the adjectives in the correct order.
1.	a Japanese/little/pretty/girl.......
2.	a(n) wedding/expensive/silk/white/dress..........
3.	a(n) pair of leather/black/walking/old/shoes.........
4.	a(n) English/ancient/famous/monument.............
5.	a detective/new/fascinating/French/film..........
6.	a red/lovely/marble/chess set.........
7.	a dessert/crystal/lovely/bowl.........
Exercise II
Put the adjectives in the correct order.
1.	a long/linen/cream/dress..........
2.	a three-course/home-made/delicious/meal............
3.	a(n) interesting/nice/short/speech........
4.	Spanish/live/excellent music..........
5.	a round/gold/big brooch...........
6.	a grey/smart/woollen/new/suit...........
7.	a(n) old/black/leather/jacket.........
Exercise III
Put the adjectives in brackets in the correct position.
1.	long hair (fair).........
2.	a large table (wooden)..........
3.	a wide street (long).........
4.	a tall girl (thin).......
5.	a little cottage (old)........
6.	a good-looking woman (young)..............
7.	a small cat (black)..........
8.	a beautiful dress (red).........
9.	an old shirt (cotton).........
10.	a blue car (little).......
11.	a wooden box (small)............
12.	an old song (Italian).........
13.	a sunny day (nice)...........
57
Comparison of Adjectives
There are three degrees of comparison for adjectives in English.
1) positive, which shows a simple quality: small, deep, wise, hot;
2) comparative, which shows a high degree of the quality:
smaller, deeper, wiser, hotter;
3) superlative, which shows the highest degree of quality:
the smallest, the deepest, the wisest, the hottest.
Notes. A noun preceded by an adjective in the superlative
form is generally used with the definite article:
Mike is the tallest boy in the family.
The comparative form is used when comparing two per-
sons or things. The superlative form is used only when
comparing three or more persons or things.
Not all adjectives have degrees of comparison.
Two Ways of Forming
the Comparative and
the Superlative Degrees
There are two ways of forming the comparative and the su-
perlative degrees:
a)	by adding -er(-r) (comparative) and -est(-st) (superlative)
to the positive degree;
b)	by adding to the positive degree
more to form
less the comparative degree
most to form
least the superlative degree
Adjectives of One Syllable
Superlative
the hardest
the biggest
Most adjectives of one syllable compare by adding -er(-r)
and -est(-st):
Positive
hard
big
Comparative
harder
bigger
58
light	lighter
short	shorter
the lightest
the shortest
Note 1. If the positive ends in two consonants or in one consonant preceded by a diphthong, -er and -est are added:		
small long light bright	smaller longer lighter brighter	the smallest the longest the lightest the brightest
Note 2. If the positive ends in one consonant preceded by a short vowel, the consonant is doubled before adding		
-er and	-est:	
big	bigger	the biggest
fat	fatter	the fattest
hot	hotter	the hottest
Note 3.	If the positive ends in -e, add only -r and -st:	
wise	wiser	the wisest
white	whiter	the whitest
safe	safer	the safest
Note 4		
a) If the positive ends		in -y preceded by a consonant,
change	the -y into -i and add -er and -est:	
early	earlier	the earliest
pretty	prettier	the prettiest
happy	happier	the happiest
There are some exceptions like shy and sly:		
shy	shyer	the shyest
sly	slyer	the slyest
b) If the -y is preceded by a vowel, the -y is not changed:		
grey	greyer	the greyest
gay	gayer	the gayest
59
Adjectives of Two Syllables
1. Most adjectives of two syllables compare by adding more or
less and most or least to the positive:
famous	more r	the most r ,	famous	. famous less	the least
active	more ..	the most ,	active	. active less	the least
2. Adjectives of two syllables with the stress on the second syl-
lable compare like adjectives of one syllable:
polite sincere	politer	the politest sincerer	the sincerest
3. Adjectives ending in -al, -ed, -fid, -ic, -He, -ine, -ous form their
comparative and superlative degrees by adding more and most
to the positive:
liberal learned cheerful magic fertile	more liberal	the most	liberal more learned	the most	learned more cheerful	the most	cheerful more magic	the most	magic more fertile	the most	fertile
4. Certain adjectives form their comparative and superlative in
both ways, either by adding -er/-est to the positive form or by
taking more/most. Some of these are: clever, common, cruel, friendly,
gentle, narrow, pleasant, polite, shallow, simple, stupid, quiet.
simple also simple	simpler	the simplest more simple	the most simple Adjectives of Three and More Syllables
Most adjectives of three or more syllables compare by add-
ing more or less, and most or least to the positive:
beautiful courageous industrious interesting	more beautiful	the most beautiful more courageous	the most courageous more industrious	the most industrious less interesting	the least interesting
60
Irregular Forms of Comparison
Some adjectives have irregular forms of comparison:
good
bad (ill, evil)
many -x.
much '
little
better	the best
worse	the worst
more	the most
less	the least
A few adjectives have two forms of comparison:
far	farther further	the farthest the furthest
late	latter later	the last the latest
near	nearer	the nearest the next
old	older elder	the oldest the eldest
Note 1. Farther and farthest are used for distance; further
and furthest are used to mean something additional:
The school is at the farthest end of the village.
Further discussion will follow.
Note 2. Later and latest are used for denoting time, latter
and last are used for denoting order:
Did you hear the latest news?
The last edition of this book is sold out.
Note 3. Nearest refers to distance, next is used when order
is meant:
The nearest town is 30 km.
Come again the next day.
Note 4. Elder and eldest are used for the people of the same
family. Older and oldest are used to denote age for things
and other people:
John is the eldest son of his family.
It is the oldest building in our city.
61
Constructions
with Comparisons
a)	Comparison of equals is expressed by as... as for positive com-
parison and not as ... as or not so ... as for negative comparison.
An apple is usually as big as an orange.
A grape is not so (as) big as an orange.
b)	Comparison of two unequal persons or things is expressed
by the comparative with than.
He is taller than his brother.
A mountain is higher than a hill.
The blue car is less expensive than the red one.
c)	Comparison of three or more persons or things is expressed
by the superlative with the ... of or the ... in (of place).
Tom is the cleverest boy in the class.
Ann is the prettiest of them all.
d)	Sometimes two comparatives are used together. For example
harder and harder, more and more difficult, better and better.
Your English is improving. It’s getting better and better.
e)	Sometimes the construction the + comparative the better is
used. For example:
the sooner the better.
the bigger the better.
What time will we leave? - The sooner the better.
f)	7%e.../Ae...with two comparatives are used to say that one
thing depends on another thing:
The earlier we leave, the sooner we will arrive.
The warmer is the weather, the better I feel.
g)	Adjectives in the comparative and the superlative can be
made more emphatic by adding some words. Comparatives are
preceded by
much гораздо
a bit (little) немного
far	намного
a great deal значительно
still	еще
62
Superlatives are preceded by
the very	самый
by far	намного, гораздо,
and they are followed by possible, imaginable'.
He was far more than a translator.
England is much larger than Scotland.
Your flat is a great deal better than mine.
This text is still more difficult.
She is the very best pupil in our class.
It is by far the most difficult task.
It is the easiest task possible.
Use of Some Adjectives
Much is always singular, and is used chiefly
a)	in questions:
Was there much rain here last week?
b)	in sentences with a negative sense:
/ don 7 like much sugar in my coffee.
Many is always plural:
There are many children at school.
Most is preceded by an adjective in the superlative degree:
This is the most interesting story.
When a noun is preceded by most, it is used without an arti-
cle and it means большинство, большая часть:
Most students like sport.
With the indefinite article most means крайне, весьма:
His father was a most experienced hunter.
Few and little are used
a)	preceded by the indefinite article when the sentence has
a positive sense:
It will be a little boat.
A few pupils were at the concert.
b)	without the indefinite article when the sentence has a nega-
tive sense:
We have little time for breakfast.
There are few people present.
63
1И EXERCISES
Exercises 1
Write the comparative and the superlative degrees of the fob-
lowing adjectives.
Great, difficult, busy, far, polite, careful, deep, bad, dirty, clever,
quick, little, different, young, comfortable, narrow, pretty, sad,
big, happy, old, late, heavy, nice, dry, fat, ugly, joyful, yellow,
sweet, near.
Exercises II
Open the brackets using the comparative or the superlative
degree wherever necessary.
1.	It’s autumn; every day the air becomes (cold), the leaves
(yellow).
2.	This is the (beautiful) view I have ever seen in my life.
3.	Your handwriting is now (good) than it was last year;
but still it is not so good as Pete’s handwriting. He has
the (good) handwriting of all.
4.	Are there (many) than two rooms in your new flat?
5.	The weather got (bad) and (bad) every day.
6.	His age was fifty; he looked several years (old).
7.	He is much (good) now than yesterday.
8.	Oh, you are (wonderful), you’re (wonderful) girl in the
whole world.
9.	He was (hungry) than he had ever been in his life.
10.	The twenty-second of December is the (short) day of the
year.
Exercises III
Open the brackets using the comparative or the superlative
degree.
1.	Iron is (useful) of all metals.
2.	The Neva is (wide) and (deep) than the Moskva River.
3.	Elbrus is the (high) peak in the Caucasian mountains.
4.	His plan is (practical) than yours.
5.	This room is (small) than all the rooms in the house.
6.	Silver is (heavy) than copper.
7.	Our house is (low) than yours.
8.	This exercise is (good) than the last one.
9.	Yesterday was the (hot) day we have had this summer.
10.	My (old) brother John is two years (old) than I am.
64
11.	The game of draughts is (easy) than chess.
12.	There is (little) sunshine this summer than last year.
13.	It was (good) concert I had ever attended.
14.	Your sister is (old) than you, she is the (old) child in
the family.
15.	My composition was (good), Mike’s was a good deal
(good), but Tom’s was the (good) of all pupils.
Exercises IV
Use the correct form of the adjective in brackets.
1.	I wonder what his... action is going to be (near).
2.	The... future will see this part of the desert turned into
a flourishing oasis (near).
3.	I have no one.. .than you (near).
4.	And they got down to business without...delay (far).
5.	In the.. .end of the exhibition hall we saw a group of young
people engaged in a hot discussion (far).
6.	Take this road. It is no...and much more pleasant (far).
7.	The... brother was twenty years... than the youngest (old).
8.	I always admired my... twin brother and looked up to him
though he was only two hours my senior (old).
9.	Who are the... members of the club (old)?
10.	I’ve got a still... edition of the book (old).
11.	Is there a... train passing here (late)?
12.	It was the... thing I had expected of him (late).
13.	What is the... news (late)?
14.	We were in a hurry to catch a... bus (late).
Exercise V
Write the missing forms of adjectives.
Positive			little						
Comparative					worse			further
Superlative	best					farthest		
Positive					near				
Comparative			older					later
Superlative	eldest					last		
3 H. Утевская
65
Exercise VI
Compare the objects according to the given model.
Model: A winter coat... a mackintosh, (warm)
A winter coat is warmer than a mackintosh.
A mackintosh is not so warm as a winter coat.
1.	A lemon ... an orange, (sour)
2.	The Black Sea ... the Baltic Sea. (beautiful)
3.	The Chinese language ... the French language, (difficult)
4.	A lane ... a street, (narrow)
5.	Copper wire ... iron wire, (flexible)
6.	The fur of a fox ... the fur of a squirrel, (expensive)
7.	Oil... water, (light)
8.	Honey ... sugar, (sweet)
9.	Stone ... wood, (heavy)
10.	A diamond ... a sapphire, (valuable)
Exercise VII
Complete the sentences.
1.	Our school is as ... as ...
2.	The temperature today is as ... as it was yesterday.
3.	He is not so ... as he looks.
4.	His radio set is not so ... as ...
5.	She is as ... as her sister.
6.	The weather in winter is not so ... as ...
7.	My friend is as ... as ...
8.	She does not work as ... as ...
9.	This street is as ... as ...
10.	Our town is not so ... as ...
Exercise VIII
Fill in the blanks with adjectives in the correct form and make
up sentences using the word-combinations.
a)	Take adjectives from the following list:
fine, successful, unpleasant, simple, hard, courageous, easy,
useful, bad, amusing, curious.
As ... as I had expected, ... than I had expected, ... I had ever
expected, not so ... as you imagine,... than one can imagine,...
than before,... as before,... of all done before,... than ever,...
as always,... in the world.
66
b)	Use any adjective you like:
not so ... as it used to be;... than at any other time;... man ever
bom;... of the children;... than anywhere else; as ... as the rest
of them;... poem ever written;... of all the things that happened;
nothing ... than this; anything as ... as that.
Exercise IX
Make up sentences using the following phrases to emphasize
a) the adjective in the positive degree:
that bad, so interesting, only too glad, this hard;
b) the adjective in the comparative degree:
a great deal faster, still easier, far better, no better, the steeper...
the more difficult, stronger and stronger, more and more
interesting;
c) the adjectives in the superlative degree:
by far the easiest, the nearest... possible, the cheapest... to be
found, the smallest... imaginable, the freshest... possible.
Exercise X
Give the English equivalents of:
а)	более трудный; гораздо более трудный; еще более труд-
ный; самый трудный;
Ь)	большее число; гораздо большее число; еще большее
число; самое большое число;
с)	более трудная задача; гораздо более трудная задача; еще
более трудная задача; самая трудная задача; самая труд-
ная задача, какая только возможна.
Exercise XI
Translate into English.
1. Я слышал оба доклада. Первый был значительно инте-
реснее второго. 2. Этот текст еще более трудный, чем тот,
который мы переводили на днях. 3. Это крайне важный
вопрос. 4. С каждым днем погода ухудшалась. 5. Сегодня
жарче, чем вчера. 6. Я не думал, что моя новая работа ока-
жется настолько трудной. 7. Эта проблема не так серьезна,
как вам кажется. 8. Язык этой статьи полегче. Начните с
нее. 9. Нам нужен шкаф поменьше, так как комната неболь-
шая. 10. Ваш брат очень способный человек; он самый спо-
67
собный из наших молодых ученых. 11. Советую пойти этой
дорогой, так как это самый короткий путь. 12. Пальто ни-
чуть не хуже после чистки. 13. Чем больше вы будете нахо-
диться на открытом воздухе, тем лучше у вас будет здоро-
вье. 14. Кто лучший спортсмен в команде? 15. На этот раз
у меня меньше ошибок, чем было в последнем сочинении.
Exercise XII
Translate into English.
1. Ваш брат намного старше вас? - Нет, он моложе меня.
2. Последнее издание этой книги уже распродано. 3. Мы
вынуждены были отложить поездку за город, так как по-
года становилась все хуже и хуже. 4. Она была гораздо
моложе своей сестры и менее веселая. 5. Последние извес-
тия по телевидению начинаются в девять часов. 6. Чем
быстрее вы пойдете к врачу, тем легче будет вылечить вашу
болезнь. 7. Чем больше вы будете читать, тем скорее рас-
ширите свой словарь. 8. Он сильный, он может поднять
ящик и в три раза тяжелей. 9. Сегодня вдвое холодней, чем
вчера. 10. Я нашел его в самом дальнем углу парка. 11. Ска-
жите, пожалуйста, где ближайшая булочная? 12. Джейн
была на год старше Марии. 13. Он чувствовал себя все луч-
ше и лучше. 14. Москва зимой для него была всегда при-
влекательнее, чем летом. 15. Ваша память нисколько не
лучше моей. 16. Какие из всех этих книг вам больше всего
нравятся? 17. Ты можешь положиться на него. Он сделает
эту работу так же быстро, как и я.
Exercise XIII
Translate into English
1. Тема, над которой вы работаете, более сложная, чем моя.
2. Мои туфли хуже ваших. Ваши более модные и более удоб-
ные. 3. Самое худшее время года в Индии - период дож-
дей. 4. Мой отец был старший сын в семье. 5. Знаете ли вы
последние новости о вашем друге? 6. Последняя глава в
этом романе самая интересная. 7. В воскресенье я встала
позже, чем обычно. 8. Самый интересный вопрос на пове-
стке дня был о работе студенческого научного общества.
9. Большую часть своего свободного времени он проводит
в библиотеке. 10. Сегодня у нас меньше работы, чем вчера.
11. Они шли также медленно, как и мы. 12. Сейчас вы учи-
тесь лучше, чем в прошлом году. 13. Сколько лет вашей
68
младшей сестре? 14. Моя комната не такая светлая, как
ваша. 15. Чем дольше я смотрю на эту картину, тем боль-
ше она мне нравится. 16. Чем меньше ты будешь говорить,
тем лучше. 17. Чем скорее ты сделаешь это, тем лучше.
Exercise XIV
Translate into English
1. Эта книга самая интересная в его библиотеке. 2. Это самый
красивый дом в этом районе. 3. Этот мальчик выше всех дру-
гих мальчиков в классе. 4. Аэропланы могут летать быстрее,
чем птицы, не правла ли? 5. Он так же способен, как и его
братья. 6. Вы гораздо умнее своих братьев. 7. Второй текст
гораздо труднее первого, а третий еще более трудный. 8. Это
самое лучшее решение, какое только можно себе представить.
9. Какой город Англии дальше всего от берега моря? 10. Чем
короче ваше сочинение, тем лучше. 11. Чем внимательнее вы
будете, тем меньше ошибок вы сделаете. 12. Вы не слышали
последние известия? 13. Сегодня у нас больше работы, чем
вчера. 14. Она переводит медленнее, чем ты. 15. Ты самый
лучший ученик нашего класса, не правда ли?. 16. Где здесь
ближайшая станция метро? 17 Они шли так же медленно, как
и мы. 18. Кто прыгает выше и бегает быстрее?
Exercise XV
Translate into English
1. Самые красивые ткани на выставке были отмечены пре-
миями. 2. Самый маленький радиоприемник помещается в
спичечной коробке. 3. Величайшие достижения науки дол-
жны служить миру. 4. Самое сложное задание поручили луч-
шему ученику. 5. Я хочу купить туфли с более длинным нос-
ком и с более высокими каблуками. 6. В зале Петербургской
филармонии выступают самые знаменитые артисты мира.
7. Большинство моих друзей живет в Москве. 8. Музыкант
исполнил свое последнее произведение. 9. Я нашел его в са-
мой дальней комнате квартиры. 10. Этот самолет последней
конструкции. 11. Наш тренер - старейший член нашего
спортивного клуба. 12. Чем интереснее книга, тем быстрее
она читается. 13. Ему бы хотелось работать над более слож-
ной темой. 14. Купите обои посветлее для вашей комнаты.
Она тогда не будет выглядеть такой мрачной, как сейчас.
15. Эта комната еще светлей. Она лучше подойдет для сту-
дии.
69
Exercise XVI
Translate into English
1. Многие считают, что самое красивое горное озеро - это
озеро Севан в Армении. 2. Из всех живых существ самый
сложный организм - у человека. 3. Большую часть своего
свободного времени он проводит в библиотеке.
4. Она надела нарядную коричневую юбку и белую блузку,
что делало ее намного моложе, чем она была. 5. Этот пере-
вод вдвое легче. Вы с ним справитесь. 6. Новый стадион в
несколько раз больше старого. 7. Хотя эта комната в два
раза меньше, она мне больше нравится. 8. Вам следует по-
мнить, что Петр на десять лет моложе Тома. 9. Вам нравит-
ся этот костюм? - Да. Но он в полтора раза дороже. 10. Се-
годня вдвое холодней, чем вчера. 11. Все его приятели в два
раза старше его. 12. Пруд немного больше в длину, чем в
ширину. 13. Он был самый добрый и самый приятный чело-
век, которого я когда-либо знала. 14. Ее назвали Еленой,
так как это было самое модное имя для девочек в то время.
The Adverb
The adverb is a word that serves to denote verbs, adjectives
and other adverbs:
I study seriously.
She is coming here.
Tom knows him very well.
The Formation of Adverbs
Adverbs are often formed by adding the suffix -ly to an ad-
jective: lately, slowly, purely, immediately.
Adjectives ending in -le drop -le and add -ly to form their
adverbs: terrible - terribly. Adjectives ending in consonant -y
drop -y and add -Uy to form their adverbs: happy - happily.
Adjectives ending in -ly (friendly, lovely, fatherly, motherly,
silly, lively, ugly etc.) form their adverbs with in a ... way. in a
friendly way.
70
Adjectives ending in -e form their adverbs adding -ly with-
out dropping -e: rare - rarely.
Exceptions
whole - wholly, true - truly.
The less common suffixes are the following:
-wise	clockwise, crabwise
-ward(s) backward(s), eastward(s)
-fold	twofold, manifold
-most	innermost, outermost
-way(s)	longways, sideways
Compound adverbs are formed of two stems: somewhere,
sometimes, downstairs etc.
Phrasal adverbs consist of two or more word-form, as a great
deal, a little bit, now and then, a lot of, from time to time, a great
deal of, far enough, kind of etc.
Some adverbs are the same as their adjectives (daily, early,
fast, hard, late, monthly, best, easy, low, high, near, much, lit-
tle).
He works hard. This is a hard job.
It ’s a high mountain. The bird flew high.
This is a fast train. She drives fast.
The adverbs in -ly formed from the same root have differ-
ent meaning. Thus we find in English pairs of parallel adverbs
formed from the same root, one with the suffix -ly, the other
without it. As a rule, the derived form has a more abstract
meaning.
She has a lot of near reatives.
He came home nearly in the morning.
How to Form Opposites
Dis-, un-, in-, il- (before /), im- (before m or p), ir- (before r),
mal- are negative prefixes which are used to make opposites of
certain adverbs:
legally - illegally',
gratefully - ungratefully.
71
Adverbs with Two Forms and
Differences in Meaning
deep = a long way down
deeply = greatly
direct = by the shortest route
directly = immediately
easy = gently and slowly
easily = without payment
freely = willingly
full = exactly, very
fully = completely
hard = with effort
hardly = scarcely
high = to/at a high level
highly = very much
last = after all others
lastly = finally
late = not early
lately = recently
near = close
nearly = almost
pretty = fairly
prettily = in a pretty way
short = suddenly
shortly = soon
sure = certainly
surely = without doubt
wide = far away from the right point
widely = to a large extent
wrong = incorrectly
wrongly = incorrectly, unjustly
Kinds of Adverbs
According to their meaning adverbs can be divided into
1)	adverbs of time
a)	definite - today, yesterday, now, tomorrow, immediately etc:
He played football yesterday.
Now he is busy with his research worle.
72
b)	indefinite - before, soon, late, ever, afterwards, seldom,
always etc:
They will be here soon.
He is always late.
2)	adverbs of place or direction: here, there, above, under, near,
outside, to and fro, backwards etc:
Outside the factory there is a lot offlower-beds.
3)	adverbs of frequency: once, twice, always, seldom, four times,
again, monthly, firstly, often, usually, never, ever, regularly,
rasely, sometimes etc:
He is twice as clever as I am.
The orchestra plays monthly.
4)	adverbs of manner: well, badly, hard, easily, fast, slowly
etc:
Study well in school and work hard in life.
He won the competition easily.
5)	adverbs of degree: very, too, enough, quite, quickly, scarcely,
almost, little, only, absolutely, just, completely, extremely, very,
awfully, rather, slightly, fairly etc:
He ran quickly half the way across the field.
He is scarcely able to finish his report in a week.
6)	sentence adverbs: certainly, surely, probably, possibly, perhaps,
maybe, clearly, luckily etc:
He will certainly come today.
She did not come, possibly she is ill.
7)	relative adverbs: where, why, when.
It is the place where we used to play in our childhood.
It was the year when the war broke out.
Relative adverbs introduce attributive clauses.
Comparison of Adverbs
Certain adjectives form their comparatives and superlative
degree in both ways, either by adding -er/-est to the positive
form or taking more/most. Some of these are: clever, common,
73
cruel, friendly, gentle, narrow, pleasant, polite, quiet, simple,
stupid etc.
clever	cleverer	the cleverest
also clever	more clever	the most clever.
Adverbs having the same forms as adjectives add -er/-est
fast	faster	the fastest.
Two syllable or compouns adverbs compare by adding more
and most (less and least)
brightly	more brightly	the most brightly
loudly	less loudly	the least loudly
A few adverbs have irregular degrees of comparison:
well	better	the best
badly	worse	the worst
much	more	the most
little	less	the least
near	nearer	the nearest, the next
far	farther, further	the farthest, the furthest
late	later	the latest, the last
Word Order of Adverbs
in the Sentence
Adverbs can go in front, mid or end position in a sentence.
Front position is at the beginning of the sentence. Mid position
is before the main verb or after the auxiliary. End position is at
the end of the sentence.
front	mid	end
Finally, he will probably start working here next week.
Adverbs of frequency (often, usually, never, ever, regularly,
barely, seldom, scarcely, rarely, sometimes etc.) normally go
before main verbs but after auxiliary verbs (mid position). How-
ever, in short answers they go before the auxiliary verb.
He often writes me letters.
“He is always telling the truth, isn’t he?” “Yes, he always is. ”
Used to and have to take the adverb of frequency before them:
You always used to go for walks.
74
Frequency adverbs can go at the beginning or the end of
the sentence:
Sometimes I woke up late.
I go on excursions rarely.
Adverbs of time usually go at the end of the sentence:
She left Moscow yesterday.
or at the beginning of the sentence:
Yesterday they left London.
Such adverbs as soon, now, still, then etc. can go in the mid
position:
She is now writing a test.
The adverbs already, no longer, hardly, normally, nearly,
almost usually go in mid position:
He is no longer working here.
Sentence adverbs (probably, certainly, possibly, clearly,
fortunately, luckily, maybe, perhaps, of course etc.) go in any
position, front, mid or end; the front position is the most usual:
Probably he is late. He probably is late. He is late probably.
In negations certainly, probably, possibly go before the auxiliary:
He probably doesn’t know the rule.
Adverbs of degree (absolutely, just, completely, extremely,
a lot, very, really, terribly, much, awfully, rather, quite, pretty,
a little, a bit, slightly, enough, too etc.) can go before the adverb
they denote:
It is quite clear.
The adverbs a lot, much, a little, a bit, awfully, terribly, abso-
lutely, completely and totally go in mid or end position:
The storm completely destroyed the area, or The storm de-
stroyed the area completely.
Adverbs of manner (beautifully, badly, eagerly etc.) and place
(here, there etc.) go after the verb or the object of the verb if
there is one:
She looked at me angrily.
Adverbs of manner can also go in mid position:
She looked angrily at me.
When there is more than one adverb in a sentence, their or-
der is manner - place - time.
However when there is a verb of movement (go, run, leave
etc.) the place adverb goes next to the verb of movement:
manner place	time
He spoke well at the meeting yesterday.
place manner time
She goes to work on foot every day.
75
The Use of Adverbs
Adverbs have the function of an adverbial modifier in the sen-
tence. When they denote verbs, they can serve as adverbial modi-
fiers of place, manner, time, degree etc.:
The car started moving backwards, (place)
She spoke very distinctly, (manner)
The children returned home late. (time)
By the end of the day she felt quite exhausted. (degree)
A few adverbs which denote nouns can have the function of
an attribute: A teacher must be fully master of the classroom.
0 EXERCISES
Exercise I
Form the adverbs from the following adjectives by adding
the suffix -ly.
quiet	wonderful	late	careful
easy	beautiful	usual	wonderful
true	slow	brave	uncomfortable
excellent	clear	comparative	cheerful
safe	shy	entire	enthusiastical
noble	complete	curious	entire
happy	nervous	immediate	immense
heavy	steady	frightful	dry
angry	absolute	free	greedy
gay	real	polite	hasty
Exercise II
Give the degrees of comparison of the following adverbs:
heavily, hard, gaily, fast, cheerfully, politely, late, shyly, far,
dryly, bravely, carefully, often, early, badly.
Exercise III
Put the adverbs from the list below into the correct column.
why	where	hard	usually	immediately
badly	near	often	probably	occasionally
here	almost	today	carefully	absolutely
hardly	quite	slowly	foolishly	frequently
soon	well	lately	always	suspiciosly
clearly	fast			
76
How	Where	When	How much	How often		
manner	place	time	degree	frequency	sentence adverbs	relative adverbs
fast	here к	soon	almost	often	certainly	when
									
									
									
Exercise IV
State whether the words in bold type are adjectives or adverbs.
1.	a) The patient breathed hard, b) He was a hard patient
to cure; he would not obey the doctor’s orders.
2.	a) I watched the fighters at close quarters, b) He kept close
to the road.
3.	a) She is as pretty as a picture, b) In a month’s time
the situation was pretty much the same.
4.	a) I’m afraid she might do it worse than you. b) To make
things still worse, he had a leg broken.
5.	a) This is the right way to do it. b) She lives right around
the corner.
6.	a) Look straight ahead! b) You can’t expect a straight an-
swer from him.
7.	a) He was too long in doing it. b) It took him long to do it.
8.	a) You look quite ill. b) You oughtn’t to speak ill of peo-
ple you don’t know well.
9.	a) It was still early when we returned, b) We returned very
early.
10.	a) The sportsman dived deep and appeared at the other
end of the pool, b) They had to dig a well some hundreds
meters deep to get to the water.
11.	a) He came close to his friend, b) He was also his closest
companion and his closest friend.
12.	a) His hair was straight and long, b) He sat up straight in
his chair.
Exercise V
Choose the correct word and state whether it is an adjective
or an adverb.
1.	a) His head is full of... ideas, b) They always speak ... of
him. c) We ... appreciate your kidness, (high, highly)
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2.	a) All was settled ... between us. b) You don’t play ... .
c) Why are you helping him? It isn’t.... (fair, fairly)
3.	a) She cut him ... saying it was not to the point, b) He came
to live there ... after the war. c) Speak .... (short, shortly)
4.	a) They ... spoke during the walk, b) It was a pity he took
life so ... c) Try again, try ... . (hard, hardly)
5.	a) He tried to translate it as ... to the text as possible, b) It
was... in the room, c) He felt he was being... watched, (close,
closely)
6.	a) I found him... in thought, b) I found him ... engrossed in
reading the manuscript, c) Still waters run.... (deep, deeply)
7.	a) The engine is ... to operate and its every part can be ...
replaced, b) Take it... c) He is an ...-going man. (easy, easily)
8.	a) We were... welcomed, b) She put a tea-cosy on the pot to
keep it.... c) Don’t dress the child too .... (warm, warmly)
9.	a) Here is some work for you; see that you do it ... .
b) The Pamir is ... called “the world’s roof’, c) The car
stopped ... in the middle of the road, (right, rightly)
10.	a) How are you? - Very ..., thank you. b) How is life? -
Very ..., thank you. c) How are you getting on? - Very ...,
thank you. (good, well)
Exercise VI
Choose the correct word in brackets.
1. The birds were flying (high, highly) and low. 2. He was
(high, highly) intelligent. 3. He had found out that the Petrovs’
family had lived (close, closely) to mine. 4. Meanwhile
Martin’s own reward was coming (near, nearly). 5. We were
(near, nearly) smashed up on the shore several times. 6. I’m
sure you know how (deep, deeply) I sympathize with you.
7. With her beautiful expressive eyes she looked (deep, deeply)
into his. 8. During his last year in London Philip had to work
(hard, hardly). 9. I need (hard, hardly) say that I agree with
you. 10. Suddenly she stopped (short, shortly), and left her
companion. 11. He was joined (short, shortly) by an air
hostess. 12. “Open your eyes (wide, widely),” he ordered gently
and examined each eye in turn in the bright light. 13. This
word is (wide, widely) used in spoken English. 14. The officer
leaned down and looked (close, closely) at Mike. 15. There
were three desks, one with a computer, and all with papers,
books, and files piled (high, highly). 16. His heart beat so
that he could (hard, hardly) breathe. 17. He drank long and
(deep, deeply). 18. You paid too (dear, dearly) for this radio
78
set. 19. The father loved his daughter (dear, dearly). 20. Do I
speak (loud, loudly) enough? 21. He was (deep, deeply) moved.
22. The doctor answered him (short, shortly).
Exercise VII
State to what part of speech the words hard, late, near, hardly,
lately, nearly belong to. Translate the sentences.
1.	He is doing hard work.
His work is hard.
He is working hard.
I was so tired, I could hardly work.
It’s raining hard.
He is a hard nut to crack.
2.	We returned to town late in autumn.
It’s bad for one’s health to go to bed late.
He has left Moscow lately.
It’s nice to go to the south in late summer.
3.	They will be through with their research in the nearest future.
The bus stop is somewhere near here.
The poor man was nearly drowned.
It is nearly time to start.
Exercise VIII
Put the adverbs in their right place in the sentence.
1.	The weather was gloomy on that day. (extremely)
2.	I have seen a talking parrot, (never)
3.	We will go to the country, (tomorrow).
4.	My aunt Helen lives with her little daughter, (here)
5.	The boys read this magazine, (seldom)
6.	I looked at the apple, I didn’t touch it. (only)
7.	Poor Tom has realized how long it is from breakfast to
dinner, (never, before)
8.	His father has been in the Far East two years, (nearly)
9.	I could thank my sister, (hardly, enough)
10.	Everything was ready, (quite, soon)
Exersice IX
Translate the adverbs in brackets into English.
1. We shan’t get out of the muddle we’re in except by thinking
(усиленно) and realistically. 2. He could (едва) speak. 4. The
geologists dug too (глубоко) to find oil. 5. The boy came (близ-
ко) and looked at his friend. 6. The lantern held (высоко) was
79
in his left hand. 7. He will be here at ten (ровно). 8. He spoke
(резко) to the children, and told them to go in to their tea.
9. He lives (далеко) from the university. 10. She put her arm
round my shoulders and (почти) wept over me. 11. I am very
sorry that I (плохо) know English. 12. It is (широко) known
that John is the best sportsman in our town. 13. It is (весьма)
probable that they are in the Crimea now. 14. He always came
away (глубоко) depressed. 15. I’m afraid I can’t walk very (бы-
стро). 16. I am (глубоко) interested in the happy conclusion
of this problem. 17. The wind was blowing so (сильно) that I
could (едва) stand on my feet. 18. Gorky’s works аге (хоро-
шо) known in the whole world.
Exercise X
Translate the adverbs in brackets into English.
1. With eyes (широко) open she looked at the sight of Chicago
opening before her. 2. I am (глубоко) interested in the happy
conclusion of this problem. 3. The champion (справедливо)
deserves the prize he received. 4. The factory stood (близко) by
the river. 5. The sailor kept pulling (сильно) at the rope. 6. It
was (почти) dinner-time when we got back. 7. The well-known
Russian musical critic Stasov was а (высоко) educated man.
8. (Вскоре) after graduating from the university I went to the
Far East. 9. The only thing that stood out (ясно) was his mother’s
face. His sister he remembered (более смутно). 10. He shouted
(громко) and (долго) but nobody came. 11. (Легче) said than
done. 12. Do short-sighted people see (хорошо или плохо)?
13. I was so tired that I (едва) could work. 14. A spasm of
trembling shot through his body and he was breathing (тяжело).
Exercise XI
Translate into English. Pay attention to the place of adverbs
of time.
1. Вы всегда приходите вовремя. 2. Наш преподаватель ни-
когда не говорит на занятиях по-русски. 3. Вы иногда быва-
ете неправы. 4. Она упорно работает над этой проблемой.
5. Я только что закончил работу. 6. Я никогда не забуду
этой встречи. 7. Я еще не возвратил книги в библиотеку.
8. Вы уже написали письмо? 9. Его только что видели в со-
седней комнате. 10. Его редко об этом спрашивали. 11. Вы
всегда можете обратиться к нему за помощью. 12. Вы ни-
когда не должны забывать об этом. 13. Мы видели его вче-
80
ра в театре. 14. Я часто буду вспоминать эти веселые дни.
15. Мы будем с ними иногда встречаться на лекциях.
16. Летом мы почти всегда живем на Кавказе. 17. После про-
гулки я хорошо спала вчера.
Exercise XII
Translate into English using the adverbs still, yet (as yet, not
yet), else, already.
1.	Ваша сестра вернулась в Санкт-Петербург? - Нет, она
еще не приехала. Она еще в Сочи. - Куда еще она собира-
ется поехать до возвращения домой?
2.	Ты закончил готовить уроки? - Нет. Сочинение еще не
написано. Я еще пишу его. - Что еще ты должен сделать
сегодня? - Больше ничего.
3.	Вы уже прочитали этот интересный роман? - Нет, я еще
не прочитал его до конца. Я его еще читаю.
4.	Уже десять часов, а он еще не пришел. Он уже должен
был прийти полчаса тому назад. Я думаю, он еще дома.
Он еще не ушел.
5.	Вы уже перевели эту статью? - Нет еще. Я ее перевожу
уже две недели, но еще не закончил.
Exercise XIII
Translate into English.
1. Чем дольше я смотрю на эту картину, тем больше она
мне нравится. 2. Прежду чем делать какие-либо выводы,
вы должны глубоко изучить этот вопрос. 3. Я вас правиль-
но понял? 4. Чем интереснее книга, тем быстрее вы читаете
ее. 5. Близорукому человеку приходится подносить текст
близко к глазам. 6. Только высококвалифицированный
рабочий может управлять этим сложным станком. 7. Кни-
га была настолько увлекательная, что я читала до глубо-
кой ночи. 8. Я был глубоко тронут его заботой. 9. Чем рань-
ше вы придете, тем скорее мы закончим работу.
10. Смотрите мне прямо в глаза. 11. Его прервали в самой
середине речи. 12. В этом месяце я истратил денег на по-
купку книг в три раза больше, чем в прошлом. 13. Подож-
дите, они скоро придут. 14. Больной тяжело дышал.
15. Больной едва дышал. 16. Он недавно вернулся из ко-
мандировки. 17. Это выражение широко употреблялось в
английском языке XVI века. 18. Мы живем совсем близко
от железной дороги.
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Exercise XIV
Translate into English.
1. Дверь была широко открыта, и они вошли не позвонив.
2. Он пришел домой вскоре после того, как мы ушли. 3. Вы
так сильно изменились, что я едва вас узнала. 4. Она ды-
шала медленно и глубоко после соревнования. 5. Во время
беседы он внимательно ее рассматривал. 6. Маленький
Джон спустился вниз и сел на нижнюю ступеньку. 7. Нас
считали высокообразованными людьми. 8. Чем скорее вы
прочтете книгу, тем лучше. 8. Чем больше он думал о сво-
ем путешествии, тем больше оно ему нравилось. 10. В тече-
ние двух или трех дней доктор внимательно следил за То-
мом. 11. Ребенок порезал большой палец и сильно плакал,
когда мать вошла в детскую. 12. Он поскользнулся и чуть
не упал. 13. Он оставил собаку около дома. 14. Он при-
стально смотрел на девушку, которая сидела напротив него.
Exercise XV
Translate into English.
1. Чем быстрее вы обратитесь к врачу, тем легче будет выле-
чить вашу болезнь. 2. Письмо пришло вскоре после твоего
отъезда. 3. Чем больше вы будете читать, тем скорее вы рас-
ширите свой словарь. 4. Рано или поздно, это должно было
произойти. 5. Какие из всех этих книг вам больше всего нра-
вятся? 6. Оливер взошел на крыльцо и робко попросил по-
пить. Затем он еще более робко попросил кусочек хлеба.
7. Говорите громче! 8. Чем больше вы будете находиться на
открытом воздухе, тем лучше будет у вас аппетит. 9. Ты мо-
жешь положиться на него. Он сделает эту работу так же бы-
стро, как ия. 10. Спидометр показывал, что машина идет в
два раза быстрее, чем раньше. 11. Я хуже всех играю в шах-
маты. 12. Кто живет дальше от университета: ты или твой
товарищ? 13. Какая из всех картин на выставке вам нравит-
ся больше всего? 14. Мой товарищ бегает быстрее меня.
Exercise XVI
Translate into English.
1. Кто из студентов вашей группы живет дальше всех от
университета? 2. Какая из этих двух картин вам нравится
больше? 3. Вы всегда приходите на заседания позже меня.
4. В этом году вы работаете меньше, чем в прошлом. 5. Из
ваших рисунков этот пейзаж мне нравится меньше всех.
82
6. Мой товарищ бегает быстрее меня. 7. Вы уже прочитали
эту интересную статью? - Я ее еще читаю. Я еще не прочи-
тал ее до конца. 8. Уже восемь часов, а он еще не встал й не
позавтракал. Он все еще спит. 9. Недавно я получила от
брата открытку. Больше я от него ничего не получала. До
сих пор я не получила телеграммы о том, как он себя чув-
ствует. 10. Она так волновалась, что едва могла отвечать
на вопросы. 11. Вы редко приходите вовремя. 12. Вы иног-
да бываете неправы. 13. Его только что видели в соседней
комнате. 14. Вы всегда можете обратиться к нему за помо-
щью. 15. Недавно я встретил своего школьного товарища.
The Numeral
Words denoting number are called numerals. The cheif classes
of numerals are cardinal numerals and ordinal numerals.
Cardinal Numerals
Cardinal numerals (one, two, three, four etc.) are used in
counting answering the question “How many?”.
1.	The cardinal numerals from 1 to 12 and 100, 1000, 1000000
are simple words; those from 13 to 19 are derivatives with
the suffix -teen (thirteen, fourteen etc.).
2.	The cardinal numerals of tens are formed by the suffix -ty\
sixty, seventy, eighty ..., but twenty, thirty, forty, fifty.
3.	The numerals from 21 to 29, from 31 to 39 etc. consist of two
words, and they are written with a hyphen twenty-one, thirty-
two etc.
4.	Cardinal numerals hundred, thousand, million are used with
articles when denoting a definite number: a hundred sheep, a
thousand workers.
Years are counted in the following way:
1995 - nineteen hundred and ninety five or nineteen ninety-five.
83
2004 - twenty hundred and four or twenty О [эи] four.
О = nought [no:t] or О [эи] when speaking of numbers: one,
two, nought or О [эи] etc.
0 = 0 [эи] in telephone conversation:
My telephone number is 29037 (two, nine, О [эи], three, seven).
О = zero ['ziorov] - the point between the positive (+) and
negative (-), especially on a thermometer:
- 4° = four degrees below zero
+ 7 = seven degrees above zero
0 = nil in scoring at games:
4:0 = four to nil.
Remember the following expressions:
1.	to count by tens, hundreds, thousands; also by the hundred,
by the thousand etc.;
2.	12 - a dozen, 20 - a score, 60 - three score;
3.	half an hour, a quarter of an hour, three kilometres and
a half, a thousand and a half kilometres;
4.	41 books;
5.	61 hours.
Ordinal Numerals
Ordinal numerals show the order of persons and things:
1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th etc.
Most of the ordinal numerals are formed from cardinal nu-
merals by means of the suffix -th (seventh, fourteenth, twentieth),
except first, second and third.
Notice also the spelling of fifth, ninth, twelfth.
Ordinal numerals are usually preceded by the definite article:
the first, the second, the tenth, the one hundred and twenty-
fifth.
The letter -y of cardinal numerals is changed into -ie in ordi-
nals:
forty - the fortieth, fifty - the fiftieth.
In ordinal groups only the last figure of group takes the or-
dinal form: the forty-third, the sixty-fifth.
Dates may be written and read in different ways:
7 June, 2004
7th June, 2004
June 7, 2004
June 7th, 2004
the seventh of June, twenty О [эи] four
June the seventh, twenty О [эи] four
84
Words and Expressions
Used in Mathematics
I. Fractional numerals:
1)	common fractions:
1/2-a half	1/3-a third	1/4-a quarter
3/5 - three fifths	2/3 - two thirds	5/6 - five sixths
2)	decimal fractions:
0.5 - nought point five
0.05 - nought point nought five
0.31 - nought point three one
2.35 - two point three five
IL Addition:
4+5=9 - four and five are nine (four plus five are nine).
III.	Subtraction:
6-5=1 - six minus five is one.
IV.	Multiplication:
3x2=6 - three times two are six (three by two is six);
2x2=4 - twice two are four (two by two are four);
1x3=3 - once three is three (one by three is three).
V.	Division:
8:2=4 - eight divided by two is four.
VI.	Percentages:
1% - one per cent;
3% - three per cent;
3/8% - three eighths per cent;
1/2% - a half per cent;
0.2% - nought point two per cent;
3% from 200 = 6 - three per cent from two hundred is six;
5% from 300 = 15- five per cent from three hundred is fifteen;
Some mathematical expressions:
20° - twenty degrees;
52 - five square (the square of five, five to the second power);
63 - six cubed (the cube of six, six to the third power);
23= 8 - the cube oflwo is eight;
c18 - c [si:] to the eighteenth power;
85
a10 - a [ei] to the minus tenth power;
44 = 2- the square root of four is (equals) two;
4a- the cube root of a [ei];
4a2 - the fifth root of a [ei] square.
El EXERCISES
Exercise I
Read and write the following cardinal numerals:
5, 100, 73, 14, 31, 46, 88, 97, 123, 678, 779, 1050, 384, 2134,
1, 207, 641, 425, 712, 2, 032, 678, 75, 137.
Exercise II
Read and write the following numerals:
3, 4, 14, 40, 15, 18, 80, 12, 100, 226, 705, 1000, 4568, 6008, 75,
137, 425, 712, 1306527, 2032678, 3453, 696, 1/7, 2/19, 1 1/5,
8 3/8, 0.8, 1.35, 2.07, 2.386, 3.14
Exercise III
Form, read and write ordinal numerals from the following
cardinal numerals:
1, 12, 2, 20, 7, 14, 40, 15, 6, 16, 60, 18, 80, 9, 19, 90, 100, 103,
300, 425, 705, 1000, 1015.
Exercise IV
Form, read and write ordinal numerals from the following
cardinal numerals:
5,	11, 21, 62, 100, 690, 3, 8, 13, 30, 76, 108, 1, 701, 4, 9, 22, 50.
Exercise V
Read and write in English the following:
a)	dates
6/VI.1995	8/XII.1939 12/IV.2001	2/VIII.1940
7/XI.1917	6/III.1987	31/VII.2003	22/VI.1941
b)	common fractions:
2/3, 3/5, 5/8, 7/16, 9/32, 1/4, 3/4
c)	decimal fractions:
2,5; 25,16; 31,75; 49,165; 0,36; 0,105
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Exercise VI
Give the corresponding cardinal and ordinal numerals:
Model: Seven-seventh-seventeen-seventeenth-seventy-
seventieth.
One, nine, four, five, three, eight, two, six.
Exercise VII
Translate into English:
1. Две тысячи рублей. 2. Тысячи людей. 3. Триста сорок
метров. 4. Сотни лет. 5. Тысяча четыреста километров.
6. Двенадцать студентов. 7. Пятьдесят автомобилей. 8. Три
с половиной килограмма. 9. Три четверти часа. 10. 16 про-
центов. 11. 3/4 тонны. 12. 1/2 сантиметра. 13. 265 метра.
14. 0,75 процента. 15. 2 1/2 часа.
Exercise VIII
Translate into English:
1/4 километра; 1 1/2 часа; 1/3 фунта; 2 3/4 процента;
0,105 метра; 2,18 фунта; 17,562 тонны; 5 процентов; 23 сан-
тиметра; 1/2 процента; 1 1/3 фунта; 2 1/2 тонны; 35 долла-
ров; 2 500 рублей; 3/4 километра; 0,2 процента; 6,8 метра;
3 1/2 часа; 3445 рублей.
Exercise IX
Translate into English:
1. Пятьдесят килограммов. 2. Триста автомобилей. 3. Ше-
стьдесят один грамм. 4. Два миллиона тонн. 5. Сотни ящи-
ков. 6. Тысячи книг. 7. Двести восемьдесят один доллар.
8. Три тысячи рублей. 9. Сорок фунтов. 10. Тридцать че-
тыре доллара и десять центов. 11. Сотня велосипедов.
12. Триста лет.
87
The Pronoun
A pronoun is a word used instead of nouns, adjectives and
numerals.
There are ten kinds of pronouns:
1)	personal,
2)	possessive,
3)	demonstrative,
4)	interrogative,
5)	relative,
6)	reflexive,
7)	conjunctive,
8)	reciprocal,
9)	indefinite,
10)	negative.
Personal Pronouns
Personal pronouns are 7, he, she, it, we, you, they.
The personal pronoun I is always written with a capital let-
ter. The personal pronouns he, she, it denote gender (mascu-
line, feminine, neuter), but the plural form they is used for all
three genders.
It is used for things, animals, plants, ideas, babies and as
the impersonal subject:
I like that book, it is very interesting.
Note. Sometimes it is used to give emphasis and in imper-
sonal sentences:
It was Pete who came to the meeting first.
It is cold today.
It does not matter.
It is also used in the following: It seems that, It appears that,
It looks like, It is said that etc.
It seems that it ’s going to snow.
We use personal pronouns to refer to people, things or ani-
mals:
I’ve bought some milk. It’s on the table.
88
The personal pronouns have cases: nominative and objec-
tive. We use /, you, he, she etc. before verbs as subjects and me,
you, him, her etc. after verbs as objects.
He gave her an expensive present but she didn’t like it.
	Persons	Nominative Case	Objective Case
я	I	I	me
"□ W)	II	you	you
S	III	he, she, it	him, her, it
ce	I	we	us
h s	II	you	you .
pH	III	they	them
Possessive Adjectives/
Pronouns
Possessive adjectives/pronouns express possession. Posses-
sive adjectives go before nouns, whereas possessive pronouns
do not go before nouns:
This is my diary. Its mine.
Sometimes possessive pronouns go at the beginning of a sen-
tence:
Yours is in the bedroom.
Personal Pronouns	Possessive Adjectives	Possessive Pronouns
I	my	mine
you	your	yours
he	his	his
she	her	hers
it	its	its
we	our	ours
you	your	yours
they	their	theirs
Possessive adjectives usually have the functions of an at-
tribute:
Her exercise is good.
Possessive pronouns may be used as the subject, the object
and the predicative:
This is not my pencil, mine is blue, (the subject)
89
I have broken my pencil. Please give me yours, (the object)
The book is mine, (the predicative)
Note 1. Possessive pronouns are used in such construc-
tions as a friend of mine, that dictionary of yours'.
That car of yours is very good.
That music of hers is very pleasant.
Note 2. Possessive adjectives are often used before the
names of the parts of the body, clothing, things belonging
to a person etc. In this case they are not translated into
Russian:
He put his hand into his pocket.
Note 3. Possessive adjectives are not used with parts of
the body after prepositions. Verbs used in this pattern are
hit, kiss, punch, bite, touch, pat, sting etc.:
She kissed the baby on the cheek.
0 EXERCISES
Exercise I
Insert the proper form of the personal pronoun in brackets.
1. I had turned and faced (he). He was taller than (I). 2. He
will be between (you) and (I), anyway. 3. It was (she) who asked
the next question. 4. It’s (they) whom I pity desperately.
5. “She’s better at it than (we) are,” said Nora. 6. It was (I) not
Martin, who had insisted on seeing (he) that night because I
wanted his support. 7. I recalled, too, there had been some
talk between Tom and (she). 8. It was (he) before whom she
felt defeat. 9. This is (I) who can help you. 10. My mother gave
(I) a very interesting story to read. 11. You must go to see
(she) and talk to (she). 12. My friends came to see (we) yesterday
and I showed (they) the pictures you had sent (I). 13. The box
you wanted to give (he) is on the table, bring (it) here. 14. There
were several other people no less amused to see (I) than I was
to see (they). 15. If somebody inquires about me, tell (they)
that I am well.
Exercise II
Insert personal pronouns.
1. Australia is one of the five continents, but... is much smaller
than the other four. 2. Look at the yacht!... is almost touching
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the waves with the sail. Look at...! 3. I hear a child has been
bom to you. Is ... a boy or a girl? 4. When Kinuli had become a
big lioness,... had to be returned to the Zoo, as it was dangerous
to keep ... at home any longer. 5. What is the name of your
dog? - ... is called Jip. 6. Mike soon made ... clear that... did
not want to stay there long. 7. Do you like your car? - Oh ...
has never let me down yet. 8. ... say there’s been a great earth
quake in the Pacific. 9. It was ... who helped me most. 10. They
invited you and ... to the party. 11. Very few could do it faster
than.... 12. You can take the horse to the water, but you cannot
make... drink. 13. Where is my umbrella? I left... in this corner.
14. Is he your friend? I have not yet seen ....
Exercise III
Underline the personal and possessive adjectives and pro-
nouns in the following sentences.
1. Our country is very rich in oil, coal, iron and other natural
resources. 2. England has to import most of them. 3. His
dictation was much better than yours or mine. 4. He does his
work much better than I do mine. 5. Their car was faster than
ours. 6. At the concert I met an old friend of mine. 7. Lend
them your dictionary, they have left theirs at home. 8. This
book is neither hers nor his, it should be mine. 9. Their
knowledge of chemistry is not much better than mine. 10. You
can do without my help, but not without hers.
Exercise IV
Choose the correct form of the possessive adjectives or pro-
nouns in brackets.
1. Would you like to see some of (her, hers) latest sketches?
2. He has not read a line of (your, yours), how can he criticize
(your, yours) poems? 3. If this book is neither (her, hers) nor
(his, his), it should be (my, mine). 4. (Their, theirs) knowledge
of the subject is not much better than (our, ours). 5. I’m afraid
they will take (your, yours) words against (her, hers). 6. All
(our, ours) clothes were extremely dirty, and (my, mine)
especially so. 7. Will you help me to sort out the things? I cannot
tell which are (your, yours) and which are (our, ours). 8. (Their,
theirs) boat was faster than (our, ours). 9. The man next door
has been busy cutting the grass in (his, her) garden. 10. She put
(her, hers) hands in (his, his).
91
Exercise V
Use the correct form of possessive adjectives or pronouns in
the following sentences:
1. This foolish wife of (I) thinks I’m a great artist,” said he.
2. Very well, Mother, I’ll have (I) hair cut this afternoon. 3. We
can do (we) shopping before lunch. 4. She folded the letter and
put it in (it) envelope. 5. She makes all (she) clothes herself.
6. This book is (I). There is (I) name on it. 7. There is a very
interesting article of (he) in this evening’s paper. 8. This demand
of (they) is quite unexpected. 9. She took off (she) coat and hat
and sat down to wait for (she) friend. 10. He asked me what (I)
name was and wrote it down in (he) notebook.
Exercise VI
Choose the correct form of the possessive adjectives or pro-
nouns.
1. I went (my, mine) way, and she went (her, hers). 2. He left
(her, hers) with (their, theirs) child. 3. What was this experiment
of (your, yours)? 4. He put (his) arm in (her, hers). 5. From this
moment (their, theirs) story comes in two versions, (my, mine)
and (her, hers). 6. My friend’s room was only two doors from
(my, mine). 7. “That thought is not (me, mine),” he said to
himself quickly. 8. Where is (your, yours) seat? I will go to (my,
mine). 9. Lend them (your, yours) dictionary; they have left
(their, theirs) at home. 10.1 put on (my, mine) coat and hat and
sat down to wait for (her, hers) friend. 11. We are all ready to
defend (our, ours) country. 12. You can leave (your, yours)
bags in the cloakroom.
Exercise VII
Change the following sentences as in the given models:
Model I: This is my book. - This book is mine.
Model II: This is my book. - And that one is his (hers).
These are your books. - And those are ours
(theirs).
1. This is my purse. 2. This is our suggestion. 3. This is your
glove. 4. These are your seats. 5. This is her plan. 6. This is her
toothbrush. 7. These are my pens. 8. This is their writing-table.
9. These are my notebooks. 10. This is their part of work.
11. This is my dictionary. 12. These are our postcards.
13. These are our records. 14. This is my umbrella. 15. These
92
are our notebooks. 16. This is my hat. 17. This is my watch.
18. These are our tickets. 19. These are our scissors. 20. This
is my coat.
Exercise VIII
Translate into English.
1. Построена новая дорога; ее длина более тысячи кило-
метров. 2. Построен новый мост; его ширина около ста
метров. 3. У меня много книг этого поэта; я большой по-
читатель его таланта. 4. Я предпочитаю Крым Кавказу из-
за его более сухого климата. 5. Этот автомобиль очень не-
большой, но мотор у него довольно мощный..6. Я не могу
сейчас ездить на своем автомобиле: у него мотор не в по-
рядке. 7. Чьи эти фотографии? - Мои. 8. Не трогай утюг,
он горячий. 9. Кушайте больше моркови, она очень полез-
ная. 10. Где фрукты? - Они в холодильнике. 11. Это ваша
записная книжка, а это его, но где же моя? 12. На борту
парохода я встретил своего старого друга. Он был также
другом моего брата.
Exercise IX
Translate into English.
1. Вы едете в одном купе, но его место верхнее, а ваше ниж-
нее. 2. Чьи стихи вам больше понравились: его или того
молодого поэта? 3. Он взял ключ соседа вместо своего.
4. Мы поделились с ними своим опытом, а они своим.
5. Результаты показали, что наш план был более правиль-
ным, чем их. 6. Самое лучшее предложение - ваше. 7. Ког-
да вы увидите его, отдайте ему его карандаш. 8. Мы при-
гласили их на наш вечер, и они обещали прийти со своим
учителем. 9. Мать попросила ее принести из комнаты ее
журналы, а она принесла свои. 10. Она заглянула в свою
комнату и быстро вернулась в его. 11. Она вошла в ван-
ную комнату, чтобы вымыть лицо и руки. 12. Он был на
два года старше меня и моей подруги.
Exercise X
Translate into English.
1. Ее дядя был директором школы. - И мой тоже. 2. Я
полагаю, что я прав, думая, что он один из ваших учени-
ков. 3. Его мнение было таким же, как мое. 4. Его англий-
ский был так же хорош, как и их. 5. Том недавно получил
93
письмо от школьного друга. 6. У меня было странное чув-
ство, когда мы говорили о его друзьях. 7. В те дни я редко
видел своего школьного друга и в его присутствии я чув-
ствовал себя неловко, как и он в моем. 8. Сегодня утром
мне звонила по телефону одна из моих племянниц. 9. «Мы
поедем сегодня к нашему другу на вашей машине или на
моей?» - спросила Аня. 10. Он говорит, что он один из
ваших друзей или вы один из его друзей. 11. Я прочту
вам свое сочинение и хочу, чтобы вы прочли мне свое.
12. Я вижу, что у вас нет словаря, я хочу дать вам свой.
13. Я еще не написал свои упражнения. А ваши готовы?
14. Вот ваш портфель. А где мой? 15. Вы еще не показали
мне свой доклад.
Exercise XI
Translate into English.
1. Если вы оставили дома ключ, я могу вам дать свой.
2. Он надел шляпу и пальто и вышел на улицу. 3. Утром
я убираю свою комнату, завтракаю и иду на работу.
4. Если у нее нет с собой зонтика, дайте ей ваш. 5. Наш
секретарь хорошо знает свои обязанности. 6. Вы еще не
сказали мне своего мнения о моей работе. 7. Идет дождь.
Наденьте плащ. 8. Возьмите, пожалуйста, свои деньги, я
могу их потерять. 9. Он признает свои недостатки.
10. Не вмешивайтесь не в свое дело. 11. Он надел шляпу
и вышел. 12. Мы сняли пальто и вошли в комнату.
13. Они не хотят видеть ваши рисунки, они хотят видеть
мои. 14. Вы можете очень хорошо обойтись без моей по-
мощи, но не без их.
Demonstrative Pronouns
The demonstrative pronouns are this (these), that (those),
the former, the latter, such, the same.
The demonstrative pronoun refers to a noun which has al-
ready been used.
This (these) refer to near things, events or persons:
This room is very comfortable.
It is very cold this winter.
94
This (these) are used:
a)	for present or future situations:
Гт going to London this month.
b)	to introduce people or when we introduce ourselves on the
phone:
“Pete, Jhis is Kate."
“Hello? This is Tom speaking. "
That (those) refer to distant things, events or persons:
That boy is my brother.
We haven't been to those places.
That (those) are used:
a)	for past situations:
We had a wonderful Christmas that year.
b)	to refer back to something mentioned before:
“She failed her exam. " - “That 's too bad. "
c)	when speaking on the phone to ask who the other person
is:
“Hello? This is Ann. Who's that speaking?"
Both this (these) and that (those) are used as adjectives and
pronouns:
This is the student that I was looking for.
The former is used for the first of the two, the latter for the
second of the two:
Newton and Faraday were two great English scientists, the
former lived in the 17th century, the latter in the 19th century.
Such means “so great” or “of that kind”.
It was such a funny story!
The same is always used with the definite article:
It is all the same to me.
We were in the same form.
A demonstrative pronoun may be used instead of a noun
to save repetition:
Compare these maps with those on the blackboard.
95
0 EXERCISES
Exercise I
Use the necessary demonstrative pronoun in the following
sentences.
1.... book is mine. 2.1 prefer... flower to ... one. 3. My English
dictionary is better than ... of yours. 4.... is the film we saw last
year. 5. ... will do! 6. Try one of... pens. 6. The music of the
“Queen of Spades” is more dramatic than ... of the “Eugene
Onegin”. 7. The stories by O’Henry are as full of life as... written
by Mark Twain. 8. Natural rubber is of higher quality than ...
produced artificially. 9. “... depends on the new timetable,” said
one of the pupils. 10. Their poetry was not ... of Byron and
Shelley.
Exercise II
Use that or those for the repeated noun.
1. The trees in our garden are taller than the trees in the park.
2. The climate of Moscow is better than the climate of
St Petersburg. 3. At our factory these are few machines similar
to the machines described in this magazine. 4. The price of tin
is higher than the price of copper. 5. Read my letter and the
letter of my sister. 6. Look through these magazines and the
magazines received before. 7. Correct the mistakes made in my
composition and the mistakes in your composition. 8. Copy
the figures written in this list and the figures written in that list.
9. The vase on the shelf is more beautiful than the vase on the
table. 10. The medicine given me by your doctor has helped me
much better than the medicine given me by my mother.
Exercise III
Use one of the demonstrative pronouns in the following sen-
tences.
1. She gave the ... answer as before. 2. What do you want me to
do with...? 3. Do you see... bushes on the other side of the river?
4. Well, ...’s exactly what I did. 5. Don’t be in ... a hurry. 6. I
believe you but there are... who wouldn’t. 7.... is what I thought
last year. 8.1 can’t find all the books you asked me for. I put... I
found on your desk. 9. ... is what I want you to do. 10. I have
divided the books into two piles. ... are to be kept. ... are to be
sold. 11.1 have had ... a busy morning. 12. My seat was next to
... of John’s mother. 13. “One can’t compare Chopin’s waltzes
96
with ... of today,” she said. 14. My services,... as they are, are at
your disposal.
Exercise IV
Complete the sentences as in the given models.
Model I: Give me another envelope. I don’t like this (that) one.
Give me some other pencils. I don’t like these (those).
Or: Will you kindly show me another dress? This
one won’t do. That one won’t do.
Let’s choose a hat in another department...
Just sing another song, will you? ...
Let’s listen to some other tunes ...
Model II: This is my dictionary and that one is yours.
These are my books and those are not mine.
This is your cup of tea ...
These are your sandwiches ...
There are my friend’s gloves ...
This is my sister’s bag ...
Exercise IV
Translate into English.
1. Климат Италии лучше климата Англии. 2. Ваши ошиб-
ки хуже ошибок, сделанных вашим другом. 3. Он всегда
приходит сюда в то же самое время. 4. Таков был резуль-
тат их спора. 5. В этот момент я увидела моего друга в зале.
6. Он говорил ей о своей работе в больнице, а она расска-
зала ему, что она делала в тот день в институте. 7. Я занят
в данный момент. 8. Эта книга моя, а та ваша. 9. В те пер-
вые августовские дни у меня было мало дел на работе.
10. Это такой интересный роман! 11. В тот день я был бо-
лен и не ходил на лекции в университет. 12. Эти туфли мне
не подходят. Дайте мне те, пожалуйста. 13. Читайте тот же
самый текст, пожалуйста. 14. У меня никогда не было та-
кой работы. 15. Зима в Англии более мягкая, чем зима на
континенте. 16. Запах розы приятнее, чем запах лилии.
17. Не трогай те игрушки, возьми игрушки в углу. 18. Мне
нравятся такие маленькие города, как этот. 19. У нее длин-
ные вьющиеся волосы. Я никогда не видел такие красивые
волосы. 20. Я принес вам последние новости. Это самые
важные новости.
4 Н. Утевская
97
Exercise VI
Translate into English paying attention to the use of personal
and demonstrative pronouns.
1. Чьи это туфли? - Это мои туфли. 2. Кто-то заглянул в
комнату. Это был мой сосед. 3. Когда я впервые увидел его,
это был еще совсем молодой человек. 4. Куда вы положили
деньги? - Они в кошельке, на полке. 5. Вы помните ее? Она
была очень веселая девушка. 6. Это были самые красивые
розы, какие я когда-либо видел. 7. Я получил все сведения,
которые вы мне послали. Они очень интересны. Но это еще
не полные сведения. 8. На столе было много фруктов: они
были в красивых вазах. 9. Что с вашими часами? - Они от-
стают на 5 минут. 10. Посмотрите, кто это? - Это один из
наших студентов. Я его где-то видел. - Наверное на сорев-
нованиях; это один из наших спортсменов. - Да, теперь я
узнаю, это он. 11. Кто там? - Откройте, это я.
Exercise VII
Translate into English.
1. Много лет тому назад в этом доме была библиотека.
2. Посмотрите на маленький дом с зеленой крышей на том
берегу реки. 3. Они скоро едут в Польшу. Они думают,
что им придется пробыть в этой стране около года. 4. Он
был в Китае несколько лет тому назад, но в то время он
еще не знал китайского языка. 5. Это мои тетради, а это
ваши. 6. Я не хочу ему звонить по телефону сейчас. Он
всегда обедает в это время. 7. Возьмите эти журналы на
столе, но не берите те журналы на полке. 8. Как называ-
ются эти предложения? 9. Какого цвета те обои? 10. Это
был 1810 год. В те дни в нашей стране не было железных
дорог. 11. Это письмо от моего старшего брата, которого
я не видел полтора года. 12. Все эти проблемы много раз
обсуждались, но ни одна из них еще не решена.
Interrogative Pronouns
Interrogative pronouns who, whose, whom, what, which are
used to form special questions.
Who, what, whose, to whom, whom are used when asking
about persons:
Who lives in this house?
98
Whom did you speak to?
Whose dictionary is this?
What is Mary? - Mary is an engineer.
Which is used when asking about a particular thing:
Which of the two stories do you prefer?
Which is the tallest building in Moscow?
What is used when asking about things in general:
What happened last week?
0 EXERCISES
Exercise I
Fill in the blanks with the pronouns who, whom, whose, what,
which'.
1. ... sleeps in this room? ... cap is it? ... did you meet there?
2.... is your sister?... game do you prefer, tennis or volleyball?
3. ... brother is Boris? ... is he by profession? 4. On ... days do
you take English lessons? ... day is more convenient for you,
Tuesday or Wednesday? 5. ... will help me? ... of these girls is
the youngest? 6. ... is your telephone number? ... pencil is this
Peter’s or Helen’s? 7.... are you drinking? ... understands this
rule? 8. ... trees grow in your garden? ... of you must I thank
for this? 9.... gloves are these? They are mine ... ? 10.... shoes
do you want to buy? 11. ... of these cakes may I take?
Exercise II
Insert interrogative pronouns:
1.... colour is it to be, blue or violet? 2.... do you think can be
entrusted with this task? 3. ... are your intentions for the
summer? 4.... turn is it now? 5.... is speaking? 6.... can I do for
you? 7.... does he do? Is he a lawyer? 8.... are you laughing at?
9.... problem are you working at now? 10. We serve coffee and
tea... would you like? 11.... of you did it? 12.... would you like
to see as your assistant?
Exercise III
Put questions to the words in bold type.
1. They are talking about the new opera. 2. They are talking
about their friends. 3. I have bought it for you. 4. He looked
99
for his bag. 5. I am looking at him. 6. They are talking about
the international situation. 7. They are painters. 8. He is waiting
for me. 9. That book is mine. 10. These boys are my brothers.
11. I rang up my sister. 12. The handbag is made of leather.
13. The man asked for a cup of tea. 14. He has bought a gold
watch. 15. He dictated the letter to the secretary. 16. This
telegram.is from my sister. 17.1 spoke to the director about it.
18. The director’s office is on the third floor. 19. The height of
this building is one hundred metres. 20. This is my brother’s
dog.
Exercise IV
Translate into English.
1. Кто оставил словарь на столе? 2. Кого из них вы спра-
шивали об этом? 3. Кого вы ждете здесь? 4. На каком эта-
же вы живете? 4. Что мы будем писать сегодня: диктант
или грамматические упражнения? 5. Какой месяц самый
холодный в Москве?. 6. Какой язык вы знаете лучше: анг-
лийский или немецкий? 7. Что вы предпочитаете: чай или
кофе? 8. О чем вы разговаривали, когда я вас встретил?
9. Кому вы дали свой словарь? 10. Какой из этих рассказов
самый короткий?. 11. Какого цвета эти обои? 12. Чья эта
тетрадь? 13. Что вы думаете по этому вопросу?. 14. Кто
этот молодой человек? Он студент. 15. Что вы хотите: сыр,
масло или печенье? 16. Кто изобрел радио? 17. Какие жур-
налы вы купили? 18. Кто знает адрес нашего учителя?
19. Кого вы спрашивали? 20. Кто из нашей группы напи-
сал диктант без ошибок?
Relative Pronouns
Relative pronouns who, whose, whom, which, that introduce
attributive clauses.
Who and whom are used when referring to persons and ani-
mals:
The boy who is speaking to me now was my pupil before.
The first girl whom I saw was Alice.
Whose is used when referring to persons, animals or things:
Those trees whose branches are long look lovely.
100
Which is used only when referring to animals or things:
Where is the article which you have translated?
That is used instead of which. It may refer to persons and
things:
It is the most interesting book that I have ever read.
The student that wrote the letter was his friend.
As is used as a relative pronoun after same and such and
may refer to living beings and things:
I have the same opinion as you have.
Note. The relative pronoun is sometimes omitted as being
understood:
This is the student I told you about. (This is the student
that I told you about).
EXERCISES
Exercise I
Fill in relative pronouns.
1. Do you know the man ... wrote this letter? 2. The magazine
... you gave me is very interesting. 3. The street... leads to the
station is very wide. 4. The doctor ... she visited told her to
stay in bed. 5. The man ... you want to see has ju^t left. 6. This
is the student... book you found. 7. The girl... you see at the
door is my sister. 8. He returned to his desk and dialled the
number ... he knew by heart. 9. She came into a room in ... a
child was sleeping and drew the curtains. 10. Often they
discussed things about ... he knew nothing. 11. He was the
architect of this very house... we live in now. 12. The telephone,
... was on a side table, suddenly rang out. 13. A friend of mine,
... was present at the meeting, told me all about it. 14. Is the
man with ... you spoke a writer? 15. He will be glad of any
help ... you can give him. 16. This is the only example ... I can
tell you. 17. Yesterday I met my brother ... showed me a letter
... he had received from our parents. 18. My youngest sister,
... you met at my house last week, has just got married. 19. He
has three sons, ... all work at the same factory. 20. The
militiaman ... I asked for the way to the hotel was a very polite
man.
101
Exercise П
Fill in relative pronouns.
1. The man ... has just come in is our neighbour. 2. The
woman ... you see in the office is waiting for the manager.
3. The young man ... application you have just read is a well-
known chemist. 4. The girl... I have spoken about will be here
in an hour. 5. The dog ... is running along the street has evi-
dently lost its master. 6. Your pet... you want to punish does
not deserve it. 7. The album ... is lying on the shelf contains
many nice sketches. 8. Often they discussed things about... he
knew nothing. 9. In the dark and the cold of the morning they
drove out the country road through the mist ... hung heavy
over the flat. 10. It was pleasant to walk among the trees ...
leaves were of many colours. 11. They reached the street in ...
she lived. 12. The room in ... I found myself was very large.
13. The person ... you said was waiting is gone. 14. The student
... book you borrowed wishes to have it back.
Exercise III
Translate into English.
1. Это моя подруга, которую вы вчера видели со мной в
кино. 2. Пассажир, чемодан которого лежал рядом, ска-
зал, что место занято. 3. Я еще не проверила диктант,
который вы вчера писали. 4. Я не знаю никого, кто жи-
вет в этой квартире. 5. Это та собака, которую мы виде-
ли в цирке. 6. Девушка, о которой он говорил вам, сест-
ра моего приятеля. 7. Студент, которому я одолжил свой
словарь, принесет его завтра утром. 8. Это самая инте-
ресная книга, которую я когда-либо читал по этому воп-
росу. 9. Мы прошли мимо комнаты, дверь которой была
открыта. 10. Он помог нести мой чемодан, что было
очень любезно с его стороны. 11. В лесу было уже много
деревьев, листья которых были совсем желтые. 12. Это
та книга, которую вы ищете? 13. Человек, которого мы
встретили в коридоре, директор нашей школы. 14. Он
был единственным учеником, который написал этот дик-
тант с ошибками.
Exercise IV
Translate into English.
1. Книга, которую вы мне дали вчера, очень интересная.
2. Как фамилия человека, с которым ты только что раз-
102
говаривал? 3. Это дом, в котором я жил в детстве. 4. Он
показал мне прекрасную картину, которую он недавно
купил. 5. Вчера я встретил своего старого друга, кото-
рого я сразу не узнал. 6. Человек, который только что
звонил, просил вам кое-что передать. 7. Адрес, по кото-
рому я написал, оказался неправильным. 8. Он один из
самых интересных людей, которых я когда-либо встре-
чал. 9. Это письмо от моего старшего брата, которого я
не видел полтора года. 10. Дерево, из которого сделана
эта мебель, очень твердое. 11. Поезд из Москвы, кото-
рый должен прибыть в 5.30, опаздывает.
Conjunctive Pronouns
Conjunctive who (whose, whom), which, what introduce sub-
ject, predicative and object clauses:
Who locked the door remains a mystery, (subject)
I don 7 know who these children are. (object)
He is clever and witty, but that is not what I value him for.
(predicative)
0 EXERCISES
Exercise I
Analyse the pronoun in bold type and say whether they are
conjunctive, relative or interrogative.
1. He felt like one whose dream has come true, but too late.
2. He knew what was happening, of course. 3. He was the
architect of this very house that we live in now. 4.1 remember
you mentioned Wednesday and Friday. Which day shall we
go to the cinema? 5. Ask him which of these books he will
take. 6. The library is in the house which stands at the corner.
7. Whom did you give your book? 8. The man whom you see
in the classroom is our teacher. 9. The question is what he will
tell us. 10. My friend whom you saw yesterday is a good doctor.
11. I am not sure which of my brothers will meet me at the
station. 12. The man whom I have spoken about will be here
in an hour.
103
Exercise II
Fill in conjunctive, relative or interrogative pronouns.
1. h.'am I speaking to, please? 2.1 don’t care ... he says to me. I
know I’m a real artist. 3. They reached the street in ... he lived.
4. “My shoulder hurts,” I said. “... shoulder?” I touched my
left shoulder. 5. He was late, ... made her angry. 6. He got up
from the sofa on ... he was lying, and went into the dining-
room. 7.1 don’t know... dress you would like more. 8.1 am not
sure ... voice it is. 9. The book ... is lying on the shelf contains
many nice stories. 10. The cat... is lying in the street has evidently
lost the way home. 11.1 don’t know ... of the answers is right.
12. From ... did you receive a telegram? 13. There is the man ...
we saw in the park yesterday. 14. The boy told his mother... he
had met at the shop. 15. The last thing ... any of us wants is
breakfast.
Exercise III
Use interrogative or conjunctive pronouns in the following
sentences.
1. They had brought few books with them ... she hadn’t read.
2. You’re one of the few people ... I’d like to know better.
3. “... of the two of them is right?” he asked me. 4. I don’t
honestly see ... I can do about it. 5. That is the worst news ...
we’ve ever had from you. 6. ... do we call the sea between
England and France? 7. ... pronoun is always written with a
capital letter? 8. Looking at him she wondered ... sort of small
boy he had been. 9. ... cost more money, ready-made clothes
or tailor-made clothes? 10. There had grown between them an
understanding ... reguired no words. 11. ... other things did
you buy? 12. Now ... you see all the family together tell me ...
you think of us. 13. It is for you to decide ... is to speak to the
chief. 14. ... quality do you admire in a man?
Exercise IV
Use the relative or conjunctive pronouns.
1. The room in ... I found myself was large and cosy. 2. I did
not remember to ... I lent the book. 3. I did not know ... to
think of it. 4. The person... you said was waiting is gone. 5. She
wanted to know ... he was supposed to do. 6. Please bring me
the pencils... points need sharpening. 6. Tell me... you are going
to do tomorrow. 7. Please tell me ... way he will come. 8. He
crossed the street, and sat on one of the iron benches ... were
104
placed under the trees. 9. Everyone... you know is out of town.
10. The militiaman ... I asked at once told me the way. 11. At
this house I met my cousin, ...wanted to see me. 12. I gave a
lump of sugar to Tom’s horse,... is very fond of sweets. 13. He
gave me the directions ... I needed. 14. Tell me ... you have
written. 15.1 ran into a young man ... I had not noticed.
Reflexive/Emphatic Pronouns
	1st Person	2nd Person	3rd Person
Singular	myself	yourself	himself herself itself
Plural	ourselves	yourselves	themselves
Reflexive pronouns are myself, yourself himself herself
itself ourselves, yourselves, themselves.
Reflexive pronouns are used arter certain verbs (behave,
burn. cut. enjoy, hurt. kill, look at. laugh at. introduce, dry.
teach etc.) when the subject and the object of the verb are the
same:
He taught himself how to drive.
Reflexive pronouns can be used after be. feel. look, seem
to describe emotions or states:
He doesn 7 seem himself these days.
Such verbs as wash, shave. (un)dress, afford, complain, meet,
rest, relax, stand up. get up. sit down, wake up etc.:
He got up and shaved.
But when we talk about children or animals we can use
a reflexive pronoun with wash or dress'.
Гт teaching my son how to wash himself
Emphatic pronouns have the same form as reflexive pro-
nouns but a different meaning. They emphasize the noun, or
the fact that one person, and not another, performs an ac-
tion:
He himself painted this picture.
They also mean “without help”:
She fixed the leak 'herself
105
Note these idioms: Enjoy yourself! (=Have a good time!)
Behave yourself! (=Be good!) I like being by myself. (=1 like
being alone.) She lives by herself. (=She lives on her own) By
myself, by yourself, by himself etc. (=on my own, on your
own, on his own etc) Help yourself to coffee. (=You’re wel-
come to take some coffee if you want some) Do it yourself.
(=Do it without being helped) Make yourself at home! (=Feel
comfortable) Make yourself heard. (=Speak loudly enough
to be heard by others) Make yourself understood. (=Make
your meaning clear)
0 EXERCISES
Exercise I
Use reflexive or emphatic pronouns in the following sentences:
1. We enjoyed ... at the dance. 2. Why is she sitting all by ...
in the dark? 3. I closed the door behind .... 4. All day the
children were beside... from excitement. 5. “Sit down, Peter,”
she said, seating ... in a chair opposite him. 6. You can speak
to him .... 7. She opened the door to him .... 8. She wrote the
words to them .... 9. At two o’clock I was cooling ... in the
lake. 10. Did you invite him...? 11.1 looked at... in the mirror.
12. I will ask him ... . 13. They told me the news ... . 14. She
will answer the letter ... . 15. My brother wanted to help us,
but we decided to try to do it... without his help. 16. She fell
down and hurt.... 17. “My child!” said her mother ... “Look
at...!” And she held up her hand mirror. 18. We are back and
have enjoyed ... very much. 19. I’ll see him ... tomorrow.
20. She wrote this and other poems to them ... . 21. They
found ... in a strange place.
Exercise II
Use reflexive or emphatic pronouns in the following sentences.
1.1 liked having lodgings of my own, where I could be by ... .
2. I found ... doing nearly all the talking. 3. She looked in the
mirror and could not recognize .... 4. Sit down and make ... at
home. 5. She had made ... very unpopular. 6. The boat was
expected between the eighth and tenth of August. I allowed ...
to sit gazing out to sea in the hope that it would appear before
time. 7. I thought what a pretty girl she was ... . 8. He had
injured .... 9. What do you suggest ...? 10. The pupils ...
106
decorated the hall with flowers and garlands. 11. During the
break the children amuse... in the playground. 12. John... wrote
and posted the letter. 13. We protect... from the rain with an
umbrella. 14. I ... was to blame. 15. You said so .... 16. He
settled ... as comfortably as he could.
Exercise III
Translate into English.
1. Я сам отвечу на это письмо. 2. Он не любит говорить о
себе. 3. Они хотели это сделать сами. 4. Ваш отец сам был
здесь. 5. Он очень много рассказывал нам о себе. 6. Я ос-
тавлю эту книгу для себя. 7. Она сама принесет вам кни-
гу. 8. Он ходил туда и все видел сам. 9. Пусть дети дела-
ют домашние задания сами. 10. Если он занят, я могу
пойти в театр одна. 11. Когда она была готова, она по-
смотрела в зеркало. 12. Он часто разговаривал сам с со-
бой. 13. В тот вечер они должны были обедать одни.
14. Они предпочитали пить чай одни, а после чая играли
в шахматы. 15. Вернись, мой мальчик, и закрой дверь.
Двери сами не закрываются. 16. Я сама могу вам дать
свою фотографию. 17. Кофе был готов. Она налила себе
чашку и села за стол. 18. Он удивлялся самому себе.
19. Не брейтесь в темноте. Вы можете порезаться. 20. Он
храбро защищался.
Exercise IV
Translate into English.
1. Я сама увижу его завтра. 2. Затем ей самой захотелось
что-то сделать. 3. В тот вечер она была сама доброта.
4. Были такие моменты, когда ему было чрезвычайно жал-
ко самого себя. 5. Он слишком много о себе думает. 6. Он
страшно упрекал себя за свое поведение в тот вечер. 7. Он
был недоволен собой. 8. Они сделали это не для себя, а для
своих товарищей. 9. Молодой человек ничего о себе не ска-
зал, и мы не знали даже имени своего спасителя. 10. После
болезни она слишком слаба, чтобы заботиться о себе.
11. Мы увидели перед собой красивое лесное озеро. 12. Она
хочет это сделать сама. 13. Я очень удивлена, что он так
себя вел. 14. Не беспокойтесь. Я сам отнесу письмо на по-
чту. 15. Они очень много рассказывали нам о себе. 16. Вы
сами видите, что вы неправы.
107
Reciprocal Pronouns
There are two kinds of these pronouns: each other and one
another.
The first is used when speaking about two persons, the se-
cond, when more than two are meant. In the sentence they have
the function of an object:
The boys helped each other.
The children friendly played with one another.
3 EXERCISES
Exercise I
Complete the following sentences using either each, other or
one another.
1. The workers stood in a line and handed heavy parcels to ....
2. All of us put down ... telephone numbers. 3. Without saying
a word, my friend and I nodded to .... 4. Before the ascent all
the sportsmen were fastened to .... 5. When my fellow-student
and I met again we recognized ... at once. 6. When a company
of former classmates met they could not recognize ... .
7. The two friends exchanged ... photos. 8. My friend and his
guest sat down opposite.... 9. When parting the former fellow-
students usually put down ... addresses. 10. The members
of our large family live in different towns; though we don’t see
...for years, we keep up correspondence. 11. One was Russian,
the other - Bulgarian, so they could understand ... rather well.
12. The friends kissed and embraced ... . 13. Was it the first
time that you saw...? 14. When they met... they looked at... in
astonishment. 15. The father and the son met... at the station.
16. The two sisters resembled ... very much. 17. The teams
greeted ... warmly. 18. During the interval the pupils ran in the
garden, sang and spoke to .... 19. John and Mary were always
ready to help ... . 20. The students were helping ... to prepare
for the lesson.
Exercise II
Insert each other or one another.
1. The old couple looked at ... . 2. They were red in the face
and found looking at... for a moment. 3. The rest of us looked
at... in amazement. 4. Tom and Mike spoke to ... only about
108
the game. 5. For the next three days neither Pete nor they
spoke to .... 6. The two boys faced .... 7. The two families
don’t know ... . 8. The two stood gazing at... for a minute in
silence. 9. And for a moment they all three stood silently
looking at ... . 10. The twins looking at ... glumly. 11. For a
moment nothing more was said. And then they suddenly smiled
at.... 12. These three ladies disliked and distrusted .... 13. The
twins jumped up and ran round ... . 14. They sat opposite ...,
as they had so offen sat before.
Exercise III
Translate into English.
1. Петя и Лена очень любят друг друга. 2. После школь-
ных каникул школьники были рады видеть друг друга.
3. Все в нашей семье помогают друг другу. 4. Эти два бра-
та никогда не видели друг друга. 5. Они часто ссорились
друг с другом. 6. Они продолжали работать, помогая друг
другу. 7. На секунду их глаза встретились, и они поняли
мысли друг друга. 8. Они знают друг друга два года.
9. Они часто видят друг друга. 10. Когда они встретились
снова, они узнали друг друга. 11. Они обвиняют друг дру-
га, но, вероятно, они оба виноваты. 12. Они часто наве-
щали друг друга. 13. Мы смотрели друг на друга с волне-
нием. 14. Ее дети всегда помогали друг другу. 15. Два
человека кивнули друг другу.
Exercise IV
Translate into English.
1. Хотя они жили на одной и той же улице, они редко виде-
лись друг с другом. 2. Члены нашей семьи живут в разных
городах; хотя мы и не видим друг друга в течение несколь-
ких лет, мы часто пишем письма друг другу. 3. Когда быв-
шие одноклассники встретились, они не узнали друг дру-
га. 4. Мы должны помогать друг другу. 5. Два товарища
посмотрели друг на друга. 6. Когда друзья расставались,
они записали номера телефонов друг друга. Затем они об-
менялись фотографиями друг друга. 7. Мать и сын сидели
напротив друг друга. 8. Они впервые увидели друг друга
несколько лет тому назад. 9. Сестры были очень похожи
друг на друга. 10. Они поцеловались и обнялись друг с дру-
гом.
109
Indefinite Pronouns
Indefinite pronouns refer to things or persons. They are:
some, any, every, somebody, anybody, everybody, someone, any-
one, everyone, something, anything, everything, each, all, both,
several, either, (the) other, (the) others, another, one.
Note. Some, any and every with -body and -one are used when
speaking of persons, with -thing - when speaking of things:
Is anybody there? (a person)
I have to tell you something, (a thing)
I.	Some and its compounds are used
1)	in positive sentences:
I have bought you some good books.
Someone entered the room.
Something has happened to him.
There is somebody in the garden.
2)	in interrogative sentences when we want to make an offer,
or request or when we expect a positive answer:
Will you help me with some money?
Could I have some tea?
II.	Any and its compounds are used
1)	in interrogative and negative sentences, in indirect ques-
tions and in adverbial clauses of condition:
Is anybody absent today?
I didn ’t bring anything.
Are there any pictures in the book?
If you have any doubt, tell it to me.
2)	in positive sentences in the meaning of всякий, любой:
You may ring me up at any time.
III.	Every and each. Every is used with singular countables.
It refers to a group of people or things and means all, every-
one, everything etc.:
Every student must know this rule.
He recognized everybody.
Everyone took part in this meeting.
Each is used with singular countables. It means one by one,
considered individually:
Each pupil in the class has an English dictionary.
110
	Positive		Interrogative
	some	any	any
-thing	something что-то, что-нибудь	anything все, что угодно	anything что-то, что-нибудь
-body -one	somebody someone кто-то кто-нибудь	anybody anyone всякий, любой	anybody anyone кто-нибудь, кто-либо
-where	somewhere где-то куда-то	anywhere где угодно, куда угодно	anywhere где-нибудь, куда-нибудь
	Negative		Positive/Negative Interrogative
	not...any	no	every
-thing	not... anything ничего	nothing ничего	everything всё
-body -one	not... anybody not... anyone никто	nobody никто	everybody everyone все
-where	not... anywhere нигде, никуда	nowhere нигде, никуда	everywhere везде, всюду
IV.	All refers to more than two people or things. It has a positive
meaning and takes a verb in the plural. It is the opposite of
none'.
All the passengers went ashore.
All + that-clause means everything and takes a singular verb:
All that he said was lies.
V.	Both refers to two persons or things. It has a positive meaning
and takes a verb in the plural. It is the opposite of neither.
Both my friends are good sportsmen.
Ill
VI.	Several denotes some, a few'.
We had to repeat the words several times.
VII.	Either has two meanings
1)	one or the other:
You can take either book you see on the table.
2)	both:
Here are new houses on either side of the street.
Note. Every, each and either are singular and require a verb
in the singular:
Everybody was present.
It was a peak-hour and every trolleybus was full.
Either is able to do this sum.
Either of takes a verb either in the singular or plural:
Either of them have/has promised to help me.
VIII.	Other and another. Other may be used as an adjective
and as a noun. Plural form others', possessive case other's,
others':
Give other examples, please!
Some students were present, others were missing.
Another means
1)	a different one:
Please give me another book.
2)	an additional one:
Give me another piece of cake, please.
IX.	One has the function of a noun and of an adjective. It
can have the possessive case (one's) and the plural form
(ones)'.
One must always keep one's word.
One morning I came to the university very early.
One in the function of a noun is used
1)	to replace the noun which has just been mentioned:
Take my pen. - Thank you, I've got one.
2)	in the meaning of everyone, anyone'.
One should always observe the traffic rules.
112
Negative Pronouns
Negative pronouns express refusal of something positive.
They are no, no one, none, nobody, nothing, neither.
1.	No has the character of an adjective:
She has no money.
2.	No one and nobody refer to human beings:
Nobody has told me about it.
No one knew this rule.
3.	None resembles a noun. It is used when speaking about
persons and things:
None of them is my friend.
Is there a telephone in the room? - No, there is none.
4.	Nothing refers to names of objects:
I saw nothing interesting there.
5.	Neither is the opposite of either.
Neither book interested me.
Neither is used before singular countables. Neither was
present. It refers to two people or things.
Neither of takes a verb either in the singular or plural:
Neither of us is/are rich.
1И EXERCISES
Exercise I
Insert some or any.
1. We certainly don’t want... trouble. 2. There is ... soup in the
pan. You may eat it. 3. But there aren’t... trains until morning.
4. Why do you always ask if there’s... news. 5. His mother bought
... notebooks for him. 6. She looked everywhere for matches but
could not find ... 7. “Have you ... money?” - “Yes.” - “Give me
....” 8. Ann is much younger than ... other girls in her class. 9. If
you have ... news, call me back. 10. There is hardly ... place in
this house where we can talk alone. 11. They understood each
other without ... words. 12. You have ... fine flowers in your
garden. 13. Go and ask him for... more paper. I haven’t... in my
desk. 14. Later we had ... tea. 15. He wants ... more pudding.
113
16.... time ago I read this story in a magazine. 17.1 don’t think
there is ... milk left in the jug. 18. Are there ... mistakes in my
dictation? - Yes, there are... 19. What kind of fruit do you prefer?
- I like ... kind. 20. There is ... wine left in the bottle. 21. He
found ... new expressions in the book.
Exercise II
Insert some, any or no.
1. There are... matches left. We must buy.... 2.... student can
answer the question. 3. Are there ... illustrations in that book?
4. He puts ... sugar in his coffee. 5. He wants more milk. Give
him ... . 6. Can you give me ... more information? 7. Do you
want... apples? Here are ... ripe ones. 8. If you find ... money
on the floor, it is mine. I dropped ... this morning. 9. Please
give me ... pudding. -1 am sorry, but there is ... pudding left.
10. There is ... butter on the table, but there is ... milk. 11. Will
you buy ... stamps forme, please? 12. If you have ... questions
to the lecturer, write them down and hand in. 13. When I
needed help, he didn’t ask ... questions. 14. Are there... apple-
trees in your garden? 15. Have you got ... lessons tomorrow
morning? 16. Give me ... time to think about it. 17. My
grandmother does not watch ... programmes on TV. 18. Have
... more ice-cream. - Thanks, I don’t want ... more. 19. He
can answer ... question on the subject. 20. What book shall I
bring you? - ... you like.
Exercise III
Insert one of the compounds in some, any or no.
1. At the party you’ll see... you haven’t met yet. 2. Will there be
... at the club so early? 3. I’m not going to see him because
I have ... important to report. 4. I was late. I found ... in the
house. 5.1 am expecting ... at twelve o’clock. 6.1 think there’s
... wrong with my watch. 7. Is there ... at home? 8. The door-
bell rang but there was ... there. 9.1 know ... at all. 10. ... can
become a member of the club by paying a subscription.
11. When we get there it may be too late to do .... 12. ... has
been here before us. 13. “Why don’t you say...?” he demanded.
14. In the winter he lived without doing.... 15. This is my affair
and ... else’s. 16. Can’t you do ... by yourself now? 17. I took
care to ask him ... about his own doings. 18. Will you bring ...
with you or will you come alone? 19.... has any right to interfere
in this matter. 20. If... delays you, you must let me know.
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Exercise IV
Insert some, any, no, none or compound pronouns.
1. If you have ... against me, speak out. 2. There is ... familiar
in his voice. 3. The scientist was in ... need of an interpreter.
4. Is ... the matter with you? - ... is the matter. 5. Get off at
the next stop and there ... will show you the way. 6. If you
need ... money, you must get... out of the savings bank; there
is hardly ... in the house. 7. We looked for a taxi, but there
was ... around. 9. Should ... interesting turn up, give me a
ring at once. 10. You are not expecting ... to call, are you?
11. Why the crowd? Has ... happened? 12. What book shall I
bring you? - ... you like. 13. ... doctor will tell you that it is
harmful to your health. 14. Shall I help you to ... fruit? 15. It
was clear that ... had happened. 16. ... has any right to
interfere in this matter. 17. He looked at my pictures and he
didn’t say ... .
Exercise V
Insert some, any or their compounds.
1. If there’s ... you want, let me know. 2. You may have ... tea
without milk because there isn’t ... at home. 3. It’s a subject
you must know... about. 4. Now, can you tell me... about your
children? 5.1 did not want to speak to ... I know here. 6. Don’t
you remember ... about this afternoon? 7.1 will be very much
surprised if... is wrong. 8. He knows a great deal more than ...
of us about these machines. 9.There’ll be ... coffee in a minute.
10. If... man wants to raise a beard, let him. 11. Has ... been
here to see me? - Yes,... has left a note. 12. Do you see... on the
shelf? 13. Does ... lie on your table? 14. ... special happened
yesterday. 15. Why didn’t you ask ... to help you? 16. If ...
happens ring me up immediately. 17. He asked the secretary
whether there was... waiting for him. 18. You can get this book
at... bookshop. 19. You may come at... time that is convenient
to you. 20. Will you have ... to eat?
Exercise VI
Translate into English paying attention to the use of some,
any, no and their compounds.
1. Я вижу какую-то записку на нашем столе. Что, кто-ни-
будь заходил? 2. По-моему, в статье есть кое-какие ошиб-
ки. Вы не заметили? - Я пока ничего не заметил. 3. Я ниче-
го не могу вам сказать. Спросите у кого-нибудь еще. 4. Я
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не вижу ничего подходящего для себя на витрине; не може-
те ли вы показать мне что-нибудь еще? - К сожалению,
ничего больше не могу вам сейчас предложить. Зайдите в
любой день на следующей неделе. 5. Он вам ничего не рас-
сказал? А ему есть что рассказать: я думаю, что он за это
время повидал больше, чем любой из нас. 6. Никто мне
ничего не говорит. Может быть, вы мне что-нибудь скаже-
те? 7. Я вижу чей-то мокрый зонтик в передней. Кто-ни-
будь пришел? 8. Не даст ли мне кто-нибудь из вас свои за-
писи? 9. Возьмите чьи угодно записи и посмотрите лекции,
которые вы пропустили. 10. Я слишком устал, чтобы за-
ниматься сейчас чем-нибудь серьезным. 11. Давайте встре-
тимся в какой-нибудь другой день. В среду у меня совсем
не будет времени. 12. На столе есть масло? - Да, есть.
13. Если вам нечего делать, идите гулять. 13. Мы никого
не знали на этом вечере. 13. Она ничего не видела, так как
в комнате было темно. 14. Никто из детей еще не встал.
15. Сегодня в вашем диктанте нет ошибок. 16. Я буду у
себя в кабинете, если вам что-то понадобится. 17. Вам уда-
лось найти какие-нибудь статьи по этому вопросу? 18. Мы
что-нибудь можем для вас сделать? 19. Папа, ты освобо-
дился? Я хочу тебе что-то сказать. 20. Вам предложили про-
честь некоторые интересные статьи в этом журнале?
Exercise VII
Translate into English paying attention to the use of some,
any, no and their compounds.
1. Я ходил на почту и купил марок и конвертов. 2. В этом
журнале нет иллюстраций. 3. Если у вас есть книги по это-
му вопросу, принесите их, пожалуйста. 4. Почему он не
принес мне воды? Я просил его принести, так как я очень
хочу пить. 5. Кто-то оставил дверь открытой. 6. Звонил
мне кто-нибудь? 7. Не можете ли вы рассказать мне что-
нибудь о жизни этого писателя? 8. Если вы найдете что-
нибудь интересное в этом журнале, пришлите мне его, по-
жалуйста. 9. Любой из вас может это сделать. 10. У меня
нет времени, чтобы пойти туда. 11. Если у вас будет сво-
бодное время, посмотрите этот фильм. 12. Вы говорили с
кем-нибудь об этом? 13. Он ничего не знает об этом.
14. Вы можете застать его здесь в любой день между пя-
тью и шестью. 15. Не можете ли вы дать мне бумагу? Я
хочу написать письмо. 16. Есть ли английские журналы в
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нашей библиотеке? 17. Есть ли вопросы к докладчику?
18. Он, конечно, ответит на любой вопрос. 19. Я еще не
предупредил об этом некоторых из моих друзей. 20. Часть
работы будет сделана завтра. 21. Могу я сыграть все, что
я хочу?
Exercise VIII
Insert each or every.
1. The two little girls held his hands one on ... side. 2. There
was... kind of news in the paper: accidents, sports and politics.
3. The bedrooms were all the same, ... with a window and
a door. 4. Tom did four more variants of the speech, ... of
which his teacher praised highly. 5. There were four students in
the room, and I gave a ticket to ... of them. 6. There are new
houses on ... side of the street. 7.... big plant has its polyclinic.
8. ... pupil was asked to name his favourite writer. 9. At ...
lesson they were shown different pictures. 10.... week we have
English lessons. 11. Have you seen ... of her two sisters?
12. Here are two houses. You may go to ... of them. 13. She
always knew what ... of us would like best. 14. ... change of
season, indeed ... hour of the day, makes some change in the
wonderful colours of these mountains. 15. She searched ...
corner but found nothing. 16. Two boys entered. ... was
carrying a suitcase.
Exercise IX
Insert every, each or either or compound pronouns.
1. ... day he comes here, and ... time he asks me the same
questions. 2. There was a large building on... side of the square,
... having an arched gate. 3. Which would you prefer, this or
that dictionary? - ... will do. Thank you. 4. We will get books
for ... and give a copy to .... 5. He shook hands and had a few
minutes’ talk with... of us. 6. The men and women were coming
from the vinegard,... two of them carrying a basket of grapes.
7. ... minute he stood up and looked through the window. 8. I
remember... house in our street. 9. Two of them could not come,
but ... of them had a valid reason. 10. There are two vacant
rooms in the hotel, you may take ... . 11. They looked at ...
picture in the museum with great interest. 12. There were chairs
on ... side of the table. 13. There were many fine houses on ...
bank of the river.
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Exercise X
Choose between all, every and each to use it in the following
sentences.
1. I have ... book he has ever written. 2. He shouted her name
twice... time banging his fist on the table. 3. He had been brought
up by a mother who had taught him that ... pleasure must be
paid for. 4. They did not talk much about what... feared most.
5. That’s the sort of job ... boys like doing. 6. They broke into
little groups; ... had his own wonderful story to tell. 7. ... the
people were cheering loudly. 8. Before he left the classroom he
gave ... boy a task. 9. She had something to say on ... subject.
10. ... the money was spent. 11. ... the family was present.
12. And I had to sit out there with ... eye on me. 13. He has ...
chance to win. 14. He looked at... of us in turn. 15. He didn’t
answer. He had no doubt that she meant... word she said.
Exercise XI
Choose between all and a compound in every to use it in the
following sentences.
1.1 want to hear... they say. 2. She took the initiative and herself
spoke to ... she knew. 3. He couldn’t help noticing how well
dressed... was. 4.1 want... to be happy. 5. Then, to ...’s surprise,
she married someone quite undistinguished. 6. ... who have
studied this issue have come to the same conclusion. 7. She
believed that... was watching her. 8.... of his friends had offered
him his help. 9. Soon... were asleep. 9. The lady laughed heartily
at ... that was said to her. 10. ... felt indignant when he began
hitting the boy with his stick. 11.... were of the same opinion on
this question. 12. We are ... glad to see you. 13.... said the same
thing. 14.... is ready for their departure. 15.... girls like beautiful
things. 16.... he told me was of great interest.
Exercise XII
Translate into English. Pay attention to the use of the pro-
nouns each and every.
1. Каждый школьник знает правила дорожного движения.
2. Она встречала его на катке каждую субботу. 3. Извест-
но, что почти каждый ребенок любит яблоки. Мы дали
каждой девочке и каждому мальчику по яблоку. 4. Каж-
дую неделю я проводил несколько дней в деревне. 5. Он
продолжал смотреть на часы каждые пять минут. 6. Они
прислали мне два билета в Мариинский театр. Каждый
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билет стоил более ста рублей. 7. Каждый студент должен
знать свои обязанности. 8. Каждый из нас должен был вы-
полнить свою работу вовремя. 9. Когда он был студен-
том, он каждый год ездил на юг. 10. Он пожал руку каж-
дому гостю. 11. Он навещает нас каждое воскресенье.
12. Мы встречаемся с друзьями каждое лето на юге.
13. На конференции каждому дали блокнот и ручку.
14. Преподаватель сказал, что каждый из нас должен вни-
мательно прочитать эту статью. 15. Я помню каждый дом
на нашей улице.
Exercise XIII
Use all (all of) or both (both of).
Models: They are wrong.
Both of them are wrong.
They are both wrong.
We saw the film.
All of us saw the film.
We all saw the film.
1. We knew the truth. 2. They were surprised to hear it. 2. You
have been mistaken. 4. Will they be present? 5. We have large
families. 6. We hope to see you again. 7. You will find them
there. 8. Can you come earlier? 9. They were glad to meet you.
10. You could do it much better.
Exercise XIV
Insert other or another and the definite article where neces-
sary.
1. Pete’s wife brought in two big cups, holding one in each hand.
One she gave to Tom and ... to Pete. 2. Finally Jenny said,
“Wouldn’t anybody like some more coffee?” - “I think my
husband could use ... cup,” said Ann. 3. Alec whispered
something from ... side of the table. 4. He spread the magazine
flat on the floor, open so that its pages were on one side and its
paper on ... . 5. There was ... pause. 6. I looked through the
window. Three parachutes opened one after ... in rapid
succession. 7. From one piece of news he went to ..., keeping
the paper well before his face. 8. Mike was taking a short holiday
which he spent in going every night to the theatre in one town
after ... 9.1 will come in ... day to see how they get along with
each other. 10. He entered the room and saw John and Maria
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sitting on the sofa. He looked first at one, then at.... 11. When
it happens, there must be only two persons present beside myself.
One is Mark.... is a man whom I expect here only very seldom.
12. Her two sons were playing in the garden. Ann turned her
eyes from one to ....
Exercise XV
Translate into English using other, others, the other, the others,
another.
1. Этот лист бумаги слишком мал. Дайте мне другой. 2. Я
постучала в дверь, но никто не ответил. Я постучала еще
раз. 3. В понедельник я буду занята. Приходите в какой-
нибудь другой день. 4. Некоторые люди любят кататься
на коньках, другие предпочитают ходить на лыжах.
5. Почему ты одна, где остальные? 6. На другой берег реки
мы перебрались на лодке. 7. Я хотела бы посмотреть ка-
кой-нибудь другой фильм. 8. Несколько наших студентов
остались в университете. Все остальные отправились на
экскурсию. 9. Я увидела свою подругу на другой стороне
улицы и помахала ей рукой. 10. У меня две сестры. Одна
школьница, другая студентка. 11. Дайте мне, пожалуйста,
любой другой словарь. 12. У меня в кармане только одна
перчатка. Где же другая? 13. Не хотите ли еще чашку чая?
14. Уже поздно, не говорите так громко: нужно считаться
с другими.
Exercise XVI
Use the pronoun one in the proper form and, if necessary,
with the required article.
1. They are six in the family. ... you saw are David and Tommy.
2. Brown’s old car is much better than our new.... 3. There are
woollen gloves and leather ... on the shelf. 4. He was rather
pale, and the expression on his face was ... I had never seen
before. 5. “Which girl is Jean?” - “... in the green dress.”
6. “What has happened to all the books?” - “I saw ... on the
table in the hall.” 7. Such ... as you want is very rarely seen.
8. “Have you little ... finished your dessert?” said Ann. 9. Two
more buses came up and pulled in behind the first.... 10. He
has interviewed my friends, - ... I have now and ... who have
been with me in former years. 11. “Which is Helen, the young
... or the old ...?” - “The young ....” 12.... morning he received
a long letter from his friend. 13. My skis may be too small for
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you. Better take George’s ... . 14. Which is my glass here? -
Take ... that is nearest to you.
Exercise XVII
Translate into English using the pronoun one.
1.	Следует быть осторожным, когда купаешься в море.
2.	Никогда не знаешь, что может случиться.
3.	Следует соблюдать правила уличного движения.
4.	Если совершил ошибку, нужно ее исправить.
5.	Телеграмму можно послать по телефону.
6.	Следует всегда держать свое слово.
7.	Прежде чем ехать куда-нибудь, нужно взять билет.
8.	Расписание поездов можно узнать в справочном бюро.
9.	Если работаешь с детьми, нужно обладать большим
терпением.
10.	Нужно много работать, если хочешь достигнуть
хороших результатов в занятиях.
11.	Следует считаться с мнением других.
12.	Нельзя судить о книге, не прочитав ее до конца.
Exercise XVIII
Fill in по, по one or none.
1.1 have invited all of them, but... have (has) come. 2. There is
... doubt that you will cope with this work. 3. That is ... business
of yours. 4. ... was (were) able to understand what he meant.
5. An accident happened, but... great harm was done. ... lives
were lost. 6.... tried to teach her anything. 7.... of us is perfect;
we all make mistakes. 8. ... of us knew how ill she was. 9. I’m
sure you heard it from Mary,... else could tell you that. 10. I
wanted some more coffee but there was ... left. 11. ... of them
knows his duty yet. 12. We had ... to give us accurate
information. 13. ... of us knows how much he has suffered.
14. Of all the girls he phoned ... were at home. 15. During that
time he saw ... who could tell him what had gone wrong.
Exercise XIX
Use both, either or neither in the following sentences.
1. We drove along a wide road with trees on... side. 2. He invited
us..., but I knew he did not want... of us at a family party. 3. The
verandah stretched on ... side of me. 4.1 could hear them ..., but
saw.... 5. These are... very gloomy rooms. I’m afraid ... will suit
me. 6. “Which of the two newspapers would you like?” - “Oh,...
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will do.” 7. She had brown shining hair which hung down on ...
side of her face. 8. “What are you going to have, orange or apple
juice?” - “... I’m not thirsty.” 9. “Tell... your mother and father
that I’m expecting them tonight” - “I’m afraid I won’t see ... of
them today”. 10. “Which job are you going to take?” - “I’m
afraid ... .” 11. There were trees on ... bank. 12. Nick and Tom
are... my friends. But... is in the town now. 13. “What have you
written, a short story or an essay?” - “I’m afraid it doesn’t come
within ... description.” 14. “... the jars, the big one and the small
one, are empty. You can take ... of them.” - “I’m afraid ... will
do.”
Exercise XX
Answer the following questions in the negative using
the negative pronoun neither (speaking of two) or none (speak-
ing of many).
Model: How many books have you sent by post? - None.
Which of the two books have you sent by post? -
Neither.
1.	Whom have you seen: Ann or Pete?
2.	How many exercises has he done?
3.	Which hand have you hurt?
4.	Which stocking of this pair has a hole?
5.	Which of these two poems have you learned?
6.	Which of your fellow-students did you meet on your way
to the university?
7.	Which of these umbrellas do you like?
8.	How many letters have you received from her?
Exercise XXI
Translate into English. Pay attention to the use of the pro-
nouns no, none and their compounds.
1. Она решила никого не приглашать к себе до приезда
мужа. 2. Мы никого не знали на этом вечере. 3. Никто не
разговаривал. Все внимательно слушали лектора. 4. Ник-
то из детей еще не пришел из школы. 5. Ни один журна-
лист не писал об этом. 6. У меня нет времени помочь вам
сегодня. 7. Есть ли телефон в комнате? - Нет. 8. Ни один
пароход еще не вышел из порта. 9. В коробке ничего нет.
10. Оба улыбнулись, но никто из них не заговорил.
11. Никто из них не мог ответить на этот вопрос. 12. Ниче-
122
го не было видно в темноте. 13. Я ему ничего не сказал,
хотя он настаивал. 14. В вазе нет цветов. 15. Ничего осо-
бенного не случилось вчера. 16. Я не нашел ошибок в ва-
шем переводе. 17. От него не получено никаких сведений.
18. Мы ничего не читали об этом.
Much, Many, Little, Few,
a Little, a Few
Much and little are used with uncountable nouns and are
singulars:
We have much coal, iron, steel, oil.
Many and few are used with countables and are plurals:
We are building many new towns, factories, railroads.
In spoken English we do not use many and much in positive
sentences without some adverbs such as: very, too, so or rather.
Instead of many and much in positive sentences we use different
expressions, such as a lot of..., lots of..., plenty of..., a great
deal of... .
Except for a great deal of, they can be used with countables
and uncountables; a great deal of can be used only with
uncountables:
There were lots of interesting books in the bookcase.
There was a great deal of laughter in the rooms.
We have plenty of time to fulfil our work.
In spoken English much and many are usually used in inter-
rogative and negative sentences:
Have you got much work today?
No. I haven 7 got much work today.
When few and little are used without the article, they have
a negative meaning (мало). When they are used with the in-
definite article, they have a positive meaning (немного,
несколько):
There are few books on history in this library.
A few books were on the table.
She eats little bread. Give me a little bread.
Very few/very little are more usual in everyday speech. It is
also common to use only a little, only a few.
Гт very tired because I’ve had very few days’ holiday.
She speaks German quite well but only a little French.
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01 EXERCISES
Exercise I
Insert many, much, little or/evv.
1. ... was said but ... done. 2. Say ... and do ... . 3. Very ...
people know about it. 4.... heard about the book, but... read
it. 5.... is spoken about it, but... believe it. 6. The forces were
unequal, they were ..., we were ... . 7. We shan’t get all into
the car. This one is too .... 8. He has very ... knowledge of the
matter. 9. There isn’t... harm in it. 10. Is there ... milk left in
the jar? - No, there is quite ... milk left there. 11. There were
... people in the streets (2). 12. I haven’t heard ... about this
composer. 13. Hurry up! There is ... time left. 14. She is a
person of... words. 15. How ... exercise-books do you want
me to buy? 16. How ... time does it take you to get to your
office? 17. How ... times did you visit the Russian Museum?
Exercise II
Complete the following using many, much, few or little in the
required degree of comparison.
1. He knows ..., but he knows ... than you. 2. He knows ...
than you, but it doesn’t mean that he knows ... . 3. We need
no ... than five days to complete the work. 4. ... were present;
much ... than you can imagine. 5. The instrument is very
sensitive, the ... noise affects its work. 6. The food did not
look appetizing, to say ... of it. 7. There were ... objections to
the plan, but... part of it was approved of. 8.1 can’t do ... for
you, this is ... I can do, and I think it’s ... than we had planned
before. 9. Take this road, it has ... turns. 10.1 have so ... things
to do that I don’t know which to do first. 11. Nowadays he
was very busy and he couldn’t see ... of his old friends. 12. She
was glad to see me because I was English and she knew ...
English people.
Exercise III
Choose between much and many, (a) little and (a) few to use
it in the following sentences.
1. My sister spends so ... money on her clothes that she has
none left for holidays. 2. He was so busy in the building of his
house that events outside it affected him .... 3. She had slept...
last night and she had a headache. 4. At the bar ... men were
discussing the coming elections in loud voices. 5. Helen returned
124
to England at the moment when... were leaving it. 6. Last week
there was so ... rain that I was not able to go out. 7. There were
... big hotels that were closed but most of the shops were open.
8. How ... is the clock fast now? 9. There was ... time to think.
10. In the last twenty-four hours too ... things had happened.
11. Philip had ... friends. 12. It was a hot day and there were ...
flies in thfc room. 13. There were ... people in the square, but I
did not notice the faces as I hurried past. 14. Martin was ill and
spent so ... time in the hospital.
Exercise IV
Choose between much and many, (a) little and (a) few to
use it in the following sentences.
1. I suggested that he should get ... eggs and some bread.
2. Aunt Mary had ... money while none of the other family had
inherited as ... as a pound. 3. My dear, I’m afraid I have not...
news to convey but still there are... things I should like to add.
4.1 began to miss London: it was not so ... that I had ... close
friends there, for I have ... friends but I missed variety. 5. Nick
has eaten so... that he can’t move. 6. Ann had not had... visitors
lately. 7. He didn’t earn ... money and lived in the country.
8. My father read ... books on economics. 9. I have ... time
to watch TV. 10. He has... work to do this afternoon. 11. Please
give me ... water. 12. There are very ... illustrations in this
magazine.
Exercise V
Choose between little, a little, few, a few.
1. A good speaker can say much in ... words, (few, a few)
2. Could you describe the situation in ... words? (few, a few)
3. Why do you eat so ...? Try ... of everything, (little, a little)
4. The street looked almost deserted. There were ... people in
it. (few, a few) 5. I have only ... things left undone, (few, a
few) 6. He takes very ... trouble with his work, (little, a little)
7. It has given me not ... trouble, (little, a little)! 8. ... did I
know what was in store for me. (little, a little) 9. ... are as
capable at languages as he is. (few, a few) 10. Do you know
the English language? - Just ... . (little, a little) 11. Are there
many mistakes in my composition? - Quite .... (a few, few)
125
Exercise VI
Use a lot (of), lots (of),plenty (of), a great deal (of), a good
deal (of), a great many, a good many.
1. I have got ... work to do for tomorrow. 2. There were ...
flowers in the room. 3. I have got ... valuable information.
4. The boy knows ... on the subject. 5. My brother reads ...
books. 6. She got ... presents on her birthday. 7. He eats ...
sweets. 8. Don’t hurry up. We have... time before us. 9.... people
took part in the conference. 10. He took ... trouble with that
boy.
Exercise VII
Translate into English.
1. Известный русский художник И. Левитан написал мно-
го прекрасных картин. 2. Россия экспортирует много леса.
3. Вы потратили слишком много времени на этот перевод.
4. В библиотеке много английских книг. 5. У нас есть не-
много времени. 6. У меня есть несколько книг по этому
вопросу. 7. Мы пригласили много друзей на день рожде-
ния. 8. Много народу было приглашено, но немногие при-
шли. 9. Об этом сказано мало. 10. Что я могу вам сказать,
если я сам так мало знаю об этом? 11. На улице было мало
детей. 12. Много детей было на концерте в школе.
Exercise VIII
Translate into English.
1. Многое из того, что он сказал, уже обсуждалось рань-
ше. 2. Многие это уже слышали. 3. Мало было сказано,
но много сделано. 4. Мало кто знает об этом. 5. Как все-
гда, он говорил много, но сказал мало. 6. Он сказал, что
прочел много детективных романов во время каникул.
7. К сожалению, у меня мало времени. 8. Много ошибок в
контрольной работе на употребление времен. 9. Многое
из того, что он сказал, было ново для нас. 10. Говорят,
что он написал мало книг, но почти все его книги имели
большой успех. 11. Вы сделали гораздо больше ошибок,
чем другие. 12. Я сделал на три ошибки больше, чем он.
13. На этот раз вы сделали в три раза меньше ошибок,
чем в прошлый раз.
126
The Verb
A verb is a word used to express some action or state:
She sings.
He is very busy.
Verbs are divided into:
1)	simple: to read, to speak, to love etc.
2)	derived (having suffixes or prefixes): to discover, to rewrite,
to blacken etc.
3)	compound (consisting of two stems): to broadcast, to white-
wash etc.
4)	phrasal (consisting of a verb and an adverb or a preposi-
tion): to give up, to come back etc.
The main verbforming suffixes are:
-	en to widen, to strengthen;
-	fy to simplify, to justify;
-	ize to criticize, to organize;
-ate to demonstrate, to separate.
The main prefixes are:
re- to resell, to reconstruct;
dis- to disappear, to disarm;
un- to untie, to unload.
To Be in the Present Simple Tense
Person Number	Positive Form	Interrogative Form	Negative Form
I	am (I’m)	Am I?	I am not (I’m not)
He	is (he’s)	Is he?	He is not (he’s not or he isn’t)
She	is (she’s)	Is she?	She is not (she’s not or she isn’t)
It	is (it’s)	Is it?	It is not (it’s not or it isn’t)
We	are (we’re)	Are we?	We are not (we’re not or we aren’t)
You	are (you’re)	Are you?	You are not (you’re not or you aren’t)
They	are (they’re)	Are they?	They are not (they’re not or they aren’t)
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EXERCISES
Exercise I
Put in am. is or are.
1.1... not quite well today. 2. She ... a painter. Her pictures ...
on the walls. 3. Helen’s brother... a student. 4. They... the most
experienced workers at this factory. 5. She ... not so attractive
as her sister. 6. My room ... the smallest in our flat. 7. ... your
cousin at home? 8. His family ... in London now. 9. ... your
parents at work? - Yes, they ... 10. My granny ... an actress.
11. Where ... my spectacles? - They ... on the table. 12. This
garden ... the most beautiful in our town.
Exercise II
Write sentences using short forms of the verb to be.
Model: I’m busy today (ready to answer your questions,
18 years old, a pupil at a secondary school, your friend, in
the 10th form, late for the meeting).
Model: She’s a pupil (ill, a small girl, good at maths, a nice
woman, fat).
Model: He’s a big boy (at home, twenty-five, able to help us,
our classteacher).
Model: You’re late (strong, my friend, a history teacher, very
angry, right).
Model: He isn’t at home (my friend, a good pupil, at the con-
cert, in the park).
Model: They aren’t my friends (happy, present, at the exam,
in the street, near the metro station).
Exercise III
Write positive and negative short answers.
1.	Is your mother a doctor?
2.	Is your friend a young girl?
3.	Are you a student?
4.	Are your mother and father at work?
5.	Is your dog small?
6.	Are the pupils late for the lesson?
7.	Is the film dull?
8.	Are your teachers kind?
9.	Are they tired?
10.	Is your father a doctor?
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Exercise IV
Translate into English.
1. Мне семнадцать лет. 2. Я в 10 классе. 3. Я интересуюсь
архитектурой. 4. Мой брат - инженер. 5. Он очень устает
после работы. 6. Сейчас он в читальном зале. 7. Вечером
он очень занят. 8. Моя сестра - студентка. 9. Она интересу-
ется искусством. 10. Они дома сейчас. 11. Моя сестра - луч-
шая студентка первого курса. 12. Она очень способная де-
вушка. 13. Наша семья гордится ею. 14. Они лучшие
ученики класса. 15. Он на уроке сейчас. 16. Мы студенты.
17. Мой брат - переводчик.
There Is (Are) Construction
The sentences with there is (are) construction are used to
say that something or someone exists. This construction has
the meaning «есть», «имеется», «находится», «лежит»:
There is a newspaper on the table. На столе газета.
The sentences with there is (are) construction have the fol-
lowing word order:
There is (are)	the subject
an adverbial modifier of place
an adverbial modifier of time
The Russian sentences begin with adverbial modifiers.
Russian
В моей диктовке есть не-
сколько ошибок.
В этом году в лесу много
грибов.
English
There are some mistakes in
my dictation.
There are a lot of mush-
rooms in the forest this year.
Besides the verb to be some other verbs can also be used
after there such as: to live, to exist, to occur, to come, to stand
etc:
There lives an old man in that house.
If there are several subjects in the construction there is (are)
the predicate agrees with the subject that stands first after
the predicate:
There is a table and five chairs in the room.
There are five chairs and a table in the room.
5 H. Утевская
129
Interrogative and Negative Forms
Is there a map in your room?
No, there isn’t (a map in my room).
No, there is no map in my room.
Are there any new words in the text?
No, there aren’t (any new words in the text).
No, there are no new words in the text.
Mind that the sentences: There is a telephone in my room and
The telephone is in my room have different meaning. The first
sentence shows that a telephone is in that place, the second one
shows that the telephone we know is in that place (in my room).
0 EXERCISES
Exercise I
Put the following sentences in the interrogative and negative
forms.
1. There is a blackboard in the classroom. 2. There are some
English books on the table. 3. There are many mistakes in your
dictation. 4. There’s a new grammar rule in this text. 5. There is
a telegram on the table. 6. There are a lot of people in the street.
7. There are some textbooks in the bookcase. 8. There is a new
cinema near my house. 9. There is a university in that town.
10. There is somebody in the room.
Exercise II
Ask questions to the words in bold type.
1. There’s a nice park in our city. 2. There are five chairs in
the room. 3. There are some English textbooks on my table.
4. There are a lot of mistakes in your exercise-book. 5. There
are three mistakes in my dictation. 6. There’s a new cinema
near my house. 7. There are easy exercises in this textbook.
8. There are three rooms in our flat. 9. There is a vase of
flowers on the table. 10. There is a bookcase in the corner of
the room.
Exercise III
Translate into English.
1. В Москве много красивых зданий. 2. В центре Москвы
находится Кремль. 3. В нашем городе много исторических
130
памятников. 4. В Санкт-Петербурге много университетов и
школ. 5. У меня на столе интересная книга. 6. В этом уроке
мало грамматических правил. 7. Недалеко от нашего дома
есть новая школа. 8. В этом тексте есть новые слова. 9. У
него в диктанте нет ошибок. 10. На том столе много журна-
лов? - Нет, только два. 11. В этом журнале есть много инте-
ресных статей. 12. На этом столе много русских и англий-
ских книг.
Exercise IV
Translate into English.
1. В этой коробке лежат карандаши. 2. В аудитории две-
надцать стульев. 3. В вашей группе 12 или 14 студентов?
4. Что висит на стене? 5. В этом шкафу лежат английские
или русские книги? 6. Какая бумага лежит на той полке?
7. Сколько карандашей в коробке? 8. Сколько комнат в
вашей квартире? 9. Сколько окон в вашей комнате?
10. Сколько стульев в аудитории? 11. Сколько страниц в
этом учебнике? 12. Сколько детей в группе у этого препо-
давателя? 13. На вашей улице много новых домов? 14. В
вашем учебнике много картинок? 15. В вашем классе есть
книжный шкаф? 16. Что лежит в этом книжном шкафу?
То Have in the Present Simple Tense
Person Number	Positive Form	Interrogative Form	Negative Form
I	have (got) (I’ve got)	Have I got?	I have not got (haven’t got)
He	has (got) (he’s got)	Has he got?	He has not got (hasn’t got)
She	has (got) (she’s got)	Has she got?	She has not got
It	has (got) (it’s got)	Has it got?	It has not got
We	have (got) (we’re got)	Have we got?	We have not got
You	have (got) (you’re got)	Have you got?	You have not got
They	have (got) (they’re got)	Have they got?	They have not got
131
They fve got a lot of English books.
Have you got a large family?
Do/Does + Have
I. In questions and negative sentences we can use do/does +
have when we speak about regular actions:
Do you have much time for your lessons? - No, I don 7 have
much time for them.
Does she always have much work to do?- She doesn’t always
have much work to do.
IL When the verb to have is used in a number of actions and
has other meanings than to possess. For example:
to have dinner (breakfast, supper)
to have tea (coffee)
to have a lesson
to have classes
to have a bath (a shower)
to have a holiday
to have a good time
to have a rest etc.
In questions and negative sentences it also takes the auxiliary
verb to do:
What time do you usually have dinner?
We don’t have classes every day.
Й EXERCISES
Exercise I
Write sentences using the following models.
Model I: I’ve got a family.
I haven’t got a family.
Have you got a family?
A son, a brother, a friend, a mother, a father, skis, skates, an
English textbook, a Russian magazine, a question*.
Model II: I have dinner at three.
Do you have dinner at three?
I don’t have dinner at three.
To have breakfast, to have a bath, to have classes, to have a
dictation, to have one’s English.
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Model III: I’ve got a cold now.
I don’t often have colds.
Time, work, English classes, a dictation, a test.
Exercise II
Put these sentences in the interrogative and negative forms,
a) 1. Ann has got a family. 2. Jane has got a lot of relatives.
3. I’ve got a cousin. 4. My children have got a lot of friends.
5. The boy has got a cold now.
b) 1. They have their English in the morning. 2. They often have
a dictation. 3. He has dinner in the afternoon. 4. The children
have a rest in summer. 5. They have tea or coffee for breakfast,
c) 1.1 often have a lot of work to do. 2. I’ve got a lot of work
to do today. 3.1 usually have a cup of tea for breakfast. 4. I’ve
got a camera. 5. They’ve got a lot of flowers in the garden.
Exercise III
Ask questions to the following sentences.
1. They have two little rooms. 2. She has few books at home.
3. He has a nice film. 4. We have little bread. 5. We have young
teachers at the university. 6. They have a lot of good English
books at home. 7. This room has two windows. 8. He has good
friends at school. 9. We have guests tonight. 10. They have
a nice little daughter.
Exercise IV
Translate into English.
a)	1. У меня есть интересная книга о художниках. 2. У мое-
го друга много русских книг, но у него нет английских книг.
3. У вашего друга большая или маленькая семья? 4. Сколь-
ко детей у вашего друга? 5. У моей сестры двое маленьких
детей.
b)	1. Когда вы обычно завтракаете? 2. Я обычно пью кофе
на завтрак. 3. Вы обедаете сегодня поздно? 4. У кого есть
вопросы? - У меня есть один вопрос. 5. Сегодня у меня нет
времени обсуждать этот вопрос с вами.
с)	1. У вас вечером много времени, чтобы приготовить до-
машнее задание по английскому языку? 2. У вас сегодня
много работы? 3. Дайте мне, пожалуйста, журнал, у меня
сейчас есть время, чтобы прочитать эту статью. 4. Вы час-
то простужаетесь? 5. Вы простужены сейчас?
133
Exercise V
Translate into English.
1. У меня есть два брата. 2. У моего друга есть собака.
3. У меня есть время, чтобы заниматься английским язы-
ком. 4. У моего отца есть новая машина. 5. У моих друзей
есть новый телевизор. 6. У кого есть ручка? 7. Какие уро-
ки у вас сегодня? 8. У вас есть сегодня занятие по англий-
скому языку? 9. У вас много друзей в школе? 10. У меня
новый компьютер.
The Use of Tenses
Simple Tenses
The Present Simple Tense
It is formed from the infinitive without the particle to.
Person Number	Affirmative Form	Interrogative Form	Negative Form
I	work	Do I work?	I do not work (don’t work)
He	works	Does he work?	He does not work (doesn’t work)
She	works	Does she work?	She does not work
It	works	Does it work?	It does not work
We	work	Do we work?	We do not work
You	work	Do you work?	You do not work
They	work	Do they work?	They do not work
Pronunciation and Spelling Rules
The 3rd person singular is pronounced:
after voiceless consonants	after vowels and voiced consonants	after -s, -z, -ss, -sh, -ch, -x
s]	[z]	[iz
he asks	he begins	he closes
he writes	she reads	he teaches
Note 1. The 3rd person singular of the verb to say (says)
is pronounced [sez].
134
Note 2. The 3rd person singular of the verbs to go and
to do is to go - goes [gauz] to do - does [dAz].
Note 3. Verbs which end in -y preceded by a consonant
change у into i and add -es [z] in the 3rd person singular:
I cry - he cries, I carry - he carries.
But: I play - he plays (because -y is preceded by a vowel here).
The Present Simple is used:
1.	to state simple facts in the present:
I live in St Petersburg.
She is a student.
We study English.
2.	to state laws of nature and the permanent truths:
It snows in winter.
Snow melts at OP C.
3.	to denote usual or repeated actions in the present:
They get up at 8.
On Sundays we stay at home.
4.	to denote actions taking place at the present moment of verbs
not used in continuous form:
I don 7 see what you are doing.
Now I hear you perfectly well.
5.	a) to denote future actions if they are planned beforehand
with verbs of motion: to go, to come, to start, to leave, to return,
to arrive, to sail, to fly, and when we are talking about timetables
and programmes:
I go to Moscow next week. They start on Sunday.
The train arrives in Washington at 3 p.m.
b) in advervial clauses of time and condition, referring to
the future, after the conjunctions: when (когда), until, till (до
тех пор пока... не), as soon as (как только), as long as (пока),
before (прежде), after (после), if (если), unless (если не),
in case (в случае), on condition that (при условии), provided
that, providing that (при условии):
I will go there unless it rains.
We will send you the documents as soon as we receive them.
Note. In object clauses introduced by the conjunctions when
and if the Future Indefinite is used to denote future actions:
I don 7 know when she will come. Ask him if he will do it at all.
135
We generally use the Present Simple with the following time
expressions: every day /week/month/уear, usually, often, always,
rarely, never, sometimes, in the morning/evening/afternoon, at
night, on Mondays.
EXERCISES
Exercise I
Put the verb in brackets into the Present Simple.
1. We (to begin) our work today. 2. He always (to read) newspapers
in the library. 3. My sister (to attend) English classes. 4. The child
(to show) us his drawings. 5. Let her go home now. Classes (to be)
over. 6. Every morning she (to hurry) to the university. 7. Father
(to come) home from the factory at 6 o’clock. 8. My son (to do)
his lessons every evening. 9. The teacher (to give) us English
magazines. 10. The students (to take) books from the library.
11. He always (to do) exercises attentively. 12. My sister (to look)
through the morning newspapers every day.
Exercise II
Open the brackets using the Present Simple.
1. The Strait of Dover ... the British Isles from the continent
(to separate). 2. The main English rivers not ... rapidly (to
flow). 3. The Thames ... only nine miles from the eastern bank
of the Severn (to begin). 4. The west wind sometimes ... rise to
the danger of flooding (give). 5. If you ... to the west of the
Pennine Chain, you will enter the most beautiful part of
England, the Lake District (to go). 6. Where ... the beautiful
lake Windermere ... (to lie)? 7. The most northerly town of
England, Berwick ... at the month of the Tweed (to stand).
8. When you ... in London, take as many photos as you can
(to be). 9. The ship ... for London in a few days (to leave).
10. I was listening in last night. Suddenly the bell... and I ...
my friend’s voice: “Hurray! I am going to England!” (to ring,
to hear). 11. What... one ... if one is shortsighted (to use)?
Exercise III
Write the following sentences in the interrogative and nega-
tive forms.
1. We listen to the radio every day. 2. He tells us about his
work and studies. 3.1 read a page of some English book every
136
day. 4. My sister helps me to do my homework. 5. The librarian
helps us to choose books for home reading. 6. We listen to his
lectures on Sundays. 7. We speak English well. 8. My sister
plays tennis. 9.1 learn new words every day. 10. She has dinner
in the afternoon. 11. They play the piano well. 12. Those foreign
students speak Russian.
Exercise IV
Ask wh-questions to the words in bold type.
1. I work at an office. 2. We usually have our English in the
evening. 3. They often speak English in class. 4. We write a lot
of sentences on the blackboard. 5. After my English I go to the
office. 6. You read English books at home. 7. We read, write
and speak English during our lesson. 8. We have dictations very
often. 9. After classes I go home. 10. My friends read many
English books. 11. I sometimes give Peter my exercise-books.
12. They usually go to the office in the morning.
Exercise V
Put the verb in brackets into the correct form.
1.	What time ... (evening performances/begin) in
St Petersburg?
2.	What... (you/do)? - I am a teacher.
3.	Where ... (you/go) after classes?
4.	How often ... (you/have) dictations?
5.	Where ... (your brother/work? - He ... (work) at
the factory.
6.	My sister ... (know) English well, but she ... (not/know)
French.
7.	What kind of books ... (you/read)?
8.	How many times a week ... (you/have) English classes?
9.	He has a computer but he ... (not/use) it very often.
10.	My friends ... (not/live) in St Petersburg, they ... (live) in
Moscow.
Exercise VI
Translate into English using the Present Simple.
1. Мой друг изучает два иностранных языка. 2. Какие книги
вы читаете? 3. Во время урока мы читаем, пишем диктанты,
делаем упражнения и разговариваем по-английски.
4. Вы разговариваете по-английски или по-русски со своим
преподавателем? 5. Обычно мы говорим по-английски, иног-
137
да по-русски. 6. Кто дает вам английские книги для чтения? -
Мой преподаватель. 7. Какие журналы вы любите читать?
8. Каждое утро мой друг приезжает в Санкт-Петербург, а ве-
чером уезжает домой. 9. Он всегда вовремя приходит на ра-
боту. 10. Когда вы обычно приходите домой с работы?
11. Что вы делаете по вечерам? - Я прихожу домой и делаю
домашние задания. 12. Как часто вы готовите уроки вместе
со своим другом? Два, три раза в неделю.
Exercise VII
Translate into English using the Present Simple.
I. 1. Я работаю в одном крупном учреждении. 2. Мой ра-
бочий день обычно начинается в 8 часов утра. 3. Я встаю,
делаю утреннюю зарядку, умываюсь и завтракаю. 4. Пос-
ле завтрака я иду на работу. 5. Так как я живу близко от
места работы, я обычно иду туда пешком. 6. Я занят на
работе с 9 часов утра до 6 часов вечера. 7. Я также учусь. Я
занимаюсь на подготовительных курсах. 8. У нас занятия
в понедельник, среду и пятницу. 9. Занятия начинаются в
18:30 и заканчиваются в 21:30. 10. Вечером, когда у меня
нет занятий, я немного читаю, смотрю телепередачу или
слушаю радио. 11. Иногда я хожу на прогулку или наве-
щаю своих друзей. 12. В 12 часов я обычно ложусь спать.
II. У меня есть друг. Его зовут Николай. Его родители
живут не в Москве. Они живут в Киеве. Николай занима-
ется спортом. Он учится в Московском университете. Он
завтракает в столовой университета. Поэтому он уходит
из дома в 8 часов. Чтобы дойти до университета, ему необ-
ходимо 15-20 минут. Иногда после занятий он ходит в биб-
лиотеку, где он читает книги и просматривает газеты.
The Past Simple Tense
According to the way in which the Past Simple and Participie II
are formed, verbs are divided into 1) regular verbs and 2) irregular
verbs.
The regular verbs form the Past Simple and Participle II by
adding -ed or -d to the infinitive of the verb:
to open - opened, to translate - translated;
-ed and -d are pronounced in three different ways:
a)	[id] after -t and -d:
to act - acted
to land - landed;
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b)	[d] after voiced consonants, except -J, and after vowels:
to open - opened, to stay - stayed, to die - died',
c)	[t] after voiceless consonants, except -t:
to look - looked, to work - worked.
Spelling Rules
1.	The final consonant letter is doubled if it follows a single
vowel in a stressed syllable:
to nod - nodded	to permit - permitted
to stop - stopped	to refer - referred
to stir - stirred	to compel - compelled
2.	The final -I is doubled even in an unstressed syllable:
to travel - travelled to cancel - cancelled
3.	In some words the final -p is doubled in an unstressed syllable:
to kidnap - kidnapped to worship - worshipped
4.	The final -y is changed to -i if it is preceded by a consonant:
to cry - cried	to reply - replied
The irregular verbs form the Past Simple Tense and Partici-
ple II in a different way:
to be - was - were - been
to begin - began - begun
to write - wrote - written
to meet - met - met
to lie - lay - lain etc.
Person Number	Affirmative Form	Interrogative Form	Negative Form
I	spoke (played)	Did I speak? (play?)	I did not (didn’t) speak (play)
He	spoke (played)	Did he speak? (play?)	He did not speak (play)
She	spoke (played)	Did she speak? (play?)	She did not speak (play)
It	spoke (played)	Did it speak? (play?)	It did not speak (play)
We	spoke (played)	Did we speak? (play?)	We did not speak (play)
You	spoke (played)	Did you speak? (play?)	You did not speak (play)
They	spoke (played)	Did they speak? (play?)	They did not speak (play)
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The Use of the Past Simple Tense
The Past Simple Tense is used:
1.	to denote past habit or state:
He went to school on foot.
2.	to denote a complete action or event which happened at
a stated past time:
She rang me up an hour ago.
3.	to denote past actions which happened one after the other:
He got up, dressed and had breakfast.
4.	to denote an action which happened at a definite past time
although the time is not mentioned:
Shakespeare wrote a lot of plays.
Note. Besides the Past Simple Tense there are two other
ways of expressing habitual actions in the past:
a) by means of the form used 4- the infinitive.
Used to expresses past habits, regularly repeated actions
in the past or past states:
Some years ago she used to call on me.
The negative construction of used to is formed in one of
two ways; didn’t use to or used not to:
He didn’t use to call on me on weekdays.
He used not to call on me on weekdays.
The interrogative form is did (he) use to:
Did he use to play tennis when he was a child?
b) by means of the verb would 4- the infinitive.
Would expresses regularly repeated actions in the past. It
isn’t used for states:
When he was a student he would spend his vacation moun-
taineering.
He used to live in the country (not would-state).
The Past Simple Tense is used with the following time expres-
sions: yesterday, the day before yesterday, a week ago, last night,
last week, last month, last year, an hour ago, in 1970, when etc.
0 EXERCISES
Exercise I
Use the Past Simple instead of the infinitives in brackets.
1. He (to stay) at the University after classes. 2.1 (to know) all
the words very well. 3. She (to study) English at school. 4. She
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(to write) the letter to her friend. 5. Some years ago she (to live)
in the country. 6. She (to make) an interesting report last week.
7. Last year he (to work) at the factory. 8. Yesterday we (to go)
home by metro. 9. It (to take) me half an hour to get home.
10. We (to see) a very interesting film a week ago. 11. She (to
be) very busy but she (to find) time to help us. 12. He (to do)
the translation without a dictionary. 13. Last night we (to watch)
a hockey match on TV. 14. She (to leave) for England the day
before yesterday. 15. I (to do) my best to finish the report in
time. 16. He (to finish) his design last night. 17. It (to take) me
some years to master English.
Exercise II
Use the Past Simple instead of the infinitives in brackets.
1. She (to cut) the cake and (to put) a large piece on my plate.
2. He (to look) at her for a moment with surprise. 3. My friend
(to switch on) the wireless and (to sit down) beside it. 4. She
(not to smile) when she (to see him). 5. On the way home she
usually (to buy) a loaf at the baker’s. 6. Three o’clock (to strike),
and four, but he (not to come). 7. When he (to arrive) he
(to find) the patient to be a small boy of nine years of age. 8. A
quarter of an hour later he (to hear) voices. 9. On the fifteenth
of October Tom (to set out) alone for London. 10. His train
(to arrive) in London at one o’clock, and he (to go) to the hotel
and (to have) a bath and a sleep. 11. The stranger (to climb)
into his car and (to drive away), and when he (to notice) later
that his speedometer (to show) seventy-five, he (to laugh) at
himself but (not to slow down). 12. When he (to leave) in the
morning he (to take) her photograph with him.
Exercise III
Write the following sentences in the negative form.
1. They had their breakfast at the university dining-room.
2. He wanted to go to Moscow during the holidays. 3. Our
English class began at 10 o’clock. 4. Last night I got a letter
from my parents. 5. My sister tried to write the letter in
English. 6. She made a report last week. 7. It snowed hard
last week. 8. Dark clouds appeared in the sky. 9. He did the
translation without any difficulty. 10. Yesterday I skied in
the country. 11. First spring flowers appeared in the fields in
April. 12. The weather was fine and cloudless the day before
yesterday. 13. The students went on an excursion last week.
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14. My brother left for England last year. 15. Last summer
we spent the holidays in the Crimea.
Exercise IV
Ask yes/no and wh-questions.
1. We listened to the latest news over the radio. 2. The meeting
began at 3 o’clock. 4. My father went to London last week.
5.1 got up late yesterday. 6. We spent the holidays in the country
last summer. 7. It was pleasant to bathe in the river in summer.
8. There were a lot of leaves on the ground in the park. 9. We
went in for skating last winter. 10. He worked hard at his English
last year. 11. They studied at the library after classes. 12. They
passed entrance examinations last summer. 13. We entered
the technical school last year. 14. He attended the hockey club
last year.
Exercise V
Ask wh-questions to the words of bold type.
l.He was in Moscow last week. 2. My friend wrote to me very
often last year. 3. They were at their office yesterday morning.
4. Our students read a lot of English books last year. 5. He took
his son out on Monday evening. 6. The students usually went
home after classes. 7. We decided to ask our friends to dinner.
8. Yesterday my friends came to see me in the evening. 9. I got
home late yesterday evening and went to bed at once. 10. The
meeting finished at 6 o’clock.
Exercise VI
Complete the sentences with used to ... .
1.	She ... my best friend but we aren’t friends now.
2.	When I was a child I... a lot of sweets but I don’t like them
now.
3.	They ... in a small village but now they live in Kiev.
4.	She ... long hair but she cut it some time ago.
5.	I... tennis when I was a child but I stopped doing it now.
6.	I’ve started drinking coffee. I never ... it before.
7.	I... alone but now I live with my relatives.
8.	My brother... a lot but these days he doesn’t go away very
often.
9.	She ... hard when she was in the junior forms.
10.	I... the piano a lot but I have no time now.
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Exercise VII
Replace the Past Simple Tense in the following sentences by
used to or would.
1.	He was a lecturer at the university.
2.	She lived in that house when she was young.
3.	There was a small house here, but now there is a new
factory.
4.	In her childhood Mary drank a glass of milk every morning.
5.	Peter was very fat.
6.	Grandmother always grumbled.
7.	Helen was often late for work.
8.	I had very good eyesight.
Exercise VIII
Translate into English using the Past Simple.
1.	Я встретила его вчера. Мы боялись опоздать на поезд.
К счастью, на углу нашей улицы мы увидели такси и
приехали на вокзал вовремя.
2.	Летом я вам не писала, так как потеряла ваш адрес.
3.	На прошлой неделе я написала ей два письма, но ответа
не получила.
4.	Когда вы перевели эту трудную статью?
5.	Что вы делали вчера: переводили статью или писали
сочинение?
6.	Когда моя сестра была здорова, она всегда сама шила
платья себе и мне.
7.	В прошлом году она сшила мне очень красивое платье.
8.	Прошлым летом мы посетили много музеев.
9.	Вчера я не могла прийти домой вовремя, поэтому я
пообедала в столовой.
10.	Когда вы получили это письмо? - Вчера утром.
Exercise IX
Translate into English using the Past Simple.
1.	Вы смотрели вчера вечером фильм по телевизору? - Да.
2.	Вам он понравился? - Не очень.
3.	Что ты делала в выходные дни? - Я была у друзей.
4.	Ты записал вчера лекцию на магнитофон? - Да.
5.	Твой друг поступил в университет в прошлом году?
6.	Как вы провели каникулы в прошлом году?
7.	Когда вы приехали?
8.	Где ты был вчера вечером?
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9.	Когда ты ходил в Третьяковскую галерею последний
раз?
10.	Куда вы ездили прошлой весной?
Exercise X
Translate into English using the Present Simple or the Past
Simple.
1. Он улыбнулся, когда увидел своего приятеля в окне ва-
гона. 2. Он говорит, что не помнит многих подробностей
в романе, так как читал его еще в детстве. 3. Этой книги
уже нет в продаже. Жаль, что я не купил ее на прошлой
неделе. 4. Кажется, он очень интересуется химией? - Да,
он интересовался ею еще в школе. 5. Почему вы не при-
шли за книгой, когда я вас просила? 6. Я сержусь на вас
за то, что вы были так невнимательны вчера. 7. Она оста-
лась в гостинице, т.к. у нее болела голова, а мы отправи-
лись осматривать город. 8. Наша библиотека снабжает
студентов всеми нужными им книгами. 9. Несколько ве-
ков тому назад не было поездов, машин и трамваев, люди
путешествовали в каретах. 10. В юности я, бывало, часто
ходил на охоту с отцом. 11. Жаль, что он не хочет вос-
пользоваться такой прекрасной возможностью. 12. По его
улыбке я понял, что ему приятно услышать эти новости.
13. Когда я был студентом, я обычно обедал в студенче-
ской столовой. 14. Я очень вам благодарен за то, что при
встрече вы напомнили ему об этом. 15. Латынь сейчас
мертвый язык, но четыре века тому назад она была меж-
дународным языком.
The Future Simple Tense
shall/will + Infinitive
Person Number	Affirmative Form	Interrogative Form	Negative Form
I	shall/will work (I’ll work)	Shall/will I work?	I shall/will not work (I shan’t/won’t work)
He	will work	Will he work?	He will not work
She	will work	Will she work?	She will not work
It	will work	Will it work?	It will not work
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Person Number	Affirmative Form	Interrogative Form	Negative Form
We	shall/will work	Shall/will we work?	We shall/will not work
You	will work	Will you work?	You will not work
They	will work	Will they work?	They will not work
The Future Simple Tense is used to show that an action will
take place in the future:
She will take her exams in spring.
He will ring you up and tell you everything.
In present day English the tendency is to use will in the first
person singular and plural:
I will be there tonight.
Will is often used with these words and expressions:
probably
I’m afraid
Гт sure
I bet
I think
I suppose
I quess
III probably come home late.
Гт afraid III be a little late.
Гт sure you’ll like my friend.
Г bet Ann 11 get the prize.
I think you 11 win the match.
I suppose you 11 see Pete at the meeting.
I quess we 11 meet next week.
The Future Simple is used with the following time expres-
sions: tomorrow, next week, next month, next year, in two days,
in a month, the day after tomorrow etc.
Note. The Future Simple is not used
1. in adverbial clauses of time and condition referring to
the future introduced by the conjunctions: when, while,
till, until, before, after, as soon as, if, unless, in case (that),
on condition (that), provided (that), providing (that). In
such clauses the Present Simple Tense is used instead:
When she comes, ask her to type the letter.
2. for a planned future actions with verbs of motion:
to come, to start, to leave, to return, to arrive, to sail, to fly
and when we are talking about timetables, programmes
the Present Simple is used:
We leave at six, arrive in Paris at midnight.
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QI EXERCISES
Exercise I
Write the following sentences in interrogative and negative
forms.
1. There will be a lot of people at the meeting tomorrow.
2. The talk will be very interesting. 3. He will go with us if he
has time. 4.1 will have to stay at home this evening. 5. He will
be out tomorrow afternoon. 6. She will probably come today.
7. We shall be very busy tonight. 8. On my day off I will write
letters. 9. On Monday you will be busy in the evening. 10. We
will go to the exhibition next Sunday. 11.1 will finish the work
in two days. 12. They will have to get up early tomorrow.
Exercise II
Ask yes/no questions and wh-questions to which the words
in bold type are the answers.
1. They will be glad to see you. 2.1 will meet them again in two
days. 3. We shall see your friend tomorrow. 4. My brother will
be on leave in May. 5. She will keep in mind my request. 6. She
will not allow her children to play on the road. 7.1 will give her
a valuable present. 8. He will go to the post office to send
a telegram to his mother. 9.1 will be a second year student next
year. 10. Tomorrow they will be far from here. 11. It will rain
hard in the afternoon. 12. In the Caucasus you will see high
mountains and beautiful lakes.
Exercise III
Replace the infinitive in brackets by the Future Simple or
the Present Simple.
1. The delegation (to start) for London as soon as they
(to receive) their visas. 2. At the travel bureau they (to tell) you
exactly when the train (to leave). 3. I (not to think)
I (to be able) to call on them and (to say) good-bye before
I (to go) abroad. 4. If you (not to want) to climb the tree, you can
shake it and the apples (to fall) down to the ground.
5. When I (to go) to Moscow I usually (to stay) at my friends’.
6. Ask him when he (to finish) packing. 7. Ask her if she
(to come) to the party alone or her sister (to come) too. 8. If she
(to come) to the party alone and there (to be) nobody she
(to know), she (to feel) lonely. 9. The milk (to be) fresh a long time
if you (to put) it in the refrigerator. 10. Ask the flower-girl how
146
much money I (to have) to pay if I (to take) all the flowers.
11. Ask the teacher if we (to study) according to the old timetable
or a new one (to be) ready when we (to begin) to study. 12.1 think
we (to leave) for Chicago sooner than we thought.
Exercise IV
Use the Present Simple or the Future Simple instead of the
infinitives in brackets.
1.	I (not to work) any more today; I (to stay) with you.
2. Now I (to tell) you a secret if you (to promise) not to tell
anyone. 3. Of course it can’t last, but when it (to come) to an
end it (to be) a wonderful experience for him. It really
(to make) a man of him. 4. When you (to be) in the sanatorium
it (not to seem) so bad, I (to be) sure. 5. In a minute I (to join)
you, my friend. 6. You don’t think it (to rain), do you?
7.1 (to think) of you day and night. 8. You (to stay) in Rome
long? 9. Why, we (to work) all night and (to finish) everything
tomorrow. 10. I think we (to leave) for Paris sooner than we
thought. 11. I expect we (to see) a lot of each other. 12. She
knows that if she (to come) she (to have) a chance of a happier
life than she has had. 13. If you (to mention) her name again,
I (to be) very angry with you. 14. It (not to be) so long till we
(to be) together and then it (not to be) so hard for him.
Exercise V
Use the verbs to go (to bed), to sweep and to invite in the
Present Simple or in the Future Simple.
1.	I will switch off the radio when you ... to bed. I will get up
in time if I ... to bed early. May I ring you up at eleven?
When ... you ... to bed tonight? - I have got much work
to do, so I don’t know if I ... to bed at eleven as usual.
How can I know when I... to bed?
2.	If you ... the floor, it will be quite clean. Will you kindly
look for my needle, when you ... the floor tomorrow? It’s
nine o’clock already. When ... you ... the floor? She will be
so busy tomorrow; she doesn’t know when she... the floor.
She asks me if I... the floor tomorrow morning.
3.	Though I don’t feel well, I ... come friends of mine to the
housewarming party. When will you ... them, I wonder? It
is not settled yet when I... them. I’ll be glad to see Ann if
you... her to your housewarming party. I am eager to know
if you ... the Browns too.
147
Exercise VI
Complete the sentences using the Present Simple or the Fu-
ture Simple.
1. We will go home after... 2. You must repeat the rule until...
3. When the water is really hot... 4. They will keep quiet while
... 5.1 will inform them about it as soon as ... 6. Close the door
quietly when ... 7. I will be ready by the time you ... 8. Don’t
lock the door in case ... 9. Nobody knows when ... 10. It is
difficult to guess when ... 11. You’ll catch a cold if... 12. You
won’t catch the train unless ... 13. Ask him when ... 14. Ask
your teacher if... 15.1 can’t do anything unless ...
Exercise VII
Complete the following using the Present Simple or the Fu-
ture Simple.
1.1 will accompany you with pleasure as soon as ... 2. The per-
formance will be a great success if... 3. As soon as the meeting
starts ... 4. If this time is convenient for you ... 5. We will not
complete the work this week in case ... 6. Dinner will be served
before... 7. When the tourists come to the camp... 8. If she keeps
her promise ... 9. You will be in my way if ... 10. The expe-
riment will be carried out as soon as ... 11. When you turn into
that alley... 12. As soon as it begins to freeze... 13. Unless you
look at this picture at some distance ... 14. I will remind you
of your promise in case ... 15. The dentist will pull out the tooth
if ... 16. If you work hard ... 17. I think everything will be
clear when... 18. You will finish your report soon on condition
that...
Exercise VIII
Translate into English.
1. Я подожду, пока он окончит свой рассказ, а потом по-
прошу его ответить на мой вопрос. 2. Я с ним поговорю,
когда он придет, но я не уверена, придет ли он сегодня.
3. Я не знаю, когда я получу от нее ответ, но как только я
получу его, я немедленно вам позвоню. 4. Если вы будете
работать усердно, то вы скоро кончите работу. 5. Я зайду
к вам перед тем, как уеду из Москвы. 6. Я дам вам знать,
как только получу письмо от него. 6. Я поговорю с ним об
этом, когда я его встречу. 7. Он будет брать уроки англий-
ского языка два раза в неделю. 8. Как только моя сестра
приедет, я пошлю тебе записку; если ты будешь свободен,
148
ты придешь повидаться с ней. 9. Когда мы поедем в Крым,
я буду много купаться в море. 10. Мне будет очень жаль,
если вы не примите участия в экскурсии. 11. Лучше посо-
ветоваться с врачом, прежде чем вы дадите согласие на эту
поездку.
Exercise IX
Translate into English.
1. Если вы выучите новые слова, вы хорошо напишите дик-
тант. 2. Я вам буду очень благодарен, если вы мне поможе-
те перевести эту статью. 3. Я думаю, все станет ясно, как
только мы получим от него письмо. 4. Если она позвонит
и нас не будет дома, спросите ее, зайдет ли она к нам вече-
ром. 5. Если вы возьмете такси, вы успеете встретить бра-
та. 6. Как только вы его увидите, спросите его, когда он
уезжает. 7. Если вы доберетесь до лагеря первыми, ждите
нас. 8. Как только вы приедете в город, приезжайте ко мне:
в доме достаточно места для всей вашей семьи. 9. Я буду
вам очень благодарен, если вы напомните брату о его обе-
щании. 10. Он обещал достать мне несколько книг, как
только я начну работать над статьей. 11. Я уверен, что все
полюбят ее, как только она начнет работать с нами. 12. Я
не смогу прийти к тебе сегодня, если мне придется остать-
ся здесь после работы.
Exercise X
Translate into English.
1. Интересно, когда они вернутся. 2. Вы сразу узнаете Тома,
как только увидите его. 3. Если вы встретите Аню, попро-
сите ее поторопиться. 4. Она будет очень рада, когда встре-
тит вас там. 5. Я не помню, когда они возвращаются.
6. Если он опоздает, мы уйдем без него. 7. Я дам вам эту
книгу, при условии, что вы ее скоро вернете. 8. Вы не буде-
те знать английский язык, пока не начнете усиленно рабо-
тать. 9. Когда станет темно, мы зажжем свет. 10. Я не знаю,
когда мы опять встретимся. 12. Если вы сразу же не уйдете,
вы опоздаете на поезд. 13. Стойте здесь, пока свет не ста-
нет зеленым. 14. Я сообщу ему эту новость, как только он
придет сюда. 15. Если вы будете читать при плохом осве-
щении, вы испортите глаза.
149
Continuous (Progressive) Tenses
to be + Participle I (-ing)
The Present Continuous (Progressive) Tense
Person Number	Affirmative Form	Interrogative Form	Negative Form
I	am speaking	Am I speaking?	I am not speaking
He	is speaking	Is he speaking?	He is not (isn’t) speaking
She	is speaking	Is she speaking?	She is not speaking
It	is speaking	Is it speaking?	It is not speaking
We	are speaking	Are we speaking?	We are not (aren’t) speaking
You	are speaking	Are you speaking?	You are not speaking
They	are speaking	Are they speaking?	They are not speaking
Spelling Rules
When verbs end in one stressed vowel between two consonants
we double the final consonant: swim - swimmimg', stir - stirring.
Look at the spelling of these verbs: die - dying', write - writing.
The Present Continuous is used:
1)	to denote continuous actions happening at or around
the moment of speaking:
Listen! The telephone is ringing. Go and answer it.
2)	to denote temporary situations:
They are spending their holidays at the seaside this summer.
3)	to denote future actions with verbs of motion (to come,
to arrive, to go, to leave, to return, to sail, to start), usually if
the actions denote an intention or plan:
She is leaving tomorrow.
4)	to denote actions in progress referring to all or any time,
the moment of speaking included. In this case the adverbials
ever, for ever, constantly, always are used. It expresses annoyance
or criticism.
She is always interrupting me!
5)	to denote two actions one of which is in progress and the
other is a habitual one:
I never speak while I am working.
150
6)	to denote several simultaneous actions:
Nell is reading in her room. Father is resting.
The Present Continuous is used with the following time ex-
pressions: now, at the moment, at present, nowadays, today,
tonight, always, still etc.
Note. In the construction I am going to + the infinitive,
I am going has the meaning of I intend (я собираюсь),
and refers the action expressed by the following infinitive
to the future.
I am going to read this book.
Stative Verbs
Stative verbs express a permanent state rather than an ac-
tion and they do not have continuous forms.
These are:
1)	verbs of the senses: to feel, to hear, to see, to smell, to taste
etc. Look, watch and listen can be used in continuous:
John is watching TV.
Feel and hurt can be used in either continuous or simple forms:
He feels/is feeling worse today.
2)	verbs of feelings and emotions: to adore, to appreciate, to
detest, to dislike, to enjoy, to forgive, to hate, to like, to loathe'.
I dislike the programme I am watching on TV now.
3)	verbs of opinion: to agree, to believe, to expect (-to think),
to see (~ to understand), to suppose, to understand etc.:
I believe he is innocent.
4)	other verbs: to keep (= to continue), to appear (= to seem), to
belong, to concern, to contain, to depend, to fit, to have (-to pos-
sess), to know, to mean, to owe, to own, to possess, to need, to want,
to require, to prefer, to weigh, to wish, to seem etc.:
He wants some more biscuits.
Some stative verbs to be, to love, to see, to smell, to taste, to
think etc. have continuous forms but there is a difference in
meaning:
State
He thinks he is really (= he be-
lieves) hardworking.
What does it taste like? (= What
is its flavour?)
He has two houses (=he pos-
sesses).
Action
I’m thinking about his offer
(= I’m considering).
He’s tasting the food (= he’s
testing the flavour).
She’s having breakfast (= she’s
eating).
151
The silk skirt feels soft (= it has
a soft texture).
Do you see what I mean?
(= Do you understand?)
Your perfume smells of roses
(= it has the smell).
I love/enjoy good performan-
ces (= I like in general).
It looks like rain (= it appears).
He appears to be working
(= he seems to be).
The box weighs a lot (= its
weight is).
Ann is naughty (= her charac-
ter is bad).
This dress fits me well (=it is
the right size).
I’m feeling the cat’s fur (= I’m
touching).
He’s seeing his friend tonight
(= he’s meeting).
She’s smelling the roses
(= she’s trying the smell of).
I’m loving/enjoying this per-
formance (= I like especially).
He is looking at the portrait
(= he is viewing it).
The actress is appearing on
stage (= she will make an ap-
pearance).
She is weighing the vegetables
on the scales (= she is find-
ing out the weight of).
She is being very naughty (= she
is misbehaving).
We are fitting a new carpet in
the living-room (= laying).
Some adjectives can be used with “to be” in the continuous
form to express a temporary characteristic. These are: careful,
foolish, kind, lazy, nice, patient, (im)polite, rude, silly etc.:
You 're being very lazy.
0 EXERCISES
Exercise I
Put the following sentences in the negative form and add af-
firmative sentences using the words in brackets.
Model: She is reading now. (to write a letter)
She is not reading. She is writing a letter.
1. Helen is skating now. (to ski) 1. They are playing chess,
(dominoes) 3. The students are going home, (to the library)
4. Mother is making dinner, (to wash dishes in the kitchen) 5. Father
is working in the garden, (to take a rest) 6. Ann and Mike are
swimming there, (to lie in the sun) 7.1 am asking you questions,
(to answer your questions) 8. He is sitting at his desk, (to stand at
the blackboard) 9. She is learning new words.(to recite a poem)
10. We are having a meeting, (to have an English class)
152
Exercise II
Answer the questions using the words in brackets.
Model: Are you free now? (Yes/have a rest).
Yes, I am. I’m having a rest.
1.	Are you busy now? (Yes/tidy up the flat)
2.	Are you free now? (No/go to the theatre)
3.	Is your mother busy now? (Yes/wash up)
4.	Is your brother in the dining-room? (Yes/have a lunch)
5.	Is mother in the kitchen now? (Yes/cook)
6.	Are you leaving now? (Yes/go to the library)
7.	Is your teacher busy now? (Yes/give a lecture)
8.	Are the children resting now? (No/study)
Exercise III
Ask questions to the words in bold type.
1.	Lucy is taking her examination now.
2.	Tom is playing chess with his friend.
3.	Many students are going to the library.
4.	She is looking at the picture.
5.	He is answering the teacher’s question.
6.	They are speaking about their work.
7.	The train is leaving at 5 o’clock.
8.	She is swimming in the lake now.
Exercise IV
Fill in with the Present Simple or the Present Continuous.
1.	I... (to think) about visiting Kate this afternoon.
2.	I... (to think) she’s away on holiday.
3.	Mr Smith ... (to have) a telephone message from his wife.
4.	He ... (to have) a business meeting and I don’t want
to disturb him.
5.	I... (to love) breathing in clean, country air!
6.	So do 1.1... (to love) every minute of this walking trip.
7.	Why... (you/to taste) the soup? Is anything wrong with it?
8.	Yes, it... (to taste) too sweet. I think I’ve used sugar in-
stead of salt.
9.	Why ... (you/to feel) Pete’s forehead, Mum?
10.	I think he’s got a temperature. He ... (to feel) rather hot.
11.	Nick ... (to be) a very rude person.
12.	Helen ... (to be) very rude these days too, although she is
usually polite.
153
13.	Why ... (you/to smell) the inside of your car?
14.	Because it... (to smell) of petrol.
Exercise V
Insert the construction to be going + infinitive. Translate
the sentences into Russian.
1.	... you ... to take part in the concert? -
Certainly, I...
2.	What... you ... to sing? -
I shall sing two folk songs.
3.	Who ... to accompany you? -
My friend Helen as usual.
4.	Who else ... to sing or recite something at the concert? -
Nick ... to recite a poem written by himself and our choir
will sing some songs.
5.	... they ... to have a dance after the concert? -
Of course, they...
6.	... all your friends ... to be present at the party? -
Certainly, they...
7.	When will you come home? -
We ... to dance till after midnight.
Exercise VI
Translate into English.
a)	What (Whose) book are you reading?
1.	На какую картину ты смотришь? 2. Какой вопрос ты
задаешь? 3. Какое упражнение они делают? 4. На какой
вопрос они отвечают? 5. Чей рассказ ты читаешь? 6. Чей
журнал он берет? 7. Чьей ручкой он пишет? 8. Чью ручку
ты даешь мне? 9. Какое упражнение ты пишешь? 10. Какой
рассказ ты читаешь? 11. Какую программу ты смотришь?
12. Какой текст ты переводишь?
b)	Who is sitting at the window?
1.	Кто читает книгу? 2. Кто говорит по телефону? 3. Кто
пишет на доске? 4. Кто берет книгу из библиотеки? 5. Кто
кладет газету в почтовый ящик? 6. Кто пишет диктовку?
7. Кто отвечает на вопросы? 8. Кто декламирует стихотво-
рение? 9. Кто читает журнал? 10. Кто разговаривает с учи-
телем?
154
c)	What аге you doing?
1.	Что ты пишешь? 2. Что ты читаешь? 3. Что ты слуша-
ешь? 4. О чем ты рассказываешь им? 5. Над чем ты работа-
ешь? 6. О чем ты говоришь? 7. На что ты смотришь? 8. Что
ты спрашиваешь? 9. О чем ты думаешь? 10. Что ты перево-
дишь?
d)	Where are you going?
1.	Куда ты смотришь? 2. Куда ты кладешь газету? 3. Где ты
стоишь? 4. Где ты сидишь? 5. Куда ты посылаешь письмо?
6. Где вы сейчас отдыхаете? 7. Где вы живете? 8. Где вы
работаете? 9. Куда вы посылаете телеграмму? 10. Где у вас
урок английского языка?
е)	Why are you opening the door?
1.	Почему ты закрываешь окно? 2. Почему он задает тот
же самый вопрос? 3. Почему вы смеетесь? 4. Почему вы
спешите? 5. Почему вы уезжаете? 6. Почему вы показывае-
те этот журнал? 7. Почему вы сидите у окна? 8. Почему вы
не слушаете учителя? 9. Почему вы кашляете? 10. Почему
вы не пишите упражнение? 11. Почему ты запираешь дверь?
Exercise VII
Translate into English.
1. Вы торопитесь на занятия? - Да. В 11.00 у нас лекция.
2. Куда вы идете? - Я иду в библиотеку. 3. Вы читаете? Что
вы читаете? 4. Кому вы пишете письмо? - Сестре. 5. Ваш
брат дома сейчас? - Да. Он занят сейчас. Он готовит уроки.
6. Я хочу видеть профессора Петрова. - Простите, его здесь
нет. Он читает лекцию. 7. Где Виктор? - Он в читальном
зале. Он читает газеты. - Какие газеты он читает? - Я не
знаю. 8. Не входите в класс. Учащиеся пишут контрольную
работу. 9. На следующей неделе мы едем в Сочи. 10. Делега-
ция приезжает завтра. Какой урок вы сейчас изучаете? - Мы
проходим 5-й урок. 12. Куда все спешат? - На стадион. Там
сегодня интересный матч. 13. Не шумите. Дети спят. 14. Что
делает Петя? - Он рисует. 15. Вы уже заканчиваете эту рабо-
ту? 16. Не мешайте мне. Я готовлюсь к докладу. 16. Отец
дома? - Да. Он работает в саду. 17. О чем вы думаете?
18. С кем он там разговаривает? 19. На что вы смотрите?
20. О чем вы говорите?.
155
Compare the Present Simple and
the Present Continuous
Present Simple
Does your daughter sing? (in
general)
Does it rain much in St Peters-
burg? (actions that happen
repeatedly )
My friend lives in Moscow.
(a permanent situation)
Present Continuous
What is she singing? (at the pre
sent moment)
Is it raining? (now, at the mo
ment of speaking)
I’m living with my friend un
til I find somewhere to live
(a temporary situation)
0 EXERCISES
Exercise I
Use the Present Simple or the Present Continuous in the fol-
lowing sentences.
1. The woman who (to speak) with my sister in the yard (to be)
our neighbour who (to live) across the street. 2. You (to ask)
too much of me. I (to be) quite powerless to help you. 3. You
(to hear) the speaker well? - Yes, I (to hear) him clearly.
I (to listen) very attentively, but still (not to understand) what
he (to speak) about. 4. You (to go) in my direction? I can give
you a lift. 5. It (to be) a very interesting scientific film. In it you
can see how the grass (to grow) and the flowers (to unfold)
their petals right before your eyes. 6.1 (to look) at the barometer
and (to see) that it (to fall). 7. Don’t enter the study. Father (to
work) there and he (not to like) to be disturbed. 8. You (to see)
that woman in the corner? She (to have) heirdessert now. As
soon as she (to leave) we (to occupy) the table. 9. Where you
(to hurry)? - I (to be) afraid to miss the 2.35. My friend
(to come) with it. 10. They will have to stay with us when they
(to arrive) here.
Exercise II
Insert the Present Continuous or the Present Simple.
1. What you (to do) here? - I (to wait) for my friend. 2. He
(to speak) French? - Yes, he (to speak) French very fluently.
3. The man (to be) drunk. He (not to know) what he (to say).
4. I’ll come down when I (to be) ready. 5. I will take off
the jacket if it (to get) too hot. 6. “It (to get) windy,” he said
in his quiet way. 7. Listen! Someone (to knock) at the door.
156
8. Don’t go into the classroom! The students (to write) a test
there. 9. She (to write) letter to her mother every week.
10. Let’s go for a walk. It (not to rain). 11. You (to hear)
anything? I (to listen) hard, but I not (to hear) anything.
11. Listen! The telephone (to ring). 12. They will have to stay
with us when they (to arrive) here.
Exercise III
Put the verbs in brackets into the Present Simple or the Present
Continuous.
1. The sun (to rise) in the east and (to set) in the west.
2. Although the sun (to rise) I cannot see it because it is behind
the clouds. 3. You (to play) the piano? - No, I (to do) not.
4. I hear somebody playing in the next room; who (to play)
there? 5: It is pleasant to be at home when a storm (to rage)
outside. 6. There are so many people there; where they all (to
go)? 7. As a rule I (to feel) rather tired after my walk. 8. Thank
you, now I (to feel) much better. 9. He (to swim) very fast.
10. Look! Somebody (to swim) over there. 11. Where is Alec?
- He is in the garden. I think he (to do) his morning exercises.
12. He always (to do) his morning exercises with the window
open. 13. I’d like to see Professor Smith. - Sorry. He is out at
the moment. He (to give) a lecture. 14. Sometimes he
(to give his lectures) in English for the students of the English
department. 15. Who (to make a report) at the meeting? -
I am sorry. I don’t know the speaker’s name. 16. Our teacher
(to speak) two foreign languages. 17. Hello. This is Brown
speaking. - Sorry, I don’t hear you well. Who (to speak)?
18. Is Nick in the dining-room? - Yes. He (to have lunch).
Exercise IV
Put the verbs in brackets into the Present Simple or the Present
Continuous.
1. Water (to boil) at 100 degrees Centigrade. 2. We (to meet)
twice a week. 3. The clock (to strike), it is time to go home.
4. He (to take) his English lesson; he always (to take) his lessons
in the morning. 5. Where is John? - He (to prepare) his lessons;
he usually (to prepare) them at that time. 6.1 (not to understand)
your remark. 7. Can you hear what I (to say)? 8. After a whole
week of clear weather it (to begin) to rain. 9. What (to be)
the title of the book you (to read)? 10. Look, smoke (to come)
out of the window. 11. The sun (to set). What a glorious sight it
157
is! 12. What (to listen) to? - It seems to me I (to hear) a strange
noise outside. 13. Why you (to wear) your new clothes, those in
which you are to travel tomorrow? 14. Why, my dear boy, how
stout you (to get)! 15. You (to joke) Tom? - No, Father, I (not
to joke). 15. On his way he usually (to meet) many children
who (to go) to school. 16. I (to look) for Pete. Have you seen
him? 17. I am certain to know all about it when I (to get) his
letter. 18. I (to wonder) if you’d like to come to a little party
I (to give) next week.
Exercise V
Give answers to the following questions using the Present
Continuous or the Present Simple.
1. Where are you going this Sunday? - This Sunday ... but
usually on Sundays ... 2. When is he coming to see us? - He ...
Friday night though most often ... 3. The delegation of French
scientists is arriving by plane tonight, isn’t it? - Yes, it ...
at the Vnukovo Airport, foreign delegations, as a rule... 4. When
is the boat from Odessa coming? - It... in half an hour as it is
late tonight, but regularly it... at 8 sharp. 5. When is the night
train for St Petersburg leaving? - It ... in half an hour. It ...
at 15:15 according to the timetable.
Exercise VI
Translate into English using the Present Simple or the Present
Continuous.
1. Где Николай? - В саду. - Что он там делает? 2. Я не по-
нимаю, о чем вы говорите. 3. Он знает, что мы уходим?
4. Как вы думаете, чего они ждут? 5. Я не знаю, почему я
плачу. 6. Почему ты не ешь суп? - Я не хочу. 7. Я не вижу,
что вы пишете. - Я пишу письмо своему брату, который
живет в Москве. Мы большие друзья и часто пишем друг
другу. Сейчас он работает над своей дипломной работой.
8. Я вижу двух студентов и слышу их голоса, но не пони-
маю, на каком языке они говорят. Возможно, это какой-то
восточный язык, а я не знаю восточных языков. 9. Я люб-
лю, когда вся наша семья по вечерам собирается вместе.
Обычно мы говорим о нашей работе. Сейчас мы все вместе
в столовой. Мы пьем чай. Отец просматривает газету. Брат
рассказывает нам о последних новостях в университете.
Мама смотрит на часы и говорит, что младшим детям пора
идти спать. 10. Что делает твой брат? - Он работает на
158
заводе? - А что он сейчас делает? - Он читает газету. Я
приношу ему газеты, когда он приходит с работы. 11. Не
выходите на улицу. Идет дождь. 12. Осенью в Петербурге
часто идет дождь. 13. Могу я видеть Михаила? - Нет, он
обедает. Он всегда обедает в это время.
Exercise VII
Translate into English using the Present Simple or the Present
Continuous.
1. Дождь все еще идет. Я вижу дождевые капли на стекле.
2. Эти люди пристально смотрят на вас. Вы их знаете?
3. Как называется журнал, который вы просматриваете?
4. Что вы стоите в дверях? Проходите, мы как раз пьем
чай; выпейте с нами чашку. 5. Мы приближаемся к морю.
6. Что ты слушаешь? - Я слушаю концерт из филармонии.
7. Этот человек, конечно, очень хорошо говорит по-анг-
лийски, но мне трудно понимать его, так как он говорит
очень быстро, а я знаю язык недостаточно хорошо. 8. Мо-
лодой человек, с которым разговаривает журналист, изве-
стный художник. Сейчас он, очевидно, рассказывает о сво-
их картинах. 9. Я не люблю таких людей, как он. Он всегда
мечтает, но ничего не делает, чтобы осуществить свои меч-
ты. 10. Позвони на вокзал, пожалуйста, и узнай, когда при-
ходит поезд из Москвы. 11. Достаньте ваш билет. Контро-
лер проверяет билеты. 12. Не шевелись, фотограф уже
снимает тебя. 13. Она всегда жалуется на своего сына, ког-
да бы я ее ни встретил. 14. Вы говорите, что уезжаете ско-
ро. Может быть вы побудете здесь, пока он не приедет?
15. Не входите в комнату, мой брат готовится к экзамену там.
The Past Continuous (Progressive) Tense
Person Number	Positive Form	Interrogative Form	Negative Form
J	was speaking	Was I speaking?	I was not (wasn’t) speaking
He	was speaking	Was he speaking?	He was not speaking
She	was speaking	Was she speaking?	She was not speaking
It	was speaking	Was it speaking?	It was not speaking
159
Person Number	Positive Form	Interrogative Form	Negative Form
We	were speaking	Were we speaking?	We were not (weren’t) speaking
You	were speaking	Were you speaking?	You were not speaking
They	were speaking	Were they speaking?	They were not speaking
The Past Continuous is formed with the Past Simple of
the auxiliary verb to be and Participle I of the notional v$rb.
It is used
1)	to denote a continuous action at a certain moment in the
past:
At 10 о clock it was still raining.
The fire began at midnight when everybody was sleeping.
2)	to denote a continuous action during a certain period in the
past:
We were working in the garden from six till eight.
They were quarrelling all day long yesterday.
3)	to denote two or more simultaneous past actions:
I was preparing dinner while she was tidying up the room.
4)	to denote past action in progress interrupted by another past
action. The longer action is in the Past Continuous, the shorter
action is in the Past Simple:
While I was having breakfast the telephone rang.
The Past Continuous is used with the following time expres-
sions: while, when, as etc.
EXERCISES
Exercise I
Put the following sentences in the interrogative and negative
forms.
1. I was having supper when you rang me up. 2. My mother
was making dinner in the kitchen when I came in. 3. Your friends
were speaking in the corridor when we saw them. 4. I was
hurrying to the canteen when I met you. 5. We were having our
English at 10 in the morning. 6. He was waiting for us at
10 o’clock yesterday. 7. I was sleeping soundly when our
160
neighbours knocked at the door. 8. We were discussing the new
film when you rang up.
Exercise II
Put the following sentences into the Past Continuous adding
some necessary adverbials of time or adverbial clauses of time.
1. What’s his sister doing? 2. He’s not packing his things.
3. Are you waiting for your friend? 4. Where are you hurrying
to? 5. My friend’s staying at a hotel. 6. She’s talking to a friend
of mine. 7. My daughter’s having her English. 8. She’s cooking
dinner. 9. Are they having dinner? 10. They are discussing
a new film.
Exercise III
Put wh-questions to the words in bold type.
1. We were waiting for you at five yesterday. 2. They were
discussing this question when we came in. 3.1 was reading when
my friend rang me up. 4.1 was reading a difficult English book
at that time. 5. We were having tea when my friend came in.
6. I was going to the library when you met me. 7. They were
listening in when you entered the room. 8. She was taking
a music lesson when her mother came home.
Exercise IV
Answer the questions concentrating on the use of the Past
Continuous.
1.	Were you doing your homework at 8 yesterday evening?
2.	Were you hurrying home after classes when I met you?
3.	Who were you talking to when I called you?
4.	What were you talking about when I came in?
5.	What was your sister doing when you got home yesterday?
6.	Where were you going when I met you in the street yester-
day?
7.	What was your father doing when I rang you up?
8.	What were you doing when the rain began?
Exercise V
Here is a list of things Kate did yesterday (and the time in
which she did them):
1) 2:30 - 3:00 had dinner 4) 6:15 - 7:00 read a book
2) 3:00 - 4:00 had a rest	5)	7:30 - 8:00 had supper
3) 4:00 - 6:00 did her homework 6) 8:15 - 9:00 watched TV
6 Н.Утевская	161
Write sentences saying what she was doing at that time:
1)	At 2:45 she was having dinner. 4) At 6:45 ...
2)	At 3:30 she...	5) At 7:45...
3)	At 5:00...	6) At 8:30...
Exercise VI
Translate into English.
1.	Вчера в 5 ч. вечера я читал газету.
2.	В воскресенье с 2-х до 4-х мы работали в саду.
3.	Мы занимались английским языком весь день.
4.	Когда я позвонил ему, он готовился к урокам.
5.	Мы шли в библиотеку, когда она нас встретила.
6.	Что вы делали в прошлую субботу вечером с 5 часов
до 7 часов?
7.	Когда я писал письмо, он делал упражнения по
английскому языку.
8.	Мы смотрели телевизор, а они слушали радио.
9.	Во время обеда он читал газету.
10.	Было уже темно, когда они выходили из леса.
11.	Где вы работали сегодня в 9 часов утра?
12.	Я ждал вас с 3-х до 4-х, а затем ушел.
13.	Мы сели на скамейку. Рядом с нами два мальчика о
чем-то громко разговаривали. Один из них задавал
вопросы, а другой отвечал. Под деревом играли две
девочки. Несколько студентов гуляли по дорожкам
парка. На деревьях пели птицы. Становилось жарко,
и мы решили искупаться.
Exercise VII
Translate into English.
1. Он писал упражнения, когда я вошел в комнату. 2. Шел
дождь, когда я вышел из дома. 3. Что он делал, когда вы
зашли к нему? 4. Он ушиб ногу в то время, как играл в фут-
бол. 5. Когда я шел сюда, я встретил вашего брата.
6. Был вечер. Моя жена читала книгу, а я писал письмо.
Вдруг дверь открылась, и вошел мой брат. 7. Было 10 ча-
сов утра, когда я вошел в контору. Несколько посетителей
ждали заведующего. Секретарь говорил с кем-то по теле-
фону. 8. Я обедал, когда он мне позвонил. 9. Я возвращал-
ся домой довольно поздно. Становилось уже темно, и шел
дождь. Я шел быстро, так как у меня не было зонтика и я
боялся промокнуть. 10. Дети играли в шахматы, в то вре-
162
мя, как мать готовила обед. 11. Куда вы спешили, когда я
вас встретил? 12. Пожар начался ночью, когда все спали.
13. Пока он готовил чай, она наблюдала за ним. 14. Когда
он вошел, я просматривала книгу его ранних набросков.
Compare the Past Continuous and the Past Simple:
The Past Continuous
is used to say that
someone was doing something
at a certain time
While mother was cooking
dinner, the phone rang.
The Past Simple
is used to talk about actions
and situations in the past
She passed her exams well
last year.
0 EXERCISES
Exercise I
Use the Past Simple or the Past Continuous instead of the
infinitives in brackets.
1. When I (to come) into the hall, the students (to discuss)
the first report. 2. The secretary (to type) a report when the postman
(to come in) and (to put) the latest mail on the table. 3. When
I (to leave) the university, it (to rain) heavily. 4. When John
(to return) home, he (to see) his younger brother who (to do)
his lessons. 5. What you (to do) when I (to come in)?
6. I (to write) a letter to my friend, and now I (to take) it
the letter-box. 7. Last year at the same hour of the day our
family (to sit) in our grandfather’s room. Father (to read) an
article about my grandfather’s new invention. 8. When
I (to come) home from school, my little brother (to sit) on
the floor with all his toys around him. He (to play) with them.
I (to tell) him the put all his toys in the box as he (to make) too
much noise. 9. All night long the stars (to glitter). 10. She
(to look up) to see if we (to listen). 11. For the first time she
(to notice) her sister (to wear) a new dress. 12. It so (to happen)
that she (to have dinner) that very evening at her aunt’s.
13. Ann (to come) to the sitting-room where we all (to sit)
reading the papers after breakfast. 14. Near her a small boy
(to play) silently. 15. She (to go) to the back door, and as she
(to raise) her hand to knock, the young man (to open) the door
suddenly.
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Exercise II
Use the Past Simple or the Past Continuous instead of
the infinitives in brackets.
1. And soon she (to laugh) when he (to tell) her about some
funny things. 2. Through the open door (to come) the voice
of his father. The old man (to sing). 3. And I (to go) softly
into the room. She (to sit) by the fire. 4. She (to weep), her
whole body (to tremble). 5. I (to write) a letter when you
(to enter) the room. 6. We (to do) our room when our neighbour
(to knock) at the door. 7. He (to write) his report when
the bell (to ring) and his friend (to enter) the room. 8. He
(to play) football when the ball (to hit) his head. 9. It (to grow)
dark, so we (to decide) to return. 10. Kate (to dance), but
when she (to see) a newcomer she (to stop). 11. He (to clean)
the car when the phone (to ring), so he (not to answer) it.
12. She (to look) tired. She (to type) letters all morning.
Exercise III
Translate into English using the Past Simple or the Past
Continuous.
1. Ты можешь вспомнить, что ты делал в то время? 2. Ког-
да мы вышли из кино, все еще шел сильный снег. 3. Она
что-то писала, когда я вошел. 4. Он работал с утра до
ночи, так ему хотелось накопить нужную сумму и уехать
отсюда. 5. Все время, пока Петр рассказывал свою исто-
рию, она пристально смотрела на него. Она пыталась
понять, что он за человек. 6. Поезд приближался к стан-
ции, делегаты стояли у окон и махали шляпами. По пер-
рону бежали дети с цветами. 7. Пассажиры так и не уви-
дели Байкал. Когда поезд проезжал Байкал, была ночь.
8. Охотники замолчали, красивый олень медленно при-
ближался к ним. 9. Пока директор разговаривал с пред-
ставителями иностранных фирм, секретарь сортировала
утреннюю почту. 10. В то время, как он пробирался сквозь
толпу, он услышал, как кто-то позвал его. 11. Мы вышли
на привокзальную площадь. Толпы народа спешили на
вокзал и с вокзала; подъезжали и отъезжали машины, кто-
то покупал цветы. 12. Пока носильщик и шофер уклады-
вали его вещи в машину, Джек увидел своего брата. Он
стоял за стеклянными дверями.
164
Exercise IV
Translate into English using the Past Simple or the Past Con-
tinuous.
1.	В три часа его не было дома. Он в это время работал в
библиотеке. Когда я пришла в библиотеку, он все еще
там работал.
2.	Я плохо слышал докладчика, так как сидел далеко, а
он говорил довольно тихо.
3.	Было поздно, темнело, и мы решили вернуться домой.
Пока мы шли, все время шел дождь и дул холодный
ветер.
4.	День был солнечный. Мы катались на лыжах все утро.
Когда мы катались на лыжах, начал идти снег.
5.	Когда пароход отошел, пассажиры стояли на палубе
и махали платками друзьям, которые оставались на
пристани.
6.	Начался салют, к набережной Невы шли толпы народа.
7. Когда Том вышел на улицу, все ребята играли в мяч.
8.	Было уже темно, когда мы подошли к дому; дул силь-
ный ветер, и становилось все холоднее и холоднее.
9.	Юноши очень подружились, когда вместе путешество-
вали по горам Кавказа.
10.	Шел сильный снег, когда мы вышли из дома.
11.	Она переводила статью в то время, когда мы смотре-
ли телевизор.
12.	Мы купались в реке, когда пошел дождь.
Exercise V
Translate into English using the Past Simple or the Past Con-
tinuous.
1. Я встретил его, когда он шел домой. 2. Мы стояли на
платформе, когда прибыл поезд. 3. Сестра пришла, когда
мы обедали. 4. Вчера целый день шел снег. 5. Где вы были
в 11 часов? - Я катался на лыжах. 6. Вы ведь путешество-
вали в это время в прошлом году, да? 7. Женщина что-то
сказала мальчику, который шел рядом с ней. 8. Когда я
вошел в зал, студенты все еще обсуждали первый доклад.
9. Секретарь печатала доклад, когда вошел директор и
положил на стол еще какие-то бумаги. 10. Поезд прибли-
жался к станции. Много людей спешили на вокзал.
11. Когда мальчик заснул, он все еще держал новую иг-
рушку. 12. Он проснулся, так как возле его кровати звонил
165
телефон. 13. Молодая девушка напевала веселую песенку,
когда она шла наверх. 14. Ее рука дрожала, когда она ве-
шала телефонную трубку.
The Future Continuous (Progressive) Tense
Person Number	Affirmative Form	Interrogative Form	Negative Form
I	shall/will be speaking	Shall/will I be speaking?	I shall/will not be speaking (shan’t/won’t)
He	will be speaking	Will he be speaking?	He will not be speaking
She	will be speaking	Will she be speaking?	She will not be speaking
It	will be speaking	Will it be speaking?	It will not be speaking
We	shall/will be speaking	Shall/will we be speaking?	We shall/will not be speaking
You	will be speaking	Will you be speaking?	You will not be speaking
They	will be speaking	Will they be speaking?	They will not be speaking
The Future Continuous is formed with the Future Simple of
the auxiliary verb to be and Participle I of the notional verb.
It is used to denote an action in progress at a certain mo-
ment of time or during a certain period of time in the future:
A18 о "clock she will be having her early morning cup of coffee.
When she comes, I think Г11 be sleeping.
0 EXERCISES
Exercise I
Put the following sentences in the interrogative and negative
forms.
1. He’ll be waiting for you at seven in the evening tomorrow.
2. They’ll be having dinner at that time. 3. We’ll be discussing
this question tomorrow morning. 4. They’ll be packing at 10
o’clock tomorrow. 5. They’ll be coming to see us from 7 till 8
tomorrow evening. 6. When I come to Kiev tomorrow at 12
o’clock, my old friends’ll be waiting for me at the station.
166
7. He’ll be still working when I come. 8. She’ll be studying
English at three o’clock tomorrow. 9. I’ll be preparing for my
report tomorrow at 2 o’clock. 10. We’ll be taking an English
exam from 12 till 2 tomorrow.
Exercise II
Ask yes/no and wh-questions to the words in bold type.
1.	We will be working hard this time tomorrow.
2.	She will be taking a music lesson at this time tomorrow.
3.	They will be building a new club when you are in the coun-
try in summer.
4.	I will be sleeping if you come so late.
5.	The English students will be writing their examination pa-
per at 3 o’clock tomorrow.
6.	The doctors will be examining their patients from 12 to
2 tomorrow.
7.	They will be rehearsing the second act when you come.
8.	They will be listening to one of my favourite symphonies at
8 o’clock tomorrow.
Exercise III
Replace the infinitives in brackets by the Future Simple or
Future Continuous.
1. I (to stay) with my family over the weekend. 2. Tomorrow
we (to ski) in the forest the whole day. 3. What you (to do)
tomorrow at 12 o’clock? 4. They will (to have) an English class
from 10 till 11.30. 5. There (to be) a lot of people in the dining-
room during the dinner-break. 6. The children (to play) while I
go shopping. 7. When you (to come) back? - I think, I (to be)
back on Monday. 8. It (to take) you half an hour if you go
there by metro. 9. She (to work) at the report from early morning
till late at night tomorrow. 10. We (to wait) for you from 9 till
3 o’clock in the afternoon tomorrow.
Exercise IV
Join the following pairs of sentences with if, when or while.
Mind the use of tenses in the subordinate clause.
1. You will be packing our things. I will be making arrangements
over the telephone. 2. We will come at 12 o’clock. They will be
rehearsing the second act. 3. You will ring up at 3 o’clock. I am
afraid I will be having a long-distance call and the line will be
engaged. 4. The German students will be having their oral test.
167
The English students will be writing their examination paper.
5. The ward doctors will be examining their patients. The
professor will make his daily round.
Exercise V
Complete the following dialogue using the Future Siniple or
the Future Continuous.
Pete: Can I phone you tomorrow, Ann?
Ann: What time?
Pete: Well, I’m not working tomorrow so I... (phone) you at 9
o’clock in the morning.
Ann: Oh no! I... (sleep) then.
Pete: OK. I... (call) you at noon.
Ann: Well, I... (tidy up) the room.
Pete: Perhaps I... (come) and visit you in the afternoon then.
What... (you/do) at 3 o’clock?
Ann: I... (get) ready for my aerobics class.
Pete: Well, if I... (phone) you at 5 ... (you/be) at home?
Ann: No, I am afraid not. I... (visit) my aunt.
Pete: When can I see you, Ann?
Ann: Phone me tomorrow evening at 7 o’clock. I ... (not/do)
anything then.
Exercise VI
Translate the Russian sentences into English making them
the logical continuation of the English ones.
1. We will be playing chess in half an hour. - А они будут
играть в шашки. 2. What will you be doing when I come? - Я
буду, очевидно, писать доклад. 3. What will the coach be
doing at this time tomorrow? - Он будет тренировать юно-
шескую команду. 4. I will be listening to my favourite songs
at 8 o’clock tomorrow. - А я буду в это время писать сочине-
ние о творчестве Чехова. 5. Tomorrow at this time we will be
taking leave of each other at the station. - Вы вдвоем поедете
на север, чтобы присоединиться к своей экспедиции, а я
поеду на Урал. 6. Tomorrow at this time I will be working in
the library. - А вы в это время будете готовиться к экзаме-
ну. 7. Tomorrow in an hour you will be packing your things. -
А мы в это время будем уезжать.
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Exercise VII
Translate the following sentences using the Future Continuous
where required.
1. Завтра в это время вы будете слушать прекрасную оперу.
2. Вот увидите, через минуту он будет рассказывать о своей
встрече с чемпионом. 3. Когда мы придем домой, мама еще
будет готовить обед, и нам придется подождать. 4. Если вы
хотите увидеть их, вы должны поторопиться, иначе, боюсь,
вы придете в тот момент, когда они будут уходить. 5. Не
звоните мне с 3-х до 5-ти: я буду работать в лаборатории.
6. Ровно в 5 часов завтра многие астрономы будут наблю-
дать солнечное затмение. 7. Спускайтесь, я вас сейчас дого-
ню. 8. Ровно в шесть часов я буду ждать тебя на'троллейбус-
ной остановке. 9. Он будет учить английский язык, когда
ты придешь. 10. Завтра в 10 часов утра я буду сдавать экза-
мен по истории. 11. Не приходи ко мне завтра в 2 часа дня, я
буду готовиться к докладу. 12. Вы все еще будете работать,
если я приду в девять?
Perfect Tenses
to have + Participle II
The Present Perfect Tense
Person Number	Affirmative Form	Interrogative Form	Negative Form
I	have (I’ve) spoken	Have I spoken?	I have not (haven’t) spoken
He	has (he’s) spoken	Has he spoken?	He has not (hasn’t) spoken
She	has spoken	Has she spoken?	She has not spoken
It	has spoken	Has it spoken?	It has not spoken
We	have spoken	Have we spoken?	We have not spoken
You	have spoken	Have you spoken?	You have not spoken
They	have spoken	Have they spoken?	They have not spoken
The Present Perfect is formed with the Present Simple of
the auxiliary verb to have and Participle II of the notional
verb.
169
It is used
1)	to denote a completed action which is connected with
the present, no definite time is mentioned:
I have been to the Hermitage.
2)	to denote an action which is over, but a period of time is not
completed. The Present Perfect is used with adverbial modifiers
today, this week, this month, this year etc.:
He has been to Moscow this week.
3)	It is used with the adverbs just, yet, never, ever, lately, recently,
already, often, seldom, generally, rarely. These adverbs are
usually placed before the main verb:
He has just come from London.
4)	It is used with since (a preposition, an adverb or a conjunction
introducing a subordinate clause); since denotes from a certain
moment in the past up to now:
I have read three English books since the beginning of the term.
(a preposition)
She called on me last Sunday, but I have not seen her since.
(an adverb)
We have not had a single rainy day since we came here, (a con-
junction)
5)	Instead of Present Perfect Continuous with the verbs having
no continuous forms before for and since'.
I have been here since 8 о "clock.
He has known him for ten years.
6)	In subordinate adverbial clauses of time and condition
to denote a future action taking place before a certain moment
in the future:
I’ll stay with you until you’ve finished everything.
Note. In special questions with when the Past Simple is used:
When did you come?
EXERCISES
Exercise I
Put the verbs in brackets into the Present Perfect.
1. I don’t know this man. I (never) met him. 2. Let’s go to
the cinema. A new film is on. - My friend already (to see) it.
3. Where is Nick? - He just (to go) out. 4. Don’t you know
what the story is about? - No, I (not to read) it. 5. Don’t
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worry about the letter. I already (to post) it. 6. Is he a good
boy? - Oh, yes he (to help) me a lot”. 7.1 know Kiev perfectly
well. I (be) there several times. 8.1 can’t find my bag. I think
somebody (to take) it by mistake. 9. Where is the key? -1 (to
put) it on the table. 10. Do you speak Japanese? - No, I never
(to study) it. 11. Do you know where he lives? - No, he recently
(to move) to a new flat I (not to be) there yet.
Exercise II
Put the verb in brackets into the Present Simple or the Present
Perfect.
1. I see the snow (to stop). 2. As a rule I (to have) eggs for
breakfast, but this time I (to order) porridge. 3. This is the house
where I (to live). I (to live) here since childhood. 4. Once in
a week I (to write) letters home, but I (not to write) one this
week, so my next letter must be very long. 5. She just (to ask) a
porter to carry her bags as they (to be) too heavy for her.
6. I regularly (to see) him every morning at the bus-stop, but
I (not to see) him these days. 7. You (to be) the first guest
I (to have) since my return. 8. It (to be) afternoon. It (to stop)
raining, and the sun (to come) out. 9. Thank you for everything
you (to do). I (to learn) a great deal from you. 10.1 (to believe)
Mr Smith (to pay) you a visit this afternoon. - Yes, he just (to
go). 11.1 (to know) her for fifteen years, but I never (to hear)
you speak like that before. 12. How long she (to be) away? It
(to seem) ages.
Exercise III
Use the words in brackets to make questions according to
a model.
Model: (you/ever/bee/to the Tretyakov Gallery?) Have you
ever been to the Tretyakov Gallery?
1.	(father/come back/today?)...
2.	(you/see/a new film/recently?)...
3.	(how long/he/be/here?)...
4.	(you/read/this book/already?)...
5.	(you/ever/visit/the Kremlin?)...
6.	(you/ever/be/the Bolshoi Theatre?)...
7.	(you/be ill/this week?)...
8.	(she/live/this house/all her live?)...
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Exercise IV
Insert the adverbs where necessary.
1. We have passed our examination, (just) 2. They have finished
their research work, (already) 3. My sister has been a good pupil,
(always) 4. She has been late for classes, (never) 5. We have not
taken our exams, (yet) 6. I have met my friend, (already)
7. This student has told us about his scientific work, (never)
8.1 haven’t done my morning exercises, (yet) 9.1 have had my
dinner, (already) 10. Have you been very busy? (lately) 11. My
father has left for his native town, (just) 12. I have been to
France, (never) 12. Has she graduated from the university?
(already) 13. Have they written poems? (ever)
Exercise V
Make sentences using yet and just.
Model: I haven’t read this novel yet.
I have just seen the film.
To accept the invitation, to make the report, to graduate from
the university, to get a letter, to change the time of our meeting,
to paint the portrait, to go to bed, to make up a plan, to discuss
a question, to answer the letter, to do one’s work, to hear
the news, to finish one’s drawing, to send a telegram.
Exercise VI
Ask yes/no and wh-questions to the following sentences.
1. We have already written our term test papers. 2. She has
forgotten to bring you the book. 3. They have accepted our
proposal this week. 4. They have been to the Hermitage lately.
5. They have got much work this year. 6. We have just bought
a new dictionary. 7. He hasn’t passed his examination. 8. She
hasn’t finished her work. 9. We have invited our friend to our
place. 10. The meeting has just begun.
Exercise VII
Translate into English using the Present Perfect.
1. Я никогда не был в этом театре. 2. Мы только что гово-
рили с ним об этом. 3. Он только что ушел. 4. Собрание
еще не началось. 5. Мы уже просмотрели новые газеты.
6. Она всегда присутствовала на наших собраниях в этом
году. 7. Я уже показал ему дорогу на станцию. 8. Я не был
в кино с сентября. 9. Мы никогда не катались на лыжах в
172
лесу зимой. 10. Они не видели его в последнее время.
11. На этой неделе она не посещала занятий. 12. Мой сын
только что приехал из Англии. 13. Мы еще не обсуждали
этот вопрос на собрании. 14. Она несколько раз приходи-
ла сюда в последнее время. 15. Моя мама уже ответила на
это письмо. 16. Мы никогда не изучали испанский язык.
17. Мы не получали от них никаких известий с тех пор, как
они уехали в США. 18. Недавно они устроили прекрасную
художественную выставку.
Exercise VIII
Translate into English.
1.	Где Петров? Почему он не пришел в университет? Я его
сегодня не видела. Боюсь, что он заболел. - Вы ошибае-
тесь. Петров здесь. Он только что пошел на лекцию. Но вы
не можете сейчас с ним поговорить, так как лекция уже
началась.
2.	В этом году мы много читали. Мы прочитали несколько
английских книг в оригинале. Я всегда любила англий-
скую литературу. Вы хорошо знаете английскую литера-
туру XX века? Я прочла все произведения Голсуорси
(Galsworthy), Моэма (Maugham) и Кронина (Cronin). Не-
которые романы я прочла на русском языке.
3.	Вы были на выставке картин Шишкина? - Да, я была
там несколько раз. Я всегда интересовалась творчеством
этого художника. Я никогда не видела ничего прекраснее
его пейзажей.
4.	Я очень люблю путешествовать. Я уже побывала во мно-
гих городах нашей страны. Я не была в Новгороде с тех
пор, как мы переехали в Санкт-Петербург. Я очень люблю
этот древний город.
Exercise IX
Translate this dialogue into English.
- Привет, Борис!
- Здравствуй, Николай!
- Не видел тебя сто лет. Где ты был все это время?
- Видишь ли, я только что приехал из Крыма.
- Ты видел много красивых мест, не так ли?
- О, да. Между прочим, ты когда-нибудь был в Алупке?
- К сожалению, я никогда там не был, но я много слышал
об этом месте.
173
- О, это замечательное место.
-Ты ездил туда один?
- Нет, вместе с Виктором. Ты помнишь его, да?
-	Конечно. Он уже окончил университет?
-	Да, он стал журналистом.
-	А как ты? Я давно о тебе ничего не знаю.
-	Спасибо. Все в порядке. Заходи ко мне. Я всегда рад тебя
видеть.
Exercise X
Translate into English.
1. Я еще не слыхал об этом. 2. Кто пришел? Наконец-то вы
пришли! 3. Можно мне прочитать ваше сочинение или вы
его уже отдали учителю? 4. Вы нашли зонтик? - Да, на-
шла. - А где вы его нашли? - Я нашла его в собственной
комнате. 5. Я дам вам эту книгу, после того, как я прочту
ее. 6. За последнее время я не получал от него писем. 7. Я не
получал от него известий с тех пор, как он уехал из Моск-
вы. 8. Он уехал из Москвы три года тому назад, и я не ви-
дел его с тех пор. 9. Почему вы надели пальто? Сегодня
совсем тепло. 10. Он положил документы на стол и вышел
из комнаты. 11. Я не знаю, который сейчас час, так как
мои часы остановились. 12. Я не видел его с лета. 13. Я уже
говорил вам об этом два раза. Разве вы не помните?
14. Наконец такси остановилось у подъезда большого дома.
15. Ваш друг пришел. Он ждет вас внизу.
Compare the Present Perfect and the Past Simple
The Present Perfect
A completed action
connected with the present
I have just posted my letter.
The Past Simple
An action performed
in the past
I posted my letter yesterday.
EXERCISES
Exercise I
Replace the infinitives in brackets by the Present Perfect or
the Past Simple.
1. You ever (to be) to this picture gallery? - Yes, I (to visit) it
once when a youth, and the pictures (to make) a great
174
impression on me. Since then I (not to be) here. 2. You already
(to see) the new film? - Yes, I (to manage) to see it yesterday.
I (to go) to the cinema in the evening and (to get) two tickets
quite easily. 3. You always (to draw) books from our library?
- Yes, as a rule I (to draw). Last year I (to go) to another
library but I (not to find) it as good as this one. I (to draw)
books from here for some 6 months already. 4.1 (not to see)
anything of Helen lately. When you (to see) her last? -
I (to meet) her two days ago. I (to think) that she (to change)
very much. 5. You (to have dinner) already? - No, not yet.
The waiter (to take) my order 15 minutes ago and (not to
bring) me anything yet. - You ever (to hear) Lemeshev sing?
- Oh, yes. He (to be) a splendid singer and a very good actor
as well. 7. Where you (to get) this fine new bag from? - My
parents (to give) it to me as a birthday present. 8. She just
(to remind) me that we (to be) at school together. 9.1 (to meet)
Nick this morning at the station. 10. She (to finish) tidying
up the flat, then she (to begin) cooking dinner. 11. I (to see)
his name in the papers very often of late. 12. They (to leave)
just a week ago. 13. Most of the children here (to have)
the flu already. 14. I (to love) you since I (to see) you at the
party.
Exercise II
Use the Present Perfect or the Past Simple instead of the in-
finitives in brackets.
1.	You (to write) a letter to your friend at last? - Yes, I (to
have). - When you (to write) it? - I (to write) it last night. -
And why you (not to send) it yet? -1 (to leave) it at home in the
morning, and I (to be) busy since I (to return) home.
2.	Jane (to come) home? - Not yet. I am very anxious about
her. When she (to leave)? - She (to leave) home at 6 o’clock and
she (to go) straight to the dentist. - Don’t worry. I am sure
the doctor (to detain) her. - But it’s 9 o’clock now, so she (to
be) away from home for three hours already.
3.	Look! What letter I just (to receive)from Mother. - Anything
(to happen)? - Father (to fall) ill. - Ill again! He (to be) ill in
September - Yes. At first the doctors (to say) it was the flu. But
then he (to feel) worse and they (to take) him to the hospital.
Mother writes he (to be) ill for more than a week already.
175
Exercise III
Put the verb in brackets into the Present Perfect and the Past
Simple.
1.	- You ever (to be) to the Hermitage?
-	Yes, I (to be) there several times.
-	Yes, I (to be) there a few days ago.
2.	- You (to be) to the Kremlin recently?
-	Yes, I...
-	Yes, I (to go) there last Sunday.
3.	- You (to see) Mike this morning?
-Yes, I...
- No, I (not to see) him since last Monday.
4.	- You (to be) to the theatre this week?
- Yes, I... I (to go) to the Mariinsky Theatre.
5.	- You ever (to play) football?
-Yes, I...
-1 (to play) when I (to be) a schoolboy.
6.	-1 (to lose) my woollen gloves. You (not to see) them any-
where?
- No, I am afraid, I... . When you last (to wear) them?
-1 (to wear) them last night.
7.	- You (to hear) him speak on the radio last night?
-Yes, I...
8.	- You (to be) here long?
-	Yes, I (to be) here two months.
-	You (to come) to see John?
-	Yes, I (not to see) him since last summer.
9.	- How long you (to know) Pete?
-1 (to know) him for 15 years.
10.	- Where you (to be)?
-	1 (to be) to the dentist.
-	He (to take) out your tooth?
-	Yes, he....
176
Exercise IV
Translate into English.
1. Я закончила доклад. Взгляните на него, пожалуйста.
2. Вы читали сегодняшние газеты? - Конечно! 3. Вы посла-
ли за доктором? - Да. Он скоро придет. 4. Вы давно знаете
Елену? - Я знаю ее уже шесть лет. 5. Сегодня мне звонил
мой друг. 6. В прошлом году он уехал на север, и с тех пор
я его не видела. 7. Я встретилась с Аней у своих друзей три
года тому назад, и с тех пор я о ней ничего не слышала.
8. Вы хорошо знаете этот город? - Нет, я никогда здесь
раньше не была. 9. За последнее время он сильно изменил-
ся, не правда ли? - Я не заметила. 10. Вы не навещали нас с
тех пор, как приехали. 11. Я не могу идти с вами в кино,
потому что я еще не сделала домашнее задание. 12. Рада
вас видеть. Я так много о вас слышала. 13. Когда вы при-
нимали участие в спортивных соревнованиях? 14. Мой друг
никогда не был за границей. Недавно он уехал в США.
Exercise V
Translate into English.
1. Когда они уехали? - Точно не знаю. Меня не было дома.
2. Я вам очень благодарна за все, что вы для меня сделали.
3. Мы только что продали последний экземпляр этой кни-
ги. Жаль, что вы раньше нам не сказали, что она вам нуж-
на. 4. Дождь уже прекратился, и люди идут без плащей и
зонтов. 5. Когда мы были студентами, мы всегда помога-
ли друг другу. 6. Очень рад с вами познакомиться. Я
столько слышал о вас и давно хотел с вами встретиться.
7. Я знаю его много лет; он всегда мне был хорошим дру-
гом. 8. Экзаменаторы уже пришли и вызвали трех студен-
тов. 9. Где вы достали этот чудесный ковер? - Он у меня с
тех пор, как я переехал на эту квартиру. 10. Куда она ухо-
дила сегодня утром? - Она ходила в библиотеку, потом заш-
ла к своей подруге. 11. Она написала несколько писем на
этой неделе. 12. Куда ушел Том? Я не вижу его здесь. - Он
ушел домой пять минут тому назад. 13. Я не видел свою
старую учительницу в течение двух месяцев. 14. Новый
учитель по истории приехал в понедельник. 15. В прошлом
году у нас было пять уроков английского языка в неделю.
16. Разве ты не получил мое письмо? - Твое письмо? Нет.
Да, конечно, ты еще не мог его получить. Оно было от-
правлено только сегодня утром.
177
The Past Perfect Tense
Person Number	Affirmative Form	Interrogative Form	Negative Form
I	had (I’d) written	Had I written?	I had not (hadn’t) written
He	had written	Had he written?	He had not written
She	had written	Had she written?	She had not written
It	had written	Had it written?	It had not written
We	had written	Had we written?	We had not written
You	had written	Had you written?	You had not written
They	had written	Had they written?	They had not written
The Past Perfect is formed with the Past Simple of the auxiliary
verb to have and Participle II of the notional verb.
It is used
1)	to denote a past action which took place before another ac-
tion or before a given past time:
We had finished our work by 5 о "clock.
I had seen him before I came here.
2)	to denote a complete past action which had visible results in
the past:
She was sad because she had failed the exam.
3)	The Past Prefect is used with the adverbs:
hardly... when
scarcely... when
no sooner... than
With these words the inversion is used:
Hardly had we returned home when our friends came to see us.
Scarcely had I finished my composition when the bell rang.
No sooner had they arrived than the thunderstorm began.
The Past Perfect is used with the following time expressions:
after, before, by, by the time etc.
0 EXERCISES
Exercise I
Use the Past Perfect of the verbs given in brackets to com-
plete the sentences.
1.	My brother went to Moscow after he. (pass the exams)
178
2.	He understood the rule after he. (learn it)
3.	She entered the university after she. (finish/the secondary
school)
4.	We wrote our compositions. We gave them to the teacher,
(after)
5.	She was very tired because she. (work a lot/that day)
6.	The sun set. They finished their work, (before)
7.	The boys decided to make a sea voyage. They travelled in
the Caucasus, (after)
8.	They finished their work. They went on an excursion, (when)
9.	They came home. Their friends rang them up. (hardly)
10.	They came home. It rained heavily, (after)
Exercise II
Ask wh-questions to the words in bold type.
1.	The people went home after they had finished their work.
2.	The lecture had begun by the time I entered the room.
3.	The children had fallen asleep before we returned home.
4.	The meeting had begun when he came into the room.
5.	They had finished the construction of the stadium by last
year.
6.	These students had taken their examination by the time you
arrived.
7.	The speaker had made his report by this time yesterday.
8.	You had studied English before you came to study here.
Exercise III
Complete the sentences using the words in brackets.
Model: These was nobody in the classroom, (as/everybody/
already/go out)
There was nobody in the classroom as everybody
had already gone out.
1.	The children went straight home, (after/they/finish/their
classes)
2.	The teacher came into the classroom, (by the time/the chil-
dren/take/their seats)
3.	We left the house, (after/the rain/stop)
4.	You rang up. (when/the guests/not come/yet)
5.	You entered the university. (after/you/study/English)
6.	I came into the room, (by the time/the lecture/begin)
7.	The house was empty, (as everybody/go/to the party)
179
8.	They went home, (after/they/finish/their work)
9.	I met you in the street, (after/you/see/a new film)
10.	He couldn’t take part in the competition, (because/he/
break/his arm)
Exercise IV
Replace the infinitives in brackets by the Past Simple or
the Past Perfect.
1. They (to complete) all the preparations for the ball by
6 o’clock. 2. On leaving the hospital the man (to thank)
the doctor who (to cure) him of his disease. 3. In the morning
all the passengers (to feel) good after the night they (to spend)
in the comfortable sleeper. 4. During my last visit to the picture
gallery I (to find) that I no longer (to like) the pictures which
(to impress) me when I first (to see) them. 5. Last night he
(to complete) the experiment which he (to begin) some months
before. 6. No sooner she (to open) the drawer than she
(to find) the photo which she (to think) she (to lose) long
before. 7. They (to be) friends for some ten years before
I (to meet) them. 8.1 (to refuse) to give a definite answer before
I (to receive) a letter from him. 9. Hardly he (to touch)
the pillow when he (to fall) asleep. 10. Everybody (to be)
already at the bus station, but the guide (not to come) yet.
11. He (to find) the landscape even more beautiful than he
(to expect) it to be. 12. She (to read) in his eyes what he
(to want) to say before he (to say) it.
Exercise V
Replace the infinitives in brackets by the Past Simple or the
Past Perfect.
1. Their friends (to call) for them before they (to be) ready.
2. We (to have) to stay at the station for the night because we
(to miss) the last train. 3. She (to slip) the letter into her pocket
when her friend (to enter) the room. 4. He (to finish) his work
before you (to come). 5. Our grandfather (to show) us the office
when he (to work). 6. After we (to have) supper my sister
(to wash up) the dishes. 7. The engineer (to finish) his experiments
by the end of the last week. 8. By the first of September all
the students (to come) to the city. 9. I (not to want) to go to
the cinema as I (to see) this film. 10. It (to be) nine o’clock and
we (to come) to her room two hours before, as we (to do) often
on those winter evenings. 11. No sooner we (to put down) our
180
glasses than the waiter (to refill) them. 12. Hardly she (to come)
home when her friends (to ring) her up. 13.1 (to meet) my friend
before I (to be) a fortnight in Paris. 14. He could not meet me.
He (not to be) well for a few weeks. 15. Paying for what he (not
to eat) he (to leave) the cafe. 16. She (to fall) ill and her friend
(to work) for her. 17. The other children who (to grow) with
him (to be) still the same.
Exercise VI
Replace the infinitives in brackets by the Past Simple or
the Past Perfect.
1. He (to ask) me if I (to have) breakfast. 2. At last she
(to show) me the letter he (to write). 3. She (to be) sure that he
never (to lie) to her before. 4. He (to know) him for ten years,
and they (to play) tennis together in Paris. 5. They (to be
married) only a few months when they (to give up) living in
London. 6. He (to glance) up and down the beach to see if he
(to leave) anything. 7. When she (to enter) the house at dinner-
time and (to find) Pete gone she (to know) what (to happen).
8. He (to take) a room at the hotel where Ann and he (to stay)
on their first visit to London. 9. He (to feel) that he (to write)
a good report. 10.1 (to understand) they (to know) each other
since the war. 11. Talking to him (to be) very easy; just like
talking to someone you (to know) all your life. 12. When he
(to come back), to his seat his manner (to change). He (to be)
gentle and kindly. 13. George (to make) no answer, and we
(to find) that he (to be asleep) for some time. 14. Hardly he
(to enter) the room when he (to switch on) the TV set. 15. Just
as we (to leave) the phone (to ring).
Exercise VII
Translate into English.
1. Телеграмма пришла десять минут спустя после того, как
ты уехала. 2. К 7 часам все уже прибыли на вокзал. 3. Ког-
да вы пришли, я уже написал доклад. 4. К тому времени,
когда вы позвонили, гости еще не собрались. 5. Вы изуча-
ли английский язык перед тем, как поступили на эти кур-
сы? 6. Сколько страниц этой книги они перевели к концу
прошлой недели? 7. Что вы уже подготовили к тому вре-
мени? 8. Кто уже сдал экзамены к тому моменту? 9. После
того как Петр перевел предложение неправильно, Аня по-
пыталась перевести его правильно. 10. Когда он вошел в
181
комнату на урок английского языка, он обнаружил, что
забыл не только учебник, но и тетради тоже, 11. Он не-
рвничал, так как не выучил все слова, которые учительни-
ца задала. 12. Придя в театр, я обнаружила, что спектакль
еще не начался. 13. Она приехала в наш город три года
тому назад. К этому времени она уже окончила универси-
тет. 14. Когда я пришел домой, мой брат уже ушел в кино.
15. Он ушел до того, как мы получили телеграмму. 16. Мой
брат сказал, что он уже посетил эту выставку.
Exercise VIII
Translate into English.
1. Она дала мне письмо только после того, как я сказал
свое имя. 2. Придя утром в лабораторию, он с удовлетво-
рением отметил, что лаборантка ничего не трогала на его
столе, и он мог сразу приступить к работе. 3. Я видел мно-
го репродукций этой картины до того, как я увидел ориги-
нал. 4. Вопрос оказался гораздо проще, чем мы думали.
5. Солнце еще не поднялось над горизонтом, когда мы от-
правились в путь. 6. Когда я пришел, все гости уже собра-
лись. 7. Радио сообщило, что самолет прилетел в Новоси-
бирск. 8. Его произношение значительно улучшилось после
того, как он несколько раз позанимался в лингафонном
кабинете. 9. Строитель показал своим иностранным дру-
зьям мост, в строительстве которого он сам принимал уча-
стие. 10. Никто не говорил ей, как тяжело она была боль-
на. 11. Он не мог принять участие в экспедиции, т.к. он
сломал ногу. 12. Едва певец закончил пение, публика раз-
разилась аплодисментами.
The Future Perfect Tense
Person Number	Affirmative Form	Interrogative Form	Negative Form
I	shall/will (I’ll) spoken	Shall/will I have spoken?	I shall/will (shan’t) not (won’t) have spoken
He	will have spoken	Will he have spoken?	He will not have spoken
She	will have spoken	Will she have spoken?	She will not have spoken
It	will have spoken	Will it have spoken?	It will not have spoken
182
Person Number	Affirmative Form	Interrogative Form	Negative Form
We	shall/will have spoken	Shall/will we have spoken?	We shall/will not have spoken
You	will have spoken	Will you have spoken?	You will not have spoken
They	will have spoken	Will they have spoken?	They will not have spoken
The Future Perfect is formed with the Future Simple of
the auxiliary verb to have and Participle II of the notional
verb.
It is used to denote an action which will be finished before
a given future time.
The Future Perfect is used with the following time expres-
sions: before, by, by then, by the time, until, till. Until/till are
normally used with the Future Perfect only in negative sen-
tences.
By the end of the term we will have learnt many new words
and expressions.
She wont have finished her work until 8 o'clock.
The Future Perfect is rarely used either in conversation or in
writing.
0 EXERCISES
Exercise I
Put the verb in brackets into the Future Perfect.
1.	I (to leave) the university by this time tomorrow.
2.	We (to go away) before you come.
3.	He (to pass) his examinations before you return from
the south.
4.	She (to return) the book to the library before you come.
5.	He (to give) the final answer by this time tomorrow.
6.	The expedition (to leave) for the north by April.
7.	We (to go) by five o’clock tomorrow.
8.	I (to finish) my report by Monday.
9.	He (to post) the letter by the time we come.
10.	She (to do) her homework by that time.
183
Exercise II
Put the work in brackets in the required future tense form.
Mind the Future Perfect.
1. The librarian (to register) all the books by the end of
the week. 2.1 am afraid we (not to discuss) all the questions
by the time they (to come). 3. The secretary (to look
through) all the papers by the time the director (to come).
4. I hope that they (to receive) my letter by Saturday and
(not to expect) me on Sunday. 5. I am sure he (to throw)
some light upon this matter before I (to learn) about it from
my sister’s letter. 6. Don’t start arguing until you (to hear)
what I have to say. 7. I suppose that when my letter
(to reach) you, you (to return) from your voyage. 8. Our
plant (to fulfil) its plan by the 5th of December. 9. He
(to go) by the time I arrive. 10. Don’t worry I (to write) a
letter by the time you (to come) back. 11. Do please hurry
or they (to close) the door by the time we get there. 12. By
the end of the month the delegation (to come).
Exercise III
Translate into English using the Future Simple, the Future
Continuous and the Future Perfect or the Present Simple.
1. Я буду очень занят в начале июня. Я буду сдавать эк-
замены. 2. К семи часам я закончу эту работу и смогу
отдохнуть. 3. Я все еще буду работать, когда ты вернешь-
ся. 4. Через год он приедет в Санкт-Петербург. 5. Поезд
уже уйдет к тому времени, когда мы приедем на станцию.
6. Не приходите ко мне в пять часов завтра, у меня будет
урок английского языка. 7. Мы выполним эту работу к
3 часам, а потом все вместе пойдем гулять. 8. К 15 мая
мы уже сдадим все зачеты. 9. Строители построят эту
школу к 1 сентября. 10. Я напишу мое сочинение к тому
времени, как она придет ко мне. 11. Ровно в 5 часов я
буду ждать тебя на автобусной остановке. 12. Не звони-
те мне от трех до пяти: я буду работать. 13. Завтра к это-
му времени мы уже пообедаем. 14. Если Петр приедет в
Москву, я покажу ему Красную площадь и Кремль.
15. Она не будет с нами разговаривать до тех пор, пока
он не извинится.
184
Exercise IV
Translate into English giving special attention to the future
tenses.
1. Боюсь, к тому времени, как вы вернетесь с деньгами, они
уже распродадут все книги. 2. Мы сделаем все упражнения
к его приходу, и затем все вместе пойдем на каток. 3. Я
напишу ему после того, как увижусь с его родителями. 4. Я
позвоню вам, как только закончу переводить статью. 5. Мы
сделаем большую часть работы, когда вы обратитесь к
профессору за помощью. 6. Я уверен, что все гости уйдут к
10 часам. 7. Я боюсь, что он уже отправит телеграмму к
тому времени, когда мы придем. 8. К тому времени, когда
ты освободишься, я уже закончу работу. 9. Что вы будете
делать завтра в 8 часов вечера? - Завтра к 8 часам я уже
закончу свои уроки и в 8 часов буду играть на пианино.
10. Я окончу свой перевод к концу недели. 11. Когда я на-
пишу письмо, я сейчас же пойду и отправлю его, но я не
знаю, когда она его получит. 12. Я с ним поговорю, когда
он придет, но я не уверена, придет ли он сегодня. 13. Мне
бы хотелось знать, когда она вернется в Москву. Если она
вернется после 1-го июля, я ее не увижу, так как я уже уеду
на юг к этому времени. 14. Она обещала дать мне эту кни-
гу при условии, что я верну ее в воскресенье. Если она не
получит книгу в воскресенье, она не сможет подготовить-
ся к докладу.
Perfect Continuous Tenses
have been + Participle I (-ing)
The Present Perfect Continuous
Person Number	Affirmative Form	Interrogative Form	Negative Form
I	have (I’ve) been speaking	Have I been speaking?	I have not (haven’t) been speaking
He	has (he’s) been speaking	Has he been speaking?	He has not (hasn’t) been speaking
She	has been speaking	Has she been speaking?	She has not been speaking
It	has been speaking	Has it been speaking?	It has not been speaking
185
Person Number	Affirmative Form	Interrogative Form	Negative Form
We	have been speaking	Have we been speaking?	We have not been speaking
You	have been speaking	Have you been speaking?	You have not been speaking
They	have been speaking	Have they been speaking?	They have not been speaking
The Present Perfect Continuous is formed with the Present
Perfect of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle I of the no-
tional verb.
It is used
1)	to denote an action in progress which began at a certain
moment in the past and is still going on at the present moment:
He has been writing a composition for two hours.
The Present Perfect Continuous is translated into Russian
by the present.
2)	to denote a past action of certain duration having visible
results in the present:
She ’s been crying. Her eyes are red.
3)	to denote an action expressing anger, irritation, annoyance
or crticism:
/ suppose, you have been telling tales again.
The Present Perfect Continuous is usually used with for, since,
how long.
Note: Live, feel and work can be used either in the Present
Perfect or the Present Prefect Continuous with no dif-
ference in meaning.
I’ve been living/I’ve lived in Paris for a year.
The verbs not used in continuous forms are not used in
the Perfect Continuous either. In this case the Present Perfect
is used:
We have known him since 2001.
186
a
к _
EXERCISES
Exercise I
Put the verb in brackets into the Present Perfect Conti-
nuous.
1. You see, I (to do) this kind of thing for the last thirty years.
2. She (to tell) you this long story all this time? 3. Do you want
to dance? - No, thank you. I (to dance) so much all evening,
that my feet are ready to fall. 4. How is your poor friend? -
He says he (not to feel) well for the past week. 5. You look so
pale. Kate (to feed) you in my absence? 6.1 (to try) to get you
all day, Mike! 7.1 (not to sleep) for over a day. 8..We (to write
letters) to one another for a couple of years now. 9. Why is he
here now? - I don’t know. - You (to correspond) with him? -
No. 10. I (to translate) an article for an hour since we came
home. 11. He (to take) English lessons for some time since last
year.
Exercise II
Complete the following sentences adding adverbials as in
the model. (Give all possible variants.)
Model: I have been listening in ...
I have been listening in for an hour.
I have been listening in since I came home.
I have been listening in since 7 o’clock.
1. They have been working in the garden ... 2. I have been
waiting for you ... 3. The baby has been crying ...
4. The tourists have been doing the town ... 5. The students
have been reading for the examination ... 6. He has been
training his dog ... 7. They have been building the new
bridge ... 8. The gardener has been sorting the apples ...
9. They have been playing golf... 10. We have been gathering
mushrooms ... 11. She has been suffering from a headache
... 12. I have been writing a composition ... 13. They have
been studying at the university ...
Exercise П1
Put the verb in brackets into the Present Perfect and
the Present Perfect Continuous.
1.1 (to do) my homework for two hours and I (not to finish)
yet. 2. Helen (to read) this book since Monday and she (not
187
to read) it yet. 3. My brother (to collect) stamps ever since he
left school. Now he (to collect) so many that he doesn’t know
where to put them. 4. That boy already (to stand) at the bus
stop for the last half an hour. Shall I tell him that the last bus
already (to go)? 5. Something (to happen) to Nick. I (to wait)
for him long and he (not to come) yet. 6. There are a lot of
things I (to do) for a long time, and I (not to do) them.
7. There is the car. Pete (to come) back. I must go and wash
my eyes. I don’t want him to see I (to cry). 8. Father already
(to arrive). We just (to speak) of him. 9. You are old enough
to begin to learn. - I (to learn) all my life. 10. What you (to
do) with my bag? I (to look) for it for an hour and I can’t find
it. - I think, Mary (to go) off with it.
Exercise IV
Use the Present Perfect Continuous or Present Perfect in
the following sentences.
1. I (to be) busy since we last met. 2. I am very fond of Alice
but I (not to see) much of her lately. 3. You look very tired. -
I (to walk) around all day. I (to have) a few drinks and nothing
to eat. 4.1 (to cook, to clean) and (to wash) the linen for three
days and I am very tired. 5.1 imagine how much they (to learn)
since they (to be) here. 6. I don’t think your mother expects
you to become a driver. - What she (to say) to you? - Nothing.
7.1 found him waiting downstairs at the house door to let me
in. “I’m sorry”, I said “I hope you (not to stand) here long”.
8. There (to be) no guests at all since I left? 9. He is an old
friend. I (to know) him for ages. 10. You (to see) anything of
Mary lately? 11.1 know the names of everyone in the village.
I (to live) here all my life.
Exercise V
Use the Present Perfect Continuous, say what has just been
happening to cause the state of things expressed in the fol-
lowing sentences.
1. His clothes are wet. (to walk in the rain) 2. You look upset,
(to say terrible things about ...) 3. I’ll soon finish, (to write
a composition since morning) 4. Why do you think I ought
to give up my work (to talk to the doctor)? 5. He is very
tired, (to overwork) 6. The streets are wet. (to rain) 7.1 can’t
write a letter to my friend now. (to write too many official
papers) 7. You seem to know a lot about your neighbours.
188
(to live) 8. You look very pale, (not to sleep) 9. He is about
to get up. (to rest for a long time) 10. Oh, I am really hot.
(to run)
Exercise VI
Use the Present Perfect or the Present Perfect Continuous
instead of the infinitives in brackets.
1. I (to try) all the afternoon to get a minute alone with you.
2. You (to wait) long? - Yes, I (to stand) here for more than
half an hour. 3. You (to see) Ann lately? 4. I (to try) to get
a good job for many months now. 5. He (to give) Kate dancing
lessons or he (to pretend) to? 6.1 (to think) about nothing else
since then. 7. He (to amuse) himself that way all his life.
8.1 (to look) forward to it all the week. 9. What you (to do) to
yourself since I (to be) away? 10.1 just (to wash) my hair and
I (to try) to dry it by the radiator. 11. I (to think) of your
decision since we parted. 12. He (to complain) of pains in his
chest and head for a long time. 13. She (to nurse) the hardest
patients for four years. 14.1 am afraid, I (to promise) to wait
for Mr Watkins. 15.1 (to wish) to speak to you ever since you
returned. 16. She (to clean) all day, and I (to cook).
Exercise VII v
Translate into English using the Present Perfect Continuous.
1. Я жду своего друга уже час. 2. Сколько времени вы пере-
водите эту статью? - Я перевожу ее уже 2 часа. 3. Мы по-
вторяем этот материал вторую неделю. 4. Анна учится в
консерватории уже 3 года. 5. Мой друг работает над док-
ладом уже неделю. 6. Я пишу это сочинение со вторника.
7. Я учусь в университете с сентября. 8. Он учит англий-
ский язык с пятого класса. 9. Сколько лет вы работаете
над английским языком? 10. Что ты делала все это время?
11. Мы уже много лет проводим исследования в этой обла-
сти. 12. Я давно с интересом слежу за вашими исследова-
ниями. 13. Могу я видеть Николая? - Нет, он обедает. - А
давно он обедает? - Да, он обедает уже полчаса.
Exercise VIII
Translate into English using the Present Perfect Continuous.
1. Те мальчики играют в футбол уже два часа. Я смотрю
на них с тех пор, как сижу здесь. 2. «Вы давно здесь сиди-
те?» - спросила учительница. «Около десяти минут.» 3. Я
189
думаю о вас со вчерашнего дня. 4. Ник, я ищу вас повсю-
ду уже в течение нескольких часов. 5. Они с утра ждут
телефонного звонка от Петра. 6. Марина работает в чи-
тальном зале уже два часа. 7. Это такая интересная кни-
га. Я ее читаю с раннего утра. 8. Я знаю, что она пишет
эту статью месяца два или три. 9. Погода очень плохая,
так как дождь идет уже в течение недели. 10. Мы слушали
тебя все это время, теперь мы тоже хотим сказать что-то
тебе. 11. Я изучаю английский язык в течение нескольких
лет. 12. Я жду вас уже целый час. 13. Здание нового теат-
ра строят уже два месяца. 14. Я все время думаю о вас с
тех пор, как я видел вас последний раз. 15. Мы уже целый
час говорим о вас. 16. Вы такой усталый. Очевидно, вы
сегодня работали весь день.
Revision of All the Present Tenses
0 EXERCISES
Exercise I
Put the verb in brackets into the Present Continuous and
the Present Simple.
1. Who (to knock) at the door? 2. We (to drink) coffee every
morning. 3. What this word (to mean)? 4. It (to rain), take your
umbrella. 4. Don’t bother me, please, I (to work). 5. You
(to know) that boy over there? 6. What you (to do) Nick)? -
I (to draw). 7. You (to see) anything? 8.1 (not to remember) his
name exactly. 9. Run downstairs, your sister (to wait) for you.
10.1 (to hope) you (to know) where he (to live). 11. Let’s have
some tea. It (to get) chilly. 12. You (to read), dear? - Yes”. -
What (to be) the book about? - Don’t talk to him while he (to
read). 13. How long it (to take) you to get to the university,
usually? 14. You (to like) what you (to do) now? 15. Keep quiet,
we (to listen) to the music.
Exercise II
Put the verb in brackets into Present Simple and the Present
Perfect.
1. Ann (to want) to see you. You (not to be) here for ages!
2. I (not to be) to the zoo before. 3. You know Ann? - Yes.
How long you (to know) her? - I (to know) her for 10 years.
4. You (to know) the girl who just (to leave) the shop? - Yes,
190
that (to be) Helen. 5. I (not to see) your pictures for a long
time. Can I look round? 6. You (to be) the first guest I (to have)
since my return. 7. He (to be) in the bathroom. He (to shave)
just. 8. As a rule I (to have) ham and eggs for breakfast, but
this time I (to order) an omelette. 9.1 (to be) cold in winter in
Moscow, as a rule? - Yes, generally it (to be), but this winter it
(to be) exceptionally warm. 10. No wonder he (to look) tired
after the strain under which he (to be) lately. 11. Let me look at
you. You (not to change) much. 12. I (to come) to ask you
what you (to think) of the situation.
Exercise III
Put the verb in brackets into the Present Perfect dr the Present
Perfect Continuous.
1. He (to try) to open this box for the last forty minutes but in
vain. 2. It (to snow) for the whole day: the garden is covered
with snow. 3. Who (to break) the window? 4. It’s the best book
I (ever to read). 5. I (to listen) to you for the past half an
hour, but I can’t understand what you are speaking about.
6. How long your aunt (to be ill)? 7. Somebody (to drink) my
coffee! My cup was full. 8. I don’t think I (ever to see) her
looking so upset before. 9. I (to sit) here in the park for an
hour, and I (to meet) three friends of mine. 10. How much
money you (to save) for the holidays? 11. I (to wait for) you
since two o’clock. I have something urgent to tell you. 12. She
(to take) guitar lessons this year. 13. This team (to lose) only
one game this season. 14. My parents (to work) for this
company since 1995.
Exercise IV
Make up a compound or complex sentence using the given
clause in the Present Tenses.
Model: ... she is teaching literature ...
She knows literature so well because she has read a
lot of books and she is teaching literature at school.
Or: She has graduated from the Pedagogical Uni-
versity and now she is teaching literature at school.
1.	... she and I have lived in the same house ...
2.	... he knows two foreign languages ...
3.	... winter has set in ...
4.	... our team has won ...
191
5.	... they have been playing tennis ...
6.	... she always loses her gloves ...
7.	... he is doing the sums ...
8.	... they have been writing an exercise ...
9.	... the leaves are falling off the trees ...
10.	... the weather has changed ...
Exercise V
Replace the infinitives by the Present Simple, the Present
Continuous, the Present Perfect or the Present Perfect Con-
tinuous.
1. He (to solve) the crossword puzzle for half an hour and he
(to say) he (to be) about to finish it as he (to think) over the
last word. 2. The actors (to rehearse) since early morning; now
they (to go over) the first scene as they (not to be) satisfied
with their acting. 3. Here you (to be) at last! I (to wait) for
you for an hour. You (not to be) ashamed? 4. She (to speak)
over the telephone long enough, it (to be) time for her to stop
talking. 5. You (to keep) late hours this week that’s why you
(to look) tired and worn out. 6. It (to snow) steadily the whole
week and it still (to snow). If it (to go on) like this, nobody
will be able to reach the camp. 7. At last you (to open) the
door! I (to ring) for an hour at least, it (to seem) to me. 8. My
watch (to keep) good time ever since the first repair. 9. They
(to discuss) this question ever since I (to be) here and they
(not to come) to any definite conclusion yet. 10. The secretary
(to miss) several words as she (to talk) all the time. 11. The
lecturer (to mention) this name several times but I cannot
remember it. I’ll write it down as soon as he (to mention) it
again. 12. He (to work) at the language all the time and (to
make) great progress.
Exercise VI
Use the required present tense instead of the infinitives in
brackets.
1. I (to be) here too long. I (to want) to get away. 2. What he
(to do) for a living? - He (to sing) and (to play) the guitar. - He
(to play) for his friends or just for money? -1 (not to know)...
- He (to have) a concert soon? - Yes, on Saturday. 3. Where
you (to be), Tommy? Look at your face! - Mammy, you al-
ways (to grumble)! 4. Everybody (to be) here? - No, Mr Smith
(not to come) yet. I (to think) he (not to return) from abroad
192
yet. He (to arrive) on Saturday. 5. The old man (to sit) in front
of the fire since dinner-time. 6.1 (not to have) a holiday for two
years. 7.1 (to try) all the afternoon to get a minute alone with
you. 8. We (to take) two rooms in Dabney Street and we (to
furnish) them now. 9. “What you (to write) him about?” she
asked looking over my shoulder. 10. I (to read) the book you
(to hold). 11. You always (to forget) something. 12.1 (to grow)
too fat. 13. You (to wait) long? - Yes, I (to stand) here for
more than half an hour. 14. I (to try) to get a good job for
many months now. 15. I want you to understand that every-
thing he just (to say) to you is pure imagination.
Exercise VII
Translate the sentences into English using the Present Sim-
ple, the Present Continuous, the Present Perfect or the Present
Perfect Continuous.
1. Ты понимаешь, что ты наделал? - Ничего особенного.
2. Где же ты был все это время? Мы искали тебя повсюду.
3. О чем ты думаешь, Катя? 4. Ты с ними переписываешь-
ся? - Да, конечно. - Но что-то давно от них не было пи-
сем. - А где они сейчас? 5. Мы работаем вместе уже пят-
надцать лет и привыкли понимать друг друга. 6. Что вы
здесь делаете? Разве вы не знаете, что здесь опасно сидеть?
7. Ты не слушаешь, что я говорю? Что с тобой случилось?
8. Я хочу поговорить с тобой с тех пор, как ты вернулась
домой. 9. Я думаю о твоем решении с тех пор, как мы рас-
стались. 10. Я жду с нетерпением твоего письма всю неде-
лю. 11. Я ищу Ника. Вы видели его? 12. Пдчему ты не но-
сишь новую одежду? 13. Студенты сдают экзамен с девяти
часов утра. 14. Что ты слушаешь? - Мне кажется, я слы-
шу какой-то странный звук. 15. Неужели ты не понима-
ешь, что он смеется над тобой?
Exercise VIII
Translate into English using the required present tense.
1. Дирижер еще не вышел, а оркестранты уже на своих ме-
стах и настраивают инструменты. 2. Неужели эта книга все
еще у него? Сколько времени он ее читает? 4. Он закончил
первую главу диссертации и пишет вторую. Он работает
над диссертацией уже 2 года. 5. Они уже приняли резолю-
цию по первому вопросу? - Нет. Они все еще спорят. Они
обсуждают этот вопрос уже два часа и еще не пришли ни к
7 Н. Утевская
193
какому соглашению. 6. Уже двадцать лет, как я живу в этом
городе. 7. Студенты пишут контрольную работу уже по-
чти два часа. Время подходит к концу, а пока только двое
сдали работы. 8. Художники работают с утра, так как мы
хотим выпустить новый номер журнала еще сегодня вече-
ром. 9. Сергей приехал? - Да, он здесь уже два дня. 10. Мы
работаем над этой проблемой уже год. 11. Я пытаюсь свя-
заться с ним в течение долгого времени, но я вижу, что это
бесполезно. 12. Они помирились? - Я не знаю. Я только
знаю, что они не разговаривают в течение нескольких дней.
13. Я работаю над этим переводом уже десять дней и сде-
лала больше половины. 14. Вы нашли ключ? - Да, нашла.
Я нашла его в собственном кармане.
Exercise IX
Translate into English using the required present tense.
1. Сколько времени вы занимаетесь музыкой? 2. Я не люб-
лю таких людей, как он. Он всегда мечтает, но ничего не
делает, чтобы осуществить свои мечты. 3. Что ты слуша-
ешь? - Я слушаю концерт из филармонии. 4. Вы кажется
очень интересуетесь медициной? - Да, я прочел много книг
по медицине. 5. Какой журнал вы сейчас просматриваете?
6. Не входите в комнату, она разговаривает с врачом. 7. Я
только что нашел ответ на этот трудный вопрос. 8. Я пре-
подаю в этом университете уже двадцать лет. 9. Теперь,
когда мы проработали столько времени и приобрели дос-
таточный опыт и знание, мы видим, чему нам еще нужно
научиться. 10. Как вы написали ваше упражнение? Пока-
жите его мне. 11. Почему вы открыли окно? В комнате до-
вольно холодно. Лучше закройте его опять.
The Past Perfect Continuous
Person Number	Affirmative Form	Interrogative Form	Negative Form
I	had (I’d) been speaking	Had I been speaking?	I had not (hadn’t) been speaking
He	had been speaking	Had he been speaking?	He had not been speaking
She	had been speaking	Had she been speaking?	She had not been speaking
It	had been speaking	Had it been speaking?	It had not been speaking
194
Person Number	Affirmative Form	Interrogative Form	Negative Form
We	had been speaking	Had we been speaking?	We had not been speaking
You	had been speaking	Had you been speaking?	You had not been speaking
They	had been speaking	Had they been speaking?	They had not been speaking
The Past Perfect Continuous is formed with the Past Perfect
of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle I of the notional verb.
The Past Perfect Continuous is used:
1) to denote an action in progress which began before a certain
moment in the past and continued up to a certain period of
time in the past:
She had been living in the country for a fortnight when a letter
came from her sister.
2) to denote a past action of certain duration which had visible
results in the past:
They were wet because they had been walking in the rain.
The Past Perfect Continuous is usually used with the prepo-
sitions for and since.
EXERCISES
Exercise I
Put the verb in brackets into the Past Perfect Continuous.
1. You (to wait) for half an hour before the taxi came.
2. I (to have a rest) at the sanatorium for two weeks when
the doctor arrived. 3. We (to work) in the garden for some
hours when it begartto rain. 4. She (to live) in the mountains
for a month when a telegram came from her mother. 5. We
(to walk) for two hours when we saw a lake in the distance.
6. I (to work) at my English for about two hours when my
friend came. 7. By the time she (to study) English for three
years. 8. She rose from the bench where she (to sit) for half
an hour. 9. The wind which (to blow) harder than ever from
the south all day, dropped at sunset. 10. They (to walk) quickly
and now they are approaching the place.
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Exercise II
Make up sentences according to the model.
Model: We began playing volleyball. After an hour it be-
gan raining.
We had been playing volleyball for an hour when it
began raining.
1.	The scientist worked at the experiment. After a year the prob-
lem was solved.
The scientist.........for a year..........when.........
2.	We packed up our things. After two hours it was time
to go to the railway station.
We...............when it...............
3.	The young man worked at the laboratory. After two years
he decided to enter the university.
The young man...............when	he.............
4.	The members of the expedition made preparations. After
some month they started for the North.
The members.................when	they............
Exercise III
Answer the questions.
Model: Did you write a composition yesterday? - Yes, I did.
How long had you been writing a composition be-
fore you went for a walk? (for two hours) - I had
been writing a composition for two hours.
1.	Did it snow yesterday?
How long have it been snowing when you left home? (for
2 hours)
2.	Did you stay at the hotel when you lived in Paris?
How long had you been staying at the hotel when you lived
in Paris? (for 10 days)
3.	Did you study English before you went to England?
How long had you been studying English before you went
to England? (for a year)
4.	Did you watch TV yesterday?
How long had you been watching TV before I came home?
(for an hour)
5.	Did your friend play chess?
How long had he been playing chess before he took part in
the competition (for 3 years)
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Exercise IV
Use the Past Perfect Continuous or Past Perfect in the fol-
lowing sentences.
1. Her name was Helen. She (to be) a widow for fifteen years
and had no children. 2. We talked about what we (to do) since
we left school. 3. We told them that in our absence the garden
(to be) looked after by an old man who (to live) in the area
since the war. 4. Now they were floating in the little green
boat upon the perfectly calm sea in which they (to swim) lately.
5. Jack was half an hour late and he asked what we (to eat)
because he wanted to order the same. 6. Nick said that he
(to write) all day and (not to eat) anything. 7. It was cold and
dark in the small room because it (to rain) for five days.
8.1 went into the kitchen. Nothing (to be) touched in it since
the morning before. 9. He said he (not to write) to me because
he (to work) on the new play for some months. 10. It (to freeze)
for the last few days, but it (not to snow). 11.1 was sure they
(to know) each other since the war and now (to correspond)
for years. 12.1 told him I (to be) in all evening. I (to wait) to
talk with him for. an hour.
Exercise V
Translate into English using the required past tenses.
1. Мальчики уже больше двух часов собирали велоси-
пед, когда пришел отец и сказал, что им придется все
снова разобрать, так как они неправильно его собрали.
2. Я уже долго работал, когда пришел мой брат. 3. Дождь
шел уже два часа, когда я вышел из дома. 4. Хотя солнце
светило, было еще холодно, так как в течение двух ча-
сов шел сильный снег. 5. Она спала уже три часа, когда
мы вернулись домой. 6. Его сестра уже жила там три года,
когда началась война. 7. Она работала на заводе без от-
дыха в течение долгого времени. 8. Он выглядел очень
усталым, когда я пришел к нему, потому что он гото-
вился к экзаменам в течение нескольких дней. 9. Они
плыли десять дней, когда, наконец, увидели землю.
10. К 12 часам он уже говорил больше часа; это было
очень длинное выступление. 11. Когда я пришел в биб-
лиотеку, он работал над докладом более двух часов.
12. Она работала полтора часа, когда Ник сказал, что
он больше работать не может.
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Exercise VI
Translate into English using the Past Continuous or the Past
Perfect Continuous.
1. Он несколько лет работал в школе, прежде чем стал пре-
подавать в университете. 2. Когда я уехала на дачу, мой
брат все еще работал. 3. Когда пошел дождь, мы бродили
по лесу. 4. Мы долго бродили по лесу, прежде чем увиде-
ли озеро. 5. Они три года жили в Луге, прежде чем пере-
ехали в Санкт-Петербург. 6. Когда разразилась война, они
жили в Новгороде. 7. Какие журналы вы просматривали,
когда я пришел в читальный зал? 8. Я просматривал жур-
налы около 2-х часов, прежде чем нашел нужную мне ста-
тью. 9. Дети спали, когда мы вернулись домой. 10. Дети
уже давно спали, когда мы вернулись домой. 11. Мы об-
суждали новый сборник стихотворений, когда он пришел
на собрание нашего литературного кружка. 12. Мы об-
суждали новый сборник стихотворений уже более часа,
когда он пришел. 13. Моя сестра говорила по телефону,
когда я решила лечь спать. 14. Она говорила по телефону
уже около получаса, когда я легла спать.
Exercise VII
Translate into English using the Past Continuous, the Past
Perfect Continuous or the Past Simple.
1. Был вечер. Моя мама читала книгу, а я писал письмо.
Вдруг вошел мамин брат. Мы разговаривали около часа,
когда позвонила его жена и напомнила ему о театре. 2. Что
ты делала вчера в это время? - Я писала доклад в библио-
теке. Я писала его час, когда в библиотеку пришли мои
друзья. - Когда ты вернулась домой? - Поздно. 3. С кем ты
вчера разговаривал, когда я встретил тебя на улице? - С
другом. Он два дня назад приехал из Киева. Мы говорили
уже 15 минут, когда ты вчера нас увидел. 4. Что ты делал
вчера в 10 часов утра? - Я был в больнице. Я осматривал
больных. Я осматривал их уже час, когда приехал профес-
сор Сергеев.
198
Revision of All the Past Tenses
a
к_
Exercise I
Use the Past Simple or the Past Continuous instead of the in-
finitives in brackets.
1. Around us people (to talk) German, Italian and English.
2. Robert (to talk) to some of the other guests when Nick (to
come in). 3. Michael (to look) constantly at his watch. 4. All
night long the stars (to glitter). 5. Lizzie (to eat) busily and (not
to raise) her head. 6.1 (to see) Irene yesterday at the Stores: she
and Mr Smith (to have) a nice little chat. 7. A few minutes later
he (to hurry) through the streets to the bus stop. 8. She (to try)
to open her bag as she (to walk) along the corridor, talking.
9. He (to drink) some of the wine and (to eat) several pieces of
bread while he (to wait) for his dinner to come up. 10. Andrew
(to write) a letter when the bell (to ring) and presently a short
man (to enter). A dog (to follow) him. There (to be) silence
while the man (to look) Andrew up and down. 11. Pete, turning
from the door, noticed that he (to stand) upon a letter which
(to lie) on the mat. 12. They (to move) into the shelter. The rain
(to come) down swiftly.
Exercise II
Use the Past Simple or the Past Perfect instead of the infini-
tives in brackets.
1. It (to be) perfectly true that he never (to take) the slightest
interest in his clothes. 2. At once Helen (to smile) at me; yet
I (to see) that it (to be) an effort for her to clear her mind of
what (to go) before. 3. He (to learn) already that when he (to
want) anything it was better to ask his mother first. 4. He
(not to be) well for a few weeks that’s why he (not to meet)
her. 5. Inquiring for her at tea-time he (to learn) that she (to
be out) in the car since two. 6. He (to wake) early that morning
possibly because the ringing of the fire alarm (to be) in his
mind most of the night. 7. Their friends (to call) for them
before they (to be) ready. 8. He (to recognize) me only after I
(to recollect) him where we (to meet) with him. 9. It was ten
o’clock in the evening but the twilight (not to come) yet.
10. He (to come) into the room and (to say) that he (to win)
the competitions. 11 . He said that he (not to remember) many
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details in the novel as he (to read) it in his childhood.
12. They (to complete) all the preparation for the meeting by
4 o’clock.
Exercise III
Use the Past Simple, the Past Perfect or the Past Perfect
Continuous instead of the infinitives in brackets.
1. When we (to leave) home, the rain already (to stop). 2. He
(to sit) in his room with two letters before him, one that he
just (to write) to Michael, and one that he just (to receive)
from him. 3. Not a word (to be spoken) till they (to be) out in
the lane, and (to walk) four or five yards, when Ann, who (to
look) straight before her all the while, (to turn) again to walk
back. 4. I (to ask) to tell me the way to the British Museum,
and I (to explain) that I (to look) for it for the last two hours.
5. The bell (to stop) ringing and they (to guess) that Betty
(to go away). 6. He (to think) he (to stay) in the water for a
long time. 7. She (to realize) that she (not to hear) her laugh
like that since before her illness. 8. All her anger (to go), the
last traces of hysteria (to disappear). Her mind (to be) clear as
it (not to be) clear in many weeks. 9. The doctor (to examine)
Jane’s throat. “Nothing wrong there”. He (to attend) her before
and it always (to be) the same, whenever he (to come) into the
room, his easy manner (to give) her comfort. 10. Suddenly
when he (to work) six months his wife (to fall) ill and (to write)
asking him to come.
Exercise IV
Make up a compound or complex sentence using the given
clause in the past tenses.
Model: ... you left the town ...
He had been working at the laboratory for several
months by October last and when you left the town
he was still working there.
Or: I had heard the news before you left the town,
but I couldn’t let you know.
1.	... she had been speaking over the telephone ...
2.	... he was reading a newspaper ...
3.	... they did not answer the letter ...
4.	... he had consulted the doctor ...
5.	... the ship was nearing land ...
200
6.	... they came to an agreement...
7.	... he missed the train ...
8.	... we had met...
9.	... it had been snowing ...
10.	... they had lost their way ...
Exercise V
Translate into English using the Past Simple, the Past Con-
tinuous, the Past Perfect and the Past Perfect Continuous.
1.	Когда я пришел, доктор был занят: он осматривал боль-
ного. Я сначала собирался обратиться к другому врачу, но
затем решил подождать. Я ждал около 20 минут, прежде
чем вошел в кабинет. К двум часам доктор осмотрел меня
и разрешил на следующий день идти на работу.
2.	Дети катались на коньках, когда мать позвала их до-
мой. Хотя они гуляли с самого утра, им не хотелось идти
домой. Но мать сказала, что они слишком долго были на
улице. После того как они отдохнули дома и пообедали,
они снова пошли на каток.
3.	Денни работал у себя в кабинете до восьми часов. По-
том они поужинали и почти до полуночи говорили о сво-
их планах на будущее.
4.	Анна, которая жила в соседнем доме и, которая оста-
лась с детьми, когда ее сестра уехала, сидела в гостиной и
что-то шила.
Exercise VI
Translate into English using the required past tenses.
1. Это случилось так давно, что я забыла об этом. 2. Сто-
яла поздняя осень. Почти все листья уже опали, и после-
дние птицы улетели на юг. 3. Едва только она начала го-
ворить об этом, как неожиданно заплакала. 4. Она
выключила свет и сидела в полной темноте. 5. Он уехал
год тому назад и с тех пор не написал нам ни одного пись-
ма. 6. Письмо пришло десять минут спустя после того, как
ты уехала. 7. Она взглянула на часы. Было уже около пяти.
Она прождала более получаса. 8. Тучи собирались целый
день, и наконец полил дождь. 9. Том, который громко сме-
ялся, вдруг замолчал. 10. Не отъехали они и трех километ-
ров, как погода изменилась. 11. Почему вы так поздно вер-
нулись домой вчера? 12. Когда вы были здесь в последний
раз?
201
Exercise VII
Translate into English using the required past tenses.
1. Вчера, когда я пришла в кино, мои друзья ждали там
уже 15 минут. 2. Когда мы приехали на практику, студен-
ты нашей группы работали там уже неделю. 3. Придя в те-
атр, Миша обнаружил, что спектакль начался и что акте-
ры играют на сцене уже несколько минут. 4. Петр жил в
университетском общежитии почти полгода, когда его
двоюродный брат Николай приехал навестить его. 5. Пос-
ле того как доктор ушел, она еще долго сидела у кроватки
девочки. 6. За стеной кто-то смеялся. Смех был такой весе-
лый, какого она давно не слышала. 7. К счастью, он не за-
метил ее красных глаз и не догадался, что она плакала.
8. Не успела она добежать до станции метро, как хлынул
дождь. 9. Он позвонил четверть часа тому назад и сказал,
что выезжает. 10. Мы выехали рано утром, надеясь доб-
раться до станции к полудню. Но не успели мы проехать
два километра, как у нас лопнула шина (tyre), и мы потра-
тили около часа на ее починку.
Exercise VIII
Translate into English using the required past tenses.
1. Когда я пришел, она уже вернулась и сидела у камина.
2. Часы только что пробили семь, когда я проснулся. 3. Едва
успели мы убрать комнату, как пришли гости. 4. Он не знал,
как долго он шел, но было уже поздно. 5. Ветер, дувший с
самого утра, прекратился, и стало опять тепло. 6. Прошлым
летом я посетил места, где жил в детстве. 7. Вы пообедали
прежде чем пошли в институт? 8. Я встретил своего друга,
когда он шел из университета. 9. Мы прожили в деревне
два месяца, когда моя сестра приехала навестить нас.
10. Мы ехали часа два, когда, наконец, увидели озеро.
11. Я бродил по лесу около часа, когда я увидел маленький
домик. 12. Дом стоял среди деревьев, и тропинка, по кото-
рой я шел, вела к нему.
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The Future Perfect Continuous
Person Number	Affirmative Form	Interrogative Form	Negative Form
I	shall/will (I’ll) have been speaking	Shall/will I have been speaking?	I will not (won’t)/ shall not (shan’t) have been speaking
He	will have been speaking	Will he have been speaking?	He will not have been speaking
She	will have been speaking	Will she have been speaking?	She will not have been speaking
It	will have been speaking	Will it have been speaking?	It will not have been speaking
We	shall/will have been speaking	Shall/will we have been speaking?	We shall/will not have been speaking
You	will have been speaking	Will you have been speaking?	You will not have been speaking
They	will have been speaking	Will they have been speaking?	They will not have been speaking
The Future Perfect Continuous denotes an action which be-
gins before a certain moment of time in the future and goes on
up to that moment or into it:
I will have been living in this house for five years next February.
The Future Perfect Continuous is used with the following
time expressions: by ...for.
By next year he will have been working here for two years.
The Future Perfect Continuous is used rather seldom.
0 EXERCISES
Exercise I
Put the verb in brackets into the Future Perfect Continuous.
1. At three o’clock I (to write) for six hours. 2. I (to work) for
three hours by five o’clock tomorrow. 3. He (to listen in) for
some time before you come home. 4. We (to travel) by sea for
several hours already by this time tomorrow. 5. She (to skate)
for more than an hour when you come home. 6. They (to play)
the Tchaikovsky Piano Concerto for about twenty minutes by
the time I get home. 7. He (to work) at this plant for twenty
years by the first of June. 8. When you return home at five o’clock
203
I (to work) for seven hours. 9. By next May I (to live) here for
ten years. 10. How long you (to write) a test before you give it to
the teacher?
Exercise II
Translate into English.
1. Я начну работать в десять часов утра. Когда вы вернетесь
домой в пять часов, я буду уже работать семь часов. 2. На
будущий год к этому времени они будут изучать англий-
ский язык уже четыре года. 3. Мы уже будем обедать полча-
са, когда вы заедете за нами. 4. Он будет писать статью уже
два часа, когда ты придешь. 5. Я буду учить новые слова
уже час, когда ты позвонишь мне. 6. На будущий год к это-
му времени она уже будет работать над диссертацией два
года. 7. К следующему сентябрю она будет преподавать
французский язык уже десять лет. 8. Я буду играть на скрипке
шесть лет, когда мне будет двадцать один год. 9. В будущем
июне будет шесть месяцев, как я живу в этом доме. 10. К 1 де-
кабря будет уже 15 лет, как я работаю здесь.
Revision of All the Future Tenses
1И EXERCISES
Exercise I
Use the correct tenses: Future Simple, Future Continuous
and Future Perfect.
A: (you - to come) for a picnic with me tomorrow, Kate?
K: Yes.
A: If I come to your house at 7, (you - to have) your breakfast
already?
K: No, I (probably still - to eat). And my parents (still - to
sleep) so don’t make a noise.
A: All right, I (to come) at 7.15 and I (not to make) any
noise.
K: Good. Where (you - to take) me?
A: To Zvenigorod. We (to walk) through the woods and up
the hill, and by 1 o’clock we (to become) very hungry, so
we (to eat) our sandwiches then. If we are lucky, the clouds
which are in the sky now (to disappear) by then and
the sun (to shine).
K: Yes, if the weather is good, we (to have) a lovely time.
204
A: Do you know, I have already been to Zvenigorod 24 times,
so after tomorrow, I (to be) there 25 times!
K: That (to be) fine. At what time (we - to come) home?
A: Five.
K: That’s good. My mother (already to finish) her housework
by then, and she (probably to listen) to the radio, but my
father (still - to work) in his office.
A: My parents (to return) from the cinema by then and (to wait)
for me to have supper with them.
Exercise II
Put the verb in brackets into the Future Simple, the Future
Continuous and the Present Simple.
1. We (to come) at 5 o’clock. - Good, I (to wait) for you.
2. When I (to get) home, my dog (to sit) at the door waiting for
me. 3. It (to be) the middle of June. They (to come) soon. 4. If you
(to want) to see us, come to Tom’s on Sunday. We (to wait) for
you there at midday. 5. At this time next week they (to sit) in the
train on their way to Moscow. 5. Don’t leave, we (to have) supper
in twenty minutes. 6. They (to have) English from nine to ten in
this room. Don’t let anyone disturb them then. 7.1 (to wait) for
you when you (to come). 8.1 (to call) for her at eight. - No, don’t,
she still (to have) breakfast then. 9. It’s beginning to get dark, the
street lights (to go) on in a few minutes.
Exercise III
Use the required future tense and the Present Simple.
1. We (to work) hard this time tomorrow. 2. He (to pass) his
examinations before you (to return) from Moscow. 3. They
(to learn) Spanish for ten months by the first of July. 4. The
expedition (to leave) for the North by April. 5. She (to take)
a music lesson at this time tomorrow. 6. By 6 o’clock she
(to take) her lesson. 7. She (to take) two lessons this week. 8. At
5.30 she (to take) her lesson for forty minutes. 9. They (to build)
a new theatre in our street. 10. They (to build) it when you (to
be) in the country in summer.
Exercise IV
Put the verb in brackets into the Present Simple, the Future
Simple and the Future Perfect.
1.1 (to suppose) when I (to come) back in two years time they
(to build) all these new houses. 2. You have just missed the last
205
train. - Never mind, I (to walk). 3. When we (to take) our exams
we (to have) a holiday. 4. You (know) the way to the Mariinsky
Theatre? - No. - Then I (to show) you. 5. By the time you (to
finish) cooking they (to do) their work. 6. By the time he (to
come) they (to go). 7.1 still (to be) here next summer but Tom
(to leave). 8.1 hope it (to stop) snowing by tomorrow morning.
9. If you (to think) it over you (to see) I am right. 10. I’m going
to Hyde Park to hear the people making speeches. - You (to
be) late. By the end of the day they (to finish) their speeches
and everybody (to go) home.
Exercise V
Translate the following sentences into English giving special
attention to the future tenses.
1. Давно ваш брат учится в медицинском университете? -
В июне уже будет пять лет, как он там учится. А к июлю
следующего года он уже закончит университет и будет ра-
ботать врачом уже около шести месяцев. 2. В будущем году,
когда профессор уйдет на пенсию, будет 46 лет, как он про-
работает в университете. 3. Весной уже будет десять лет,
как мы учимся в этой школе. К маю мы закончим занятия
и начнем сдавать экзамены. 4. Он отлично играет в волей-
бол. - Ничего удивительного. В мае будет пять лет, как он
играет. 5. Вы знаете, в следующем месяце будет 25 лет, как
наша семья живет в этом доме. - Да, значит, будет 25 лет,
как мы соседи. 6. Ты скоро сделаешь уроки? Ведь через де-
сять минут уже будет три часа, как ты пишешь. - Не беспо-
койся. К тому времени, когда начнут показывать матч по
телевизору, я уже сделаю все уроки.
Exercise VI
Translate the text into English giving special attention to the
future tenses.
Родители Коли навестят своего сына в санатории. К тому
времени, когда они приедут туда, он уже позавтракает и
будет, вероятно, играть в волейбол. Сначала они пого-
ворят с врачом. К этому времени Коля уже кончит иг-
рать в волейбол и будет готов провести с родителями
целый день. Они будут гулять в лесу, а в 2 часа Коля вер-
нется в санаторий к обеду. К трем часам все уже пообе-
дают. Потом ребята немного отдохнут. К тому времени,
как Коля проснется, его родители уже выкупаются в реке
206
и наберут ягод. Коля проводит родителей на станцию.
Они уверены, что Коля отдохнет хорошо и, когда он вер-
нется домой, он будет здоровым, загорелым и посвежев-
шим.
The Sequence of Tenses
The sequence of tenses is a dependence of the tense form
of the predicate of a subordinate clause on the tense form of
the predicate of its main clause. The rule mainly concern
object clauses. The rules are as follows:
1.	If the verb in the main clause is in the present or future tense
the verb in the subordinate clause may be in any tense (according
to the sense).
I know that he always makes mistakes in spelling.
I know that he made a mistake.
I know that he has made two bad mistakes in his dictation.
I know that he will make mistakes in the use of tenses.
2.	If the verb in the main clause is in the past tense, the verb
in the subordinate clauses must also be in one of the past
tenses.
a)	If the actions in the main and in the subordinate clauses
take place at the same time the Past Simple or the Past Con-
tinuous is used.
I thought that you corresponded with your penfriends regu-
larly.
I supposed that she was playing the piano in the next room.
b)	If the action of the subordinate clause took place before
the action of the main clause, the Past Perfect or the Past Per-
fect Continuous is used in the subordinate clause.
I thought that the young man had worked as a teacher in that
town.
I imagined that the students had been travelling by train.
c)	If the action of the subordinate clause follows the action
of the main clause the Future in the Past is used in the subordi-
nate clause.
He knew she would read the book the next weekend.
Remember how the.tenses are changed according to the rule
of the sequence of tenses.
207
Present Simple
I work
Present Continuous
He is working
Present Perfect
I have worked
Past Simple
I worked
Past Continuous
I was working
Past Perfect
I had worked
Future Simple
will
can
may
must
Past Simple
I worked
Past Continuous
He was working
Past Perfect
I had worked
Past Perfect
(or stays the same)
I had worked/worked
Past Perfect Continuous
I had been working
does not change
Future in the Past
would
could
might
must or had to
The rules of the sequence of tenses may not be observed in
the following cases:
1.	where the subordinate clause describes a general truth, or
something which the speaker thinks to be one.
The other day I read in a book that everything alive consists
mostly of water.
2.	where the verb of the subordinate clause is one of the modal
verbs having no past tense forms.
She said I must come at once.
He said I needn’t try it again.
3.	when the subordinate clause is an attributive one. Then its
verb may be in any tense (according to the sense).
Yesterday I saw the man who will deliver us lectures in
chemistry.
4.	when the action of the subordinate clause refers to a definite
past moment (in 1935, two years ago, when he rang me up).
He told me that his youngest son was born in 1950.
208
Igf EXERCISES
Exercise I
Say whether the action of the object clause precedes, follows
or is simultaneous with the action of the principal clause in
the following sentences.
1. He asked me if I was going to study at the university. 2. She
said that she had met her friend on her way to school. 3. She
asked if I would come to the conference. 4. He made sure that
the child was provided for. 5. They heard that he would be
quite well again. 6. She knew it would happen one day. 7. He
did not know what he was talking about. 8. I wrote and said
I was coming. 9.1 replied that I was very well, and that I hoped
she was the same. 10. Pete telephoned from the office to say
that he had agreed to our proposal. 11. It was strange that she
didn’t speak to you.
Exercise II
Make the actions in the following object clauses simulta-
neous with those of their principal clauses.
1.1 was surprised you (to know) my telephone number. 2. She
cannot understand what he (to do) in the room. 3.1 could not
remember what he (to look) like. 4. Soon he will be asking if all
the doors (to be) locked for the night. 5. We saw that the lecturer
(to come). 6. Everybody knew that he (to attend) evening
classes. 7. Father said he (to work) hard the whole day. 8.1 was
sure that he (to wait) for me in the library. 9. He admitted that
he (to speak) French very well. 10. He asked me where my
brother (to work).
Exercise III
Make the actions in the following object clauses precede those
of their principal clauses.
1. He said that he (to ask) permission to go home earlier.
2. Nobody knew where he (to spend) his holidays. 3. I was
sure that he (to leave) Moscow. 4. They informed us that they
(to send) the books by parcel post. 5. He said that he (to go)
to the theatre the day before. 6. One day I’ll tell you why
I never (to marry). 7. I wondered what she (to do) there so
late at night. 8. I didn’t know what (to go) wrong between
them. 9. She was glad I (to coihe) early. 10.1 thought that he
(to graduate) from the university two years before.
209
Exercise IV
Make the actions in the following object clauses follow those
of their principal clauses.
1. He decided that he (to go) to London as soon as possible.
2. They said they (to work) seven hours a day. 3. He promised
that he (to give) a lecture in near future. 4. Did they decide that
they (to leave) for Paris? 5. They wondered if he (to come) back.
6. It is impossible that they (to make) any considerable progress
in so short a time. 7.1 think you (to stay) in town for a night at
least. 8. Before leaving the house, she told her mother she
(to work) in the hospital that afternoon. 9.1 sent them a telegram
to say I (to go) to England and that I (to write). 10. It was
understood that he (to invite) us to lunch on Saturday.
Exercise V
Use the required tense-aspect forms in the following sentences,
observing the rules of the sequence of tenses.
1. He hastened back home in the hope that the guests (not to go)
all yet. 2.1 don’t think I ever (to see) you before. 3. She felt that
her friend (not to want) to disturb her. 4. He telephoned his wife
to the office to say that her brother (to return) from abroad.
5. An old friend rang up to ask her brother if he (to have) a good
time in the USA. 6. She knew that he (to be worried) by the
letter. 7. He knew that his mother (to speak) to the teacher.
8. The question was why he (to do) it at all. 9. She couldn’t
understand why he (to tell) her such a lie. 10. She said that her
sister (to go) to Washington too.
Exercise VI
Use the required tense-aspect forms in the following sentences,
observing the rules of the sequence of tenses.
1.1 thought that you (to arrive) at some decision. 2. He believed
that a fine memory (to be) absolutely necessary for that work.
3.1 did not know if you (to apply) for this job. 4. He promised
that he (to give) a lecture in the nearest future. 5.1 did not know
how my bag (to disappear). 6. The teacher said he (to call on) the
students in alphabetical order. 7. Did she say that there (to be)
a lot of mistakes in your composition? 8. Did she find out that he
(to come) late at night? 9. She asked me if I (to get on) well with
my classmates. 10. I was sure that his brother (to go) home.
11. Did they decide that they (to leave) for Moscow? 12. She
didn’t know why she (to invent) suddenly the story.
210
Exercise VII
Translate the following into English observing the rules of
the sequence of tenses.
1. Я был уверен, что он уже жалеет, что был невежлив с
ней. 2. Он еще не знал, что будет делать в Нью-Йорке. 3. Я
был уверен, что вы дадите мне телеграмму, когда приедете
в Москву. 4. Вы знали, что я ее жду вечером? 5. Мы еще не
решили, кто пойдет на конференцию. 6. Все полагали, что
у него есть братья и сестры. 7. Он ответил, что он еще не
обедал. 8. Елена не была уверена, что она подготовится к
докладу завтра. 9. Учитель спросил, кто хочет отвечать.
10. Ему сказали, что все студенты пошли в зал. 11. Кто-то
спросил, кто будет жить с ним в этой комнате.
Exercise VIII
Translate the following into English observing the rules of
the sequence of tenses.
1. Я не заметила, что идет снег. 2. Я не знала, что снег идет
с самого утра. 3. Он надеялся, что погода будет хорошая.
4. Она не знала, что в Англии зимой редко идет снег. 5. Я
знала, что в Африке температура почти никогда не бывает
ниже нуля. 6. Нам сказали, что в Африке выпал снег. 7. Я
была уверена, что вы пойдете на эту выставку. 8. Я дума-
ла, что вам понравится эта выставка картин. 9. Я не слы-
шала, что говорил экскурсовод, когда мы вошли в зал.
10. Она сказала, что провела в музее около трех часов.
11. Она сказала, что все это время она осматривала кол-
лекцию старинных монет. 12. Я была уверена, что она сно-
ва пойдет в музей, как только у нее будет свободное время.
Exercise IX
Translate the following into English observing the rules of
the sequence of tenses.
1. Я подумал, что он устал, и спросил его, что он делал все
это время. 2. У меня было впечатление, что он находится
там уже некоторое время. 3. Я кивнул и сказал «да», чув-
ствуя, что это именно то, чего ей хочется. 4. Я понял, что
он ничего не сделает, чтобы помочь мне. 5. У меня было
подозрение, что она забыла упомянуть, что я жду. 6. Он
знал, о чем она думает. 7. Я не имею понятия, знает ли она,
что ее мать будет здесь. 8. Кстати, Аня знает, что мой брат
приезжает завтра? 9. Он еще не знал, что будет делать в
211
Нью-Йорке. 10. Он сказал, что читает лекции в универси-
тете. 11. Петр сказал другу, что его отец летом болел.
12. Он сказал, что был в театре два дня тому назад. 13. Он
напомнил, что знает ее с 1995 года. 14. Он повторил, что
занимался уже два часа, когда вы ему позвонила.
Exercise X
Translate the following into English observing the rules of
the sequence of tenses.
В прошлом году я встретил одного из студентов нашего кур-
са. Я спросил его, что он сейчас делает. Он ответил, что учит-
ся в аспирантуре. Я спросил его, когда он поступил и кто его
научный руководитель. Он сказал, что учится в аспирантуре
уже год и его научный руководитель заведующий кафедрой.
Меня интересовало, сдал ли он какие-либо экзамены и опуб-
ликованы ли у него статьи по теме диссертации. Он ответил,
что одна статья напечатана, две другие печатаются сейчас, и
он надеется, что они будут напечатаны к концу года. Он до-
бавил, что уже сдал два экзамена по языку и философии. Он
сказал, что давно мечтает о преподавательской карьере и
хочет читать лекции после окончания аспирантуры.
Direct and Reported Speech
Direct Speech is the exact words someone said. We use in-
verted commas in Direct Speech.
“I play football for my school team, ” he said.
Reported Speech is the exact meaning of what someone said
but not the exact words.
We do not use inverted commas in Reported Speech.
He said he played football for his school team.
Changing from Direct into Reported
Speech
Statements
Direct Speech
We work hard,” he said.
We are working hard,” they
said.
Reported Speech
They said (that) they worked
hard.
They said (that) they were
working hard.
212
We have worked hard,” they
said.
We worked hard,” they said.
We will work hard,” they
said.
We have been working hard,”
they said.
We are going to work
harder,” they said.
We can work harder,” they
said.
We may work harder,” they
said.
We must work harder,” they
said.
We should work harder,”
they said.
We ought to work harder,”
they said.
They said (that) they had
worked hard.
They said (that) they had
worked hard.
They said (that) they would
work hard.
They said (that) they had been
working hard.
They said (that) they were
going to work harder.
They said (that) they could
work harder.
They said (that) they might
work harder.
They said (that) they had to/
must work harder.
They said (that) they should
work harder.
They said (that) they ought
to work harder.
L Say is used in Direct Speech. It is also used in Reported Speech
when say is not followed by the person the words were spoken to.
“I can play chess, ’’ he said. He said he could play chess.
Tell is used in Reported Speech when it is followed by the
person the words were spoken to.
“I can speak English, ” he said to me. He told me he could
speak English.
IL Personal pronouns and possessive adjectives change
according to the context.
I said, ‘7 am busy. ” He said that he was busy.
*7 will show you my new dress, ” she said. She said she would
show me her new dress.
III. The conjunction that is introduced before indirect sentences.
He said (that) he was happy.
Certain words change as follows depending on the context.
Direct Speech this these here now now that	Reported Speech that those there then since
213
today	that day
tomorrow	the next day,	the following day
yesterday the day before, the previous day
ago	before
last night	the previous	night
tonight	that night
hence	thence
thus	so
Time words and tenses can change or remain the same de-
pending on the time reference. If the reported sentence is out of
date, the tenses change. If the reported sentence is up to date,
the tenses can remain the same.
“They are leaving next week, ” he said. He said they were leav-
ing the following week, (speech reported after they had left -
out of date).
“They are leaving next week, ” he said. He said they are leav-
ing next week, (speech reported before they have left - up to
date).
When the reporting verb is in the past Reported Speech is
formed according to the rules of the sequence of tenses.
“I like music, ” she said. She said she liked music.
The Tense Shift when Changing from
Direct Speech to Reported Speech
DirectSpeech
Ф Reported Speech
Present Simple ф
Present Continuous ф
Present Perfect ф
Past Simple ф
Past Continuous ф
Future Simple ф
Future Continuous ф
Future Perfect
Past Simple
Past Continuous
Past Perfect
Past Perfect
Past Perfect Continuous
Future in the Past
Future Continuous in the Past
Future Perfect in the Past
Direct Speech
The student said, “I do my
homework in the evening.”
Mother said, “Nick is reading
for his exam.”
Reported Speech
The student said that he did his
homework in the evening.
Mother said that Nick was
reading for his exam.
214
Tom said to me, “I have
finished my course paper.”
Tom said to me, “I finished my
course paper yesterday. ”
The old man said, “It was
snowing hard this week.”
The girls said, “We will be free
after the classes.”
The pupils said, “We will be
writing our test-paper for
two hours.”
The graduate said, “I will
have finished my report by
the end of the week.”
Tom told me that he had
finished his course paper.
Tom said me that he had
finished his course paper
the day before.
The old man said that it had
been snowing hard that
week.
The girls said that they would
be free after the classes.
The pupils said that they
would be writing their test-
paper for two'hours.
The graduate said that he would
have finished his report by
the end of the week.
The tenses do not change in Reported Speech when:
a. the reporting verb (said, told etc) is in the Present, Future or
Present Perfect Tense.
“The post office is near here, ” he says. He says the post office
is near here.
b. the speaker expresses general truths, permanent states and
conditions.
“Water turns into ice, ” he said. He said water turns into ice.
c. the speaker is reporting something immediately after it was
said (up to date).
“I will ring you up, ” he said. He said he will ring me up.
L If the speaker expresses something which is believed to be
true, the tenses may change or remain unchanged. If something
untrue is expressed, then the tenses definitely change.
“She likes cherries very much, ” she said. She said she likes/
liked cherries very much.
“Latvia is a poor country, ” he said. He said Latvia was a poor
country.
The Past Simple changes into the Past Perfect or can remain
the same.
IL When the reported sentence contains a time clause, the tenses
do not change.
“When I was staying in London I met Ann twice, ” she said.
She said she had met/met Ann twice when she was staying in
London.
215
III. The Past Perfect and the Past Continuous usually remain
the same in Reported Speech.
‘7 was doing my homework while my mother was cooking, ”
he said. He said he was doing his homework while his mother was
cooking.
IV. If the reported sentence deals with unreal past, conditional
sentences or wishes, the tenses remain the same.
‘7/7 were you, I would apologize, ” he said.
He said that if he were me, he would apologize.
Reported Questions/
Indirect Questions
Direct Questions	Reported Questions	Indirect Questions
He asked me, “Did	He asked me if/	He wonders whe-
you enjoy the	whether I had en-	ther I enjoyed
party?”	joyed the party.	the party.
He asked me,	He asked me what	Do you know what
“What time is	time it was.	time it is?
it?”		
He asked me,	He asked me what I	He wants to know
“What are you	was doing.	what I am do-
doing?”		ing.
In reported questions we use the word order of an affirma-
tive sentence and the question mark becomes a full stop.
To report a question we use:
a.	ask + wh-word (who, where etc) when the direct question
begins with a wh-word (a wh-question).
b.	ask + if/whether when the direct question begins with an auxiliary
verb (do, have, can etc) (a yes/no question).
Pronouns, possessive adjectives, tenses, time expressions etc.
change as in statements.
He said, “What are you reading?” He asked what I was reading.
He said, “Do you like sports?” He asked if/whether I liked
sports.
We use indirect questions to ask for information/advice and
reported questions to report someone else’s questions, sugges-
tions, offers or requests.
Indirect questions are introduced with:
Could you tell me ...?, Do you know ...?, I wonder ...?,
I want to know ...?, I doubt...? etc.
216
If the indirect question starts with:
I wonder I want to know I doubt ... Then the ques-
tion mark is omitted.
Reported Commands/Requests/
Suggestions
Direct Commands,
Requests, Suggestions_
“Go to bed,” father said to me.
“Don’t make such a noise,”
the teacher said.
“Please, stay with us tonight,”
she said to her.
“Can I go for a walk?” he
asked.
“Let’s play hockey,” they said.
Reported Commands,
Requests, Suggestions_______
Father told me to go to bed.
(command)
The teacher ordered not to make
such a noise, (command)
She asked her to stay with
them that night, (request)
He asked to go for a walk, (re-
quest)
They suggested playing
hockey, (suggestion)
To report commands, requests, suggestions, we use an in-
troductory verb (to advise, to ask, to beg, to offer, to order,
to suggest, to tell etc.) followed by a to-infinitive, an -ing form
or a that - clause according to the introductory verb.
When we report a speaker’s words we don’t just use rules
mechanically, we interpret what we hear or read, so we use
proper introductory verbs like the following.
Introductory Verbs
Introductory Verb
agree to + inf
соглашаться
demand требовать
offer предлагать
promise обещать
refuse отказываться
threaten угрожать
Direct Speech
Yes, I’ll go to the
shop.”
Tell me the truth.”
Would you like me
to help you?”
I will ring you up.”
No, I won’t come to
see you.”
I punish you.”
Reported Speech
He agreed to go to the
shop.
He demanded to be
told the truth.
He offered to help
me.
He promised to ring
me up.
He refused to come
to see me.
He threatened to
punish me.
217
claim утверждать
advise +sb+ to-inf
советовать
allow разрешать
ask просить
beg просить,
умолять
command приказы-
вать
encourage вооду-
шевлять
forbid запрещать
instruct обучать
invite sb приглашать
order приказывать
permit разрешать
remind напоминать
urge убеждать
warn предупреж-
дать
want хотеть
accuse sb of + ing
form обвинять
apologize for
извиняться
admit (to) призна-
вать
boast about хвас-
таться
complain to sb about
жаловаться
“I witnessed the
crime.”
“You should consult
a doctor.”
“You can take my
dictionary.”
“Please, open the win-
dow.”
“Please, please don’t
hit the dog.”
“Stand up.”
“Tell me everything.”
“You mustn’t come
home late.”
“Mix the eggs with
the flour.”
“I’d like you to come
to the party.”
“Don’t forget to tell
Ann.”
“You may speak to
the doctor.”
“Don’t forget to turn
the gas off.”
“Try to be patient.”
“Don’t leave your
room.”
“I’d like you to be
polite.”
“You behaved as if
you were guilty.”
“I’m sorry I offended
you.”
“Yes, I was wrong.”
“I’m the best football
player.”
“You are always dis-
pleased.”
He claimed to have
witnessed the crime.
He advised me to con-
sult a doctor.
He allowed me to take
his dictionary.
He asked me to open
the window.
He begged me not to
hit the dog.
He commanded me to
stand up.
He encouraged me to
tell him everything.
He forbade us to
come home late.
He instructed me to
mix the eggs with
the flour.
He invited me (to go)
to his party.
He ordered me not to
forget to tell Ann.
He permitted/allowed
me to speak to the
doctor.
He reminded me to
turn the gas off.
He urged me to try to
be patient.
He warned me not to
leave my room.
He wanted me to be
polite.
He accused me of be-
having as if I were
guilty.
He apologized for of-
fending me.
He admitted (to) be-
ing wrong.
He boasted about be-
ing the best foot-
ball player.
He complained to me
about my being
displeased.
218
deny отрицать
insist on настаивать
suggest предлагать
agree + that clause
соглашаться
claim заявлять
complain жаловаться
deny отрицать
exclaim восклицать
explain объяснять
inform sb сообщать
promise обещать
explain to sb + how
объяснять
wonder where/what
why/how + clause
(when the subject
of the introductory
verb is not the
same as the subject
in the indirect
question)
wonder + whether +
to-inf or clause
wonder where/what/
how + to-inf
(when the subject
of the infinitive is
the same as the
“No, I didn’t tell a
lie.”
“You must buy that
coat.”
“Let’s go to the thea-
tre.”
“Yes, she’s very cle-
ver.”
“I saw the accident.”
“You don’t think
about me.”
“I have never heard
about it.”
“It’s a problem.”
“It’s your mistake.”
“Pete is sick.”
“I won’t be late.”
“That’s how I got a
prize.”
He asked himself,
“How old is she?”
He asked himself,
“Where is my um-
brella?”
He asked himself,
“Why is she so
nervous?”
He asked himself,
“What is the right
answer?”
He asked himself,
“Shall I invite
them?”
He asked himself,
“Where shall I go?”
He asked himself,
“What shall I do
” first?”
He denied telling/hav-
ing told a lie.
He insisted on my
buying that coat.
He suggested going to
the theatre.
He agreed that she
was very clever.
He claimed that he had
seen the accident.
He complained that I
didn’t think about
him.
He denied that he had
ever heard about it.
He exclaimed that it
was a problem.
He explained that it
was my mistake.
He informed that
Pete was sick.
He promised that he
wouldn’t be late.
He explained to me
how he had got a
prize.
He wondered how old
she was.
He wondered where
his umbrella was.
He wondered why she
was so nervous.
He wondered what
the right answer
was.
He wondered whether
to invite them.
He wondered whether
he should invite
them.
He wondered where
to go.
He wondered what to
do first.
219
subject of the
verb)
He asked himself, He wondered how to
“How shall I tell tell her.
her?”
1И EXERCISES
Exercise I
Turn the following sentences into Reported Speech.
1.	“I am busy,” he said.
2.	“I saw the film you recommended last night,” she said to
her.
3.	“I didn’t agree with you,” Lucy said.
4.	“I invited some boys to my birthday party,” Nick said.
5.	“I’m going to Spain next week,” he said.
6.	“Water freezes below 0 °C,” he said.
7.	“I have saved enough money to buy a present for my
mother,” she said.
8.	“I will come to see you tomorrow,” Lucy said to me.
9.	“If I finish my work this evening, I’ll go out,” he said to
her.
10.	“I have brought some fruit,” she said.
11.	“I will reach the top of the mountain,” the traveller said.
12.	“I saw him yesterday but he didn’t recognize me,” she said
to her.
Exercise II
Turn the following sentences into Reported Speech.
1.	“I won’t go to the party,” she said to her friend.
2.	“Ann has gone away,” Tom said.
3.	“I’m hungry,” he said to his mother.
4.	“I’m working tomorrow,” Mike said.
5.	“He’s never written home before,” Kate said to her friend.
6.	“The sun is a big star,” the teacher explained.
7.	“Your spelling has become better,” the teacher said.
8.	“This place is not vacant,” the passenger said.
9.	“I have changed my mind and I intend to spend the evening
at home,” she said to me over the telephone.
10.	“This song is not popular any longer,” the young man
said.
11.	“I liked this play very much,” my friend said after return-
ing from the theatre.
220
12.	“We will settle this question tomorrow,” Mary said to her
mother.
Exercise III
Report the following using a proper introductory verb from
the list bellow.
promise, apologize, remind, complain, deny, inform, order, al-
low, forbid, encourage
1.	“I haven’t marked the exam papers,” the teacher said to
me.
2.	“I’ll tidy up when I return home,” Nick said to his
mother.
3.	“Don’t forget to thank your father,” she said to her daugh-
ter.
4.	“You mustn’t come home so late,” she said to her son.
5.	“I’m sorry I forgot to send a letter,” she said.
6.	“You may take my dictionary,” Mike said to his brother.
7.	“I didn’t hit him,” Helen said.
8.	“Get off the grass at once,” he said to the kids.
9.	“Try it again,” she said to me.
10.	“You’re always forgetting to shut the door,” she said to
her husband.
Exercise IV
Turn the following into indirect questions.
1.	Where is the post office? (Do you know ...)
2.	What have you done? (I wonder ...)
3.	Are we going for a walk? (I want to know ...)
4.	Have I made a mistake? (I doubt...)
5.	Whose umbrella is this? (I wonder ...)
6.	Does the bus stop here? (Could you tell me ...)
7.	What time is it? (Do you know ...)
8.	Will you come with me? (I want to know ...)
9.	When do you have your dinner? (Could you tell me ...)
10.	Where does your sister live? (I want to know ...)
Exercise V
Change the following from Direct into Reported Speech.
1.	“Open the parcel, please,” she said to me.
2.	“Go to your room and stay there,” his father said.
3.	“Don’t walk on the grass,” she said to us.
221
4.	“Where will you show me your stamps?” Boris asked me.
5.	“Where did you gather these plants?” the teacher asked.
6.	“Do you like to read English books?” Kate asked me.
7.	“What size shoes do you take?” the shop assistant said to
him.
8.	“Did you pay the electricity bill?” he said to his wife.
9.	“Do it at once,” father said to the boy.
10.	“Will you dine with us?” she said to me.
11.	“We bought this thing a week ago,” mother said to me.
12.	“Don’t stay up reading too late,” my father said to me.
13.	“Let’s paint the walls blue,” my little sister said.
14.	“I’ll phone you at seven o’clock tonight,” she said to him.
Exercise VI
Turn the following sentences into Reported Speech.
1.	“She will come tomorrow,” he said.
2.	“I am busy,” she said to me.
3.	“Do you speak French?” they asked me.
4.	“When did you leave home yesterday?” my father asked
me.
5.	“Will you come to see us tomorrow?” I asked her.
6.	“I will apply for this post,” the doctor said.
7.	“He shares the room with his brother,” I answered.
8.	“Wait for me at the school entrance,” Jane said.
9.	“When did you have lunch today?” he asked.
10.	“Are you ready to listen to the lecture?” the professor asked
the students.
11.	“Will you get off the bus at the next stop?” she asked me.
12.	“I have never eaten such a dish in my life,” the boy said.
13.	“You can buy a new coat next year,” my father said.
Exercise VII
Supply the principal clauses using as predicates verbs best
suited to the sense of each sentence.
1..........(that) he had never seen the white nights before.
2..........(that) he was delighted.
3..........(that) he would miss us greatly.
4..........(that) they would be able to take the tickets before-
hand.
5..........(that) he had never expected to see such a beautiful
city.
6..........whether I had ever been to Kiev.
222
7.........if I should like to go down the Volga with them.
8.........whether we would meet.
9.........which I preferred: travelling by land or by sea.
10	what kind of sport I was keen on.
11	which of the players would win.
12	how many records I had got.
13	in what direction we intended to go.
14	(that) they would have left already by the next Sun-
day.
15	(that) I should have to see them off.
16	if I had ever taken part in a boat-race.
Exercise VIII
Turn the following into Reported Speech; use different in-
troductory verbs.
Model: Do you ever work in the garden? She asked me if I
ever worked in the garden.
1.	What sort of flowers do you like?
2.	Do you like pansies?
3.	Where will you plant those lovely poppies?
4.	Are these garden or wild flowers?
5.	Do you water the flowers in the morning or in the evening?
6.	Are tulips shade-loving flowers?
7.	Who has broken the boughs of the lime-tree?
8.	Why have these flowers opened so soon?
9.	Have you ever seen a cherry orchard in blossom?
10.	Will you grow vegetables in your kitchen garden next year?
Exercise IX
Complete the following sentences.
A
1.	She asked if......
2.	She wondered when.........
3.	She wanted to know where.........
4.	She was interested to know how.......
5.	She inquired for what purpose.......
6.	She would like to know how much.........
В
1.	He told them to.......
2.	My mother asked me to........
3.	My brother advised me to.......
223
4.	The doctor forbade her to....
5.	The guide warned us not to.....
6.	The nurse persuaded the patient not to...
C
1.........not to worry about me.
2.........to do physical exercises regularly.
3.........not to go skating on such thin ice.
4.........to pay more attention to his health.
5.........not to allow her children to play on the road.
6.........to keep up correspondence with him.
Modal Verbs in Reported Speech
The forms of some modal verbs change in Reported Speech
when the reported sentence is out of date.
will/shall i=> would
can
may
shall
must
needn’t
i=> could/would be able to
t=> might
Ф should (asking for advice)
would (asking for information)
offer (expressing offers)
Ф must/had to (obligation)
i=> didn’t need to, didn’t have to/wouldn’t
have to
Would, could, need to, mustn 7, should, might, ought to, had
better remain the same.
Direct Speech
He said, “I’ll see you later.”
He said, “I can run fast.”
He said, “I can ring you up
tomorrow.”
He said, “I may see Pete.”
He said, “How should I repair
the tap?”
He said, “When shall we come
back?”
He said, “Shall I tidy up the
room?”
Reported Speech
He said (that) he would see me
later.
He said (that) he could run
fast.
He said (that) he would be able
to ring me up the next day.
He said (that) he might see
Pete.
He asked how he should repair
the tap.
He asked how to repair the tap.
He asked when they would
come back.
He offered to tidy up the room.
224
He said, “You must return the
book.”
He said, “You must be kind.”
He said, “You should rest
more.”
He said, “You had better help
__ _ 99
me.
He said, “You needn’t do it
now.”
He said, “You needn’t come
tomorrow.”
He said (that) I must/had to re-
turn the book.
He said (that) I must be kind.
He said (that) I should rest
more.
He said (that) I had better help
him.
He said (that) I didn’t need to/
I didn’t have to do it then.
He said (that) I wouldn’t have
to go the next day.
Reporting a Dialogue or a Conversation
In conversations or dialogues we use statements, commands
and questions. When we report dialogues or conversations,
we use: and, as, adding that, and he/she added that, explaining
that, because, but, since, so, and then he/she went on to say,
while, then etc or the introductory verb in the present partici-
ple form.
Exclamations such as: Oh! Oh dear! Well! etc are omitted in
Reported Speech.
Direct Speech
“Oh, that is a very nice dress!”
she said. “Where did you
buy it?”
“It is so difficult for you,” she
said. “Shall I help you?”
“Why don’t you come over for
dinner on Friday?” she said.
“We could discuss your
problem then.”
Reported Speech
She remarked/exclaimed that
it was a very nice dress and
she asked where I had
bought it.
She said it was so difficult for
me offering to help.
She invited me to dinner on
Friday suggesting that we
could discuss my problem
then.
Exclamations/Yes/No Short Answers/
Question Tags
Exclamations are introduced in Reported Speech with ex-
claim, thank, wish, say, cry out in pain, give an exclamation
of surprise/horror/disgust/delight, scream with pain/surprise
etc.
8 H. Утевская
225
The exclamation mark becomes a full stop. Exclamatory
words such as Oh!, Eee!, Wow! etc are omitted in the reported
sentence.
“Oh dear! I’ve torn my dress!” She exclaimed that she had
torn her dress.
Yes/no short answers are expressed in Reported Speech with
the subject + a proper auxiliary verb or the subject + a proper
introductory verb.
“Can you come to see me?” he said. - “No, ” she said. He
asked her if she could come to see him and said she couldn 't.
or He asked her if she could come to see him, but she refused.
Question tags are omitted in Reported Speech. We can use a
proper introductory verb.
“He isn't lying, is he?” she said. She wondered if he was
lying.
Conversational Formulas
Direct Speech
“Pete,” said Kate, “meet my
friend, Mike.”
The teacher said, “Hello.
(Good morning, good after-
noon).”
“Hello, Ann,” said Nick. -
“Hello, Nick,” said Ann.
“Good morning, darling,” said
mother.
Alice said, “Many happy re-
turns of the day, Kate.”
“Congratulations,” said
mother. “I am so glad you
passed your finals!”
Mary said, “Excuse my ring-
ing up so early (late).”
“You’re always welcome to
our home,” said Ann’s
mother to Nell.
Reported Speech
Kate introduced Mike to Pete.
The teacher greeted her pupils.
Ann and Nick exchanged
greetings.
Mother wished good morning
to me.
Alice greeted Kate on her
birthday.
Alice wished Kate many
happy returns of the day.
Mother congratulated me on
passing my finals.
Mary apologized to me for
ringing up so early (late).
Ann’s mother expressed a
warm welcome to Nell.
226
3 EXERCISES
Exercise I
Rewrite the following conversations in Reported Speech.
A. “How can I lose weight?” Nick said.
“You mustn’t eat sweets. But you can eat vegetables and
fruit. You should also get plenty of exercise,” said the
doctor.
“Shall I go in for gymnastics?” said Nick.
“No, you needn’t. You can go jogging every day,” said
the doctor.
B. “Are you English?” Jane said.
“Yes, I am. I come from Manchester,” said Mr Kelly.
“Is it your first visit to Moscow?” said Jane.
“No, I’ve been here once before. I visited Moscow and
St Petersburg two years ago,” said Mr Kelly.
“Are you here on holiday?” said Jane.
“No, I have come to Moscow on business,” said Mr Kelly.
“How long are you staying?” said Jane.
“I shall be here for three weeks,” said Mr Kelly.
“Are you going to visit St Petersburg again?” said Jane.
“No, I’m afraid not. I’ve been very busy. And we are flying
to England from Moscow,” said Mr Kelly.
С. “I don’t want to go to the canteen alone. Will you join me
for lunch?” Mary said.
“I’d love to,” Ann said.
“When will you be free?” Mary said.
“In a quarter of an hour,” Ann said.
“All right, then, we’ll go together,” Mary said.
D. On entering the old lady’s room he said, “I hope I haven’t
interrupted your work!”
“Of course not. Sit down, please. Have a cup of tea?”
“Thanks, I’ve had my tea.”
She said, “I haven’t seen you for ages. How is your wife?”
“She is all right now!” he answered. “Don’t you want to
come and see our baby? My wife says she is a darling.”
“Don’t you think so?”
“Of course, I do. But I think I’ll love her more when she
grows up,” he added.
The old lady smiled. “That’s a tender father!”
227
Exercise II
Turn the following into Reported Speech.
1.	“Ouch!” he said, as the nurse gave him the injection.
2.	“You’ll try to do it as quick as possible, won’t you?” he
said to her.
3.	“Wow!” she said when she first saw the Pyramids.
4.	“You’ll try not to be late, won’t you?” he said to his
mother.
5.	“Would you like another cup of tea?” she asked. “Yes,
please,” he replied.
6.	“Will you leave your dictionary?” she asked. “Of course,”
he said.
7.	“You rang me up yesterday, didn’t you?” he asked.
8.	“You could lend me some money, couldn’t you?” he asked
me.
9.	“Ugh!” she said, as she stepped into the mud.
10.	“Damn! I’ve twisted my thumb,” she said.
11.	“Oh dear! I never travel on trains that leave from plat-
form 13! It’s an unlucky number,” she cried.
12.	“The teacher gave me the wrong mark, didn’t she?” he
said.
Exercise III
Translate into English.
1. Мы хотели знать, кто будет нашим классным руково-
дителем на следующий год. 2. Учитель спросил Аню, по-
чему она пропустила первый урок. 3. Я спросил Лену,
пошла бы она со мной в кино, если бы я пригласил ее.
4. Я спросил Колю, сколько ему было лет, когда он на-
чал играть в хоккей. 5. Мама хотела знать, следует Нине
принимать лекарство два или три раза в день. 6. Я спро-
сил женщину, сколько лет было ее сыну, когда она нача-
ла учить его кататься на коньках. 7. Мать надеялась, что
сын вернется через неделю. 8. Директор сказал, что не
разрешает менять расписание. 9. Мама сказала, что гос-
ти приедут в субботу, а сейчас только пятница. 10. Учи-
тельница сказала, что мы можем провалиться на экза-
мене, если не повторим все правила. 11. Олег не мог
понять, что говорит учитель. 12. Она сказала полчаса
назад, что ее сын приезжает ровно в три. Значит, он бу-
дет здесь через час. 13. Мне хотелось бы знать, кто рас-
сказал вам об этом замечательном романе. 14. Пассажи-
228
рам велели пристегнуть ремни. 15. Мальчику велели не
перебивать взрослых. 16. Учитель предупредил учащих-
ся, чтобы они не засиживались поздно накануне экзаме-
нов. 17. Пассажиров просят не курить в автобусе. 18. Тре-
нер предложил, чтобы все приняли участие в
соревнованиях. 19. Я спросил Лену, пригласили ли ее на
вечер.
Exercise IV
Translate into English.
1. В нашем классе новый мальчик. Он сказал, что он бол-
гарин по национальности. Он сказал, что в Болгарии по-
чти не бывает снега и поэтому он не умеет кататься на конь-
ках. Неля сказала, что она его научит.
2. Когда мама уходила, она сказала, что вернется позднее,
чем обычно, потому что у нее много работы. Папа сказал,
что он, возможно, тоже вернется позднее, так как у них
будет собрание и, потом, он слишком занят, чтобы прихо-
дить вовремя.
Я сказал, что я приду позднее всех, потому что у нас сорев-
нования по шахматам, но, если я приду раньше их, я при-
готовлю ужин.
Мама вздохнула и сказала, что она постарается прийти
пораньше.
Exercise V
Translate into English.
1. Знаете ли вы, что мы не пришли ни к какому решению?
2. Я был уверен, что он может повторить эти предложения
слово в слово. 3. Отец не думал, что он выберет эту комна-
ту. 4. Все знали, что мы не приедем в воскресенье. 5. Наш
учитель сказал, что для успешного изучения иностранных
языков нужна хорошая память. 6. Мальчик надеялся, что
его возьмут в цирк. 7. Я не была уверена, что подготов-
люсь к докладу завтра. 8. Он ответил, что еще не обедал.
9. Учитель спросил, кто хочет отвечать. 10. Он сообщил,
что взял билет на самолет в Адлер. 11. Он заявил, что не
поедет с ним. 12. Он обещал сыну, что они проведут лето
на юге. 13. Она напомнила мне, что я собиралась навес-
тить тетушку. 14. Она заметила, что ремонт квартиры сле-
дует делать летом. 15. Он уверял нас, что езда на мотоцик-
ле совсем не опасна.
229
Exercise VI
Translate into English.
1. Мы решили, что в следующее воскресенье мы поката-
емся на лодке. 2. Он признал, что его брат гребет лучше,
чем он. 3. Он думал, что в воскресенье он сможет посе-
тить больную. 4. Мы предполагали, что скоро встретим-
ся. 5. Он утверждал, что я ошибаюсь. 6. Они сказали, что
никогда здесь раньше не бывали. 7. Она спросила меня,
нравятся ли мне эти песни. 8. Она спросила, где и когда я
купила этот журнал. 9. Она спросила, слышала ли я этот
романс раньше. 10. Он сказал, что предпочитает послу-
шать что-нибудь классическое. 11. Командир приказал
солдатам строиться. 12. Председатель призвал собрав-
шихся соблюдать тишину. 13. Секретарша попросила нас
немного подождать. 14. Мы ответили, что никогда не со-
гласимся на изменение программы соревнований. 15. Он
попросил ее повторить адрес. 16. Я очень просил их не
делать этого. 17. Он воскликнул, что целую вечность не
видел нас.
The Voice
There are two voices in English: the active voice and the pas-
sive voice.
If the subject is the doer of the action, the verb is in the ac-
tive voice:
She speaks German.
I always repeat the words aloud.
If the subject is the receiver of the action, the verb is in the
passive voice:
The exercise was written by the pupil very quickly.
The picture is painted by a famous artist.
230
The Formation
of the Passive Voice
to be + Participle II
	Tense	Passive
	Present	am
		is asked
		
& s		are
		
	Past	was , j asked
		were
	Future	will be asked
	Present	am
		is being asked
о s		are
Contin	Past	was being asked were	&
	Future	—
Q	Present	have ,	, j u	been asked has
,Ф>		
£	Past	had been asked
	Future	will have been asked
The passive is formed by using the proper tense of the verb to be
+ Participle II. The Present Perfect Continuous, the Past Perfect
Continuous, the Future Continuous are not used in the passive.
	Active Voice	Passive Voice
Present Simple	They ask questions at the lesson.	Questions are asked at the lesson.
Present Continuous	They are asking questions now.	Questions are being asked now.
Past Simple	They asked questions at the lesson.	Questions were asked at the lesson.
231
	Active Voice	Passive Voice
Past Continuous	They were asking questions at the lesson.	Questions were being asked at the lesson.
Future Simple	They will ask questions at the lesson.	Questions will be asked at the lesson.
Present Perfect	They have asked questions at the lesson.	Questions have been asked at the lesson.
Past Perfect	They had asked questions at the lesson.	Questions had been asked at the lesson.
Future Perfect	They will have asked questions at the lesson.	Questions will have been asked at the lesson.
Present Infinitive	They should ask questions at the lesson.	Questions should be asked at the lesson.
Perfect Infinitive	They should have asked questions at the lesson.	Questions should have been asked at the lesson.
-ing form	He likes people asking questions at the lesson.	He likes questions being asked at the lesson.
Perfect -ing form	Having asked questions...	Questions having been asked...
Modals + be + participle П	You must ask questions at the lesson.	Questions must be asked at the lesson.
The Use of the Passive Voice
The passive is used:
a) when the person who does the action is unknown,
unimportant or obvious from the context:
The door had been locked (unknown doer of the action).
b) when we are interested more in the action than in the doer of
the action, such as in news reports, instructions, processes,
headlines, advertisements etc.
Breakfast is served from 8.00 to 10.00.
c) to make statements more formal or polite:
My new coat has been ruined. (More polite than saying “You
ruined my coat”).
232
d) to put emphasis on the doer of the action:
The Pyramids were built by the ancient Egyptians.
Sometimes to get is used in colloquial English instead of be
in the passive to say that something happens to someone or
something, by chance:
The dog got run over by a car.
Changing from Active into Passive:
Subject	Verb	Object	Doer
of the action
Active W. Shakespeare wrote	“Hamlet”
Passive “Hamlet” was written	by
W. Shakespeare
When the verb is changed from the active voice into the pas-
sive voice, the whole sentence changes:
1)	the object of the active verb becomes the subject in the new
sentence.
The active verb changes into a passive form and the subject
of the active verb becomes the doer of the action which is either
introduced with “by” or is omitted.
The passive can be used only with transitive verbs (verbs
which take an object as give, write, take, open etc).
Verbs such as: happen, sleep, come, go, seem etc are not used
in the passive.
2)	In the passive we use by + the doer of the action to say who
or what did the action. We use with + instrument or material
to say what the doer of the action used:
The paper was cut with a knife.
3)	If the active verb has two objects (i.e., direct and indirect),
it is more usual to begin the passive sentence with the
person:
He gave me some apples.
I was given some apples.
Some apples were given to me.
4)	Make, hear, help, see are followed by a to-infinitive in the
passive:
He helped her tidy up the room. -» She was helped to tidy up
the room.
Note that hear, see, watch can be followed by a participle I
in the active and passive:
I heard her playing the piano. She was heard playing the
piano.
233
5)	The verbs believe, expect, feel, hope, know, report, say, think
etc are used in the following passive patterns in personal and
impersonal constructions:
a)	subject (person) + passive + to-infinitive (personal con-
struction)
b)	it + passive + that-clause (impersonal construction)
People think he is a boaster.
He is thought to be a boaster. It is thought that he is a
boaster.
6)	Verbs followed by a preposition (to look after, to laugh at
etc) take the preposition immediately after them when turned
into the passive:
They sent for the doctor. -» The doctor was sent for.
7)	In passive questions with who/whom/which we do not omit by.
Who gave you this book? -» Who were you given this book by?
Here are some of the most important prepositional verbs
which can be used passively:	
to account for	объяснять что-нибудь
to agree upon	договориться о •
to allude to	намекать на, касаться чего-нибудь
to arrive at	достигать чего-нибудь
to call for/on	зайти за
to comment upon	комментировать что-нибудь
to count on	надеяться, рассчитывать на кого-либо
to hear of	слышать о
to insist on/upon	настаивать на
to interfere with	мешать чему-нибудь, кому-нибудь
to laugh at	смеяться над
to listen to	слушать кого-нибудь, что-нибудь
to look after	ухаживать за
to look at	смотреть на
to look for	искать
to provide for	предусматривать что-нибудь
to put up with	примиряться с
to refer to	ссылаться на
to rely on/upon	полагаться на
to send for	посылать за
to speak of/about, to	говорить о/с
to talk about	говорить о
to think of	думать о
to take care of	заботиться о
to lose sight of	потерять из виду кого-нибудь, что-нибудь
234
to pay attention to
to make fun of
to make a full of
to make use of
to put an end to
to take (no) notice of
обращать внимание на
насмехаться над
дурачить
использовать
положить конец
(не) замечать
The decision was arrived at.
He only spoke when he was spoken to.
The film was much talked about.
The agreement was widely commented on.
0 EXERCISES
Exercise I
Change from the active into the passive.
1. Tchaikovsky used many folk-tunes in his compositions.
2. The agronomist has introduced new methods of work in
agriculture. 3. The lecturer showed his students a recently
devised apparatus. 4. We all must look after the children.
5. The population of France gave the Russian delegation
a hearty welcome. 6. The gardener asked me to help him in the
garden. 7. The students of this group are translating the English
text. 8. They finished their work earlier than usual. 9. We have
sent him a telegram. 10. The students were discussing the
problem at 6 o’clock yesterday. 11. You must buy a new English
dictionary.
Exercise II
Change from the active into the passive.
1. The guide met the tourists at the station. 2.1 have just read
his letter. 3. Our students are discussing an interesting subject.
4. They will finish their work in time. 5. They had already
translated the article when I gave them my dictionary. 6. Will
they have planted the trees by the beginning of May? 7. When
did they erect the monument? 8. They build many beautiful
houses in our city every year. 9. She was writing a letter when I
came in. 10. Russian scientists have made many wonderful
discoveries. 11. Who answered the phone? 12. Who did they
give the prize? 13. Two teachers asked us at the examination
last year. 14. The police are questioning him now. 15. We have
already done the work. 16. Who discovered America?
235
Exercise III
Change the sentences as in the model using the Passive Voice
of the verbs. Give two passive constructions.
Model: They offered him interesting work.
He was offered interesting work.
Interesting work was offered to him.
1. The guide showed us all the beautiful pictures in the picture
gallery. 2. They give us six lessons a day. 3.1 paid him the money
yesterday. 4. The jury awarded a premium to the young
sportsman. 5. The doctor prescribed a new medicine to the sick
man. 6. They will give you the answer next week. 7. They
promised him immediate help. 8. The parents forgave the boy
his mistakes. 9. The director offered the young man a good
situation. 10. They told him the news. 11. The doctor
recommended the patient a severe diet. 12 They paid her the
money at once.
Exercise IV
Change the sentences into the Passive Voice. Give two pas-
sive constructions.
1. The coach gave the boxer some instructions. 2. They will grant
me a leave in July if there is no urgent work. 3. His friends never
forgave him his dishonesty. 4. The management offered me several
jobs and I can’t decide which to take. 5. The commander charged
him with a very responsible mission. 6. They will promise you
much, but don’t imagine they will give you everything. 7. His
parents regularly sent him parcels with fruit from their garden.
8. The doctor ordered him a long rest. 9. They usually sent the
children to camp in summer. 10.1 gave him an English magazine.
11. The teacher showed us some interesting diagrams. 12. They
gave us a ticket to the concert.
Exercise V
Put the verb in brackets into the correct passive form.
1. At the publishing house I (to tell) that the book (to publish)
by the end of the year. 2. A new metro line (to construct) now.
3. A second talk on how to handle the new machine (to give)
tomorrow at the same time by one of the inventors.
4. Everybody was busy as a welcoming party (to prepare) in
honour of the distinguished visitors. 5. Probably the tea (to
sweeten) before I put sugar into it. 6. The Reconstruction Plan
236
of Moscow (to draw up) with an eye to the city’s future growth
and work. 7. It (to carry out) on a giant scale. 8. No objections
to the plan (to offer) so far, but it (not to introduce) until it
(to put) to vote. 9. Some final touches (to put) to the picture; it
(to complete) in a quarter of an hour. 10. A great number of
new houses for the residents of our city (to erect) by the new
year.
Exercise VI
Put the verbs in brackets into the correct active or passive
forms.
1. Some kind of public demonstration (to plan) to take place at
the airport tonight. 2. The flight (not to announce) yet. 3. The
message, as Ann (to dictate) it, (to type) by a girl clerk. 4. It
(to be) an old house that (to divide) into flats. 5. Each apartment
usually (to share) by two or three girls. 6. When we (to come)
to the seashore, the ship (to lose) sight of. 7. In our country
children (to take care of). 8. A new Metro line (to construct)
now. One of its stations (to build) in our street. 9.1 am sure this
event (to comment upon) in newspapers. 10. Little children (to
look after) always. 11. His suggestions never (to object to).
12. These lines of poetry often (to refer to).
Exercise VII
State the kind of the passive construction in the following
sentences. Translate into Russian.
1. The question was often put to me but I never answered it.
2. I noticed at once that the room had been recently tidied.
3. Small feet were heard running in the hall. 4. Mike is not in
the room, and his bed hasn’t been slept in. 5. The driver was
mysteriously silent. Tom was silent, too, wondering uneasily
where he was being taken. 6. I had been given a card to the
Club and in the afternoon I used to go to play billiards. 7. The
outstanding violinist was much spoken of. 8. Has the doctor
been called for? 9. The scientific articles of this specialist are
often referred to. 10. This cellar has never been lived in.
11. Little children are always looked after. 12. Everybody is
sure that an agreement will be arrived at. 13. He does not like
to be interfered with. 14. Will this material be made use of?
15. Why is he always made fun of? 16. When we came to the
seashore, the ship had been lost sight of. 17. Can his words be
relied on? 18. His proposal may be objected to.
237
Exercise VIII
Put questions to the parts of the sentences given in bold type.
1. When I entered the pavilion of the exhibition, a new model of
an airport was being looked at by everybody. 2. Our reading
English books in the original is always insisted upon. 3. English
spelling must be paid attention to. 4. His plan has been much
spoken of. 5. The secretary will be sent for. 6. This apparatus
must be checked from time to time. 7. The young musician had
been taken notice of long before he entered the conservatoire.
8. This idea can be put in practice only by an experienced
specialist. 9. This old country-house has not been lived in these
ten years. 10. The poem was written by an unknown author.
11. A new railway line is being constructed across the desert.
12. The flowers will be planted next week. 13. A place where
people go skating is called a skating-rink. 14. The plant had
been run by the head engineer for a fortnight before a new
director was appointed.
Exercise IX
Translate the sentences into English using the Passive Voice.
1. За ним послали двадцать минут назад. 2. Этот вопрос се-
годня обсуждаться не будет. 3. В прошлом году на нашей
улице построили новый магазин. 4. Эта книга еще не пере-
ведена. 5. Я чувствую, что готовится какой-то опасный план.
6. Если за вами пришлют, не отказывайтесь прийти. 7. По-
чему на эту статью нигде не ссылаются? 8. Как только вещи
были уложены, послали за машиной. 9. Этого лектора все-
гда слушали с интересом. 10. Ему еще ничего об этом не го-
ворили. 11. Книги этого автора часто спрашивают. 12. Вам
задавали дополнительные вопросы на экзамене? 13. Девоч-
ку бранят, вот почему она плачет. 14. Я почувствовала, что
на меня смотрят. 15. Эта книга уже переведена. 16. Не вхо-
дите, там экзаменуют последнего студента. 17. Мне сказа-
ли, что уже ничего нельзя изменить, так как решение приня-
то. 18. Какой вопрос обсуждали, когда вы вошли?
Exercise X
Translate the sentences into English using Passive Voice.
1. Эта книга скоро будет переиздана. 2. Его всегда люби-
ли и ему всегда доверяли. 3. О ней заботятся ее друзья.
4. Об этом фильме много говорят. 5. Пока готовился зав-
трак, мать пошла к постели ребенка. 6. Ей дадут кварти-
238
ру в этом доме. 7. «Где врач?» - прошептал он. «За ним
послали.» 8. К концу недели его имя будет известно всем.
9. Лене сказали, что около железнодорожного моста стро-
ятся два новых дома. 10. По радио было объявлено, что
погода меняется к худшему. 11. Я сомневаюсь, что сейчас
что-либо может быть объяснено. 12. Ожидалось, что он
вернется как раз к собранию. 13. Ему объяснили, почему
он не прав. 14. Почему здесь так холодно? - Зал только
что проветрили. 15. Надеюсь, что об этом факте больше
не будут упоминать. 16. Этот вопрос все еще обсуждает-
ся? - Да, его обсуждают уже два часа. 17. Интересно, бу-
дет ли опубликована эта статья до того, как откроется
конференция? 18. К тому времени когда мы вернулись,
ворота уже были закрыты. 19. Как жаль, что булочная
закрыта. Сколько времени осталось до того, как она сно-
ва откроется? 20. Сколько времени обсуждался этот воп-
рос до того, как вы попросили слово? 21. Не входите в
комнату. Ее убирают. 22. Ваши бумаги печатают. Подож-
дите немного. 23. Вас ждут внизу. 24. В будущем году здесь
будет построена станция метро. 25. Его часто посылают
за границу.
Exercise XI
Translate the sentences into English using Passive Voice.
1. На этой улице строится новый квартал домов. 2. Тебя
интересует работа, которую тебе предложили? 3. Со мной
так никогда не разговаривали. 4. На день рождения ей
подарили коробку шоколадных конфет. 5. Тебе скажут,
когда отправляется поезд. 6. Я почувствовал, что ему уже
задавали этот вопрос раньше. 7. Ему дали первоклас-
сное образование. 8. Советую вам пойти на этот концерт:
будут исполнены ваши любимые произведения. 9. Об
этой картине много говорят. Я сам не был на выставке,
но мне ее так живо описали, что мне кажется, что я ее
видел собственными глазами. 10. Нам объяснили новое
правило, затем продиктовали несколько примеров и
дали упражнения для домашней работы. 11. Проект был
одобрен, но инженеру указали на отдельные недостат-
ки. 12. Телеграмма была принята поздно ночью, и, так
как она была очень важной, капитана тут же разбудили
и передали ему ее.
239
Exercise XII
Translate the sentences into English using Passive Voice.
1. В прошлом году на нашей улице построили новый ресто-
ран. 2. Этого учителя всегда слушают с интересом. 3. Эти
новости были только что переданы по радио. 4. Это и есть
человек, о котором так много говорят. 5. За книгу уже упла-
чено. Можете взять ее. 6. Новая библиотека была построе-
на до того, как вы поступили в институт? 7. Книги, которые
хорошо читаются, редко найдешь на полках библиотеки.
8. К сожалению, этот словарь уже распродан. 9. Эти
новости будут опубликованы в вечерних газетах. 10. Послы-
шался выстрел, но ничего не было видно. 11. Он награжден
многими медалями и орденами. 12. Когда я приехал в этот
город, этот дом строился. 13. Все телеграммы отправлены?
- Нет еще. Половина телеграмм отправлена вчера. Осталь-
ные, кроме трех, напечатаны. Последние сейчас печатают.
Их напечатают к часу дня.
Modal Verbs
Modal verbs do not denote actions, but only show the atti-
tude of the speaker towards the action. Modal verbs are used.
only with the infinitive.
There are 12 modal verbs in English. They are: can, may,
must, should, ought to, shall, will, would, need, dare, to be,
to have/to have got. The latter two are modal only in one of
their meanings.
Ten of them (that is all but to be and to have) are also called
defective verbs as they lack some features characteristic of other
verbs, that is
1)	they do not take -s in the third person singular;
2)	they have no verbals (infinitive, participle or gerund);
3)	they cannot be used in compound tenses (no future tense, no
perfect tenses);
4)	they have (except for can and may) only one form and no
past tense;
5)	they are followed (except for ought) by a bare infinitive (that
is by the infinitive without particle to)',
240
6)	they need no auxiliary to build up the interrogative and
negative forms.
All modal verbs have 2 negative forms, full and contracted.
Full Form	Contracted Form
may not
must not
cannot
would not
should not
shall not
will not
need not
mayn’t
mustn’t
can’t
wouldn’t
shouldn’t
shan’t
won’t
needn’t
We use modal verbs to express: ability, advice, criticism, ne-
cessity, offers, obligation/duty, permission, possibility, proba-
bility, prohibition, requests or suggestions.
Can
The modal verb has two forms: can for the present tense and
could for the past tense:
I can 7 dance now but I could when I was young.
The negative forms are: Present - cannot (can 7), Past - could
not (couldn’t).
All the other tenses are expressed by the construction to be
able to which has all the tenses:
You will be able to finish your work in so short a time.
I have been able to do this exercise today.
There is a slight difference in usage between can and be able
in the Past Simple Tense. You can’t always have one for
the other. If you speak about something you could do because of
skill or knowledge, you can use either could or was (were) able:
I could (was able to) read and write when I was six.
But if you mean something you managed to do, it is wrong
to say could. In this case was (were) able is the correct expres-
sion.
Though he was ill and missed classes, he was able to do his
examinations well.
Can expresses:
1)	physical and mental ability:
She can lift this heavy box.
She could not solve the problem.
241
2)	possibility (or permission) depending on circumstances:
You can have my dictionary (because I don’t need it now).
Can I see your brother? -1 am afraid not, he is ill.
3)	prohibition (only in the negative form of the modal verb):
You can’t cross the street here. Здесь нельзя переходить улицу.
4) request:
Can I have some water?
Could suggests a greater degree of politeness:
Could you come again tomorrow?
5) Can (could) is also used to express doubt or astonishment:
Can it be so late as all that? - Неужели уже так поздно?
Не сап 7 be/couldn 7 be so old. - He может быть, что он так
стар.
As you see, in these meanings can (could) is used only in
interrogative and negative sentences; astonishment is expressed
only in interrogative sentences. If the action refers to the present
or future, the Present Infinitive is used:
He can 7 be late. He can 7 be as angry as that.
If the action refers to the past, the perfect infinitive is used
after can (could):
Can she have known her before? - Неужели она знала ее
раньше?
Could they have seen us there? They could not have seen us
there.
In the above sentences can and cow/Jhave the same meaning
but could shows that we feel less certain about the subject.
6) Could is used to express the Subjunctive Mood (мог бы):
If I had a dictionary, I could translate this article.
You really could do it without my help.
Note some set expressions with the modal verb can\
Cannot/can 7 help doing smth. - He могу не делать что-то.
When I saw him I couldn 7 help laughing. - Когда я увидел
его, я не мог не смеяться.
' Cannot/can 7 but do smth. - He могу не ...
I cannot but suggest...- Я не могу не предложить...
We cannot but hope he is right. - Нам остается только
надеяться, что ... (не можем не надеяться ...).
One cannot but wonder. - Нельзя не задуматься.
as can be - an intensifying expression
They are as pleased as can be. - Они очень (страшно)
довольны.
242
It's as ugly as can be. - Это необычайно уродливо
(трудно себе представить что-либо более отвра-
тительное).
EXERCISES
Exercise I
Comment on the meaning of the modal verb can (could).
Translate the sentences into Russian.
1.	He can’t walk so quickly.
2.	I can memorize many words at once.
3.	I could not go to your place yesterday, as I was busy.
4.	We can choose our profession according to our taste.
5.	Could you give me your notes on phonetics for a day or
two?
6.	I don’t believe him. It can’t be so!
7.	. She can take her examination next June.
8.	He cannot be in the street now: it’s pouring!
9.	You cannot have done it. I don’t believe it.
10.	I wonder where she is. She cannot have been sleeping all
this time!
11.	Could you let me know about the meeting?
12.	I am anxious about her. She cannot be taking a walk so
late.
Exercise II
Replace the words was (were) able by could where possible.
1. The ship was badly damaged in the storm, but the captain
was able to bring her safely to land. 2. Helen was a bright girl
and she was able to do the scholarship examination well.
3. Wolfgang Mozart, the famous Austrian composer, was able
to play the piano at the age of three. 4. When a boy Mike was
able to do things with his left hand as easily as with his right
hand. 5. The firemen were able to put the fire out in less than
ten minutes. 6. After I had studied the new words, I was able to
write the dictation without a single mistake. 7. There was not a
single cloud in the sky, and we were able to see the stars. 8. He
was able to finish all the preparatory work without any help.
9. My mother was able to make her own clothes when a girl in
her teens. 10. The citizens of Leningrad were able to defend
their city against the Nazi hordes.
243
Exercise III
Use the verb can in the correct form followed by the required
form of the infinitive.
1. He....(to recite) long poems when he was six. 2. You.......
not (to take) the books out of the reading hall. 3. If you meet
him in the street you....(to pass) him without taking notice.
4. He hated himself for his behaviour, but...(to do) nothing
to alter it. 5..I (to come) in for a moment? 6. You......not
(to do) it. I don’t believe it. 7. I wonder where she is. She.
(not to stay) at her friend’s all this time. 8.1 .(to help) him
but I didn’t know he needed help. 9. Such problems ...........
(to solve) easily. 10. He..(to see) that everything in the flat
was in full order. 11. How...she (to work) in the garden now?
It is already dark. 12. Of course, there were many things I...
(to answer) to this. But I kept silent. 13. I simply .... not
(to refuse). They would have been hurt. 14. He wasn’t old. He
...(not to be) more than forty. 15..you (to work) all this
time without any break? 16. She.....(not to forget) what had
happened the day before.
Exercise IV
Use the verb can in the correct form followed by the required
form of the infinitive.
1.....you (to call) a little later? I’m afraid I shall be busy till
seven. 2.....it (to be) a joke? 3. You....(not to see) him at
the meeting. He was ill. 4...we (to cover) fifteen kilometers?
The village is not yet seen. 5. He .... (not	to forget) your
address; he has visited you several times. 6. If you let us know,
we....(to send) our car for you. 7. I should be very much
obliged to you if you....(to lend) me your dictionary for a
couple of days. 8. I don’t believe her, she ........ (to	fail)
to recognize me. 9. He said he......(to manage) the task by
himself. 10. Why didn’t you ask me? I.....(to do) it for you.
11.	I think you .. (to do) it if you tried. 12....this old
woman (to be) Kate? She ........ not (to change) like that.
13.	Somebody drew a pair of spectacles on the face of the
portrait. “Who do you think.....(to do) it?” 14. He was quite
young. He......(not to be) much over twenty.
244
Exercise V
Use the required form of the infinitive after can (could) in
the following sentences.
1. Her face was quite unlined and she could (to be) more than thirty.
2. I’m wondering if something can (to do) about it. 3. It is impossible.
He can’t (to do) it. 4. There wasn’t anything wrong with tea. There
couldn’t (to be). 5. He couldn’t (to hear) the news at dinner because
his sister hadn’t arrived yet. 6.1 can easily (to walk) to the railway
station. 7. For several seconds he stared at her, terrified. “I can’t
(to stand) it any longer,” he said. 8. She can’t (to tell) you that
I don’t believe you. 9. What is not done today, could (to do)
tomorrow. 10. There was nothing he could (to do) about it at the
moment. 11. Can she (to be) so cold to this little creature? 12. The
windows were open, and the scent of roses could (to smell). 13. Ann
tried to imagine what an unserious talk could (to be) like. 14. She
was so tired, she couldn’t (to make) herself to go upstairs to dress.
Exercise VI
Rewrite the following sentences using cannot (can't).
Model: I don’t believe it is his fault. - It can’t be his fault.
1. It is impossible that he has changed his mind. 2.1 can’t believe
that they have known it before. 3. I don’t think she is good at
languages. She has always had a bad ear and no memory for
words. 4.1 don’t believe it is a joke. 5. It is impossible that she is
fifteen. She looks much older. 6. I can’t believe that he has left
without saying good-bye to us. 7. I can’t believe that he has
forgotten to post your letter. 8. He doesn’t believe that his two
friends have betrayed him. 9.1 don’t think she was angry with a
sick child. 10. It is impossible that she has told a lie.
Exercise VII
Paraphrase the following sentences using can’t.
1.1 don’t believe that he had done the work carelessly. 2.1 don’t
believe it is true. 3. I don’t believe he is as old as that, he looks
much younger. 4. It is impossible that the ship sank in the harbour.
5.1 don’t believe that you suggested such a silly thing. 6.1 don’t
believe that the teacher was satisfied with our work. 7. I don’t
believe I lost my suitcase, it was here a minute ago. 8.1 don’t believe
this medicine is a good cure for a cough. 9. It is impossible that she
has wrongly interpreted у our words. 10.1 don’t believe they will
postpone such an important meeting.
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Exercise VIII
Translate into English using the verb can (could).
1. Эту книгу можно купить в любом магазине. 2. В комнате
темно, я не могу найти свои вещи. 3. Не может быть, чтобы
она ошиблась. 4. Неужели они ждали нас все это время?
5. Не может быть, чтобы вас послали ко мне. 6. Он сказал,
что мы можем идти. 7. Я мог бы вернуться на автобусе.
8. «Не может быть, чтобы она тебя поняла,» - повторял он.
9. «Не может быть, чтобы они об этом забыли.» 10. Неужели
он уже уехал? 11. Неужели она все еще работает? 12. Не мо-
жет быть, что она все еще нас ждет. 13. Неужели она заболе-
ла? 14. Неужели вам нравится такая музыка? 15. Ты можешь
взять словарь. Мне он больше не нужен. 16. Неужели они
опоздали на поезд? Они же вышли из дома очень рано.
Exercise IX
Translate into English using the verb can (could).
1. Я думаю, что я смогу помочь вам. 2. Не может быть, что
он забыл об этом. 3. Неужели он отказался помочь вам?
4. Неужели это правда? Не может быть, чтобы это была прав-
да. 5. Неужели он учится в девятом классе? Он такой ма-
ленький на вид. 6. Не может быть, чтобы они уже переехали
на новую квартиру. 7. Неужели ты старше меня на целых
пять лет? 8. Прочтите эти статьи. Вы могли бы сослаться на
них в докладе. 9. На лестнице нет света. Вы не могли бы
посветить мне, пока я спущусь вниз? 10. Я думаю, что мы
могли бы попытаться еще раз убедить его в том, что он не-
прав. 11. Не может быть, чтобы сейчас было лишь три часа.
Ваши часы остановились. 12. Нет, малыш, зимой мороже-
ное на улице есть нельзя. 13. Неужели он был прав? 14. Вы
не могли бы продиктовать мне эту страницу? 15. Неужели
они ждут нас у другого выхода?
Exercise X
Translate into English using the verb can (could).
1. He может быть, чтобы он опоздал. Он всегда такой пунк-
туальный. 2. Неужели он произвел на вас впечатление рассе-
янного человека? 3. Не может быть, чтобы я неправильно вас
понял. 4. Он не мог прочитать эту книгу так быстро; она труд-
на для него. 5. Не может быть, чтобы она не нашла вашего
дома. 6. Вряд ли она забыла об этом; я об этом напоминала
ей только вчера. 7. Вы не могли бы привести свой пример?
246
Нельзя давать примеры только из учебника. 8. Неужели она
и сейчас думает обо мне? 9. Я могла бы вам это сразу сказать,
но мне не хотелось расстраивать вас. 10. Не может быть, что-
бы вы этому действительно поверили. 11. Не мог он принять
вас за другого. 12. Разве мог кто-нибудь подумать, что эта
команда займет первое место? 13. Неужели вы не нашли мою
книгу? 14. Вряд ли они приедут сегодня. Уже поздно.
Exercise XI
Translate into English using the verb can (could).
1. He может быть, чтобы они об этом забыли. 2. Неужели он
уже уехал? 3. Неужели она забыла сообщить вам о моем
отъезде? 4. Неужели она все еще работает? 5. Не может быть,
чтобы они приехали в понедельник! 6. Я думаю, что вы смо-
жете уговорить его, если попытаетесь. 7. Сможет ли ваша
сестра купить нам завтра билеты? 8. Мы не могли добрать-
ся до университета к 9 часам. 9. Неужели он обманул вас?
10. Неужели вам нравится такая музыка? 11. Не может быть,
что они слышали наш разговор. 12. Неужели она заболела?
13. Можно мы возьмем Джека с собой? 14. У детей богатое
воображение. Они могут легко придумывать разные исто-
рии. 15. Не может быть, что он ещё спит. Уже поздно.
Exercise XII
Translate into English using the verb can (could).
1. He может быть, чтобы он вам сказал такую вещь. Вы его
не поняли. 2. Когда мы сможем сделать это? 3. Она не смо-
жет научиться хорошо петь. 4. Она не могла окончить шко-
лу в прошлом году. 5. Неужели она все еще читает? Пора
спать. 6. Никто не смог бы произвести на меня большее
впечатление, чем это сделал ты. 7. Он сказал, что мы мо-
жем идти. 8. Он мог бы сделать это на прошлой неделе.
9. Он был настолько неграмотным, что он просто не мог
написать ни одного слова этого доклада. 10. Уже темнеет.
Сколько же сейчас может быть времени? 11. Ему не могло
быть больше тридцати лет, когда мы с ним познакомились
впервые. 12. Не может быть, чтобы она ошиблась. 13. Не
может быть, что она тебя поняла. 14. В комнате темно. Я
не смогу найти свои вещи. 15. Неужели они ждали нас все
это время. 16. Не может быть, что вас послали ко мне.
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May
The modal verb may has two tenses: may for the present
tense and might for the past.
The negatives forms are:
present - may not
past - might not
All the other tenses are expressed by to be allowed to, to be
permitted to.
The form might is used in indirect speech according to the rules
of the sequence of tenses:
He told me that I might go home.
Might is used only in object clauses, if the main clause refers
to the past.
May expresses:
1)	permission
You may go now (you are allowed to go).
2)	possibility of the fact
You may find all the books you want in this library.
3)	prohibition (only with the negative form of the modal verb):
You may not go swimming ( You are not allowed to ....) - He
смей.
4)	May (and might, as well) is also used to express supposition
and uncertainty in affirmative sentences. In this case it is
translated into Russian as «может быть», «возможно».
Don 7 worry! The children may be on their way home already.
Why is Lena absent today? - I don 7 know. She might be ill.
(Perhaps she is ill).
Might does not refer to the past here. It only makes the un-
certainty somewhat stronger.
To give the idea of past time may is used with the Perfect
Infinitive.
He may have arrived already, let ’s go and find out.
To give the idea of the present moment, the Continuous In-
finitive is used after may (or might).
Where is Nick? He may be working in the garden.
5)	Might (and only might) is used to express reproach.
Yow might help me with this heavy suitcase.
You might have called on me last week. I was ill.
6)	May and might are used to form the Subjunctive Mood:
a)	in simple sentences to express a wish:
May you be happy!
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b)	in subordinate clauses:
Speak louder so that everybody may hear you.
She hurried home so that she might help her mother with the
dinner.
Here are some expressions with the modal verb may/might\
Imay/might as well + infinitive expresses intention.
I may as well take you with me.
Might just as well means “it would be equally good to” and
it is used to suggest some other actions.
Til go on Monday by a slow train. - You might just as well
wait till Tuesday and go by the fast one.
a
к_
Exercise I
Comment upon the meaning of the verb may (might).
1.1 think we may have a fire some distance away from the trees.
2. He may arrive on the next train. 3. You might have got
to know your friends better by this time. 4. Be careful not to miss
the turning, in this mist you might easily pass it by. 5. You may
ring me up at any hour in the afternoon. 6. Where are Kate and
Jane? - Oh, they may be crossing the river by the bridge. 7. You
might at least take your younger brother for a walk sometimes.
8. We had a feeling that we might have seen that man before.
9.1 wondered whether I might ask for a second helping. 10. Make
your handwriting legible so that everybody may read what you
wrote down. 11. She was so good a nurse that everybody thought
she might have already had experience with children. 12. You
might have come to see me when I was ill.
Exercise II
Rewrite the sentences using may (might).
1. Perhaps the tide will come in very soon. Look out! 2. Perhaps
the problem was too difficult for them. 3. Try this medicine,
perhaps it will cure you. 4.1 had better take my raincoat, perhaps
it will rain. 5. Why didn’t you remind Ann of her promise? It is
possible that she forgot all about it. 6. Perhaps you are right, but
I am not sure you are. 7. It is possible we live in the same street,
but I doubt whether I have seen him before. 8. Perhaps she was
proud of her daughter, but she never showed it to her neighbours.
9. It is possible your letter has never reached him, otherwise he
249
would have answered it immediately. 10. Perhaps they tried
to get in touch with us, but failed. 11. It is possible you got into’
the wrong carriage, that’s why you did not find your friend there.
12. Perhaps they will arrive here by the next train.
Exercise III
Paraphrase the following sentences using may (might).
1. Perhaps, you changed at the wrong station, that’s why it
took you so long to get here. 2. Perhaps, he has already arrived,
let’s go and find out. 3. Perhaps it was true, I am not sure.
4. It is possible that they have refused to help you. 5. Perhaps
they knew everything about it. 6. Perhaps the driver got a
fright. 7. Perhaps the lorry overturned while going round the
bend. 8. Perhaps they have already left. 9. Perhaps the
performance was over as many people were leaving the theatre.
10. Perhaps it was all prepared beforehand. 11. Perhaps this
old man is your brother. 12. Perhaps the message was delivered
in time as we received an immediate answer.
Exercise IV
Fill in the blanks with may (might) or to be allowed to, to be
permitted to in the required tense.
1. He asked if he make some suggestions. 2. After the new
year tree had been decorated, the children...enter the hall.
3. He.....join the yacht club as soon as he is through with his
last exam. 4. The teacher said that everybody..take part in
the discussion. 5. He....go his own way if he likes. 6. No
sooner.....the children.....leave the room, than they sprang
to their feet and rushed out of the playground. 7. The doctor
says Nick is much better. He.....walk in the open already.
8......I ask you to explain the rule once more? 9. She asked
me if she....to switch off the radio. 10. No matter how bad
the weather.....be she never missed her everyday stroll after
dinner. 11. Tell him he..have warned me and not to put me
in such an awkward position. 12. Don’t be angry with her. She
....have done it by mistake.
Exercise V
Use the required form of the infinitive after may (might) in
the following sentences.
1. On the whole there was less said than might (to expect).
2. You’ve acquired a great deal of experience. You might (to
250
write) a book. 3. There was no sign of John in the street. Of
course, I said to myself, he might (to detain) at his office.
4. Who said Mr Smith has gone to America? - He might (to
tell) it himself. 5. But what you tell me may not (to be) true.
6. What’s happened to the dog? - It isn’t here. Dan may (to
take) it with him. 7. She longed for a letter from John. It might
(to contain) an explanation of why he had gone away. 8. Harry
might often (to see) sitting on the porch with a book in his
hands. 9. Oh, Tom, she exclaimed, your boots are muddy!
You might (to go) by the side door. 10. He was very ill. He
may (to die). 11. Then why on earth all this secrecy? - One
never knows who may (to listen). 12. Of course I’m too young
to be a really good writer yet, but I try hard, arid one day I
may (to achieve) something.
Exercise VI
Translate into English using may in all of its possible mean-
ings.
1. Ты не был так уж сильно занят. Ты мог бы нам помочь.
2. Она, может быть, опоздает. 3. Они, возможно, работа-
ют над этой же проблемой. 4. К вечеру может пойти дождь.
5. Они, возможно, были вчера в городе. 6. Я согласен, что
разрешить Анне поехать за границу, возможно, было
ошибкой. 7. Они, может быть, подумали, что мы не при-
едем в такую погоду. 8. Может быть, он сейчас в гостини-
це и ждет меня. 9. Вы, возможно, слышали его имя. 10. У
него большая семья. Я могу себе представить, что он, воз-
можно, ищет себе работу получше. 11. Хотя похоже на
то, что будет дождь, но кто знает, может быть, завтра
будет хорошая погода. 12. Возможно, он знал обо всем,
но не показывал вида. 13. Позвоните ей. Она, возможно,
дома сейчас. 14. Телеграмма, возможно, была послана
вчера.
Exercise VII
Translate into English using may in all of its possible mean-
ing.
1. Сегодня очень пасмурно. Возможно, будет дождь.
2. Можете не отвечать на этот вопрос, если не хотите.
3. Вы могли бы дать мне об этом знать заранее. 4. Нам мож-
но пользоваться словарем? - Нет, нельзя. 5. Возможно, он и
знает обо всем, да не желает нам сказать. 6. Возможно, они
251
все еще сдают экзамен. 7. Почему Кати еще нет? - Она, воз-
можно, придет позже. - Она могла бы предупредить нас о
том, что она опаздывает. 8. Я уже целый час ищу свою за-
писную книжку. Не может быть, чтобы я ее потерял. - Воз-
можно, ты оставил ее у телефона-автомата. Я видел, как ты
вынимал ее. - Ты мог бы давно уже сказать мне об этом.
9. Не беспокойся! Они не опоздают. Возможно, они уже едут
сюда и будут здесь через несколько минут. 10. Брат сказал,
что не поедет кататься на лыжах. Но может быть, он пере-
думал. 11. Я звоню им уже второй раз, но никто не отвечает.
Не может быть, чтобы все ушли. - Возможно, он уехали за
город. Они всегда уезжают на выходные дни. 12. Лектор,
возможно, и ссылался на эту статью, но я этого не помню.
13. Возможно, я уже бывал в этих краях. Мне кажется, я даже
могу узнать многие дома и улицы. 14. Может быть, мы от-
ложим нашу поездку за город: погода неважная.
Exercise VIII
Translate into English using the verb may.
1. Можете зайти к нам после семи, если захотите. 2. Ты
могла бы по крайней мере посоветоваться с сестрой! 3. Где
же мой паспорт? - Возможно, ты забыл его дома. 4. Спро-
си их, можно ли нам тоже пойти с ними в поход. 5. Вы,
возможно, заметили, что он дважды повторил эти слова.
6. Ты мог бы купить мне эту книгу! Ты знал, что она мне
очень нужна. 7. Вы, возможно, слышали его имя. Он изве-
стный ученый. 8. Возможно, телеграмма придет завтра.
9. Он, возможно, хотел мне об этом сказать, но не нашел
времени. 10. Она, возможно, забыла позвонить, поэтому
он не пришел. 11. Она спешила в школу, чтобы она могла
принять участие в олимпиаде.
Exercise IX
Translate into English using the verb may.
1. Больному стало лучше. Вы можете навестить его завтра.
2. Ты мог бы быть посерьезнее. Ты уже почти взрослый.
3. Возможно, его не было на лекции. - Он говорит, что он
там был. 4. Она не была англичанкой, но ее можно было
принять за нее. 5. Ты мог бы по крайней мере посовето-
ваться с учителем! 6. Доктор, можно мне купаться в море?
- Нет нельзя; вы можете опять заболеть. 7. Почему он не
пришел? - Он, может быть, не получил вашего письма.
252
8. Вы, может быть найдете эту книгу в библиотеке; они,
возможно, получили несколько экземпляров. 9. Почему он
не позвонил мне вчера? - Он, может быть, потерял номер
вашего телефона. 10. Почему он не отвечает? - Он, может
быть, не расслышал вашего вопроса, повторите ваш воп-
рос немного громче. 11. Почему она не пришла? - Может
быть, она передумала.
Must
The modal verb must has only one form for the present tense.
The negative form is must not (mustn't).
All the other tenses are expressed by have to.
Must followed by the Present Infinitive may express:
1.	Obligation or necessity
Pupils must obey their teachers.
Obligations expressed by must refer to the present or future
but in reported speech they may refer to the past:
She said she must invite her friend to dinner.
If we want to say that there is no necessity to do something,
we use needn't. The verb need expresses necessity but is mostly
used in the negative sentences:
You needn't wait for him. You may ring him up.
2.	Must + not expresses prohibition:
Pupils must not prompt each other.
3.	Must expresses supposition in affirmative sentences. Then it
is equivalent to probably, evidently.
In this case it is translated into Russian as: должно быть,
вероятно, очевидно'.
Nick must be at home now. Ring him up.
To give the idea of the present moment, the Continuous In-
finitive is used after must.
Where is Lena? - In the library; she must be working on her
report.
If we speak about the past, we use the Perfect Infinitive
after must.
You must have broken the telephone. It is out of order.
If you speak about the future must expressing supposition is
not used. We use another expression to be likely '.
He is likely to come on Sunday.
Must expressing supposition is not used in negative sentences.
253
There are several ways of expressing the negative meaning:
You must have misunderstood me.
They must have been inattentive.
You must have failed to recognize you.
You must have had no chance to warn you.
The letter must have never reached them.
The letter must have been left unanswered.
No one must have seen him there.
He must be quite unaware of the circumstances.
4.	Emphasis. In this case must is not translated into Russian, it
merely emphasizes some action or idea:
Just when we were ready to go away for the holidays, the baby
must catch measles. - Как раз когда мы уже уезжали в отпуск,
ребенок вдруг заболел корью. (... возьми да и заболей ...).
Of course after I gave her my advice she must go and do the
opposites. - Ну конечно, после того, как я ей посоветовала,
она вдруг пойди и сделай наоборот.
As we were starting what must he do but cut his finger. - Мы
уже выходили, когда он вдруг порезал себе палец (... возьми
да и порежь ...).
At a time when everybody is in bed he must turn on the wire-
less. - Именно, когда уже все спят, он вдруг включает
приемник.
EXERCISES
Exercise I
Comment on the meaning of the verb must. Translate the
sentences into Russian.
1.1 suppose one must be serious sometimes. 2. It must be seven.
3. Pete, you are horrible! You mustn’t say these dreadful things.
4. Nothing must be done in a hurry. 5. You and I are friends,
Nick, and we must always remain so. 6. I’ve always thought he
must be quite clever in his way. 7.1 must be getting sentimental.
8. “I am afraid I must be going,” he murmured. 9. You mustn’t
say that, you mustn’t think that. 10. He looked sixty, but
I knew he must be much less than that. 11. She must be found
and brought here at once. 12. Her life must have been very
unhappy. 13. “You mustn’t talk so much,” the doctor said.
14. She must have been a very stupid woman. 15. You must be
telling another lie.
254
Exercise II
Refer the sentences to the past and the future. Make all
the necessary changes.
1. She must do these exercises again. 2. You must speak louder
to make yourself heard. 3. You must take the 8.30 train if you
want to arrive in time. 4. While mother is absent, I must cook
our meals and do all the routine work in our little household.
5. You must answer his letter without any delay. 6. We must
buy the tickets for the Sunday show a week in advance. 7. You
must refer to Pavlov’s work in your report. 8. She must follow
the doctor’s advice. 9. Having nobody to provide for him, John
must earn his living by working in a shop. 10. He must pay
more attention to his spelling. It is very faulty indeed.
Exercise III
Rewrite the sentences using the verb must.
1.1 am sure he has got all he needed. 2. The boy was evidently
reading something funny. He was smiling all the time. 3. I
shan’t bother you any longer; no doubt you are tired of my
talking. 4. It was clear the family were expecting some guests:
the mother was tidying up the rooms. 5. She was probably
upset by something. 6. He surely did not find out the real
reason for their silence. 7. The air was damp, and it was getting
dark. Probably it was rather late already. 8. You are too poorly
dressed for a frosty day. I am almost sure you feel cold.
9. Where is the 9th form now? - They at the stadium. I am
sure they are having their lesson of PE in the open. 10. She
has probably worked very hard to win the scholarship.
11. He is a very experienced worker. I am sure he has been
working in the plant for some years. 12. Look! There is light
in Mary’s windows. I feel sure she is at home. 13. The Browns
have never been early rises. I am sure they are still sleeping.
14. Probably they have changed the program. The pianist is
playing a piece which hasn’t been announced.
Exercise IV
Rewrite the sentences using the verb must.
1. It is probably a very complicated machine. 2.1 am sure it is
pleasant to live in such beautiful surroundings. 3. You have
probably heard the story before. 4.1 feel sure there is a bend in
the road right ahead of us. 5. These ancient buildings were
probably erected about five hundred years ago. 6. Probably
255
that tower on the cliff is a lighthouse. 7. Probably you left youi
bathing things on the beach. 8. You look so pale and work out.
Probably you are tired. 9. I’m sure you are hungry, you’ve had
nothing to eat but a sandwich since morning. 10.1 am sure it’s
a delightful place, especially in summer. 11.1 am sure they knew
everything about it. 12. My students are certainly at a lecture
now. 13. What wretched weather! You are wet to the skin, I am
sure. 14. Probably you have been travelling for a month already.
15.1 am sure you have heard the news.
Exercise V
Use the verb must with the proper form of the infinitive.
1. Look! People are hurrying along the street with umbrellas
up. It must (to rain) hard. 2. You must (to follow) my advice.
There is no other way out for you. 3. She must (to be angry)
with you. She doesn’t even look in your direction. 4. She must
(to get) angry with me. She left without saying good-bye.
5. Mary must (to be) ill. She looked so pale and tired last
night. 6. She speaks English much better than she did last year.
She must (to practice) a lot. 8. Where is Peter? He is neither at
home, nor at school. - Oh, he must (to train) at the stadium.
He is always training there at this time. 9. You must (to train)
for some months already. Your results are brilliant. 10. There
are many puddles in the street. It must (to rain) in the morning.
11. Look! There is not a single human being in the street. It
must (to rain) fast. 12. What a shower! The water is streaming
down the street. It must (to rain) for some hours already.
13. You look fine! You must (to have) a good rest in summer.
Exercise VI
Use the verb must with the proper form of the infinitive.
1. “You must (to be) right,” I said. 2. They must (to hear) that
the fellow was in London. 3.1 must (to sit) there for a quarter
of an hour waiting and thinking about it before I saw the letter.
4. He took us round the yacht. There was no doubt that it must
(to cost) him a lot of money. 5. At half past two I heard Mike
put down the book and switch out the light. He must (to read)
since midnight. 6. “I must (to get) old,” she said. 7. There were
a lot of mirrors that must (to buy) at the sale of some old
restaurant. 8. They must (to forget) my address. 9. Poor animal!
How it must (to suffer). 10. Haven’t you finished your work
yet? You must (to work) for more than an hour. 11. Where is
256
Ann? - She must (to work) in the next room. 12. Is he in? - He
was in 10 minutes ago, but he must (to leave).
Exercise VII
Translate into English using the verb must.
1. Она, должно быть, ждет нас в университете. 2. Она дол-
жна ждать нас в университете. 3. Он, должно быть, живет
на юге. 4. Она, должно быть, гостит у своих друзей, так
как она писала, что проведет свой отпуск у них. 5. Они,
должно быть, ждут меня, а я никак не могу дать им знать о
себе. 6. Он, по всей вероятности, забыл, что обещал прий-
ти. 7. Они, наверное, пишут сочинение и скоро должны
закончить. 8. Вероятно, вы уже догадались, что я об этом
думаю. 9. Они, должно быть, сейчас готовятся к экзаме-
нам. 10. Она, должно быть, уже месяца два работает мед-
сестрой. 11. Я не видел Аню, но я знал, что она, вероятно,
ждет меня где-то здесь. 12. Я подождал с полчаса, и когда я
уже думал, что-то, должно быть, случилось с Катей, она
приехала на такси. 13. «Я должен для него что-нибудь сде-
лать,» - подумал Джон. 14. Вы, наверное, ничего не знали
об этом.
Exercise VIII
Translate into English using the verb must.
1. Это, очевидно, очень древняя церковь. Должно быть,
она построена в XIII веке. 2. Надо спешить: мы можем
опоздать на концерт. 3. Она такая бледная. Очевидно, она
была больна. 4. Там, в твоей книжке было какое-то пись-
мо. Ты, наверное, забыл его. 5. «А, это ты!» - сказал он,
взглянув с удивлением. Он, должно быть, забыл, как меня
зовут. 6. Юные пассажиры были немного взволнованы.
Вероятно, они впервые ехали морем. 7. Он говорил очень
хорошо, его речь, надо полагать, произвела большое впе-
чатление на слушателей. 8. Он искал билет в карманах,
но ничего не находил. Должно быть, он забыл его дома.
9. Эта книга, очевидно, пользуется большим успехом у
читателей. Она выходит в пятый раз. 10. Вам, должно
быть, уже сообщили о том, что расписание будет измене-
но. 11. Он, надо полагать, узнал меня сразу, хотя мы не
виделись много лет. 12. Вы, вероятно, располагаете боль-
шим количеством свободного времени: вы все делаете
очень медленно.
9 Н. Утевская
257
Exercise IX
Remembering that must in the meaning of supposition is not
used if we speak about the future or in the negative form,
find a suitable way of translating the following sentences into
English.
1. Я не буду сдавать экзамен. Меня, вероятно, не будет в
Москве в это время. 2. Очевидно, в его распоряжении ни-
когда раньше не было так много денег. 3. Он, должно быть,
не уговорил его поехать с нами. 4. У него, очевидно, пока
просто не нашлось времени для вас. 5. Они, должно быть,
не встретили его на станции. 6. Преподаватель, видимо,
по ошибке не упомянул твоей фамилии. 7. Она, должно
быть, не знает, что вы здесь. 8. Мы, вероятно, не видели ее
с лета. 9. Могу я поговорить с тобой завтра утром? - Я,
наверное, буду занят утром. 10. Он, вероятно, не захочет
говорить по-английски. 11. Дома, должно быть, нет нико-
го сейчас. 12. Кто этот человек? - Новый президент компа-
нии. - Не шути со мной. - Я не шучу. Ты, должно быть, не
читал газет.
Revision of Modal Verbs Can, May, Must
0 EXERCISES
Exercise I
Rewrite the given sentences using can, may, must.
1. Probably that tower on the hill is an old palace. 2.1 don’t
believe I lost my ticket, it was here a minute ago. 3. Perhaps
you lost your way. 4. Probably you left your things on the
bench in the park. 5.1 don’t believe they will postpone such
an important meeting. 6. You look so pale and work out.
Probably you overworked yourself. 7. I don’t believe this
medicine is a good cure for the flu. 8. I am sure you are
hungry, you’ve had nothing to eat but some porridge since
morning. 9. Perhaps the car overturned going round the
bend. 10. I am sure it’s a delightful place, especially in
summer. 11. Perhaps you are right. 12.1 don’t believe he did
it all by himself. 13. It is possible that he forgot his bag in
the car. 14. Most probably he did not see you, otherwise he
would have come up to you.
258
Exercise II
Rewrite the given sentences using can, may, must.
1.1 don’t believe he has been meaning to do it. 2. It’s impossible
that he should have refused your request. 3. Probably he has not
read the book. 4. I’m certain that he has heard the gong. 5. I’m
sure, it was some special occasion. 6. He looks wet and muddy.
I’m sure he has been fishing. 7. It’s possible that he doesn’t know
we are here. 8. Is it possible that the news is being broadcast on all
the channels? 9. Is it possible that we are out of wrapping paper?
10. “I don’t see him driving his car. Is it possible that something
has happened?” “Evidently his car is undergoing repairs.” 11. Let’s
give her a call again. It is possible that she was asleep and didn’t
hear the telephone. 12. You have used up all the money I gave
you, I suppose. 13. I don’t believe that he had done the work
carelessly. 14.1 suppose they were unable to get in touch with you.
15. It is impossible that she has wrongly interpreted your words.
Exercise III
Fill in the blanks with can, may, must.
1. “Will you know where to go?” “Yes, thank you. I ....always
ask my brother.” 2. What......he have meant when he said it?
He hesitated and said, “I .... go to South America. As a tea
planter.” I said, “I .... be wrong, Pete, but I don’t think they
grow tea in South America.” 4. “I’d give anything to meet that
fellow.” “We.....see what......be done.” 5. You.......hardly
have been more surprised than I was. 6. The old man cupped his
ear in his palm. “I think I..be getting deaf. I...hear you.”
7. It’s a most interesting story. He.not possibly have invented
it. 8. You .... have told him something. 9. I admire your
mother’s looks. She....have been a lovely girl. 10. The apples
are very good. You.....eat them all. 11. My wife....leave the
hospital in a few days. 12. I’m trying to think where he....
have gone. 13. “I don’t know why he did it.” “It have amused
him.” 14. The man danced very well. “He.....have spent hours
taking lessons,” Jack thought. 15. You never..tell, everything
....turn out quite all right.
Exercise IV
Pay attention to the negative meaning of the verbs must and
can. Translate sentences into Russian.
1. You must have misunderstood him. 2. You can’t have
understood him. 3. She must have failed to understand the rule.
259
4. The telegram can’t have failed to reach them. 5. The telegram
must have reached them. 6. They can’t have had much
opportunity of warning you. 7. They must have had little
opportunity of warning you. 8. He must have entered the hall
unseen. 9. Nobody can have seen him enter the hall. 10. He
can’t have answered the letter. 11. He must have left the letter
unanswered.
Exercise V
Change the following sentences, making them opposite in
meaning in every way possible, (see Exercise IV)
1. Everybody must have noticed that he was not used to
speaking in public. 2. He must have written to them of his
arrival in due time. 3. She must have locked the door forgetting
that I was to come later. 4. He must have a fair chance of
winning, he is in good form. 5. The man must have understood
me for he nodded his head. 6. She must have been quite
conscious of having made a mistake. 7. They must have given
us the correct information about the road. 8. The telegram
must have certainly come in time. 9. She must have been very
careful. She did not spill a drop of milk. 10. He must have
done something about it. I see some changes in the design.
11. The dog must have recognized his master. It did not bark
as we approached the house. 12. He must have been very
experienced in navigation. 13. He must be well aware of his
clumsiness.
Exercise VI
Translate into English using the modal verbs can, may or
must. v
1. Вы могли бы сделать это для меня. 2. Скажи ему, что
он мог бы быть более внимательным к своим старым дру-
зьям. 3. Вы можете встретить это выражение в любой кни-
ге. 4. Я думаю, что вы сможете уговорить его, если вы
попытаетесь. 5. Я должен сделать это сегодня, - а) Нет,
вы можете сделать это завтра, если хотите. - Ь) Да, это
нужно сделать сегодня. 6. Можно мне посмотреть вашу
работу? - а) Пожалуйста. Ь) Нет, она еще не готова.
7. Мне нужно, переписать всю работу или я могу испра-
вить только ошибки? 8. Не можете ли вы зайти ко мне
вечером? 9. Не могли бы вы зайти ко мне вечером? 10. Он
должен быть там завтра. 11. Он может быть там завтра.
260
12. Он, возможно, будет там завтра. 13. Он, возможно,
был там вчера. 14. Он, по всей вероятности, был там вче-
ра. 15. Он должен был быть там вчера. 16. Не может быть,
чтобы он был там вчера. 17. Неужели это правда? 18. Это,
должно быть, правда. 19 Возможно, это правда. 20. Вы,
вероятно, ошиблись. 21. Вы, должно быть, ошибаетесь.
22. Не может быть, чтобы вы ошиблись. 23. Неужели вы
ошиблись?
Exercise VII
Translate into English using the modal verbs can, may or
must.
1. Они должны делать, как им сказано. 2. Я не могу уйти,
не расплатившись. 3. Ты мог бы им позвонить и сказать,
что не придешь. 4. Ты смог закончить работу? 5. Неуже-
ли ты сам это написал? 6. Она никогда не рассказывала о
своем детстве, и тому, должно быть, была какая-то при-
чина. 7. Я смогу написать им завтра. 8. Она, должно быть,
серьезно больна.. 9. Где мои очки? Нет, их здесь нет. Я
должно быть, оставил их дома. 10. Когда ребенок так
болен, вы, должно быть, чувствуете себя ужасно. 11. Он
не может быть старше вас более, чем на три или четыре
года. 12. Не может быть, чтобы она этого не знала. 13. В
понедельник я еще не смогу дать вам определенный от-
вет. 14. Возможно, они еще не приехали. 15. И кто это мог
зажечь свет в моей комнате? 16. Уже совсем темно. Я, дол-
жно быть, очень долго спал. 17. Он, вероятно, скоро по-
звонит нам. 18. Неужели он велел прийти вам сюда?
19. Где мой ключ? - Ты, наверное, его потерял. - Не мо-
жет быть, чтобы я его потерял. Я, возможно, оставил его
в кармане пальто.
Exercise VIII
Translate into English using the modal verbs can, may or
must.
1. Можете не отвечать на этот вопрос, если не хотите.
2. Право же, вы могли бы дать мне об этом знать заранее.
3. Вы врач, и вам следует знать симптомы этой болезни.
4. Нам можно пользоваться словарями? - Нет, нельзя.
5. Ваши часы, должно быть, спешат. 6. Официант, долж-
но быть, неправильно понял иностранца и принес не то
блюдо. 7. Не может быть, чтобы он подвел нас. 8. Разве
261
мог кто-нибудь подумать, что эта команда выиграет?
9. Он давно у нас не был. Ему, вероятно, не сказали, что
мы уже в Москве. 10. Они, должно быть, не опоздали на
поезд. Иначе они бы уже вернулись. 11. Их, очевидно, не-
правильно информировали. Они должны были прийти
сегодня. 12. Не могли бы вы дать мне консультацию се-
годня? 13. Неужели вы им поверили? Они, очевидно, по-
шутили над вами. 14. Вы бы лучше послали ему письмо:
он может не догадаться, что вас задерживают дела, и бу-
дет волноваться. 15. Не мог бы я попросить вас зайти ко
мне немного позже?
Exercise IX
Translate into English using the modal verbs can, may or
must.
В воскресенье утром я должна была пойти в библиотеку,
чтобы готовиться к докладу, который я должна была сде-
лать на уроке английского языка. Но я не смогла получить
нужные мне книги, так как пришла поздно. Очевидно, ка-
кой-то другой студент взял их до меня. Мне следовало
прийти пораньше. Было досадно, что теперь мне придется
прийти еще раз. Когда я уже собиралась уходить, ко мне
подошла высокая женщина лет тридцати и сказала: «Ваше
лицо кажется мне знакомым. Должно быть, мы с вами
встречались, но я не помню где.» «Я тоже не помню, - ска-
зал я. - Возможно, мы встречались летом в каком-нибудь
доме отдыха.» «Возможно. Не может быть, чтобы мы ра-
ботали или учились вместе. Тогда бы мы должны были по-
мнить друг друга лучше.»
Have to - Have Got to
Have to is used to express the necessity which comes from
outside the speaker or when others decide for the speaker what
it is necessary to do. It is similar in its meaning to must. It cor-
responds to the Russian приходится, вынужден'.
She has to go by air because she is short of time.
He has to be at work at 9 о "clock.
In the past tense have to expresses a fulfilled obligation:
We had to do a lot of things during the week we stayed in
the country.
262
Have to replaces must where must cannot be used: a) to ex-
press past necessity or obligation, b) to express absence of ne-
cessity, because must not means prohibition and c) to express a
future obligation:
a)	They had to do what they were told.
b)	You don’t have to make another copy of the document.
c)	You’ll have to take a taxi if you mean to catch the train.
Have got to has the same meaning as have to. It is more usual
in spoken English especially in the negative and interrogative
forms:
Have you got to get up early tomorrow morning?
Both have to and have got to are possible, the former being
more common in American English and the latter in British
English.
Ig| EXERCISES
Exercise I
Comment on the meaning of have to and have got to. Tran-
slate the sentences into Russian.
1. You saw me, and I had to tell you what had happened.
2. Something - he did not know what - had to be done at once.
3. I shall have to get some things from the laboratory. 4. She
will have to see a doctor. 5.1 am sorry to have had to wake you
up. 6. All we have to do is walk now. We don’t have to worry.
7. “Guess what!” “I can’t guess. You’ll have to tell me.”
8. “What do you have to do to earn so much money?” he asked.
9.1 didn’t have to turn around to know they were coming down
the street. 10. Look, John, you can just see where I’ve got
to cross the river. 11. I’ve got to see her first. 12. You’ve got
to think about me now. 13. You’ve got to be careful. 14. If I’ve
got to listen to more of your long stories I shall have to have
a rest. 15. “Will you bring me aspirin and water?” - “You’ve
got to get up,” she said. “It’s noon. You’ve slept five hours
later than usual.”
Exercise II
Turn the following affirmative sentences containing have to
into negative and interrogative ones.
1. He has to light a fire. 2. They had to change their shoes.
3. I shall have to buy a new pair of gloves. 4. She has to go
263
home early. 5. He had to give it back. 6. She’ll have to come
again. 7. I have to change my plans. 8. You will have to ring
her up again. 9. He had to put off his visit to the doctor.
10. She had to go to the meeting. 11. Mother has to cook
dinner after work. 12. He had to sit up late with this work.
13. You will have to get up early tomorrow. 14. The girl had
to take care of her younger sister and brothers. 15. She will
have to do it once over again. 16. They had to cover the whole
distance on foot. 17. We will have to speak to him about it.
Exercise III
Fill in the blanks with must or had (to).
1. When I asked him why he was so late, he told me that he had
missed an earlier train and........wait for another one. 2. The
man warned us that the place was dangerous to bathe in and
we....look for a safer spot. 3. His wife kept telling him that he
...not sit up so late. 4. The doctor told him he..give up
smoking. 5. The father said to the children that they..be
careful while crossing the street. 6. The bus was not going that
direction, so he..change. 7. It was not that the work..be
finished soon, but we ourselves wanted to be through with it as
soon as possible. 8.1 had no special desire to do it, but as I felt
it....be done this way or another. 9. I saw that I..speak
louder to make myself heard. 10. Telling himself that he..
control himself, he did not answer anything. 11. For a moment
she felt her heart..break. 12. Do you realize that you....
mention it to anybody? 13. I knew it was a secret and I...
keep it. 14. It is getting late. I.leave, or I shall be late for the
last bus.
Exercise IV
Translate into English using the verb to have in its modal
meaning.
1.	Мне сейчас приходится много работать, так как я болела
и отстала от группы. 2. Вам придется поговорить с ним лич-
но. 3. Нам пришлось переждать дождь на станции. 4. Я вы-
нужден был извиниться, хотя мне это и было непросто.
5. Книгу необходимо переплести, иначе некоторые страни-
цы могут потеряться. 6. Вам приходится очень рано вста-
вать, не так ли? 7. Он вынужден сделать вам замечание, не
правда ли? 8. Ему не нужно было сдавать вступительные эк-
замены. 9. Нам не пришлось провожать их в гостиницу, так
264
как они сами хорошо знали дорогу. 10. Работу придется сде-
лать сегодня. 11. Он сказал, что вам придется ехать туда од-
ному. 12. Всю страницу пришлось перепечатать из-за одной
опечатки. 13. Ей пришлось выпить чай без сахара. 14. Мне
нет необходимости быть там раньше трех чесов. 15. Один из
гостей сел около меня. Мне не нужно было говорить, кто он.
16. У тебя короткие волосы, и они вьются. - Я болела скар-
латиной, и волосы пришлось обрезать. 17. Он должен был
пододвинуться поближе, чтобы услышать ее.
То Be to
То be to as a modal verb is used in the Present and Past
Simple.
1.	The modal expression to be + infinitive is used to express
obligation arising out of an arrangement or agreement.
It is used in statements and questions.
We are to complete this work by tomorrow.
I was to meet Mother at the dentist’s at 11 o’clock.
Who is to be the first?
To show that the action did not take place the Perfect Infini-
tive is used after the Past Simple of the verb to be to:
She was to have graduated in June, but unfortunately fell ill.
2.	To be to expresses a purpose, a plan.
The prize was to honour him for his great discoveries.
3.	A strict order or an instruction:
He is to return to Moscow tomorrow.
4.	Strict prohibition (only in the negative form):
You are not to tell anybody about it.
5.	Something that is destined to happen. It corresponds to the
Russian суждено, предстоит.
Asa young man he didn ’t know that he was to become a famous
scientist. (Ему суждено было стать знаменитым ученым.)
Sometimes it may be translated by the Russian verb хотеть,
especially after the conjunction if:
If we are to get there on time, we must start at once. (Если мы
хотим прийти вовремя, надо сразу отправляться.)
6.	Possibility. In this case the passive form of the infinitive is
used.
Then its meaning*is close to that of can:
He was nowhere to be found.
265
Неге аге some set expressions with the verb to be to:
What am I to do? Что мне делать? Как мне быть?
What is to become of me? Что co мной будет?
Where am I to go? Куда же мне деваться?
0 EXERCISES
Exercise I
Comment on the meaning of to be + infinitive in the follow-
ing sentences. Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. We are to see her tonight, if that boy doesn’t forget his
appointment. 2. We were to have gone away together this
morning at dawn. 3. She reminded him that they were to meet
at eight fifteen that evening. 4. Where am I to turn? 5. Jane was
to go home with her sister. 6. Some of them were to dine with
us the next day. 7. They reached the hotel where they were
to stay for a few days. 8. They drew near the appointed place
where the rest of the party were to meet them. 9. You must
know how milking is to be done. 10. He is a strange person,
I admit, but it does not mean that he is to be laughed at.
11. What we are to talk about next. I cannot imagine. 12. This
time he is not in the least to blame. 13. He reminded her of
what she was to expect in her new position. 14. No excellence
in music is to be acquired without constant practice. 15. “If we
are to guide our guests about the town, we have at least to do it
competently,” Nina said.
Exercise II
Explain the difference in meaning between the two sentences
in the following pairs.
1) a) The plane was not to take off at night as the weather was
too bad. b) The plane was to have taken off at night, but the
weather was too bad. 2) a) There was to be an interesting
concert last night, but I didn’t feel well and had to stay at
home, b) There was to have been an interesting concert last
night, but the singer fell ill and the concert had to be
postponed. 3) a) The order came that we were not to leave the
village before dawn, b) We were not to have left the village
before dawn, but by the time the order came we were two
miles away from it.
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Exercise III
Use the modal verb to be to with the proper form of the in-
finitive in brackets.
1. I stood at the window, looking at them disappear, and my
heart kept repeating “Good-bye, good-bye!” I was not (to see)
them for nearly five years. 2. Nobody met me when I came.
I was (to arrive) by the ten o’clock train, but I couldn’t get
a ticket for it. 3. Remember that we are (to be) at this place not
later than eight. 4. Why are you so late? Didn’t you get my
letter saying that we were (to meet) at 4? 5. There was a violent
storm that night and the Albatross which was (to arrive) at the
port in the morning had to drop anchor near an island a hundred
miles off the port. 6. Large sums are now being spent on
educational development and still larger sums are (to spend) in
the near future. 7. We were (to play) a duet together. 8. He was
(to have) a music lesson in the morning but the teacher called
up to cancel it.
Exercise IV
Insert the verb to be to or to have to in the necessary tense
form.
1.1 wondered what to happen to us. 2. It looks like raining.
You.....to take your raincoats. 3. We agreed that the one who
came first...to reserve seats for the rest of us. 4. Nobody met
me at the airfield as I.to have arrived a day later and could
not warn any of my friends of the change. 5. He always puts off
doing what he.....to do until it....to be done. 6. We......
to leave on Monday but because of a two days’ delay with the
visas we to book tickets for Wednesday. 7. There is nothing
strange in what he did. It..to be expected. 8. It was too late
to change the plan, and it..to remain as it was. 9. You....
not to tell him about it if you don’t want to. 10. You.not
to tell him anything about it before you get further instructions.
11. They hoped to spend the summer together, but that not
to be. 12....I to do it all by myself? 13. The headmaster
arranged that the children..be taken home by bus.
Exercise V
Translate into English using to be to or to have to.
1. Собрание должно было начаться сразу после уроков.
2. Мы должны были отложить собрание, так как доклад-
чик заболел. 3. Если вы хотите занять первое место в со-
267
ревнованиях по бегу, вы должны значительно больше тре-
нироваться. 4. По новому расписанию вы должны трени-
роваться на спортплощадке с двух до четырех. 5. Мы ре-
шили, что в августе все должны принять участие в уборке
урожая. 6. В будущем году наш завод должен начать вы-
пуск новых радиоприемников. 7. Вы должны приготовить
эту работу к четвергу. 8. Я должен был приготовить эту
работу к четвергу. (Два варианта.) 9. Вы не должны пре-
кращать работу, пока не закончите ее. Завтра уже чет-
верг. 10. Мне пришлось приготовить эту работу к четвер-
гу. 11. Мне придется приготовить эту работу к четвергу.
12.Так как он приготовил все заранее, ему не нужно де-
лать этого теперь. 13. Выбора не было; ему пришлось со-
гласиться.
Exercise VI
Translate into English using to be to or to have to.
1. Я был несколько удивлен, обнаружив так много народа
в зале, где я должен был выступать. 2. Мне нет необходи-
мости идти туда раньше пяти часов. 3. Его пригласили на
обед домой к другу. После обеда они должны были пойти
в кино. 4. По радио объявили, что вечером должен высту-
пить президент. 5. На следующий день он взял меня на дол-
гую автомобильную прогулку. А в семь часов мы должны
были обедать у друзей. 6. Когда я узнал, что поезд уже при-
был, мне пришлось взять такси и поспешить домой, так
как у сестры не было ключа от квартиры. 7. Он давно ушел
и к пяти часам должен вернуться. 8. Я должна была там
быть час тому назад. 9. Почему им пришлось уехать из это-
го дома? 10. Он сказал мне, что я должен ждать его здесь.
11. Согласно контракту, товары должны прибыть в порт в
конце недели. 12. Он должен был прийти сюда на прошлой
неделе, но он не пришел. 13. Его нигде нельзя найти.
Need
The verb need may be either a modal or a regular verb. Need
is a regular verb, when it means to be in need of something, to
want something. As a regular verb it has -s in the 3rd person
singular in the Present Simple - needs. It forms its negative and
interrogative forms with do, does, did:
268
Do I need to show my pass every time?
You don 7 need to say it every time you see me.
Need as a modal verb is used in negative and interrogative
sentences only. It expresses necessity. As a modal verb it has no
past tense form; it is used without -s in the third person singu-
lar. It is followed by the infinitive without the particle to. It
corresponds to the Russian нужно'.
You needn 7 do it now.
Need she come tomorrow?
In negative sentences need followed by the Perfect Infinitive
shows that the action expressed by the infinitive was performed
but was not necessary. In this case it is translated by зря,
незачем, не к чему было'.
You needn 7 have spent all the money. Now we ’ve got nothing
left.
In reported speech need remains unchanged:
The teacher said that we needn 7 t ranslate the text.
1И EXERCISES
Exercise I
Comment on the meaning of the modal verb need. Translate
the sentences into Russian.
1. I was rather afraid that he might act as though we were
intimate friends. But I needn’t have worried. 2. You needn’t be
afraid of telling me everything. 3. If you don’t like the dress,
you needn’t take it. 4. You needn’t have walked there. You
could have taken a bus. 5. Need we continue working by this
plan? 6. I needn’t bother about your sister anymore. 7. “I’ve
got lots of time. I needn’t go home for hours,” she said. 8. “You
rest,” she said. “I’ll certainly make the tea. You needn’t have
asked me.” 9. Everything is packed, except my shirts, so you
needn’t trouble. 10. Our friendship needn’t stop, need it?
11. Need we insist upon the date? 12. Need he study more at
home? 13. Need you bring your girl-friend with you? 14. “Do
you remember what you did when you were twenty-five?” “You
need not have reminded me of it.” 15. If you don’t like the
cocktail, you needn’t drink it.
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Exercise II
Paraphrase the following using the modal verb need.
1.1 see no reason why we should argue. 2. It was not necessary
for her to carry the bags all by herself: there were porters at the
station. 3. Is it so very necessary that you should go there at
all? 4. There is no use worrying about her; she is quite able to
take care of herself. 5. What’s the use of reproaching yourself?
6.1 don’t think there is any need to bother them. 7. It was quite
unnecessary for you to do the work instead of him.
Exercise III
Translate into English using need.
1. To, что она сделала, так глупо, что нам незачем обсуж-
дать это. 2. Это было так близко, что все согласились, что
им не нужно брать машину. 3. Нам не к чему варить всю
картошку. 4. Нам нужно переодеться к обеду? 5. У нас еще
масса времени. Мы зря спешим. 6. А вам обязательно туда
идти? 7. Тебе незачем тратить на них все деньги. 8. Ты на-
прасно беспокоился. Я пообещал своим родителям побыть
здесь еще немного. 9. Он положил конверт на стол. «День-
ги все там, - сказал он. - Можешь не пересчитывать их.»
10. Ты знаешь детей. Они все ломают. Мне не нужно гово-
рить тебе об этом. 11. Он знал, что ему не надо никому
ничего объяснять. 12. Я думаю, что нам незачем уделять
ей столько внимания. 13. Тебе незачем бояться меня.
14. Нам необязательно слушать всех ораторов. 15. Тебе не
нужно было заказывать номер в гостинице. У нас есть сво-
бодная спальня.
Exercise IV
Translate into English using don't have to, needn't.
1. У нас поставили телефон, и нам теперь не нужно хо-
дить к соседям. 2. Вам незачем идти на улицу; у соседей
есть телефон. 3. У нас теперь построили стадион, и детям
не приходится ездить далеко. 4. Им незачем ездить так
далеко, можно заниматься в нашем читальном зале. 5. Не
нужно отвечать на этот вопрос, если ты не хочешь. 6. Не-
обязательно вам приходить самому. Можете прислать
кого-нибудь. 7. Ему незачем беспокоиться. Все будет в
порядке. 8. Нам не нужно было ходить в библиотеку. Все
необходимые книги были у меня дома. 9. К вечеру зуб
перестал болеть, и он решил, что ему не надо идти к вра-
270
чу. 10. Много ли времени пришлось вам потратить на эту
работу? 11. Мне не пришлось покупать новый словарь,
так как у меня был такой словарь дома. 12. Вам не нужно
было покупать этот словарь, у меня есть лишний экземп-
ляр дома. 13. Разговор наш продолжался недолго, все
было достаточно ясно, и нам не к чему было вдаваться в
излишние подробности. 14. Ему не к чему было вдавать-
ся в подробности. Это все равно не помогло. 15. Все сло-
ва в тексте были хорошо знакомы, и мне даже незачем
было пользоваться словарем.
Exercise V
Translate into English using the verbs must, to be (to), to
have (to), or need.
1.	Сказал ли преподаватель, что мы должны выучить этот
текст наизусть? 2. Я не знал, что этот текст не надо учить
наизусть. 3. Зря вы учили этот текст наизусть, его надо
было просто читать. 4. Не шумите, дети, должно быть,
спят. 5. Никто, наверно, не сказал ему об этом. 6. Они дол-
жны были прийти в 5, а уже 6 часов. 7. Они, наверно, за-
были, что должны были прийти в 5 часов. 8. Надеюсь, вам
не пришлось долго ждать, да? 9. Надеюсь, нам не придет-
ся ждать. 10. Эту книгу можно найти в любой библиотеке.
11. Стоит ли волноваться из-за таких пустяков? 12. Тебе
не нужно беспокоиться. Ты сдашь экзамены хорошо.
Ought to
The modal verb ought to has only one form. It is used with
the to-infinitive. It can indicate present or future time:
Drivers ought to be very careful on this dangerous road.
Ought to with the Perfect Infinitive is used to indicate a past
action that was not fulfilled:
You ought to have postponed your trip until your mother got
well.
Ought expresses:
1.	moral duty, moral obligation. It corresponds to the Russian
следует'.
You ought to look after your children better.
2.	advice:
You ought to see a doctor.
271
3.	probability, something that can be naturally expected. I
corresponds to the Russian должно быть, наверное:
You ought to be hungry.
Ought to is not changed in reported speech:
She told him he ought not to go away.
EXERCISES
Exercise I
Analyse the meaning of the verb ought (to) and translate the
sentences into Russian.
1. The young ought to respect old age. 2. You ought not tc
show to him that you notice his stammer, he feels it very keenly.
3. Where is Tom? - He ought to be in his study. 4. I think
I ought to let your parents know we are here. 5. Oughtn’t you
to be more careful? 6. “How can you know what his feelings
are?” “I ought to know, for he’s always telling me about them.”
7. When he saw Ann playing tennis, he came up and said,
“Are you sure you ought to be doing that?” 8. You ought not
to have touched those instruments. 9. You ought to be more
careful in the future. 10. You ought to have reserved tickets
in advance. 11. I feel I ought to help her. 12.1 ought to have
told the truth long ago. 13.1 ought to say a word or two about
myself. 14. You ought to be more attentive to other people’s
feelings. 15. You ought to have done it yesterday.
Exercise II
Fill in the blanks with ought (to), to be (to), to have (to).
1. Don’t argue with her, you...to respect her age. 2. She is
not a bad girl, if somewhat capricious; so you sometimes...
to put up with her whims. 3. The situation grew awkward. He
felt that something....to be done, or else the party would
break up. 4. I thought I...to do something to return their
hospitality. 5. Not a living thing..to be seen. 6. Why do
you ask my opinion? You have been in the business much
longer, you....to know better. 7. You are a father, you....
not to neglect your duties to your children. 8. According to
the rules of the game a football player...not to touch the
ball with his hands. 9. Ring me up at 6 o’clock. The situation
...to clear up by then.
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Exercise III
Use the required form of the infinitive after ought to.
1. But we ought (to have) you brother here, to tell us exactly
how far we can go. 2. He couldn’t see anything. He thought
that he ought (to bring) a torch. 3. If you’re in love it ought (to
make) you happy. 4. The doctor said it was appendicitis and
she ought (to operate) on. 5. Oughtn’t you (to answer) that
letter now? 6. Well, I’m very glad to know at last what it was all
about. - You ought (to tell) before. 7. Anything we can do to
clear up this miserable affair ought (to do). 8. You ought (to
come) first and get the place ready for you. 9. She ought (to
guess) that she couldn’t go far in London without being
recognized. 10.1 confess I ought (to think) about that. 11. He
had been wrong to let the boy get away with that letter; he
ought (to keep) him under his eyes from the start!
Exercise IV
Translate into English using ought (to).
1. Вам следовало быть более внимательным. 2. Вам следо-
вало отложить вашу поездку до тех пор, пока ваша мама не
поправится. 3. Вам бы следовало посоветоваться с врачом.
Может быть, вы не здоровы. 4. Вам следовало попытаться
уговорить его, а не спорить с ним. 5. Он не понял вас. Вам
следовало бы подробно объяснить свою точку зрения. 6. Вам
следует быть более внимательным, так как вы допускаете
много ошибок в тексте. 7. Вам следовало сказать правду.
Это избавило бы вас от многих неприятностей. 8. Вам не
следует набирать номер телефона, пока вы не уверены, что
он правильный. 9. Вам следовало послать телеграмму вче-
ра, сразу по приезде. 10. Ему следует быть дома и ухажи-
вать за больной матерью. 11. Я расскажу вам что-то, что
вам следует знать, по моему мнению. 12. Мне не следовало
разрешать вам делать мне такие подарки.
Should
The modal verb should is unchangeable. It may refer to the
present and it is not changed in reported speech. It corresponds
to the Russian следует'.
You should be more careful.
I told him he should be more careful.
273
Should is nearly always interchangeable with ought to, as
their meaning coincide.
It expresses:
1) moral obligation or duty
You should never break a promise you have given.
Should + Perfect Infinitive refers the action to the past and
shows that a desirable action was carried out. It has the addi-
tional meaning of reproach or regret:
You should have told me the truth.
A negative sentence shows that something wrong has been
done:
You shouldn 7 have done that. It was stupid.
2) advice
You should stay in bed.
Й EXERCISES
Exercise I
Comment on the meaning of the verb should. Translate the
sentences into Russian.
1. You shouldn’t go out without an overcoat. 2. If you are
interested in pictures you should look in at the British
Museum. 3. You shouldn’t have said that. 4. Perhaps she said
things that should have been left unsaid. 5. I suppose he
shouldn’t have touched anything at all. 6. You should read
a receipt carefully before you sign it. 7. Now she told me
exactly what I should say. 8. One shouldn’t go from one place
to another. 9. While you are in our city you should use every
opportunity to see its wonders. 10. You should be working
now and not talking with your friend. 11. We should go to the
zoo more often, and watch the monkeys. 12. Why should you
be different from other men?
Exercise II
Fill in the blanks in the following sentences choosing between
ought to and should.
Remember that although ought to and should are very close in
the meaning of obligation and are often interchangeable, the
former tends to express moral obligation and is not frequent in
negative sentences whereas the latter is common in instructions
and corrections.
274
1. He looked more than ever out of place; he..have stayed
at home. 2. I don’t think people....gossip like that about
other people. 3. She said, “You know, I think I.get across
to the station and see what goes on.” 4. I want him to do
what’s right. It..(not) persuade a man to do that. 5. My
mother frowned at him and shook her head in a way that
meant that he.....(not) say things like that in front of me.
6. “Strange,” said the boy, “how, when people are either very
old or very young, they always want to do something they
...(not) do.” 7. “It is very wicked of you,” she said. “You
...be ashamed of yourself.” 8. I’ll see and speak to him. He
... (not) behave like that. 9. After she had gone I found
myself wondering whether I......do anything for her. 10. She
is a clever girl and her French.be perfect. 11. The children
were out dancing when they ...... have	been learning their
lessons. 12. “I’m not very well, I’m having trouble with my
leg.” “I see. Well, I think you.... go and see a doctor.”
13. He was very sad and I thought I ....do all I could to
cheer him up.
Exercise III
Use the required form of the infinitive after should.
1. Tea is between half past five and six, and it should (to be)
ready now. 2. Should the baby (to play) with the box of
matches? 3. You should (to see) him yesterday on horseback.
4. “Your father and I should (to arrange) everything before I
came here,” he said. 5. Where is the car? He shouldn’t (to leave)
it unattended. 6. He drove at great speed. He knew that about
this hour the guests should (to arrive) at his house. 7. Then he
should (to laugh), but instead he heard himself saying,
“Everything you say is quite true.” 8. “I don’t think he had
the least idea of what I meant.” “You should (to be) more
sincere, my dear.” 9. You should (to go) to the concert. Why
should (to miss) the music? 10. It was surprising that they
should (to meet) at all. 11. He did not see why he should not
(to discuss) the matter with his chief. 12. She is in town
shopping. She should (to be) back at any moment. 13. I am
very shocked indeed that you should (to feel) it necessary to
lie to me. 14. I’m sorry that you should (to have) a quarrel
with your friend.
275
Exercise IV
Fill in the blanks with either should or must. Translate into
Russian.
1. a) You ...have spoken to him already. I see you know
everything, b) You....have spoken to him of the matter. Why
keep him in the dark? 2. a) They...have studied the subject
more thoroughly, they will regret it later on. b) They.have
studied the subject thoroughly, they answered every question.
3. a) You....have ignored the traffic regulations. That’s why
you were fined, b) You...have followed the traffic regulations,
then you would not have been fined. 4. a) He have forgotten
to send them a telegram, b) He....have remembered to send
them a telegram. 5. a) I have taken grandfather’s spectacles.
I cannot see anything through them, b) I....have taken my
opera-glasses. I don’t see anything.
Exercise V
Translate the following sentences into English, using ought
to and should wherever possible.
1. Я прошу извинения. Мне не следовало этого говорить.
2. Мне думается, что вам надо проявлять уважение к стар-
шим. 3. Я подумал, что тебе нужно бы знать об этом.
4. Теперь я огорчил ее. Мне не нужно было это делать.
5. «Я сказал что-нибудь такое, чего мне не следовало гово-
рить?» - спросил он у матери. 6. Не стоит задавать таких
вопросов. 7. Ну что же, вы были правы. Мне не так надо
было делать это. 8. Как ты думаешь, чем мне следовало бы
заняться? 9. Я был с тобой более откровенен, чем мне сле-
довало бы. 10. Я сказал, что ей совсем не следовало бы
приходить с ним. 11. Не стоит быть столь критичным в
твоем возрасте, Михаил. 12. Аня - моя сестра. - Мне сле-
довало бы догадаться. Вы похожи на нее. 13. Ей надо было
бы раньше об этом вспомнить. 14. Мне хочется сделать то,
что не следует делать.
276
Shall
In present day English shall is not a purely modal verb. It
always combines its modal meaning of obligation with the func-
tion of an auxiliary verb in the future tense.
As a modal verb shall expresses:
1.	promise or strong intention. In this meaning shall is used
with the 2nd or 3rd person:
It shall be done as you wish.
2.	threat or warning {shall is used in this meaning in the 2nd
and 3rd person):
She shall pay for it.
3.	a suggestion.
It is used in questions in the 1st person singular and plural.
Shall I read? - Please, do. Мне читать? - Читайте,
пожалуйста.
0 EXERCISES
Exercise I
Analyse the modal meaning of shall and translate the sen-
tences into Russian.
1. The victory of peace can and shall be won. There shall be no
war. 2. He shall do it whether he wants it or not. 3. You shall
answer for it! 4. You shall sit by me, and amuse me. 5. At what
time shall I be back? 6. You shall do as you are told. 7. Shall
I leave the things here? 8. If I come here, you shall know about
it. 9. “You shall see the portrait yourself,” he cried, seizing a
lamp from the table. 10. I give you my word, you shall hear
from me soon. 11.1 made a mistake this afternoon. It shall not
happen again. 12. I’ll tell you the story of my life and you shall
tell me all about yours.
Exercise II
Translate the following sentences into English using shall
wherever possible.
1. Сколько мне заплатить носильщику? 2. Когда мы узна-
ем что-нибудь, вы непременно услышите об этом. 3. Пере-
вести весь текст? - Нет, не нужно, переведите только под-
черкнутые предложения. 4. Это можно сделать и это будет
сделано, если ты только поможешь мне. 5. «Тебе поиграть?»
277
- спросила она. - «Да, пожалуйста.» 6. У тебя не будет при-
чины жаловаться на меня. 7. Вы получите книгу в поне-
дельник. 8. Когда ему прийти? 9. Закрыть дверь? 10. Обо-
рудование для нашей экспедиции должно быть отгружено
в мае. 11. Если вы будете сидеть на сквозняке, вы просту-
дитесь. 12. Что нужно сделать с этими письмами? 13. Она
позвонит вам? 14. Вам следует сделать это немедленно.
Will/Would
I.	Will is not a purely modal verb. It almost always combines
its modal meaning with its functioning as an auxiliary verb in
the future tense.
Will has two forms: will for the present tense and would for
the past tense. Thus will and would are looked upon as forms of
the same verb, although in a few cases their meaning differ.
Will expresses:
1.	willingness, intention. It corresponds to the Russian непре-
менно, обязательно, охотно'.
I will write as soon as I can.
When used in the negative it denotes a refusal to do something:
I won 7 accept your offer (I refuse to.).
2.	a polite request or an offer (only in questions):
Will you pass the salt, please?
In comparison with will the form would shows a greater de-
gree of politeness:
Would you please lend me your pencil?
It is still more polite to use the combinations:
Would you mind (+ -ing form)?
Would you mind waiting a little longer?
Would you be so kind as to.?
Would you be so kind as to lend me your book?
3.	a command:
You will do exactly as I say.
An impatient command can begin with will you'.
Will you be quiet! - Замолчишь ли ты наконец?
Will you in the tag after a negative command is pronounced
with the falling tone:
Don 7 be late, will you?
But after a positive command will you has a rising intonation:
Sit down, will you?
278
4.	insistence, resistance.
Will and would used with inanimate objects show that a thing
fails to perform its function. They are used in negative sen-
tences and correspond to the Russian никак не:
The door will not open. - Дверь никак не открывается.
The orange won't peel. - Апельсин никак не очистить.
The engine wouldn 7 start. - Мотор никак не заводился.
The wound wouldn 7 heal. - Рана никак не заживала.
5.	inevitability or something naturally expected:
What will be will be. - Чему быть, того не миновать.
Accidents will happen. - Несчастные случаи неизбежны.
6.	characteristic behaviour or quality.
This car will hold six people comfortably.
Oil will float on water.
This meaning is not expressed in Russian.
7.	disapproval of something expected. In this meaning only
would is used. It is mainly in responses.
It corresponds to the Russian этого и следовало ожидать,
на него это похоже.
“I know she attended the place. ”
“Oh, yes, she would. Конечно, что еще можно ожидать.
“Не refused to help.” “Не would.” - На него похоже.
П. Will/would with different forms of the infinitive can express
a certainty about the present or the future, something that is
expected:
This will be just what she wants. - Это, очевидно, то, чего
она хочет.
That would be he! - Это, наверное, он.
That would be in 1910, I think. - Я думаю, это, наверное,
было в 1910 году.
Note the expression:
You would, would you? - Ax, ты так!
QI EXERCISES
Exercise I
Comment on the meaning of will and would. Translate the
sentences into Russian.
1. Though the work is difficult, I will do it, and it will be done
well. 2. Will you kindly.pass me the salt? 3.1 will do it whether
you like it or not! 4.1 gave her book to read, but after a page or
279
two she would put the book down. 5.1 asked her but she would
not tell me her address. 6. Would you be so kind as to shut the
window? 7.1 asked him not to switch on the radio early in the
morning but he would do it. 8. She pushed the door, but it
would not open. 9. Shut the door, would you? 10. When he
returned I repeated my offer of food, but he would take nothing.
11. He had a wound that wouldn’t heal.
Exercise II
Fill in the blanks with will or would.
1.	Though the work is difficult, I do it, and it be done
well. 2....you kindly pass me the salt? 3.1 asked her but she
...not tell me her address. 4. I...do it whether you like it
or not! 5..........................you be so kind as to shut the window? 6. We
waited till afternoon but the rain.not stop. 7. I asked him
not to switch on the radio early in the morning but he.do
it. 8. She pushed the door, but it.not open. 9. Each time
we went out together he.....show me something new. 10. I
...say it again and again. 11.1 know there is a theory that a
book, if it is any good, .always find a publisher. 12. When
he returned I repeated my offer of food, but he .... take
nothing. 13.....you really do it for me? 14. Shut the door,
...you? 15. He.....read a book before going to bed. 16....
come round tomorrow?
Exercise III
Fill in the blanks with should or would.
1.1 swore that I forgave her everything, but she.not listen!
2.	She clenched her teeth so that she..not cry. 3. Why....
the people be operated on without an anaesthetic? 4. For a long
time sleep...not come. 5. Sometimes we.....simply drink tea
and talk like friends. 6.1 asked him one or two questions but he
...not answer. 7 we talk Italian? you mind very much?
8. I be very much obliged if you have a talk to him.
9..you really do it for me? 10. Shut the door,  you?
“Where is Ann?” “Where......she be if not in school?” 11. He
was very sorry that Philip..be disturbed. 12. People tried to
be kind to her and asked her to stay with them, but she...
13....you kindly show me that lovely vase? 14. I’d be very
glad if you..stay and have a bit of dinner with me. 15. You
...never neglect a chance, however small it may seem.
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Exercise IV
Translate into English the following sentences using will or
would.
1. Ну, пожалуйста, расскажи мне, что случилось. 2. Он по-
пытался открыть крышку, но она никак не поддавалась.
3. Я бы все сделал, чтобы помочь ему. 4. Он попытался
объяснить, но я не стал его слушать. 5. Он не согласился со
мной. - Естественно. 6. Сегодня воскресенье, и все магази-
ны будут закрыты. 7. Он сделал две или три попытки за-
жечь зажигалку, но она никак не зажигалась. 8. Я спросил
его жену, что с ним, но она мне не ответила. 9. Он выклю-
чил лампу, но сон к нему не шел. 10. Я думаю, что я пойду
и посмотрю телевизор, если вы извините меня. 11. Я хотел
посмотреть только одну картину, но они меня не впусти-
ли, так как было поздно. 12. «Папа, - позвал мальчик. -
Ты обещал мне помочь с моим игрушечным поездом. Он
никак не двигается.» 13. Я предложил ей сходить к докто-
ру, но она и слышать не хотела об этом. 14. После работы
он обычно дожидался нас у моста.
Exercise V
Translate into English the following sentences using shall,
will, should or would.
1. Вы этого не сделаете. Запомните это! 2. Я сделаю эту
работу, хотя бы мне и пришлось не спать всю ночь. 3. Ма-
газин, вероятно, еще открыт. Если вы поторопитесь, вы
успеете купить хлеб. 4. Он сказал, что ему придется уехать
через несколько дней, но мы и слушать не хотели. 5. Беспо-
лезно доказывать ему, что вы правы; его никогда нельзя
убедить. Он очень упрямый. 6. Это его не касается. Неза-
чем было ему вмешиваться. 7. Вы должны прочесть эту
интересную статью. 8. Вам придется держать экзамен еще
раз. Вам надо обратить больше внимания на грамматику.
9. Вам бы следовало предупредить нас, что вы не придете.
Мы бы не ждали вас. 10. Вы прекрасно знали, что это бес-
полезно, но все же это сделали. 11. Он не понял вас. Вам
следовало бы подробно объяснить свою точку зрения.
12. Вам давно следовало бы побывать в этом древнем го-
роде. 13. Я обещаю, что все будет сделано. 14. Замок никак
не запирается! Я просила тебя много раз починить его.
15. Ты никуда не пойдешь, пока не сделаешь уроки!
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Dare
Dare is used both as a regular verb and as a modal one.
As a regular verb dare has two forms: dare for the present
tense and dared for the past tense. As a regular verb it is used
with the auxiliary verb to do in the interrogative and with -s in
the third person singular, the Present Simple. It is also used
with the particle to in the infinitive. It expresses to venture and
to challenge.
He didn7 dare to stop me. (He didn7 have the courage.)
I dared him to jump. (I challenged him to do it.)
As a modal verb it is used chiefly in interrogative and nega-
tive sentences. It expresses to have the courage to do something.
How dare he speak to you like that?
Dare you ask him?
Note the following combinations with the modal verb dare\
I dare say. - I suppose, no doubt.
I dare say you are right. - Очень возможно, что вы правы.
I dare say he will come late. - Полагаю, он придет позже.
Exercise I
Analyse the verb dare. State whether it is an ordinary or a
modal verb and translate the sentences into Russian.
1. He felt he dare not reply. 2. Her face bore an expression of
such anger that no one dared come near to speak with her. 3.1
dare say you are a little tired after your walk. 4. He dared not
look into her face. 5.1 did not dare to ask him to postpone his
trip. 6. She was aware that anyone was watching her, but she
dared not move. 7. Who dares to jump over the stream? 8. She
did not dare to leave the house in case he telephoned.
Revision of All the Modal Verbs
EXERCISES
Exercise I
Fill in the blanks with the necessary modal verbs noticing
carefully the Russian equivalents given in brackets.
1. Somebody has been talking, ..(кто бы это мог быть)?
2. That book was one of those that one.(должен был бы
прочитать). 3...., everything has turned out all right. (Неза-
282
чем было волноваться) 4. Frequently he...in the garden bent
over his flowers, (можно было застать) 5.1 believe he was always
afraid they ...at him. (могут посмеяться) 6. It had been
arranged between them that whichever woke up first, before six
...the other by knocking on the wall, (должен был позвать)
7. He opened his eyes and looked at the smiling young woman
who leaned over him......he thought. (Это, вероятно, Аня)
8. He came out of the water, smiling. “You........have come
earlier,” he said. “We ..have swum together. The water is
great.” (зря не пришел, могли бы) 9. “Last night, you know, he
suddenly began to speak to me about what my future was going
to be like.” “What...it have meant?” “How.........I know?” (и
что это могло означать, откуда мне знать) 10. There was an
old apple tree beside the path. I said, “I bet I..climb that.”
“No, you....not,” said Jack, (могу, не надо) 11. “Well, then
...you hold the line while I find the letter?” “I.not, I’m in a
telephone box.” “Then.........................I ring you back?” “I’m not on the
telephone.” “Then I think perhaps you..ring me back in half
an hour. By then I...have some idea what this is all about.”
(можешь ли, не могу, можно мне, тебе лучше, может быть)
12. “Monday will be my last day in London,” he said. “I..
stay down here rather late.” (может быть придется) 13. It’s too
bad she...stay with us. We....have learned a great deal about
the theatre tonight, (не могла, могли бы) 14. If you help me
now.....help you later, (смогу) 15. “I shall wait to hear what
Lily has to say about it?” “You.wait a long time.” (придет-
ся) 16.1 think you..............certainly have told us the truth, and we
...have decided what was the best thing to do. (следовало бы,
могли бы) 17. If your mother calls, tell her I.be a little late,
(возможно) 18. On Saturday Charles broke the news to his
father. He began to grumble, “You.....have chosen a more
suitable time to tell me. You.have known that hearing this
would make me nervous.” (следовало бы, мог бы)
Exercise II
Translate into English the parts of the sentence given in
brackets using modal verbs.
1. Do you think we (смогли бы добраться) home by nine? 2.1
had never stopped writing to my cousin, but (должно быть
прошло) seven years since we had met. 3. (Могу ли я сделать)
as I like or (я должна сделать) as you like? 4. “Now listen to
me!” he said, “I’ll tell you a few things that you (должен был
283
бы спросить) before starting out.” 5. “I’m sorry about Kate,”
he said. “I suppose it (должно было случиться),” his sister
answered. 6. When you came here I told you you were free to
come and go as you please, but you (не должна была наве-
щать) our old friend. 7. He (должен был заехать) for me in
the morning at ten o’clock, but he (должно быть, забыл) about
it. 8. That film was one of those that one (должен был бы
посмотреть). 9. She protested but he (не хотел и слушать) to
her protests. 10.1 think he (мог бы подождать) till I came back.
11. The girl (должно быть, поняла) me as she nodded her head.
12. You (зря написал) to him about it. 13. You (зря был) with
her so rude. She is crying now.
Exercise III
Fill in the blanks with the verb can, may, must, should, ought
to, need, have to, be to.
1. All this time he.have been nearly forty-seven. 2. Surely
he....have stayed with her on her birthday. 3. She...never
have married him! 4. You......not bother with these things
here for you are among friends. 5. If anything...happen to
me, my wife will be left quite alone. 6. Tell him I’d wait twenty
years for him if I..to. 7. This...be the very last dinner he
would ever eat at his friend’s. 8. You.not be afraid, I never
cry. 9. Why....you and I talk about it? 10. He told me that I
... stay with him for a few days so that he ..... show me
something of the surrounding country. 11. My mother says
that I (not) be out after eleven o’clock. 12. It was of himself
and of his own future, that he...................think. 13. It is absurd to
have a hard and fast rule about what one....read and what
one.....not. 14. You.....read a document carefully before
you sign it. 15. You know, you....to see a doctor.
Exercise IV
Translate the sentences into English using modal verbs.
1. Неужели он действительно отказался вам помочь? 2. С
какой стати я буду ему первая звонить? 3. Наверное, он ис-
пугал вас своими угрозами. 4. Не нужно беспокоиться. Я
обещаю, что все будет сделано. 5. Вам придется согласиться
на их условия. 6. Вся жизнь мальчика может быть исковер-
кана, если вы не уведете его отсюда. 7. Ах, если бы только я
могла предвидеть это! 8. Он предложил, чтобы соревнова-
ния назначили на пять часов. 9. Мне пойти и узнать, сделал
284
ли он работу? Он должен был закончить ее вчера. 10. Тебе
долго пришлось дожидаться его? 11. Зря ты пришел. Собра-
ние отменено. 12. Ты должен был сказать нам об этом.
13. Она, должно быть, забыла передать им нашу записку.
Exercise V
Translate the following sentences into English using suitable
modal verbs.
1. He может быть, чтобы она совершила такой плохой по-
ступок. 2. Он должен был прийти к нам вечером. Неуже-
ли он забыл? 3. Ты должен был нам сказать, что он нездо-
ров. 4. К сожалению, мне не пришлось поговорить с
врачом. 5. Ты бы мог мне сказать, что опоздаешь. 6. Вче-
ра я не смогла проверить тетради своих студентов, так
как мне пришлось заменять другого преподавателя. 7. Вам
незачем было приходить. Мы могли закончить перевод
без вас. 8. Он сказал, что должен спешить, и ушел, не дож-
давшись, чтобы она что-нибудь ответила. 9. Вы можете
не звонить мне завтра. Я буду завтра работать. 10. Земля
сырая. Здесь, должно быть, только что шел дождь. 11. Ты
напрасно искал ключи. Они лежали на столе. 12. Тебе
пришлось остаться до конца собрания, да? 13. Вечером
она должна была пойти на вечеринку. Поэтому ей при-
шлось купить новое платье. 14. Мы, возможно, поедем на
дачу на выходные дни.
Exercise VI
Translate the following sentences into English using suitable
modal verbs.
1. Вы можете не приносить доклад сегодня. Но завтра ут-
ром он должен быть у меня. 2. Он бы мог сходить туда сам;
ему незачем было посылать вас, вы все же постарше его.
3. Где я могу найти товарища Иванова? - Он, должно быть,
в соседней комнате. 4. Не может быть, что он был искре-
нен, когда отказался ехать с вами на юг. Возможно, роди-
тели не разрешили ему ехать. 5. Ему не нужно было назы-
вать свою фамилию так громко, это привлекло внимание.
6. Она не такая застенчивая. Возможно, ваш вопрос был
неожиданным для нее. 7. Тебе не нужно было спрашивать
у отца: я нашел журнал на твоем письменном столе. 8. Не-
ужели он действительно так растерялся? - Конечно, и даже
покраснел. 9. Вы бы могли предупредить его об этом и не
285
ставить его в такое неловкое положение. 10. Почему ее нет?
Неужели она обиделась и решила не приходить? 11. Поче-
му ты так рано? - Нам не пришлось долго заседать: все
вопросы решили быстро. 12. Билеты можно было заказать
по телефону. Мне не нужно было ехать на вокзал. 13. Я был
в Москве, поэтому мне пришлось осмотреть весь город.
14. Вам не нужно было бросать эту работу. Ведь вы были
так близко к цели. 15. Я смогу выполнить эту работу завт-
ра. Я должен был сказать вам об этом вчера, но я не мог
позвонить вам, так как у меня не было времени.
Exercise VII
Translate into English using modal verbs.
1. Все, даже его недруги, должны признать, что он посту-
пил благородно. 2. Я не могу объяснить этого странного
явления, придется почитать об этом или спросить кого-
нибудь. 3. Оказывается, нам вовсе не надо было заказы-
вать билеты заранее, их можно было купить в день отъез-
да. 4. Неужели вы не читали эту чудесную книгу? Вам
следует ее прочесть, вы получите огромное удовольствие.
5. Мне не надо было делать ему замечание, должно быть,
мои слова оскорбили его. 6. У меня не было выбора, и мне
пришлось согласиться на их предложение. 7. Я надеюсь,
нам не придется долго ждать? 8. В воскресенье мне не надо
было делать уроки, потому что я все сделал накануне.
9. Всем нужно бы посмотреть этот научно-популярный
фильм. 10. Он очень знающий человек; нам надо было спро-
сить его совета, когда мы были у него. Теперь придется
ждать случая, когда мы сможем увидеть его. 11. Он окон-
чил школу с медалью, и ему не нужно было сдавать экза-
мены. 12. К сожалению, у меня не хватило времени осмот-
реть все достопримечательности города: я должен был
уехать. 13. По-моему, ты не должен был скрывать этого от
родителей. 14. Не надо было откладывать репетицию, те-
перь мы не успеем подготовиться к выступлению.
Exercise VIII
Translate into English using modal verbs.
1. Вот видите, вам незачем было так волноваться: все обо-
шлось благополучно. 2. «Вы должны регулярно заниматься
спортом, если хотите выздороветь,» - сказал доктор. 3. «Бо-
юсь, что нам придется переделать всю работу.» «А я думаю,
286
что первую часть можно не переделывать.» 4. Вам бы сле-
довало посоветоваться с врачом. Может быть, вы нездоро-
вы. 5. Должно быть, он очень энергичный человек. 6. Нам
обязательно сегодня сдавать сочинения? - Можете не сда-
вать их сегодня, но вы должны обязательно сдать их завтра.
7. Вам давно следовало бы побывать в этом восхититель-
ном месте. 8. Мы могли бы не брать купальных костюмов:
там негде было купаться. 9. Вам следовало, попытаться убе-
дить его, а не ссориться с ним. 10. Капитан сказал, что шторм
может разразиться в любую минуту. 11. Как вы думаете, мне
надо извиниться за свое поведение? 12. Мы должны пото-
ропиться, если мы хотим послушать его выступление.
Exercise VIII
Translate into English using modal verbs.
1. Вы несете такой тяжелый чемодан! Не помочь ли вам?
Может быть, хотите, чтобы мой сын помог вам? - Благода-
рю вас, не стоит беспокоиться. - Но почему же? Молодые
должны помогать старшим. 2. Как мне быть? Я потеряла би-
лет на концерт. Возможно, я уронила его в автобусе. - Как
вы могли потерять билет? Нельзя быть такой рассеянной.
Билеты на концерт следует держать в сумочке. Их не нужно
вынимать из сумочки в автобусе. Может быть, ваш билет
дома. Вы могли оставить его дома. Вам следовало бы позво-
нить домой. - Да, может быть, мой билет лежит дома, на сто-
лике в передней. Я всегда прошу брата не задерживать меня,
когда я тороплюсь, а он все-таки это делает! Теперь я должна
звонить по телефону и, может быть, мне придется ехать до-
мой. Как неприятно, я могу опоздать на концерт.
Exercise X
Translate into English using modal verbs.
1. Вам следовало бы принять во внимание все подробности,
когда вы обсуждали этот вопрос. 2. Не может быть, чтобы
он придумал это сам. 3. Дети пытались открыть дверь, но
она никак не открывалась. 4. Вы, должно быть, многое по-
видали в жизни, хотя вы и гораздо моложе меня. 5. Окно
никак не закрывается! Ты мог бы починить его, в конце кон-
цов. 6. Лжецу следовало бы иметь хорошую память. 7. Не
могу ли я попросить вас сделать это сегодня? - Даже не про-
сите. У меня очень много работы. Я думаю, что я не сумею
сделать даже то, что я должен сделать в первую очередь.
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8. Он мог бы сделать это сам, ему незачем было просить
вас, вы же постарше его. 9. Не могу понять, что могло с ним
случиться; он всегда такой аккуратный. 10. Почему мы дол-
жны ждать одного человека так долго? Он должен был прий-
ти в пять, а теперь уже шесть. 11. Не может быть, чтобы он
забыл о нашей встрече: он сам назначил день и время.
The Mood
The mood shows the attitude of the speaker towards the ac-
tion expressed by the verb.
There are three moods: the indicative, the imperative and
the subjunctive.
The Indicative Mood
The indicative mood is used to make statements of facts,
and to ask questions:
We are building a new life.
Will he come tomorrow?
He does not speak French.
The Imperative Mood
The imperative mood is used to express a command, a re-
quest or advice:
Come to me, please!
Don’t touch the electric wire!
Be careful with the fire in the forest!
The imperative mood has only one form for the second per-
son singular and plural.
Hurry! Leave the door open.
In the 1st and 3rd person let + infinitive, the equivalent of
the imperative is used:
Let him do this work. Let us leave the place.
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The negative imperative is formed by means of the auxiliary
to do:
Don ’t be late. Don’t be so noisy.
The emphatic imperative is formed with the help of the aux-
iliary verb to do, followed by the infinitive:
Do tell me what he said.
Will you very often follows the imperative. It is a kind of request.
Bring me my spectacles, will you?
The Subjunctive Mood
The subjunctive mood is used to express doubt, wish, condition.
I wish it were summer now!
If I had time, he would come.
If we had hurried, we would have caught the train.
It is strange that he should have proposed such a thing.
In these examples there are various types of the subjunctive
mood in English.
The Subjunctive Mood
after the Verb Wish
The subjunctive mood is used in object clauses after I wish.
If the wish refers to present or future time, the Past Simple is
used. For a wish that was not realized in the past, the Past Per-
fect Tense is used.
I wish I knew severalforeign languages. (Гт sorry that I don ’t
know them.)
I wish he had come earlier. (But he didn’t, he came late.)
It can be translated into Russian as follows:
Мне бы хотелось, чтобы он пришел раньше.
Жаль, что он не пришел раньше.
Мне хотелось бы, чтобы он пришел раньше.
Note. То be is the only verb in modem English that has a
special form for the subjunctive mood - were (for all persons).
After I wish we can use were instead of was in all persons.
I wish he were here now.
I wish it were not so cold.
10 Н.Утевская
289
Was is mainly used in spoken English.
If I were/was you, I wouldn’t buy such an expensive dress.
If only means the same as I wish but it is more dramatic.
If only I were richer.
If wish expresses a future change unlikely to happen, dissatis-
faction, lack of hope or disappointment would + infinitive is used.
It is possible only when the subject of the main clause (I wish)
is not the same as the subject clause.
I wish he would study for his exams. (But I don’t think he will
wish for a future change unlikely to happen.)
I wish Ann would go to the university. (She has refused to do
so and I’m unhappy about it - dissatisfaction.)
I wish you would be quiet. (Please be quiet, but I don’t expect
you will - request expressing lack of hope.)
I wish it would stop raining. (But I’m afraid it won’t stop
raining - wish expressing disappointment.)
EXERCISES
Exercise I
Use I wish instead of It s a pity. Make all the necessary changes.
Model: It’s a pity I am so busy today.
I wish I were not so busy today.
1.	It’s a pity I have no one to advise me what to do under the
circumstances.
2.	It’s a pity we cannot book seats a week ahead.
3.	It’s a pity there is no inquiry office near by.
4.	It’s a pity we have to postpone our tour.
5.	It’s a pity you don’t know the language well enough to
understand the author’s sense of humour.
6.	It’s a pity he is not in town at present.
7.	It’s a pity you are not acquainted with this charming person.
8.	It’s a pity she is at work at this moment.
9.	It’s a pity you are so sad.
Exercise II
Paraphrase the following sentences so as to use the subjunc-
tive mood after the verb to wish.
1. He was sorry he couldn’t join us. 2. It’s a pity you were absent
yesterday. 3. I’d like him to be more polite. 4. They are sorry
290
they didn’t invite her. 5. He was disappointed that he wouldn’t
be able to see the film. 6. I regret now not having told her all
the truth then. 7. What a pity you can’t swim. 8. I’m awfully
sorry I kept you waiting so long. 9. It’s a pity I couldn’t go to
the theatre with you. 10. I’m very sorry that I have disturbed
you. 11. It’s a pity you are leaving so soon. 12. I’d like to see
the film again. 13. It was a pity we could not see the stage well.
14. They were sorry they hadn’t taken a taxi and had missed
their train.
Exercise III
Use the correct form of the subjunctive mood of the verbs in
brackets.
1. Oh, I wish I (not to send) him that letter. I’d give anything to
take it back. 2.1 wish I (to be) as sure as you. 3. But he wished
that there (to be) some way in which he could help the young
lawyer. 4. “I wish I (not to cry) so much,” said Alice trying to
find her way out. 5. And here I wish I (can) tell you half of the
things Alice used to say. 6.1 wish I (to know) it was your friend.
7. He wished he (to come) by air. 8.1 wish I (to learn) what to
do now. 9.1 wish I (to be sure) it was your birthday. 10.1 wish
they (to be) back. 11.1 wish I never (to hear) of it. 12.1 wish I
(to know) where we are going. 13. I wish I (to be) with my
relatives. 14. You are looking wonderful, I wish I (to have) your
health and vitality. 15.1 wish I (can be) at the meeting yesterday.
16. They wish you (to read) more in future. 17. Do you wish he
(to take) care of by an experienced doctor?
Exercise IV
Answer the following questions using the subjunctive mood
after the verb wish according to the model.
Model: Are you a teacher?
-1 wish I were.
1. Are you a third-year student? 2. Can you speak English?
3. Did he speak at the meeting yesterday? 4. Will she come
to the party? 5. Have you got a raincoat with you? 6. Is dinner
ready? 7. Do you know where she is now? 8. Will they take part
in the coming competitions? 9. Is her hair naturally wavy?
10. Has he returned from the business trip? 11. Shall we go
there together? 12. Are you an interpreter? 13. Have you got
a dictionary with you? 14. Have you seen this wonderful
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programme? 15. Is your report ready? 16. Will she come to your
birthday party? 17. Did you get a good mark in English?
Exercise V
Use the correct form of the subjunctive mood of the verbs in
brackets.
1. I wish I (to know) all the circumstances. 2. I wish I (not to
eat) so much ice-cream; I have a stomachache. 3. I wish I (to
be) at yesterday’s performance. It must have been very
interesting. 4. Don’t you wish you (to come) earlier? 5. The
unfortunate sailor wished he (not to set) foot on board the ship.
6. I wish I (to consult) the doctor when I first felt the pain.
7. She wished she (to be) back home instead of walking about
the city. 8.1 hate the cold, I wish it (to be) warm and sunny all
the year round. 9. He wished he (to have) two dollars to buy a
ticket. 10. I wish I (not to have) to get up early every day.
11. We wished he (not to know) it. 12. I wish you (to try) to
find some topic of conversation in which these people might
take some interest.
Exercise VI
Translate into English using the subjunctive mood after the
verb wish.
I. 1. а) Жаль, что вы пришли так поздно. Ь) Жаль, что вы
не пришли пораньше. 2. а) Жаль, что мы ушли до его при-
хода. Ь) Жаль, что мы не дождались его прихода. 3. а) К
сожалению, они еще ничего не знают. Ь) К сожалению, они
уже знают об этом. 4. а) Жаль, что он такой легкомыслен-
ный. Ь) Жаль, что он не очень серьезный. 5. а) Я теперь
жалею, что не послушался его совета. Ь) Я теперь жалею,
что последовал его совету.
II. 1. Мне бы хотелось посмотреть этот фильм еще раз. 2. Я
очень сожалею, что не смогу пойти завтра на вашу лек-
цию. 3. Жаль, что я еще не могу прочесть эту книгу в ори-
гинале. 4. Я бы хотел, чтобы вы все-таки прочли эту кни-
гу. 5. Напрасно вы попросили его выполнить эту работу.
6. Мой брат жалел, что не присутствовал на этом собра-
нии. 7. Мне бы хотелось, чтобы вы еще раз продумали мое
предложение. 8. Жаль, что мы так и не встретились перед
отъездом. 9. Жаль, что мы не обсудили пьесу сразу, после
того как ее посмотрели. 10. Жаль, что вы не воспользова-
лись такой возможностью.
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Exercise VIII
Translate into English using the subjunctive mood after the
verb wish.
1. Как жаль, что вы были так неосторожны. 2. Как жаль,
что это произошло в ваше отсутствие. 3. Жаль, что вы не
интересуетесь искусством. 4. Я теперь жалею, что не захва-
тила с собой таблетки от головной боли. 5. Жаль, что ты
не пошел со мной на концерт. 6. Жаль, что вы не сохрани-
ли письмо. 7. Жаль, что ей никто не сказал, что это невеж-
ливо. 8. Хорошо, если бы вы всегда приходили вовремя.
9. Жаль, что вы не смогли посмотреть этот матч. 10. Жаль,
что преподаватель обращает мало внимания на ваше про-
изношение. 11. Хотелось бы мне, чтобы вы были осторож-
нее в следующий раз. 12. Хорошо бы сейчас была весна!
13. Хорошо бы на земле не было никаких болезней!
14. Жаль, что я не спросила у доктора, когда принимать
лекарство. 15. Жаль, что я не знаю французского языка.
Exercise VIII
Translate into English using the subjunctive mood after the
verb wish.
1. Жаль, что мы не знаем его адреса. Мы бы могли сходить
к нему сегодня. 2. Жаль, что в детстве меня не учили ника-
кому иностранному языку. 3. Жаль, что он не посвятил
свою жизнь математике. Это его любимый предмет с дет-
ства. 4. Хорошо бы у нас была лодка для прогулок по морю.
5. Я очень жалею, что дала обещание быть на вечере, я себя
плохо чувствую. 6. Она жалела, что приехала на юг.
7. Жаль, что вы не успели прочесть эту интересную ста-
тью. 8. Жаль, что я не знакома с семьей Петровых. 9. Хо-
рошо, если бы я мог достать эту редкую марку для своей
коллекции. 10. Он жалел, что ему не было слышно, о чем
говорили внизу. 11. Ей очень хотелось, чтобы кто-нибудь
заметил ее и спросил, что она тут делает. 12. Я бы хотел
знать, куда мы сейчас идем. 13. Жаль, что я не знаю, как
ты достиг таких хороших результатов.
Exercise IX
Translate into English using the subjunctive mood after the
verb wish.
1. Как бы я хотел, чтобы твоя дочь была немножко похо-
жа на тебя. 2. Я бы хотел, чтобы ты пришел к тому или
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иному решению. 3. Он очень хотел, чтобы этот вечер кон-
чился. 4. Я иногда жалею, что решил написать эту книгу.
5. Мне бы хотелось, чтобы у нас был настоящий сад. 6. Как
я жалею, что я сделал это. 7. Я бы хотел, чтобы ты снова
начал писать стихи. 8. Я бы хотел, чтобы он перестал мне
писать. 9. Как жаль, что я не застал его дома. 10. Я пожале-
ла, что рассказала им о себе. 11. Жаль, что я не сказала
правды. 12. Как жаль, что я не знала, что тебе нужен этот
журнал. 13. Я пожалел, что не принял участия в экскурсии.
14. Жаль, что вы не послушались совета врача.
Exercise X
Translate into English using the subjunctive mood after the
verb wish.
1. Желательно, чтобы студенты говорили друг с другом по-
английски. 2. Как жаль, что идет дождь. 3. Как бы я хотела
быть сейчас дома. 4. Как жаль, что его нет с нами. 5. Жаль,
что вы не пошли с нами на лекцию вчера. 6. Жаль, что ты
мне мешаешь работать. 7. Жаль, что вы не поверили мое-
му рассказу. 8. Жаль, что вы отвергли это предложение.
На вашем месте я бы принял его. 9. Жаль, что они вмеши-
ваются в чужие дела. 10. Жаль, что вы мне не верите.
11. Жаль, что вы не известили меня заранее. Я, конечно,
встретил бы вас. 12. Жаль, что мы не заказали билеты по
телефону. 13. Жаль, что я не сказала правды. 14. Как бы я
хотела, чтобы он был с нами! 15. Жаль, что мы не застали
никого дома. 16. Я бы хотел знать, что этот словарь уже
вышел. 17. Жаль, что я не посоветовался с врачом. Я бы
чувствовал себя лучше сейчас.
The Subjunctive Mood
in Conditional Sentences
Unreal Conditions in the Present
If you work hard, you will succeed.
The sentence simply means that you may work hard, then
you will succeed. It is quite probable that you will work hard
and succeed. This is what we call a real condition.
In the conditional clause we use the Present Simple.
In the main clause we have the Future Simple.
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But there is another kind of conditional sentence.
For example,
If you worked hard, you would succeed.
It means that you don’t work hard, so you won’t succeed.
This is what we call an unreal condition. Here are some more
examples of unreal conditions:
If the weather were fine, we would go boating.
If I had a motorcycle, I would go for a ride in the country
every week.
In sentences with unreal conditions the subjunctive mood
is used. In the conditional clause we use the Past Simple or
Past Continuous. In the main clause we have another type of
the subjunctive mood would/could/might + infinitive.
If I knew his address, I would write to him.
If I were a bird, I could fly.
We do not normally use will, would in an //-clause.
However, we can use will, would, should in conditional sen-
tences to make a request or express insistence, annoyance, doubt
or uncertainty.
If you will/would calm down for a minute, I will be able to help
you. (request)
If you will make a noise, I'll send you out. (insistence)
If you should need any help, ask me. (uncertainty)
Unreal Conditions in the Past
If you had worked hard before the examination, you would
have succeeded. (This sentence shows that you did not work
hard in the past, that is why you did not succeed).
This is what we call an unreal condition in the past. In sen-
tences with unreal conditions in the past in the conditional clause
we use the Past Perfect or the Past Perfect Continuous. In the
main clause we use would/could/might + Perfect Infinitive (have
+ Participle II).
If we hadn't left so early, we would have missed the plane.
If we had been working for a long time, we could have finished
our work quicker.
When the //-clause precedes the main clause, we separate the
two clauses with a comma.
If he had locked his car, it wouldn't have been stolen.
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Mixed Conditionals
There are two mixed types of sentences of unreal condition:
1) //’-clause refers to the present and the main clause refers to
the past.
If he were a fast runner, he would have won the race.
2) //’-clause refers to the past and the main clause refers to the
present.
If he had found a job, he wouldn’t be searching for one now.
Inversion in Conditionals
Adverbial clauses of condition having the verbs had, were,
could, should are often introduced without if. In these cases there
is inversion. When we omit if should, were, had, could come
before the subject.
Had I time, I would go to the museum.
Were he here, he would help us.
Could he come tonight, we would be very glad.
Had I seen him yesterday, I would have asked him about it.
The Subjunctive Mood
after but for in Conditionals
Unreal conditions may also be expressed after but for (если
бы не).
But for the rain, we would go for a walk now.
But for the rain, they would have gone to the country yester-
day.
Implied Conditionals
An //-clause is not always given; it is often implied and the
rules for the verb usage are followed in the main clause.
E.g. I wouldn’t have been late. The implied condition here is:
If I hadn’t missed the early train, I wouldn’t have been late.
The director wouldn’t have won an Oscar. The implied condi-
tion here is:
If the film hadn’t been very popular, the director wouldn’t have
won an Oscar.
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a
к__
EXERCISES
Exercise I
Supply the correct form of the subjunctive mood of the verbs
in brackets.
1.	If I (not to work) so hard, I never (to make) progress.
2.	I (to finish) the whole job in time if you (not to disturb)
me.
3.	If we (to have) enough petrol, we (can) cover another hun-
dred miles today.
4.	If I (to leave) earlier, I (to catch) the train.
5.	If I (not to follow) your advice, I (to get) into trouble.
6.	We (to prevent) the accident if we (to be) there at that time.
7.	If men (to have) no radio, space flight (to be possible)?
8.	You never (to succeed) if you (to have) no confidence in
yourself.
9.	The photographs (to be) much better if it (to be) lighter in
the room.
10.	People (to become) hardened to cold if they (to take) cold
baths regularly.
11.	If ice (to be) heavier than water, it (not to float).
Exercise II
Supply the correct forms of the subjunctive mood of the verbs
in brackets.
1. If you (to be allowed) to stay in London, what you (to do)?
2. If I (to be) you I (to do) my hair rather differently. 3.1 (not to
mind) if he (to say) my stories were bad, but he said nothing.
4. After all, if he (to have) any talent I (to be) the first to encourage
him. 5.1 (not to go) if you (not to say) you’d come with me. 6. If
only I (to feel) that somebody wanted me, I (to become) a different
person. 7. Your manners are all right. I (not to bring) you here if
they (not to be). Don’t be uneasy. 8. He believed that his mother
never (to say) the things she did if she (to know) that her son
could hear her. 9. They (to enjoy) themselves much more if they
(to have) a party of their own. 10.1 (not to sleep) a wink all night
if I (not to know) you were safe. 11. If I (to be) John I (not to tell)
that to his parents. 12. I thought that if I (to tell) you the
circumstances you (to understand) afterwards that I wanted your
help. 13. If I (not to have) a dictionary, I (cannot) translate the
article. 14. Nick (not to fall) of his bicycle yesterday if he (not to
drive) too fast.
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Exercise III
Replace the infinitives in brackets by the correct form of the
subjunctive mood.
1. We (to come) back by all means even if it (to be) as late as
midnight. 2. You hardly (to believe) it even though you (to see)
it with your own eyes. 3. Even though you (to come) earlier you
(not to find) me in. 4. Even if you (to know) him well, you (not to
recognize) him, he has so greatly changed. 5. He is a sound sleeper
and you (not to wake) him up even if your voice (to be) as loud
as a train whistle. 6. Even if the work (to be) twice as difficult
I (not to refuse) to do it. 7. You (to do) as you please even if I (to
give) you advice. 8. Even though the way (to be) twice as short
we (to miss) the train all the same, for I got the schedule mixed
up. 9. She (cannot join) our excursion even if you (to invite) her;
she was ill. 10. If you (to stir) the tea, it (to be) sweeter. 11. If you
(to postpone) doing the job now, you (to regret) it later. 12. If
you (not to waste) your time like that, you (to be able) to do a
great deal more. 13. If I (to be) you, I (not to worry) 14. If you
(to strain) your ears, you (to hear) a slight noise in the bushes.
15. If it (to be) winter vacation, I (to go) to Moscow. 16. If I (to
go) to Moscow, I (to stay) with my friends.
Exercise IV
Rewrite the following sentences beginning each of the sen-
tences with if.
Model: I refused his offer but later regretted it. -
If I hadn’t refused his offer, I wouldn’t have regret-
ted it afterwards.
1.	You didn’t inform me of the state of things, so I didn’t
know you needed help.
2.	You left the knife in water, so it got rusty.
3.	They spent a year in England, so they learned to speak
English quite well.
4.	It rained, so we were obliged to stay indoors.
5.	Why didn’t you watch the milk? It boiled over.
6.	A huge rock blocked the path, so we had to go all the way
round.
7.	The explorers had no radio with them, so they could not
signal for help when the storm broke out.
8.	There wasn’t even the slightest wind, so the sail boat lay
motionless on the smooth sea.
298
9.	I forgot to wind up my watch. It stopped.
10.	Sedov’s expedition was very scarcely supplied and that is
why it ended so tragically.
11.	Meresyev was extremely strong willed. Being seriously
wounded he crawled for eighteen days to reach the front
line.
12.	I did not invite them, so they didn’t come.
Exercise V
Complete the following sentences using the required subjunc-
tive mood.
1.	We couldn’t have started yesterday even though.........
2.	Even if we had posted the letter two days before.......
3.	You would have to accept his proposal even if..........
4.	They would have hardly won this match even though
5.	Even though he had never heard it.........
6.	The dog is well trained; he would never leave his place even
if.............
7.	If it had not been for you........
8.	If it were not for the bad weather.......
9.	If it had not been for your sympathy and help........
10.	If it were not for his courage.......
11.	If it hadn’t been for his remarkable talent......
12.	If it hadn’t been for his experience and skill.....
13.	If you had been at home...........
14.	If I were not so busy.........
Exercise VI
Complete the following sentences using the required subjunc-
tive mood.
1.	She wouldn’t have done it if.........
2.	What would you answer if...........?
3.	You wouldn’t have fallen ill if.......
4.	If he had sent a telegram.........
5.	The watch wouldn’t have stopped if..........
6.	If it were not raining........
7.	You would get excellent marks if.........
8.	If I had known everything..........
9.	If it were not so cold........
10.	I’d have got there long ago if.......
11.	He would study much better if.........
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12.	She wouldn’t say so if.........
13.	If we knew him better..........
14.	The child wouldn’t be crying if........
15.	If you had managed to escape...........
Exercise VII
Paraphrase the following into complex sentences with subor-
dinate clauses of condition using the subjunctive mood.
1. It’s a pity the weather was so bad. Otherwise we should
have spent the whole day out in the country. 2. He does not
have much time to spare, or he would show you around
the exhibition himself. 3. Why didn’t you ask him about it?
He wouldn’t have refused to advise you on the matter. 4. Come
and stay with us for a week. We should be only too glad!
5. There would have sent us information, but there was none
to send. 6. The bird was throwing itself against the cage and
would have opened the small door, but it was safely locked
from outside. 7. Chapayev could not reach the other bank of
the Urals as he was badly wounded. 8. I was very busy that
day and I could not go shopping with you. 9. I recognized
you at once, for your brother described you to me. 10. Why
didn’t you follow the doctor’s advice? You are down with
quinsy again. 11. The river was not frozen. We could not go
skating. 12. Eliza managed to escape and thus saved her child
from slavery. 13. The shoes pinch. I won’t buy the pair though
I like it.
Exercise VIII
Answer the following questions.
1. Where do you think your brother would go if he were on
leave? 2. Would you have made the mistake if you knew
the rule? 3. What would you reply if somebody apologized to
you? 4. What would he answer if somebody had thanked him?
5. What would you say if you wanted to interrupt somebody?
6. What would one do if he wanted somebody to hold his parcel
for a moment? 7. What language would you like your son to
know? And your daughter, if you had one? 8. How much time
would he spend doing this work if he were asked to do it?
9. What museum would you choose to go on an excursion to if
you were to organize one? 10. Would you have answered
the questions in the same way if you were in my place? 11. What
would you do if it began to rain hard when you were a long
300
way from home? 12. What would you do if the postman dropped
someone else’s letter into your letter-box?
Exercise IX
Replace the infinitives by the correct form of the subjunctive
mood.
1. But for the toothache I (to enjoy) the concert. 2. But for him
we still (to sit) here waiting for the car. 3. But for my smile he
(to believe) me. 4. The children (to sleep) in the open air but for
the rain. 5. Nobody (to recognize) him but for the scar on his
left cheek. 6. But for his severe look the child (not to begin)
crying. 7. But for the accent with which he speaks nobody (to
say) he is not Russian. 8. But for the late hour I (to stay) here
longer. 9. But for the darkness they (not to lose) their way.
10. But for the fog we (to continue) our way. 11. But for the
heavy bag she (to go) there also on foot. 12. I (to read) the
book sooner but for the small print. 13. But for his assistance it
(to be) impossible to do the work in time. 14. But for the hot
climate he (to go) there together with us. 15. One (may take)
him for a Russian but for the accent with which he speaks.
Exercise X
Complete the following sentences.
1. But for the rain the tourists..2. But for the late hour we
.....3. I ......but for you. 4. The plane.......but for the
sudden change of weather. 5. But for the fact that we did not
know the language...............................6. But for your being so careless.
7. The Gadfly ...... from prison but for the fit of sickness.
8. But for his mother’s unhappy marriage to Mr Murdstone
David’s life.....
Exercise XI
What conditions are implied in the following?
1. Her life might have been saved. 2.1 could tell you what that
means. 3. The swimmer would undoubtedly have been
drowned. 4. All this trouble might have been avoided. 5. The
story would be much more amusing. 6. Nobody would
recognize you. 7. We might have had a glorious time.
8.1 wouldn’t like to be interrupted. 9. You would have easily
found the way. 10.1 dare not think what might have happened.
11. How wonderful it would have been! 12. I am sure you
would have liked the play.
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Exercise XII
Translate into English.
1. Если бы не важность этого дела, я бы остался дома.
2. Если бы не гроза, мы бы уже подходили к вершине. 3. Я
бы присоединился к вашей компании, если бы не неожи-
данный приезд моего знакомого. 4. Если бы не этот весе-
лый и интересный человек, мы бы чувствовали себя не-
ловко среди незнакомых людей. 5. Мы бы так и не узнали,
что он за человек, если бы не этот случай. 6. Мы бы все
время работали точно по плану, если бы не эта малень-
кая задержка.
Exercise XIII
Translate into English.
1. Жаль, что вы не знакомы с ним. Если бы вы были знако-
мы, вы бы знали, какой это замечательный человек. 2. Я
уверен, что все огорчились бы, если бы поездку отложили.
3. Он так изменился! Если бы вы его встретили, вы бы его
не узнали. 4. Если бы я был на вашем месте, я бы не коле-
бался. 5. Если бы шофер остановил машину, мы бы выш-
ли. 6. Если бы он действительно сожалел о том, что сделал,
он бы вел себя иначе. 7. Если бы вы могли одолжить мне
свой словарь, я был бы вам очень благодарен. 8. Если бы
он не обладал такой замечательной памятью, он не мог бы
помнить такое невероятное количество фактов. 9. Если бы
ты предупредил меня раньше, я бы давно все сделал.
10. Если бы не помощь профессора, результаты опыта были
бы далеко не такими удовлетворительными. 11. Если бы
ты регулярно посещал спортивную школу, тебя бы не ис-
ключили. 12. Если бы наши ученые не решили важнейшие
проблемы, связанные с полетом, то полет первого корабля
в космос был бы невозможен. 13. Будь я на вашем месте, я
бы пришел пораньше, чтобы застать его. 14. Если бы я был
художником, я бы обязательно нарисовал портрет этого
человека. 15. Что бы вы сказали, если бы я обратился к
вам за советом?
Exercise XIV
Translate into English.
1. Если бы вы пришли на заседание научного кружка, вы
бы услышали интересный доклад одного из наших студен-
тов. 2. Вы были бы недовольны, если бы я не пришел?
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3. Если бы он поступил в университет четыре года назад,
он в будущем году окончил бы его. 4. Если бы мы знали,
что вам нужна эта книга, мы бы захватили ее с собой.
5. Они бы заметили эту ошибку, если бы были более вни-
мательны. 6. Если бы он не был таким опытным хирургом,
он не смог бы спасти столько жизней. 7. Вы бы пошли куда-
нибудь вечером, если бы я пригласил вас? 8. Если бы вы не
были таким рассеянным, вы бы не сделали так много ор-
фографических ошибок. 9. Если бы вы занимались систе-
матически, у вас не было бы таких пробелов. 10. Если бы
не его лукавая улыбка, я бы искренне поверил ему. 11. Если
бы вы выполнили все советы врача, вы давно бы выздоро-
вели. 12. Если бы поезд вышел вовремя, он прибыл бы в
место назначения завтра рано утром. 13. Я бы отложил
свою работу и поехал бы с вами на экскурсию, если бы я
знал об этом заранее. 14. Если бы не метро, я бы тратил на
дорогу около часа. 15. Я бы на вашем месте не колебался
ни минуты и принял бы это предложение. 16. Я не смог бы
поговорить с ним на эту тему, даже если бы я его видел
вчера.
Exercise XV
Translate into English.
1. Если бы я не знал его так хорошо, я бы не поверил тому,
что он мне только что рассказал. 2. Если бы ты положила
книгу на место, она была бы сейчас здесь. 3. Если бы они
начали эту работу сразу, они смогли бы закончить ее во-
время. 4. Я бы давно ей написала, если бы знала ее адрес.
5. Если бы сейчас было потеплее, я надела бы новое летнее
пальто. 6. Если бы вы были внимательнее на прошлом уро-
ке, вы бы сейчас лучше знали материал. 7. Где бы ты меня
ждал, если бы мы условились встретиться? 8. Если бы он
не был болен тогда, он мог бы оказаться в гораздо боль-
шей опасности. 9. Кто знает, как бы он поступил, если бы
услышал об этом раньше? 10. Я бы давно ответила на воп-
рос, если бы могла. 11. Все были бы рады, если бы вы заш-
ли к нам еще раз до вашего отъезда. 12. Вы бы чувствова-
ли себя лучше, если бы больше гуляли. 13. Ты бы не разбил
вазу, если бы был осторожнее. 14. О, если бы я была тогда
достаточно взрослой, чтобы понять всю серьезность по-
ложения!
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Exercise XVI
Translate into English.
1. Если бы вы погуляли вчера вечером, вы бы сразу усну-
ли. 2. Если бы я была завтра свободна, я обязательно погу-
ляла бы с вами. 3. Если бы я сейчас была свободна, я бы
гуляла в Летнем саду. 4. Вы встретили бы мою сестру, если
бы сейчас гуляли в Летнем саду. 5. Вы бы чувствовали себя
сегодня очень хорошо, если бы вы с нами вчера перед сном
гуляли весь вечер. 6. Если бы вы любили прогулки, вы бы
чаще с нами гуляли. 7. Вы бы погуляли с нами вчера вече-
ром, если бы знали, как красивы здесь белые ночи. 8. Если
бы вы не были так заняты, мы с вами ездили бы за город
каждое воскресенье. 9. Если бы вы вчера были на футболь-
ном матче, вы бы видели лучших футболистов. 10. Я была
бы очень рада, если бы вы пришли на следующий футболь-
ный матч. 11. Если бы вы любили математику, вы бы боль-
ше ею занимались. 12. Если бы вы были завтра свободны,
я с удовольствием пошла бы с вами на выставку. 13. Вы
давно побывали бы на этой выставке картин, если бы ин-
тересовались искусством.
The Subjunctive Mood
after the Conjunctions
as if (as though)
The Subjunctive Mood is used after the conjunction as if (as
though):
You talk as if you had a bad cold.
I feel as if I were one of the family.
He was quite calm as if nothing had happened.
It looks as though you had heard the news already.
When the actions of the main and the subordinate clauses
take place at the same time the Past Simple is used in the subor-
dinate clause.
Any tense can be used in the main clause.
He spoke (speaks, will speak) as if he knew everything.
She behaves (behaved, will behave) as if she were angry.
The form of the Past Perfect is used to show that the action
of the subordinate clause took place before the action of the
main clause. Any tense can be used in the main clause.
304
She cries (cried, will cry) bitterly as if she had lost all hope.
You look (looked, will look) as if you had done something
extraordinary.
a
к__
EXERCISES
Exercise I
Supply the necessary forms of the subjunctive mood in clauses
introduced by as if and as though.
1. You look as if you (to want) to ask something. 2.1 feel as if I
(to eat) too much. 3. He looked at me as if he (not approve) of
my suggestion. 4. There was horror in her eyes as if she (to see)
something frightful. 5. He speaks French as if it (to be) his mother
tongue. 6. He looked ashamed as if he (to regret) having been
rude. 7. There was an awkward silence as if I (to say) something
that I ought not to have said. 8. He looked at us suspiciously as
if he (not to trust) us. 9. Look at that crowd: it looks as if there
(to be) an accident. 10. The wounded beast went bounding up
the hill as if the bullet (not to hit) it. 11. Whenever I saw them it
looked as though they (to be) on very good terms with one
another. 12. The knife shone as though it just (to come) out of
the workshop. 13. As I opened my door I seemed to hear a
changing sound as if a mass of metal (to fall).
Exercise II
Supply the necessary forms of the subjunctive mood in clauses
introduced by as if and as though.
1. You look as though you (not to have) much sleep the last
night or two. 2. He felt as if he (to catch) cold. 3. She always
smelled as though she just (to come) from a long walk in a forest.
4. He looked as if he (not to have) a meal for a week. 5. He
frowned as she (to be puzzled). 6. He looked as if he (not to
sleep) much lately. 7. It looked as though he (to be) filled with
an overwhelming joy. 8. The sky looked as though it (to be)
grey for months. 9. She greeted me as though I (to be) an old
school friend whom she had not seen for years. 10. Her eyes
were sparkling as though she (to laugh) at us. 11. She was
breathing fast and deep, as though she (to run). 12. He looked
as though he (not to move) since I left him the previous night.
13. Our life goes on as if nothing (to happen). 14. He felt as if
he (to be reprimanded).
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Exercise III
Complete the following sentences.
1. He always makes wonderful speeches as if 2. He looked
tired as though ;.3. She knows these parts well as though
....4. It seemed as though...5. Why are you looking at me
as if........................6.as if he had never heard it before. 7. He was
pale as if..8. We met as though.....9. You look as though
.... 10.....as though he did not notice anything around
him. 11. He often looked at his watch as if.12. She spoke
about he as though..... 13. The man turned pale as if...
14. It was as if.. 15.....as though the whole world had
gone to sleep. 16. You treat me as though.. 17. He behaves
as if...18. Why are you staring at me as though...19. He
smiled cunningly as though...20. We felt at home with her
at once as though....
Exercise IV
Translate into English.
1. Он говорил co мной так, как будто он знал меня много лет.
2. Она так благодарила меня, как будто я сделал что-то нео-
быкновенное. 3. Он бежал не оглядываясь, как будто за ним
кто-то гнался. 4. Он с таким важным видом говорил о книге,
как будто он ее читал. 5. Зверь вдруг страшно зарычал, как
будто его ранили. 6. Мне казалось, будто я уже видел этого
человека где-то. 7. Вы так загорели, как будто провели на
юге не месяц, а все лето. 8. Он выглядит усталым, как будто
давно не отдыхал. 9. Прохожий не остановился, как будто не
слышал, что его зовут. 10. Она знала эти места, как будто
жила здесь. 11. Казалось, будто ничего и не произошло. 12. У
него было такое чувство, словно его обманули. 13. У него
был такой вид, как будто он прождал очень долго.
Exercise V
Translate into English.
1. Он выглядел так, будто не его ученик, а он сам - победи-
тель соревнований. 2. Небо покрылось темными тучами.
Стало темно, будто наступила ночь. 3. Он смотрел на де-
вушку с таким удивлением, как будто видел ее впервые.
4. Он сидел за столом, словно он писал, но он не писал и не
читал. 5. Он смотрел на меня так, словно он не понимал,
что я ему говорила. 6. Она чувствовала себя очень уста-
лой, как будто она была на долгой прогулке. 7. Она про-
306
должала оглядывать комнату, как будто искала кого-то.
8. Они разговаривали друг с другом тихими голосами, как
будто они были в церкви. 9. Он застегнул пальто, как буд-
то ему было холодно. 10. У нее обычно был такой вид, слов-
но она только что плакала. 11. У меня такое чувство, как
будто я знаю тебя годы. 12. Собака приветствовала своего
хозяина, как будто они не виделись год. 13. Они не разго-
варивали, как будто они были так счастливы быть вместе,
что им было не нужно никакого разговора.
Exercise VI
Translate into English.
1. Он сидел за столом, словно он писал, но он не писал и не
читал. 2. Он сидел не шевелясь, словно он не расслышал
слова друга. 3. Ты смотришь, словно ничего не понима-
ешь. 4. Она посмотрела на меня так, как будто я говорил
неправду. 5. Она выглядела так, будто ей только что сооб-
щили неприятную новость. 6. Что с вами? У вас такой вид,
как будто вам нехорошо. 7. Она обращалась с ним так,
словно он был ребенком. 8. Ты так загорел, как будто толь-
ко что приехал с юга. 9. Он выглядел усталым, как будто
не спал всю ночь. 10. Она дышала так тяжело, как будто
бежала всю дорогу. 11. У меня было такое чувство, будто
мы говорим с ним на разных языках. 12. Минуту, другую
он стоял посреди комнаты, как будто не знал, что делать.
13. Он говорит так, как будто повторяет чьи-то слова.
Exercise VII
Translate into English.
1. У вас такой вид, словно вы не знаете, куда идти.
2. Она говорила и смеялась, словно играла на сцене. 3. Я
помню все так четко, словно это произошло вчера.
4. Почему у тебя такой вид, будто ты мне не веришь? 5. У
меня такое чувство, будто меня обманули. 6. Похоже, что
все уже ушли. 7. Вы сделали так много ошибок, словно вы
никогда не слышали эти правила. 8. Почему вы на меня так
смотрите, словно я говорю неправду? 9. Он говорил о вас
так, как будто хорошо вас знает. 10. Он говорил о вас так,
как будто ему не 17 лет, а 70.11. Взгляните, он ведет себя так,
как будто ничего особенного не произошло. 12. У меня такое
чувство, словно вы никуда не уезжали. 13. Он рассуждал так,
как будто уже много лет хорошо знаком с этим вопросом.
307
The Subjunctive Mood
after the Verbs Expressing
Orders, Commands,
Suggestions
In object clauses after the verbs to order, to demand, to in-
sist, to propose, to suggest, to recommend the form of the sub-
junctive mood should (for all persons) + infinitive is used.
The officer ordered that the soldiers should open fire.
He suggested that they should go to the party.
0 EXERCISES
Exercise I
Read and translate the following sentences.
1.	He suggested that we should discuss the problem again.
2.	The principal ordered that everything should be ready by
Monday.
3.	The scientists demanded that the experiment should go
on.
4.	We insisted that the meeting should be postponed.
5.	It was recommended by the committee that a new pro-
gramme should be worked out.
6.	The doctor demanded that the patient should be taken to
hospital immediately.
7.	The chairman proposed that the question should be in-
cluded in the agenda.
8.	The chief engineer suggested that the new method should
be introduced without delay.
Exercise II
Paraphrase the sentences using the subjunctive mood (should
+ infinitive)
1.	The captain ordered the passengers to leave the deck.
2.	I suggest postponing the party till next Sunday.
3.	Mother insisted on our taking some sandwiches with us.
4.	“He must be expelled from school,” the principal de-
manded.
5.	A relative of mine suggested my staying with him in summer.
308
6.	Under the circumstances I proposed to wait.
7.	“You must work more in the laboratory,” the teacher sug-
gested.
8.	The present law must continue to operate. The Congress
insisted on that.
9.	“Do not tire yourself,” the doctor recommended.
10.	The strikers wanted their economic and political demands
to be satisfied. They insisted on that.
11.	“Let us hold a meeting as soon as possible,” suggested the
students.
12.	“Let us change the route,” suggested one of the hikers.
Exercise III
Paraphrase the sentences using the subjunctive mood (should
+ infinitive).
1. The doctor strongly recommended the woman to keep to the
prescribed diet. 2. The demonstrators demanded freedom for
the arrested people. 3. Who was the first to suggest my taking
this very theme for my research I cannot well remember. 4. The
majority insisted on the matter being turned over to a special
committee for further consideration. 5. The chief of staff ordered
the mechanized battalions to be sent to the advancing regiment.
6. It was demanded that anyone leaving last lock the room and
leave the key with the night warder. 7. His father strongly
recommended him to join the navy. 8. The teacher advised the
students not to start on the new assignment before they had
corrected their mistakes.
Exercise IV
Rewrite the sentences putting the verbs in brackets in the
subjunctive mood.
1. Members of the rescue party suggested that they (set out)
in spite of the thick fog. 2. Columbus insisted that ships sailing
for India (go) westward from Spain, not eastward. 3. The
passengers demanded that the driver (stop) the car at once.
4. The doctor demanded that every drop of water (be boiled).
5. The principal ordered that everybody (be ready) by 6.
6.1 propose that we (try) our new method. 7.1 insist that you
(give) your opinion frankly. 8. He suggested that the meeting
(appoint) at 5 o’clock. 9. The chairman proposed that the
question (be included) in the agenda. 10. The committee
recommended that a new programme (work out).
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Exercise V
Translate into English.
1. Я предлагаю, чтобы мы выехали вечерним поездом.
2. Она предложила, чтобы мы спали с открытым окном,
но я боялась простудиться. 3. Я настаиваю, чтобы ты по-
шла сегодня на концерт. 4. Наша учительница по литера-
туре предложила, чтобы мы все пошли в музей А.С. Пуш-
кина. 5. Он настаивал, чтобы я подписалась на этот журнал.
6. Он предложил, чтобы мы снова обсудили эту проблему.
7. Ученые требовали, чтобы эксперимент продолжался.
8. Учитель настаивал, чтобы мы больше работали в лабо-
ратории. 9. Они требовали, чтобы мы отложили собрание.
10. Директор приказал, чтобы отчет был готов к понедель-
нику. 11. Студенты предложили, чтобы собрание было
проведено как можно скорее. 12. Доктор настаивал, что-
бы она не утомляла себя. 13. Офицер приказал, чтобы сол-
даты открыли огонь. 14. Учитель требовал, чтобы мы уде-
ляли особое внимание произношению.
Exercise VI
Translate into English.
1. Комиссия потребовала, чтобы этот вопрос обсудили на
открытом собрании. 2. Я предлагаю прекратить обсужде-
ние вопроса и вернуться к нему после доклада экспертов.
3. Руководитель лаборатории порекомендовал студентам
проводить опыты. 4. Пассажиры потребовали, чтобы шо-
фер остановил машину. 5. Я настаиваю, чтобы ты откро-
венно выразила свое мнение. 6. Члены спасательной груп-
пы настаивали, чтобы они покинули лагерь, несмотря на
сильный туман. 7. Комиссия предложила, чтобы в отчет
было включено больше фактов. 8. Режиссер потребовал,
чтобы во время репетиции в зал никого не впускали. 9. Они
предлагали, чтобы участники самодеятельности получи-
ли право участвовать в заключительном концерте. 10. Он
предложил, чтобы дело было отложено. 11. Доктор наста-
ивает, чтобы он поехал на юг. 12. Продавцы требовали,
чтобы платеж был произведен в течение пяти дней. 13. Он
рекомендовал, чтобы товары были отправлены немедлен-
но. 14. Он настаивает на том, чтобы план был обсужден на
следующей неделе.
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The Subjunctive Mood after
It is Necessary;
It is Natural etc.
In object clauses after It is necessary ..., It is important...,
It is impossible ..., It is unbelievable ..., It is strange..., It is
improbable..., It is natural..., It is desirable... should (for all
persons) + infinitive is used (the subjunctive mood).
It is important that he should be present at the lecture.
When the action of the subordinate clause took place be-
fore the action of the main clause should + Perfect Infinitive is
used.
It is unbelievable that he should have learnt the language in
six months.
a
к_
Exercise I
Read and translate the following sentences. Make up your
own sentences following the same patterns.
1. It is necessary that they should report to us on the progress
of their work. 2. It is important that Russia and the USA should
cooperate in dealing with global problems. 3. It is impossible
that human beings should exist without air. 4. It is natural that
men should love freedom. 5. It is important that the experiment
should be a success. 6. It is necessary that this method should
be tested in practice. 7. It is important that the committee should
consult public opinion before working out their new
programme. 8. It is necessary that every child should have the
same educational opportunities. 9. It is necessary that the
conflict should be solved peacefully. 10. It is natural that parents
should be anxious about their children’s future. 11. It is
important that mass media should immediately reflect the
current events and comment on them.
Exercise II
Replace the following sentences using should + infinitive.
Make the necessary changes.
1.	It is natural for children to be fond of games.
2.	It is important for all of you to attend the lecture.
311
3.	It is impossible for engines to work without fuel.
4.	Isn’t it strange for trees to blossom at this time of the year?
5.	It was necessary for the expedition to turn back before the
store of water ran out.
6.	It is important for all of us to form good habits while we
are young.
7.	It is most important for man to learn to use atomic power
in everyday life.
8.	It seems almost impossible for men to have built such great
cities thousands of years ago.
9.	It is natural for men to have settled in warm countries where
life was easier than in the cold north.
10.	It was very unusual for him to have made such a mistake.
11.	It is advisable for everybody to consult a doctor before
going to the south.
12.	It is unbelievable for the tourists to have crossed the river
at this time of the year.
Exercise III
Replace the infinitives in brackets by the correct form of the
subjunctive mood.
1. It is necessary that students (to take interest) in public life.
2. It was suggested that we (to start) at dawn. 3. It is requested
that the ticket (to retain) till the end of the performance. 4. It
is desirable that you (to keep) us regularly informed of your
life. 5. Was it so important that he (to be) present? 6. It is not
advisable that the children (to leave) alone. 7. It is
recommended that the medicine (to keep) in a dark and cool
place. 8. It’s doubtful that anything (to change) before you
come back. 9. It is strange that he (to say) such a thing; it’s
not like him. 10. It is possible that the weather continues good
for another couple of days, but it is hardly probable that it
(to remain) as fine during the whole month. 11. It was
unbelievable that the tourists (to cover) this distance in so
short a time. 12. It is not unnatural she (to be) so upset.
Exercise IV
Use its impossible, its unbelievable or its improbable in each
of the following sentences instead of can't. Make all the ne-
cessary changes.
Model: This lake can’t be deep.
It’s impossible that this lake should be deep.
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1. He can’t have failed. 2. It can’t be very hot in Scandinavian
countries. 3. She can’t have succeeded. 4. They can’t have
accepted your offer. 5. He can’t have given you the right
information. 6. The story can’t be true; it sounds fantastic.
7. This method of yours can’t have many advantages over
ours. 8. Fresh air and exercise can’t do anybody any harm.
9. The accident can’t have happened through any fault of
mine.
Exercise V
Finish the following sentences.
1. It is natural that 2. It is strange that 3. It is impossible
that ..4. It is absolutely necessary that .. 5.	It is very
important that...6. It sounds improbable that..7. It really
is unbelievable that.8. Isn’t it strange that.? 9. Why do
you think it is improbable that.? 10. Why is it so important
that...? 11. It seems almost impossible that..12. It sounds
fantastic that..13. Isn’t it doubtful that.?
Exercise VI
Translate into English.
1. Очень важно, чтобы вы использовали каждую возмож-
ность говорить друг с другом по-английски. 2. Странно,
что вы не поняли лекцию; она была очень проста. 3. Его
поразило, что такие вещи еще возможны в наше время.
4. Перед тем как переводить текст, рекомендуется снача-
ла ознакомиться с ним. 5. Удивительно, что она забыла
о таком важном деле. 6. Разве не удивительно, чтобы
люди в таком возрасте показывали такие высокие
спортивные результаты? 7. Желательно, чтобы ваш док-
лад обсудили на кафедре, перед тем как вы его сделаете
на конференции. 8. Необходимо, чтобы студенты пере-
шли к практическому применению своих знаний. 9. Очень
важно, чтобы вы обратили внимание на свое здоровье.
10. Невероятно, что он выучил иностранный язык так
быстро. 11. Удивительно, что вы уделяете внимание та-
ким несущественным вопросам. 12. Сомнительно, чтобы
был закончен весь словарь.
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The Subjunctive Mood after
It’s (about) Time;
It’s high Time
After the main clause expressing time -Its (about) time (пора),
Its high time (давно пора) the Past Simple is used (the subjunc-
tive mood).
It's about time you visited your sick friend.
It's high time you were washed and dressed.
0 EXERCISES
Exercise I
Read and translate the sentences into Russian.
1. Don’t you think it’s time you got a job? 2. Come along. It’s
time we had lunch. 3. It’s high time we started putting our own
house in order. 4. They were saying in the office that it was
about time he retired. 5. “It’s high time you were punished,
boy,” father said angrily. 6. It’s high time Pete were back home.
7. It’s about time we heard from him. 8. It’s time you went to
bed, it’s late. 9. It’s time you knew the rule. 10. It’s time he
stopped behaving like that.
Exercise II
Replace the infinitives in brackets by the subjunctive mood
in subject clauses after the expression it is (about, high)
time.
1. It is time you (to understand) it is no joking matter. 2. It is
high time that you (to get down) to business. 3. It’s about time
we (to be leaving). 4. It’s high time you (to change) your
opinion of him. 5. Isn’t it time the rain (to be stopping)? 6. It
is about time he (to express) his own point of you. 7. You are
still sleeping, aren’t you? It’s high time you (to have)
breakfast. 8. You are not a child. It’s time you (to feel) some
responsibility. 9. Look, the flowers have dropped their heads.
Isn’t it high time they (to water)? 10. Dinner is ready. It is
time we (to sit down) to table. 11. Why are they not back yet?
Isn’t it high time they (to return)? 12. It is about time fine
weather (to set in). 13. It’s high time for the team (to win) the
competition.
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Exercise III
Answer the following questions using the subjunctive mood
after it is (high, about) time.
1. What would the teacher say on learning that one of the
students has not begun reviewing the material when there is
little time left before the examination? 2. What would you say
if one of your friends still missed up the expression “to pay
attention to something” and “to call somebody’s attention to
something”, the difference between which has been explained
more than once? 3. What would you say if looking at the watch
you realized that there was not much time left before the
beginning of the performance and you were still at home?
4. What would you say if the question was clear and the people
were still discussing it? 5. What would the librarian say if
someone were still keeping the book which he should have
returned a long time before?
Exercise IV
Translate the following into English.
1. Нам пора бы идти. 2. Ему давно пора бы объяснить, что
он задумал. 3. Его давно пора проучить. 4. Когда я про-
снулся, я почувствовал, что мне самое время вызвать док-
тора. 5. Нам пора бы обедать. 6. Ему было сказано, что
пора бы ему научиться делать так, как ему велят. 7. Тебе
бы давно пора выбросить эту старую мебель. 8. Как ты
думаешь, не пора ли нам вернуться домой? 9. Давно пора
вам решить, на какую тему вы будете писать доклад.
10. Вам пора идти спать. 11. Вам давно пора быть более
серьезным. 12. Вам пора бы прочесть этот роман.
Exercise V
Translate the following into English.
1. Вам давно пора знать это правило. 2. Вам пора пере-
стать вести себя таким образом. 3. Вам пора бросить ку-
рить. 4. Вам пора подумать серьезно о своем поведении.
5. Давно пора зажечь свет. Зачем портить зрение? 6. Ребен-
ку давно пора спать. 7. Вы водите машину не первый год.
Пора знать правила уличного движения. 8. Не пора ли об-
ратить серьезное внимание на этот вопрос? 9. Вам давно
пора обратиться к зубному врачу. 10. Скоро зима. Давно
пора закончить ремонт. 11. Чего мы ждем? Нам пора уже
быть в пути. 12. Не пора ли им прекратить эти шутки?
315
The Subjunctive Mood
in Adverbial Clauses of Purpose
I. In clauses of purpose after the conjunctions that, so that, in
order that, so the subjunctive forms may (might) + infinitive or
can (could) + infinitive are used. Only might or could are used
if the action in the subordinate clause, following the action in
the main clause, refers to the past. But when the action refers
to the present or future both forms of each verb are possible
(may or might, can or could).
I tell you this so that you may understand the situation.
She left the lamp on the window-sill so that he might see it
from afar.
She gave him the book that he might have something to read
on the journey.
IL After the conjunction lest should + infinitive is used.
The girl whispered these words lest somebody should over-
hear her.
Shut the window lest he should catch cold.
0 EXERCISES
Exercise I
Read and translate the following sentences. Explain the use
of the verb forms in the clauses of purpose.
1. “I like to be close to the stage,” said Ann, “so that I can see the
actors’ faces.” 2. He asked Teddy to stop the car so that he and
Julia could get out. 3. Once or twice he gave his brother
considerable sums in order that he might make a new start.
4. She usually bore her head high so that men could not see her
double chin. 5. Take your umbrella with you lest you should get
wet to the skin. 6. Repeat the rules lest you should make mistakes
in your test-paper. 7. She knew that Billy preferred to go and
stand at the gate so that he could be the first to board the plane.
Exercise II
Replace the infinitives in brackets by the correct form of
the subjunctive mood.
1. She stirred on her sofa so that she (to look) down at the
playing cat. 2. He gave Stella another glance, from the corner
316
of his eye, so that she (not to see) he was looking at her.
3. Then she went over to the captain and leaned over him so
that she (to speak) into his ear. 4. She put the coat back and
placed some other clothes on it so that it (to look) as though it
had not been disturbed. 5.1 like to know what new books are
being published so that I (to ask) for them at the public library.
6. You ought to hear it from his own lips so that you (to judge).
7. I went to mother and asked for my key so that I (to go)
straight up to my room. 8. The mother put some sugar into the
medicine that the child (to swallow) it easily. 9. I had a book
hidden in the barn so that I (to read) without fear of being
caught. 10. I took her to the theatre, so that we (to get) back
home late enough. 11. Tell them to make haste lest they (to be
late). 12. Ring them up lest they (to forget) about the meeting.
13. The students gave their test-papers to the teacher so that he
(to correct) them. 14. He has told you all this so that you (to
understand) his intention.
Exercise III
Paraphrase the following so as to use the subjunctive mood
in adverbial clauses of purpose.
1. A car will be sent down to your place tonight to take you
straight to the station. 2. Copy out the examples and study them
thoroughly so as not to make mistakes in the construction.
3. They wrote her a letter to remind her of her promise. 4. You
will have to close either the door or the window otherwise there
will be a draught. 5. We shall start earlier so as not to miss the
train. 6. I have repeated this for you not to misunderstand.
7. The guide marked the path carefully for the party not to get
lost on their way back. 8. They spoke in a whisper so as not
to wake anyone in the room. 9. How is the picture to be packed
not to be spoiled on the way?
Exercise IV
Translate into English using the conjunctions lest or that (so
that).
1. Запишите мой номер телефона, чтобы не забыть его.
2. Посоветуйте ей одеться потеплее, чтобы она не просту-
дилась. 3. Позвоните ей, пожалуйста, по телефону, чтобы
она не забыла взять с собой мою книгу. 4. Объясните ему,
как пройти к нашей даче, чтобы он мог когда-нибудь нас
навестить. 5. Примите таблетку, чтобы у вас не болела го-
317
лова. 6. Попросите ее говорить тише, чтобы она не разбу-
дила ребенка. 7. Здесь нужно идти очень осторожно, что-
бы не упасть. 8. Почините свою ручку, чтобы можно было
ею пользоваться. 9. Вы должны завтра утром встать по-
раньше, чтобы не опоздать на поезд. 10. Он положил свой
багаж под скамейку, чтобы пассажиры могли пройти на
свои места. 11. Поставьте лесенку, чтобы пассажир мог под-
няться на верхнюю полку.
Exercise IV
Translate into English using the conjunctions lest or that (so
that).
1. Придерживайте шляпу рукой, чтобы она не слетела.
2. Скажи мне еще раз твой точный адрес, чтобы я больше не
ошибался. 3. Он изложил план очень подробно, чтобы все
было ясно и не вызывало сомнений. 4. Зажгите еще одну
лампу, чтобы в комнате было светлее. 5. После смерти по-
эта в его квартире ничего не переставлялось, чтобы все выг-
лядело так, как было при его жизни. 6. Она сделала вид,
будто ищет что-то в бумагах, чтобы никто не заметил ее
волнения. 7. Напишите ему сразу же, чтобы он мог знать
наши планы. 8. Пришлите ему телеграмму, чтобы он мог
знать о нашем приезде. 9. Скажите ему, чтобы он положил
деньги в кошелек, чтобы он не потерял их. 10. Попросите их
поторопиться, чтобы они не опоздали на собрание.
11. Я дам тебе эту книгу, чтобы ты мог выписать из нее не-
сколько отрывков. 12. Я сообщаю тебе обо всех этих вещах,
чтобы мы могли понять друг друга. 13. Девочка не закры-
вала окно ни днем, ни ночью, чтобы кошка могла прихо-
дить к ней в комнату. 14. Мы пошли погулять, чтобы я мог
увидеть лес до того, как стемнеет. 15. Позвони мне, когда
ты будешь выезжать, чтобы я знал, когда ждать тебя.
Revision of the Use of the Subjunctive Mood
0 EXERCISES
Exercise I
Change the following sentences so as to use wish in each of
them.
1. I am sorry I am short of money at the moment, I’d gladly
lend you some. 2. It’s a pity that he won’t come. 3.1 am sorry
318
that you declined our invitation. 4. It’s a pity you did not hear
his comments. 5. It’s a pity we didn’t grasp your idea at once. It
would have saved a lot of trouble. 6. It was a pity that we had
to row against the current. 7. During the night the river rose;
we regretted having settled only a few yards from the water
edge. 8. It’s a pity you are so busy these days. 9. My friend
regrets not having told you this at once. 10. She was sorry not
to have had time enough to make the experiments. 11. It’s
a pity we shan’t be able to reach the destination before sunset.
12. I’m sorry I made you angry by disturbing you at such an
early hour. 13. What a pity you are leaving us so soon!
14. Unfortunately, you will not receive an answer before the
New Year.
Exercise II
Supply the necessary forms for the verbs given in brackets
after the verb to wish.
1. Pete, you’re up to something. I wish I (to know) what it is.
2. Ann wished he (to know) earlier what Tom had just told
him. 3. He wished that it all never (to happen) at all and that
things (to be) as they once had been. 4.1 wished I (can) settle
down to something. 5. I wish (to be) quite sure that she is
altogether honest. 6. I wished he (not to ask) that question.
7. “Have you got my letter?” “Yes. I wish you (not to write)
it.” 8. She almost wished it (to be) an ordinary day and that
there (to be) no such things as holidays. 9. I wish I (can) go
round the world. 10. I wish you (to ask) her a question or
two about her parents. 11. At the first sight of his host
Andrew almost wished he (not to come). 12. I wish you (to
bring) your sister with you. 13.1 wish it (to happen) to anyone
but you.
Exercise III
Supply the necessary forms for the verbs given in brackets in
the following conditional sentences:
1. If his mother (not to go) out, the boy (to turn) off the TV
set and (to go) to bed. 2.1 (to wait) if I (to be) you. 3. She (to
fall) if he suddenly (not to put) out a hand to steady her. 4. If
it (to be) not for the journalists, everything (to be) perfectly
easy. 5. If your father (to be) here, he (to give) you a piece of
his mind. 6. “She is only twenty.” “She (to know) better if she
(to be) twenty-five?” 7.1 do not know what (to happen) if this
319
(to go) on much longer. 8. Don’t you see that if things like
that (to happen) life (to be) quite different. 9. You really (to
follow) me if I (to go) away? 10. I believe you (to make) her
stay if it (to be) not so late. 11. It (to be) better if you (to take)
things coolly, as I do. 12. It was so dark that he (to lose) his
way if she (not to take) him by the hand.
Exercise IV
Complete the following conditional sentences.
1. The cake wouldn’t have got burnt if...2. You wouldn’t
have got into trouble if..3. Your dress would look nicer if
....4.1 would have come earlier if.....5. He would have got
wet through if.......................6. He would drive straight home if.
7. It would be better for all of us if.8. If it hadn’t been for
the rain....9. If it hadn’t been for his advice... 10. If it
hadn’t been for his departure.... 11. If it were not for his
family  12. If it were not for his scholarship  13. If it
hadn’t been for the announcement on the radio  14. If it
were not for the message that he received .... 15.	If your
mother were to ask you about me.....16. If I had known you
were here..... 17. If the play had not been so long. 18. If
we could afford it.... 19. If the car had not broken down
.... 20. If I were you....21. If you had left unexpectedly
..........................22. If it hadn’t been raining.23. If my son were not
making progress in his English..........................
Exercise V
Turn the words expressing an unreal condition into an
z/-clause like in the model below.
Model: I would prefer you to put it in your own words. -
I would prefer it if you put it in your own words.
1. He did not answer her. She would not have heard him.
2. I’d ask you to have dinner with me, but unfortunately
I have a previous engagement. 3. Why didn’t you tell me? It
would have been only fair to give me a chance of judging for
myself. 4. He knew his father was not among the audience.
He would not have known what music to play for him.
5. She would have liked to be an adventuress, but somehow
she hadn’t managed it. 6. You really could get a cat, Helen.
Think how happy it would be here! 7. A few years ago, in a
storm like this, an airport would have been closed completely.
320
8. I tried to explain that if it hadn’t been me the children
might have been lost.
Exercise VI
Paraphrase the following sentences using but for ... Remem-
ber that the situation refers to the past. Follow the model.
Add a sentence of your own.
Model: He didn’t let me leave the party yesterday. -
But for him I would have left the party yesterday.
The people were boring.
1. The spell of bad weather didn’t let me skate much during the
winter holidays. 2. The film shown on TV didn’t let them feel
dull in the evening. 3. His father didn’t let him watch the football
match yesterday. 4. My relatives in Moscow did not let me stay
at the hotel. 5. The slight cough didn’t let me feel quite well.
6. The fall didn’t let the skater win the prize. 7. His help during
her illness didn’t let her fall behind the group.
Exercise VII
Supply the necessary forms of the subjunctive mood in clauses
introduced by as if and as though.
1. Whenever I saw them it looked as though they (to be) on
very good terms with one another. 2. The knife shone as
though it just (to come) out of the workshop. 3. He wasn’t
shy, and he talked to Kate’s parents as though he (to know)
them all his life. 4. His tanned, smooth skin looked as though
a razor never (to touch) it. 5. She clutched the letter to her
heart as though she (to think) I would take it from her. 6. For
a moment or two she remained by the desk, one hand touching
the telephone, as if a thread of contact still (to remain). 7. He
looked at me as though he (to want) to ask me something.
8. It was Sunday, and there was a feeling of quietness, a silence
as though nature (to be) at rest. 9. He looked fresh and clean
as though nothing (to happen) to her that night. 10. He was
not so well dressed as his friend, who always looked as though
he (to step) out of a shop-window. 11. “I am glad you could
come, gentlemen,” he informed them, as if this meeting (to
plan) weeks ahead.
11 Н.Утевская
321
Exercise VIII
Paraphrase the sentences using the subjunctive mood (should
+ infinitive).
1.	He insisted that people in plays (to talk) as they talked in
real life.
2.	I suggested that she (to arrive) at my office on Monday.
3.	They proposed that they (to give) a dinner party to the new-
comers.
4.	I suggest that you (to come) back with me.
5.	I suggest that this exercise (to do) orally.
6.	They proposed that they (to present) their plans in a fortnight.
7.	I suggest that she (to join) our circle.
8.	My brother insists that I (to play) the violin.
Exercise IX
Paraphrase the sentences using the subjunctive mood after
the expression it is (about, high) time.
1. It is necessary to put an end to this pointless talk. 2. You do
not seem to realize the importance of the matter. 3. Why can’t
you express such simple things in English as yet? 4. If you do
not want your illness to be more serious, you should consult a
doctor as soon as possible. 5. You must begin reading books in
the original no matter how difficult it may seem to you. 6. Isn’t
it time to be moving up front? We are getting off the next stop.
7. It is high time for everybody to come. 8. It is high time for
the second course to be served. 9. It is about time for you to
start on a research. 10. It’s time for her to understand that she
is no longer a child and to seriously think of her future. 11. It is
about time for the team to start practicing.
Exercise X
Answer the following questions using the subjunctive mood
in adverbial clauses of purpose.
1. What do you do when the room is stuffy in order that it should
not be? 2. What do they wrap in shops every piece of crockery
for? 3. Why do you often take a taxi when we have little time
left? 4. Is there any special reason why we took the precautious?
5. What is the point of keeping a notebook if your memory has
not failed you so far? 6. For what purpose is the sign of danger
put up in some places? 7. For what purpose must you ring them
up? 8. Why did the doctor tell him all about the state of his health?
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Exercise XI
Translate into English using the subjunctive mood.
1. Необходимо, чтобы вы приняли во внимание все детали.
2. Невозможно, чтобы он это сказал. 3. Я требую, чтобы
вы были здесь ровно в восемь часов. 4. Она настаивала на
том, чтобы ему помогли. 5. Мне бы хотелось, чтобы он был
более внимательным на уроках. 6. Мне бы хотелось, чтобы
он присутствовал на нашем собрании. 7. Мы закрыли окна,
чтобы в комнате не было холодно. 8. Я это все говорю, что-
бы не было недоразумений. 9. Мы спешили, чтобы добрать-
ся домой до наступления темноты. 10. Я предлагаю, чтобы
мы выехали с вечерним поездом. 11. Вы так загорели, как
будто вы провели все лето на юге. 12. Странно, что он не
мог ответить на такой простой вопрос. 13. Она предложи-
ла, чтобы мы спали с открытым окном, а я боялась просту-
диться. 14. Нам необходимо немного отдохнуть, прежде чем
начать эту работу. 15. Я предлагаю, чтобы мы пошли се-
годня на концерт. 16. Говорите медленно, чтобы мне не про-
пустить какое-нибудь слово. 17. Мне бы хотелось, чтобы
вы прочли эту книгу; я уверена, что она вам понравиться.
18. Я приду рано, чтобы мы могли все приготовить до при-
хода гостей.
Exercise XII
Translate into English using the subjunctive mood.
1. Если бы не было так поздно, мы продолжали бы нашу
работу. 2. Мы перевели бы эту статью вчера, если бы у
нас был словарь. 3. Если бы мы вышли из дому на десять
минут раньше, мы не опоздали бы на поезд. 4. Если бы я
могла, я бы достала вам билеты на завтрашний концерт,
но мне сказали, что все билеты уже распроданы. 5. Если
бы не было так холодно, мы бы пошли кататься на конь-
ках, это мой любимый спорт. 6. Если бы вы были осто-
рожнее, вы не разбили бы чашку. 7. Будь я снова в этих
местах, обязательно сходил бы на рыбалку. 8. Если бы
вам задали этот вопрос, сумели бы вы на него ответить?
9. Он посмотрел на меня, будто никогда прежде меня не
видел. 10. Если бы вы действительно любили читать, вы
бы всегда нашли время для чтения. 11. Необходимо, что-
бы ты взял отпуск на месяц. 12. О, если бы она тогда зна-
ла, куда написать ему! 13. Я настаиваю, чтобы мы оста-
лись здесь.
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Exercise XIII
Translate into English using the subjunctive mood.
1. Если бы автомобиль не ехал с такой скоростью, несчаст-
ного случая не произошло бы. 2. Если бы у меня не болела
голова, я бы не ушла домой так рано. 3. Он говорил так,
как будто ему не 12 лет, а 20. 4. Я хотел бы, чтобы всегда
было тепло. 5. Он скомандовал, чтобы все подошли к нему.
6. Прочитайте все правила, чтобы не делать ошибок в уп-
ражнениях. 7. Желательно, чтобы вы нарисовали все, что
увидите. 8. Если бы вы регулярно тренировались, вы бы не
проиграли игру. 9. Я пошел к себе в комнату, чтобы меня
никто не беспокоил. 10. Как жаль, что ты не видел письма.
Оно бы тебе все объяснило. 11. Я предложил, чтобы он при-
ехал и погостил у меня несколько дней. 12. Мне бы хоте-
лось, чтобы он был более трудолюбивым. 13. Я был бы
очень рад, если бы вы зашли к нам завтра. 14. Если бы мы
не шли так быстро, мы бы не были такими усталыми.
15. Если бы ваше предложение было получено на прошлой
неделе, мы бы приняли его. 16. Если бы я был моложе!
Exercise XIV
Translate into English using the subjunctive mood.
1. Он улыбался, как будто не верил тому, что я говорил.
2. Девочка сидела тихо, словно она смотрела телевизор.
3. Для нас было бы лучше, если бы мы никогда не встреча-
лись. 4. Он говорил о книге, как будто он ее читал. 5. По-
весь объявление повыше, чтобы всем было видно. 6. Он не
сказал ни слова, как будто бы он не слышал, что мы разго-
варивали о нем. 7. Он сказал то, что другие тоже могли бы
сказать, если бы они были откровенны. 8. Пора бы ему
начать работать самостоятельно. 9. Цель нашей экскурсии
была в том, чтобы студенты ознакомились с искусством
Болгарии. 10. Если бы станция не была так далеко, мы бы
донесли вещи сами. 11. Жаль, что мы так и не встретились
перед отъездом. 12. Он велел нам сесть на заднее сиденье
машины, чтобы мы могли поговорить.
Exercise XV
Translate into English using the subjunctive mood.
1. Если бы ты положила книгу на место, она была бы сейчас
здесь. 2. Жаль, что вы не подождали меня. Мы поехали бы
осматривать город вместе. 3. Вам давно пора знать эти пра-
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вила. Мы их повторяли на каждом уроке. 4. Он настаивал,
чтобы я поехала отдохнуть. 5. Мы поторопились, чтобы не
опоздать на поезд. 6. Она дала мне ключ, чтобы я мог от-
крыть дверь. 7. Я настаивала, чтобы мы остались здесь.
8. Пора бы вам его будить. 9. Желательно, чтобы вы больше
читали. 10. Жаль, что ты не был с нами в театре. Если бы ты
был, ты бы мог принять участие в обсуждении пьесы. 11. Будь
я помоложе, я бы занялся парусным спортом. 12. Запишите
мой адрес, чтобы не забыть его. 13. Отправте им телеграм-
му, чтобы они знали о нашем приезде. 14. Он настаивает,
чтобы все присутствовали на этом собрании. 15. Если бы я
был свободен завтра вечером, я бы пошел на концерт.
The Verbals
(The Non-Finite Forms
of the Verb)
There are four non-finite forms of the verb in English: the
infinitive (to take), the gerund (taking), the participle I (tak-
ing ), the participle II (taken). The non-finite forms of the verb
do not express person, number or mood as the finite forms do.
The non-finite forms of the verb have a double nature, the ver-
bal and the nominal. The infinitive and the gerund have the
character of a verb and of a noun. The participle has the char-
acter of a verb and of an adjective. The infinitive and the parti-
ciple are used to form the tenses.
The Infinitive
In modern English the infinitive has the following forms:
	Active Voice	Passive Voice
Present	to ask	to be asked
Continuous	to be asking	—
Perfect	to have asked	to have been asked
Perfect Continuous	to have been asking	—
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The Use of the Infinitive
1.	The Present Infinitive shows a simultaneous action with that
of the main verb.
We like to watch TV.
2.	The Continuous Infinitive is used to describe an action
happening now.
He must be working in the garden now.
3.	The Perfect Infinitive is used to show that the action of the
infinitive happened before the action of the main verb.
He was sorry to have asked him to come.
4.	The Perfect Continuous Infinitive is used to show the duration
of the action of the infinitive which happened before the action
of the main verb.
She looks tired. She seems to have been working all morning.
The Use of the Infinitive without
the Particle to (The Bare Infinitive)
In modem English the infinitive is usually preceded by the
particle to:
To study is a delight.
I went to the library to read.
To is used without a verb if the verb has been used before.
He translated all the text I asked him to.
Still there are cases when the particle to is not used.
1)	After all auxiliary and modal verbs (except ought)
We will go early in the morning.
He may come in the evening.
2)	In a complex object after the verbs of sense perception (to see,
to feel, to watch, to observe, to notice)
I saw them climb the tree.
The teacher heard Mary answer the examination first.
Note: But after these verbs in the passive form the Zo-infini-
tive is used.
They were seen to climb the tree.
Mary was heard to answer the examination first.
3)	After the verbs to let, to make, (to force), need, dare (in the
modal meaning)
Let him read.
How dare you do such a thing?
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You nee