М. С. КОРНЕЕВА, Т. К. ПЕРЕКАЛЬСКАЯ
I
Учебное пособие по развитию навыков аннотирования и реферирования для студентов старших курсов
МОСКОВСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ им. М.В.ЛОМОНОСОВА
Кафедр* английскеге язык* мех*нике-ыатем*тическаге факультет*
М.С.Кернеев», Т.К.Перекальск«я
УЧЕБНОЕ ПОСОБИЕ ПО РАЗВИТИЮ НАВЫКОВ АННОТИРОВАНИЯ
И РЕФЕРИРОВАНИЯ ДЛЯ СТУДЕНТОВ
СТАРШИХ КУРСОВ
Издательстве Мескевскег* университет*
1993
БЕК 81.2 Англ.
KG6
Рецензенты:
доктор физико-математических наук Е.В.Ломакин, кандидат филологических наук М.В.Вербицкая
Печатается по постановлению
Редакционно-издательского совета
Московского университета
Корнеева М.С., йерекадьская Т.С.
К66 УчеСное пособие по развитию навыков аннотирования и реферирования для студентов старших курсов. - М.: Изд-во МГУ, 1993.- 72 с.
ISBN 5-211-02982-8
В пособии рассматриваются основные структурно-тематические элементы научной журнальной статьи и соответствующие им языковые средства выражения, а также вопросы компрессии научного текста в виде реферата и аннотации.
Для студентов старших курсов и аспирантов механико-математического факультета ШУ.
077(02)-93-заказное
БЕК 81.2АНГЛ.
ISBN 5-211-02982-8
© Московский государственный университет, 1993
Предисловие
Все возрастающий поток научной информапмя, участие в международных конференциях и сишозиумах ставят перед специалистами две основные задачи: умение читать и понимать научную литературу, извлекая при этом соответствующую информацию с нужной степенью полноты и точности; умение оформлять полученную научную информацию в виде рефератов и аннотации. Эти основные целевые установки и определили содержание и характер данного пособия по письменной научной коммуникации.
Пособие написано на основе детального изучения текстологических особенностей современных английских и американских научных журнальных статей, а также исследований в области комгозиции и лингвистики текста, посвященных вопросам письменной научной коммуникации и творческого процесса создания научного текста.
Из всего многообразия жанров научной литературы ш отобрали жанр научной журнальной статьи, поскольку, во-первых, именно статья является наиболее социально важной формой публикаций, фиксирующей результаты новейших исследований в области науки й техники, и, во-вторых, она строго канонизирована как по своему кошозиционноцу построению, так и по отбору языковых средств. Не менее важным жанром в научной литературе является реферат, играющий важнейшую роль в процессе обмана научной информацией. Реферат функционирует в научной коммуникации как вторичный текст, представляющий собой результат аналитико-сяштаксической переработки первоисточника.
Современное нормативное деление статьи на тематические структурные элементы предусматривает следующие основные элементы.
I-	Заглавие. В инструкциях ко многим периодическим научным журналам вопрос о заглавии рассматривается особо, поскольку его информативность в первую очередь ориентирует читателя и зачастую решает для него вопрос о. полезности ознакомхения с данной статьей. Инструкции к оформлению работ по-существу сводятся к следующему: заглавие должно быть достаточно коротким (не более 12 слов), должно давать читателю специфическую иителхективную информацию и отражать основную тещу предпринятой работы ж не должно начинаться с таких общих слов, как "изучение”, "эффект", "к вопросу о" и т.д.
2.	Имя автора и указания овгаядзапии. в которой выполнена работа, также служат ориентираш джя читателя, относя проделан
ное исследование к той или иной школе, что в результате формально определяет ценность работы и ее место в кругу других исследований»
3.	Краткое изложение содержащейся в статье информации (краткий реферат, составленный с целью дать читателю оперативную информацию о цели и круге проблем, представленных в статье, и основных полученных результатах).
4.	Введение. В отличие от остальных структурно-тематических элементов текста, введение в основном ориентировано на более широкий круг специалистов. Оно обычно освещает рассматриваемую проблему или в историческом аспекте, или носит критический характер и также, как реферат, включает в себя указание на цели и круг проблем данной статьи.
5.	Метод. Этот раздел содержит описание метода, использованного автором, а также материалов и оборудования, при помощи которых выполнена работа. Это описание достаточно детализировано и ориентировано на коллегу, причем обычно используется хронологический подход к представлению различных операций и хода рассуждения.
Результаты. В данном, разделе описываются результаты, полученные в ходе эксперимента и проделанной исследовательской работы. Они, как правило, сформулированы в логической последовательности и суммированы в таблице или на графике.
7, Дискуссия. В этой части формулируется значимость проделанного исследования и его сопоставление с другими работами в данной, области.
8. Заключение. В заключении обычно акцентируются основные, важные с точки.зрения автора, моменты исследования.
’ э. Выражение благодарности. В этой части работы выражается благодарность лицам и организациям, оказавшим содействие, помощь и совет автору во время проведения исследования.
10. Библиография содержит список работ, использованных автором с указанием названия работы, автора, места и года издания.
Вторичные тексты представляют собой результат аналитикосинтетической переработки первоисточников, которые реаранжиру-ют состав исследуемого вопроса с тем, чтобы снабдить читателя оперативной научной информацией. В практике издания периода- ' ческой научной литературы, трудов научных совещаний, издаваемых на английском языке, за различными видами компрессированных
текстов закреплены следующие термины: "abstract ", " summary", "synopsis ". Краткому изложению содержания научной работы, предваряющему полный текст оригинала, соответствуют два термина: "summary " и " abstract", причем англичане отдают предпочтение слову "summary ", а американцы - "abstract ", считая, что слово " summary" обозначает ту часть внутренней тематической организации научного текста, а именно "заключение", где сам автор формулирует основные моменты полученных результатов с тем, чтобы еще раз сосредоточить на них внимание читателя. В рефератах, издаваемых отдельно от оригинала и публикуемых в специализированных изданиях типа реферативных журналов, в международной печати употребляют термин "abstract ". Тезисы, написанные автором для конференций и издаваемые отдельно от доклада, Международная организация стандартизации постановила называть "synopsis ", хотя на практике это требование не всегда выдерживается и их, по аналогии с вышеуказанными текстами, называют "abstract ".
Анализ современной английской литературы, посвященный вопросу публикации, хранения и использования научной текстовой информации показывает наличие различных подходов к классификации реферативных жанров и информатических текстов.
I.	Классификация реферативных текстов по авторству:
I.	Author’s abstracts - авторские рефераты.
2.	subject-authority abstracts - рефераты, составленные специалистом в данной профессиональной области.
3.	Professional abstracts - рефераты, составленные профессионалом-референтом.
II.	Классификация по способу вторичной обработки оригинала: I. Extract (извлечение) - сокращенная версия оригинала, сделанная путем выборки основных ключевых положений текста, не изменяя при этом языковой структуры первоисточника.
2.	Abstract (реферат) - короткое эссе документа, полученное в результате как синтаксической, так и семантической обработки первоисточника, не сохраняющее структуру языкового выражения оригинала, но без критической оценки его содержания.
3.	Review (обзор) - критический анализ первоисточника, допускающий сравнение с другими работами в данной области, также не сохраняющий структуру языкового выражения оригинала.
III. Классификация, учитывающая профессиональные интересы читателей:
I. Discipline-oriented abstract - реферат, написанный для рефе-S- пн о
ративного издания, обслуживающего какую-либо отрасль науки, ' например, "Physics Abstracts", "Biological Abstracts”.
2. Slanted abstract - реферат, извлекающий из оригинала только информацию, представляющую профессиональный интерес определенного круга читателей, и предназначенный для нужд внутреннего пользования какой-либо организации.
1У. Классификация, основанная на функциональном различии научных реферативных текстов в системе научной коммуникации: I. Informative abstract - информативный реферат.
2. Indicative abstract - указательный реферат, или аннотация.
Поскольку различие коммуникативной функции оказывается наиболее социально важным критерием для выделения жанров в сфере научной коммуникации, кратко остановимся на качественных характеристиках этих текстов, обусловливающих их стилевые черты. Целью указательного реферата (аннотации) является краткое описание статьи, сделанное для того, чтобы помочь читателю понять круг проблем, содержащихся в оригинале. Аннотация указывает на то, какие данные и какая другая информация могут быть найдены в оригинальном тексте, не давая детализированного последовательного описания содержания первоисточника. Информативный же реферат - это полное суммирование наиболее важных ~ моментов содержания и выводов оригинала. Данный тип реферата представляет собой полное и самостоятельное произведение, не требующее обращения к исходному тексту. Реферат должен быть настолько информативным, насколько это позволяет тип и стиль исходного текста. Информативные рефераты наиболее приемлемы для текстов, описывающих экспериментальные работы, и раскрывающих одну тему исследования.
Указательный реферат (аннотация) обычно предваряет текст оригинала, его цель - привлечь внимание читателя к публикуемому произведению с тем, чтобы однозначно решить, соответствует ли данная работа его профессиональным интересам. Информативный же реферат обычно публикуется отдельно от оригинала и включает в себя принципиальные идеи, методы, данные, исключая их детальное объяснение. Он содержит основную качественную и количественную информацию оригинала и предназначен для читателей, не имеющих возможности им воспользоваться.
Работа с текстом с целью его компрессии представляет собой содержательную реконструкцию первоисточника, которая реализуется в изъятии из текста менее важной информации и перегруппировке, оставшихся смысловых единиц в более "емкие". Конечно, при таком,
подходе важно отметить факт субъективности в определении "важное - мецее важное", который входит в круг проблем прагматических, при этом важнейшим критерием при отборе информации является цель, с которой проводится сжатие текста. Приведенная далее выборка из рекомендаций и правил дает представление о наборе действий, которые предлагаются референту при содержательном анализе первоисточника и его реаранжировке:
I.	Сократить объем реферата (не уменьшая количества содержащейся в нем информации), исключить из текста неконкретные, общие, предположительные, противоречивые утверждения и данные.
2.	Исключить из текста реферата рассуждения о цели, значении работ данного рода, о направлениях развития науки.
3.	Не помещать сведений биографического характера, а также информацию., содержащуюся в заголовке (речь идет о текстовом совпадении), устранить повторы и уточнения.
4.	Иллюстрации, формулы, таблицы, вывода не должны дублировать содержания, а давать новую информацию.
5.	Формулы не выводятся, а приводятся готовыми.
6.	Примеры», данные в оригинале, должны быть изъяты или заменены обобщающим предложением.
7.	Изымаются из текста утверждения, содержащие общеизвестные истины.
8.	Факты излагаются как ясные ("голые") утверждения.
9.	Метафорические выражения считаются неприемлемыми и изымаются из текста.
Необходимо отметить, что ввиду небольшого объема данного учебного пособия мы не имели возможности представить весь спектр проблем по курсу письменной научной коммуникации. и!ы ограничились лишь кратким изложением основных принципов и положений по этому вопросу, чтобы дать целостное представление о факторах, принципиально влияющих на процесс создания письменного научного текста.
Настоящее учебное пособие представляет собой дальнейшую разработку проблем преподавания основ письменной научной коммуникации, изложенных в "Пособии по реферированию научных текстов"*.
* Корнеева м.^., Маренкова И.А., Перекальская Т.К. Пособие по реферированию научных текстов. 1985.
Методическая записка
Учебное пособие предназначено для студентов, старших курсов и аспирантов механико-математического факультета МГУ и ставит своей целью научить основам письменной научной коммуникации и реферированию научных статей. Методической основой пособия является обучение писыду как виду речевой деятельности на мыслительном уровне.
Курс по письменной практике на английском языке состоит из 5 глав, каждая из которых включает пояснительную часть и задания, направленные на развитие навыков письменной речи научного характера. В главе I анализируется тематическая структурная организация научной журнальной статьи; глава II посвящена рассмотрению основных видов дискурса; далее в главе III описывается абзац как основная единица текста,и даются рекомендации для его эффективной организации. В главе 1У закрепляются основные языковые средства для построения различных частей научной статьи: цель исследования, основные характеристики предмета исследования, метода и материалы, результаты работы и их оценка, анализ.ошибок, интерпретация полученных результатов и их сопоставление, вывода и заключения, возможная область применения. В главе У рассматриваются основные типы рефератов (аннотация и информативный реферат), а также метода, используемые при реферировании научных статей. В конце пособия даются рекомендации по оформлению извлеченной из статьи информации в виде реферата с учетом формальных требований протяженности и полноты изложения.
В качестве иллюстративного материала использовались статьи ИЗ журналов: "Journal of Fluid Mechanics", "AIAA Journal”, "International Journal for Numerical Methods in Fluids", "Journal of Applied Mathematics”, "Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering”, "International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering”.
CHAPTER I
Organizing a Scientific Paper
The first step in writing a scientific paper is to decide its basic structure because every paper must follow a carefully developed outline or plan. It should be remembered, however, that no plan can be determined arbitrarily by anyone other than the writer himself - and he must develop it to meet the requirements of his particular situation. Consequently the following generalized outline of scientific papers should not be regarded as an inviolable model, but only as a skeleton typical of a great number of modern papers:
1.	Introduction.
2.	Materials and methods.
5* Results.
4.	Discussion.
5* Conclusions.
6.	Acknowledgement (if any).
?. References.
The following generalized outline represents a form common to technical papers:
1.	Aim and scope of paper.
2.	Apparatus, equipment, materials.
5.	Method of procedure.
4. Discussions Data Results Conclusions and recommendations.
6.	References.
Another plan which finds more and more favour in industry is given below:
1.	Introduction:
General background
Definition of subject, scope, and purpose
2.	Conclusions.
?• Recommendations (if any).
4.	Discussion:
Analysis of situation Description of procedure Summary of results
5.	Appendix material (when necessary).
As we can see, the writer starts the paper with a short foreword (introduction) which gives general background information on the problem. It defines the subject, scope, and purpose of the work, and makes reference to some correlated papers on the subject. Its aim is to awaken interest and it should not be taken for a review article. Besides, sometimes a general condensation of all sections of the paper can also be given here.
The section devoted to materials and methods comes second. It deals with the description of the materials and equipment employed and explains the way the work was done. If the methods used are described elsewhere, it is pointless to give full details again; it is better to refer to the published articles. Rew or unusual equipment should be described in this section at full length.
The results should be presented in a logical order, using only observations that are strictly pertinent to the given argument. The description of experiments should be combined with indication of their purpose, significance and relevance to the line of thought even if the detailed discussion section is being planned. In descriptive work the results themselves are often the aim of the investigation and need no discussion beyond a brief comment.
The discussion section is the body of the paper and contains the detailed data which were obtained and the calculations made. Here the subject under consideration is treated from different sides* This section should be written only after long and hard thinking about the results of the work and compared with other persons* findings. The discussion uses drawings, curve sheets, photographs and other illustrative material. If there is any elaborate mathematics in the paper, scientists prefer to move it out of the discussion and put it in an appendix at the end of the paper.
The final part of the paper are conclusions. They summarize the results of tests and discoveries made, and are short, concise statements which those who may not be entirely familiar with the subject can understand. This section can also contain recommendations, if there are any. These are simple, forceful statements, frequently without explanation. They may recommend future work on the subject or the action that should be based on the conclusions of the work.
The acknowledgement section may be included in the paper if the writer wants to express his gratitude to the organizations which sponsored the work or to the persons who helped the author. The acknowledgement can sometimes be included in the conclusion section.
Exercise 1, Answer the following questions.
1. What are the structural types of scientific papers?
2. In what part of the paper are the subject, scope, and purpose of the work defined?
J. How is the body of the paper called?
4.	How should the conclusions of the paper be given?
5.	What is the difference between conclusions and recommendations?
6.	What is the name of that part of the paper where some correlated papers on the subject are presented?
7« What is acknowledement?
CHAPTER II
Mastering Basic Types of Writing
In Chapter I we have considered structural parts of scientific papers. Now we shall turn to the study of basic types of writing because the more writing types we have at the command, the greater chance we have of selecting an effective tool for a given situation.
Some of the basic types of writing commonly used in writing situations are: definition, descriptive exposition, narrative exposition, argument, and summary. While they are presented as "pure types", writers use them most often in different combinations. They are strategies for fulfilling ypur writing goals. It is not enough to know, however, that these types exist in the paper: nor is it enough to know the place they occupy. The real question is: How may these fundamental types be used effectively? Good paper writing clearly depends upon a proper construction and relation of the parts. If the parts are incoherent and hazy, the whole cannot be logical and clear. It is characteristic of the successful paper writer that he never overlooks any detail, never neglects any device that will make his work clearer and more effective.
It will not be difficult to see how basic types of writing may enter into the development of a scientific paper. Definition, for example, is necessary for the statement of the aim and scope of the paper as well as for the explanation of ambiguous or new terms (introduction). Description is required to present a clear picture of apparatus or device, or of some materials (equipment and materials). Narration enters into the records of past achievements (introduction) explanation of procedure (methods), plans for carrying out an experiment. Exposition of facts and ideas makes possible an interpretation of phenomena, of statistics, or of data that the author has
collected (Discussion). Argument is often the controlling purpose » of the whole paper; it is particularly linked with ire commendations. Summary is frequently needed at the end of the paper (conclusions) as well as at the beginning of it (abstract).
1.	Definition
We shall begin our discussion of basic types of writing by considering definition. It obviously has an important function to perform in the average paper. The first need for definition arises at the beginning of the paper (Introduction). Here the writer must clearly define his subject. Of course, the title should be as conp-lete and adequate in its statement of the.subject as good sense permits, but even the most carefully stated title may often leave much unsaid.
The aim of the paper is often stated in a single sentence. Sel-iom does it require any long'explanation. While the aim is general, the scope, on the other hand, must be explained in rather specific berms. It must explain the boundaries set, the extent of the investigation covered by the paper, and the definite limitations set either by those authorizing the paper, or, through necessity, by ;he writer himself. for instance:
Aim. The aim of this paper is to determine the advisability of recting a substation in New York.
Scope. This paper discusses the investigation carried on during ;he past month, presents such facts as seem important for reaching . sound conclusion, and offers the recommendations that the engineers gree upon as advisable. The need for such a substation, the choice f a site, the engineering problems involved in construction, and he financial considerations are the matters that receive chief mphasis.
furthermore, the purpose of any definition is to set limits v boundaries for the matter defined, to avoid "double meanings", id to make misinterpretations impossible. The simplest form is lown as the "logical" definition, or the dictionary form, which onsists of three parts in a single sentence: the term, the genus, ad the differentiae. Note the following examples:
Term	Genus	Differentiae
ompiler	a complex	which converts computer inprogram	structions written in a
source language into machine code
Debugging	the technique	of detecting and correcting
errors which may occur in programs
Definitions differ in length according to the development of the third part (the differentiae). The first two parts usually allow of little development, but a great deal of discussion may be needed for a satisfactory differentiation, к sentence made up of the three elements mentioned usually provides the best topic sentence for a detailed definition. It summarizes and condenses the whole definition, so that the details which follow are more understandable.
Exercise 1. Answer the following questions. 1. What are the basic types of writing?
2.	How do basic types of writing enter into the development of scientific papers?
3.	In what part of the paper can narration be useful? 4/ When is description required?
5. What is the purpose of definition in scientific papers? 6. What are the main parts of definition?
Exercise 2. Define the following terms in a short paragraph paying attention to the term, the genus and the differentiae: algorithm, computer, program, force, mass, velocity, density, friction, pressure.
Exercise 3. Define the aim and scope of your course-paper.
Exercise 4. Find the term, the genus and the differentiae in the definition given below. Analyze key words and word-eombinations of the paragraph.
Compiler is а совф1ех program which converts computer instructions written in a source language into machine code. The resulting object program can then be read and acted upon by the computer. In order to produce the object program the compiler a) translates each language statement into its machine code equivalent, b) incorporates into the object program any library subroutines requested by the user, c) supplies the interconnecting links between the parts of the programs. A compiler is distinguished from an assembly program by the fact that a compiler usually generates more than one machine code instruction for each source statement, whereas an assembly lan-
H-Iivo
guage is one-for-one with machine code.
2* Descriptive exposition
One of the most difficult types of writing used in scientific papers is exposition which aims to enlighten or inform. There can be descriptive exposition, narrative exposition and exposition of facts and ideas. The writer's purpose in using descriptive exposition is to give his reader a clear conception of the appearance of a device, an instrument, or an equipment (Materials and methods); or he may use it to explain the general plan or the underlying principles of the object. The development of either purpose calls for rather specific language and a plan somewhat similar to that employed by the writer of pure description.
Especially in technical documents, descriptive writing is often exceedingly difficult. The object calling for description is usually somewhat complicated; it consists of numerous important elements or parts, Since the writer naturally knows much more about the object than his reader and since his interest is usually in details, he often neglects to present a unified picture of the whole. He is unable to place himself in the position of the person whose knowledge is limited. Too often the technical writer begins a description with a detail of minor significance, continues to pile up details and fails utterly to make his reader see the relationship of the parts to the whole.
Before beginning a descriptive exposition, the writer must consider his reader's mind. What are the questions which demand immediate answer? If it is some new device that the writer wishes to explain, he may summarise his reader's questions as follows: What is it called? What is its use? What, briefly, does it look like? What is the principle of the thing?
These questions must be answered at once in the development of a descriptive expo sition. Before the reader has simple answers to these questions, descriptive details can have little meaning or interest for him. The general rule is: give a general impression first. In the description of a device, for instance, the first paragraph may contain its name, its purpose or use, its general appearance, and its working principle.
After the reader's preliminary questions are answered, the writer may proceed to develop the details of description. The method to be used must depend upon the purpose to which it is to be put. The writer's first step is to form in his own mind a picture
of the thing he intends to describe* If he is chiefly concerned with external appearance, he should attempt to form a mental photograph. Sometimes, of course> an actual photograph, or a set of photographs, is included as a further aid to the reader; but, whether such mechanical means for clearness are present or not, the writer himself must have a clear vision* If, on the other hand, principles or relationships are of first importance, the writer should form a mental diagram as the basis for his development.
To make a discussion of details that is logical is seldom easy; but, if the writer has visualized his subject clearly, he has made an excellent start* Wherever possible, he should at temp to adopt some chronological order, borrowing the chief characteristic of narrative forms, for example, a machine may be described by considering the parts in the order in which they are set in motion* A student’s inspection-trip report, covering a visit to a manufacturing plant, easily adapts itself to the narrative order, although it is essentially descriptive. Such a report may logically be divided into three main parts:
1* General information as to size of plant, kind of output, and so on (introductory sentence or paragraph).
2. Main features of the plant treated either a) in the order of observation, or b) in the order in which the manufacturing process proceeds.
5* Writer’s conclusions concerning the character of the plant and its methods of operation as a whole (final paragraph, or series of paragraphs).
Perhaps the most useful suggestion that can be given to the writer of descriptive exposition is that he can employ plenty of comparisons. Every reader knows some devices and properties which are, at least in some respects, similar to those being described. The writer must make use of his knowledge; he must point out these similarities.
Exercise 1. Answer the following questions. 1* What is the aim of exposition?
2* What is the writer’s purpose in descriptive exposition? 5* Why is descriptive writing difficult in technical documents? 4* What preliminary questions, of the readers must be answered in . the development of a descriptive exposition?
5* In what case should the writer attempt to form a mental photograph?
6. What is one of the useful suggestions that can be given to the writer of descriptive exposition?
Exercise 2. Study the following description of the experimental set up and say how the details of the description are developed. Examine the topic sentence and lexical means of connection within the paragraph.
Test Facility
к testing facility was designed to characterize a wide variety of flows under isothermal conditions. For the present study, an unconfined flow configuration was selected, operating with an axial jet injector surrounded by a swirling/nonswirling annular jet. In this configuration, the injector was directed vertically downward within a 457 ™ square wire mesh screen. The entire test assembly is surrounded by a flexible plastic enclosure which serves two purposes. First, the enclosure helps damp out extraneous room drafts. Second, and more important, the enclosure allows uniform seeding of the entrained air, thereby permitting unbiased measurements in the jet outer region. The test section air flows into a sealed collec-_ tion drum and then into a suction vent connected to an exhaust blower, к slide valve on the vent allows for a variable duct back pressure. The support cage is mounted on an optics table from below via a two-axis traverse system in order to allow the two degrees of freedom in the horizontal plane. The injector is mounted on a vertical spar to provide the third degree of freedom in the vertical direction. The control volume spatial location is monitored via a three-axis digital indicator which permits positioning to within 0.01 mm. Data were obtained at seven axial stations: 15, 25» 35» 50 , 75, 150, and JOO mm from the exit plane of the injector. At each axial station, between 10 and 20 radial points were scanned as determined by the desired level of profile resolution.
3. Narrative exposition
The writer stresses action, and consequently employs narrative exposition, when he wants to explain an experiment, a new process of manufacture, the story of a completed project, the record of work accomplished in a day, a week, or a month; or when he wishes to make suggestions for work to be carried out in the future. Sometimes the entire paper may be a single chronological account of . this type. On the other hand, such order may be used only in single
sections, for the narrative element is frequently important even when the paper as a whole follows ho such order. So long as the writer can direct the attention of his reader to his account and lead in a straight path from stage to stage, his problem presents no difficulty.
Narrative exposition enters into the records of past achievements (Introduction), explanation of procedure (Methods) and new process, plans for carrying out a project. Here the writer wants to emphasize action, that is why chronological order is recommended. The narrative form is thoroughly concrete, not abstract, and it is interesting chiefly because it is not passive - it moves. The purpose of process exposition, therefore, is to instruct, demonstrate, or explain a step-by-step process. But before the reader is asked to follow the steps of the chronological account, he ought to be told what the story is about and where it is headed. In other words, every narrative exposition must begin with a ° summary of the stoi^y”, enabling the reader to grasp further details with more understanding and interest. One aim of such a summary (topic sentence) may be to let the reader see the purpose of the process or procedure. Another may be to show its extent. Still another is to. indicate its direction.
The following short introduction outlines the steps of stages in the process, suggesting both extent and directions
The principal operations in the manufacture of mercury-in-glass thermometers are cleaning, filling, and graduating the glass tube (topic sentence).
This short introduction emphasizes extent and results
Work today has been concerned entirely with continuing the tests begun last week. So far. the results have hardly been promising
After such an introduction, the paper frequently proceeds in a straight line from one step to the next without complications, and the writer seldom runs into serious difficulties. Complication, of course, may arise. In some processes, for example, a number of different steps are progressing simultaneously. Again, there may alternative methods of doing the same work. If two or more steps proceed simultaneously, each must naturally be carried to its conclusion before another is brought into the discussion. To from one to the other is needlessly confusing. If alternative methods must be explained, begin with the one most commonly used. Usually, all methods will have something in common, and the other methods may therefore be explained by contrasting and comparing them with
the first. Once the problem has been carefully analyzed, these complications are not really difficult to overcome.
Exercise И. Answer the following questions.
1. When does the writer employ narrative exposition?
2. What is the purpose of process exposition?
J. What parts of the article does narrative exposition enter?
4. Why should narrative exposition begin with a "summary of the story"?
5* What can the aim of such a summary be?
Exercise 2. Study the following three paragraphs and say what devices of the development of narrative exposition are employed. Memorize underlined active expressions which are typical of Introduction of a scientific paper.
Introduction
The present paper is concerned with the application of the concept of finite elements to the formulation and solution of a wide range of problems in fluid dynamics. The method is sufficiently general to treat a variety of unsteady and nonlinear flow pheno*-mena in irregular domains. An intrinsic feature of finite-element approximations is that a mathematical model is generated by patching together a number of purely "local" approximations of the phenomena under consideration. This aspect of the method effectively frees the analyst from traditional difficulties associated with irregular geometries, multi-connected domains, and mixed boundary conditions. Moreover, applications are firmly rooted in the physics of the problem at hand and preliminary studies indicate that for a given order of accuracy, the resulting equations are better conditioned than those obtained by, say, finite difference approximations of the governing differential equations.
Certain of the underlying ides of the finite element method were discussed in 1943 by Courant. However, the formal presentation of the method is generally attributed to the 1956 paper of Turner et al. While the method has found wide application in solid and structural mechanics, its application to flow problems has come only in rather recent times. Early uses of the method were always associated with variational statements of the problem under consideration so that it is natural that steady, potential flow problems were the first to be solved using finite elements. We mention in this regai’d the works of Zienkiewicz, Mayer and Cheung on
Seepage through porous media and Martin on potential flow problems. Finite element models of unsteady compressible and incompressible flow problems were obtained by Oden. Applications of finite element methods to a number of important problems in fluid mechanics have been reported in recent years: among them we mention the work of Thompson, Mack, and Lin on steady incompressible flow and Tong, Fujino, Argyris et al. The recent book of Zienkiewicz can be consulted for additional references.
In the present investigation we extend the finite element method to general three-dimensional problems of heat conduction and
flow of compressible and incompressible fluids, wherein no restriction is placed or the constitution or equation of state of fluid
under consideration. Effectively, we develop finite element analo-
gues of the equations of continuity, linear momentum, and energy of arbitrary fluids. The models are obtained from local approximations of the density, velocity, and temperature fields in each element and represent generalizations of those proposed earlier.
4. Argument
Thus far the discussion of the types of writing has been limited to. exposition, that form which aims only to enlighten or inform. Nearly all papers, it is true, adopt the tone and spirit of exposition, use its devices, and depend upon the application of its principles. Nevertheless, the actual aim of a good many reports is argumentative. To a certain problem there ^re several possible solutions, each of which has its advocates. The writer’s aim may be to find the right solution, to recommend it, and to secure the adoption of his recommendation. Such a paper, in aim at least, is argument. Occasionally, too, argument plays an incidental and contributory part even in papers that are mainly expository in purpose. Whenever the writer recommends or advises a particular line of action in regard to which differences of opinion have heretofore existed, we may term his work an argument.
The normal order in argumentative discourse is worth considering. Most thorough arguments follow the following plan: H. A discussion of the problem: What is the question? Wherein is it important?
2. Presentation of the dominating factors that will determine a decision.
3. Comparison of the several solutions or ’’sides” of the* * * 4 question. 4. ,What conclusions and recommendations can be drawn from these facts
The recommendation paper usually places the general decision • •f the writer at the beginning. Such a practice has definite advantages when the reader is open-minded and wants to know the writer’s conclusions immediately. The factors determining a decision must >ccupy a position of prominence. After they have been determined ind presented to the reader, the later discussion may be subdivided iccordingly. ?or example, in a report concerned with the selection >f a particular type of bridge the issues were determined as follows • Which type is best suited to the needs of the. situation? 2. Which ype is advisable from the standpoint of cost? 3* Which type is most cceptable to the public?
These three questions then determined the three chief divisions >f the text proper:
1. Adaptability.
2. Cost.
, J. Acceptability.
The further steps in the development of an argumentative paper teed little discussion. The most important part of the paper, from ;he standpoint of sound argument, is that concerned with facts and vidence. Since everything hinges upon that, the writer must be particularly careful to develop it logically. He must be wary of hasty onclusions. Logic and the laws of scientific procedure are the iaper writer’s guides.
Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.
What is the difference between exposition and argument? !. What is the plan of most thorough arguments?
Which paper places the general decision of the writer at its beginning?
What are the paper writer’s guides?
Exercise 2. Study the following paragragh where argument is ;iven. Memorize the underlined active expressions.
Introduction
Bor better understanding of turbulent flow, numerical integration in time and in three-dimensional space has several promising and distinguishing aspects. Jirst, a detailed integration allows examination of flow patterns which produce the turbulence statistics after sufficient time has elapsed since initial conditions were im->osed. Phase information is retained so that typical flow structures ^eluding tilts and elongations of eddies may be studied. Secondly.
except for effects of motions on scales too small and too large to* resolve, the calculated motions are treated rigorously. The assumptions which are required because of the two scale effects become less crucial as computer speed and storage Capacity increase* Third, these assumptions can be expressed very simply thereby enabling a large number of investigators to understand them and to introduce their own improvements, Уinally, complications such as those introduced by unusual boundary conditions or by the presence of additional forces are easily incorporated into the numerical model.
5, Summary
A summary is an abridgement of the paper or of significant parts of it, written to save the reader’s time and to simplify the whole subject for him. It may be general condensation of all sections of the paper; it may be an epitome, setting forth only the chief points of significance; or it may be an extended statement of conclusions developed logically from the facts and evidence in the text.
The nature of the summary will depend upon the kind of reader addressed, the purpose of the paper, and the position of the summary in the paper. When placed at the beginning, it is usually an abstract of the whole paper. Placed at the end, it is usually a presentation of conclusions arising from the discussion.
The aim of the abstract (introductory summary) is to present in brief the whole substance of the paper: purpose, scope, method, results, conclusions, Just as the news writer tells the whole story in the opening paragraph, so the paper writer attempts to give his reader an immediate bird’s-eye view of the significant results of his study. For it is with significant results that the reader is chiefly concerned. Though an outline of the methods employed to obtain those results may be required, and must almost always be included, it is the results that are most interesting and most valuable to the average reader. An abstract is the part which is always read, it should carefully state the conclusions and make the inpression most desired upon the reader.
An abstract seldom eliminates the necessity for conclusions (final summary). The conclusion should be more complete than the abstract, more reasoned, and certainly more than * dull restatement of points already well fixed in the reader’s mind. Whereas the abstract is a simple statement of generalisations, without proof, the conclusion is dependent for its proof upon the facts set forth in
he paper. It points back to those facts, and reasons from them to ts conclusions.
The term "recommendations" is often confused with the term 'conclusions". It shoul be noted, however, that conclusions are im->ortant generalizations. Recommendations, on the other hand, are uggestions for improvement growing out of these generalizations, onclusions state that something was, is, or will be true. Reco rumen-.ations point toward action; they point to a need for definite im-rovements and advances.
Exercise 1. Answer the following questions. . What is a summary? . What does the nature of the summary depend on? . What is the aim of the abstract? . How should conclusions be written? . What is the difference between conclusions and recommendations?
Exercise 2. Study carefully how the following abstract and contusion (introductory and final summaries) are written. Memorize the iderlined active expressions.
Abstract
Mathematical models which can predict the local values of the pendent variables at typical gas turbine operating conditions, can eatly facilitate the arduous initial stages of combustor design, rthermore, analysis of practical combustors including performance aracteristics, evaluation of critical parameters involved, diag-stic tests and consequent remedies, is now possible via such models.
The paper presents profiles of hydrodynamic and thermodynamic tterns in a three dimensional research combustor obtained by means a well-established numerical prediction algorithm. The prevaling stribution of the dependent variables in the steady turbulent, ^mically reacting environment considered, is achieved by solving  governing differential transport equations. The pertinent featu-of turbulence are simulated via models incorporating the distri-;ion of kinetic energy of turbulence and its dissipation rate. ?ay combustion is computed from the droplet trajectories and com-ition is computed from the droplet trajectories and evaporation yield concentrations of the discrete size groups of droplets. tmical reaction is assumed tn prne.AAd in two distinct steps, there-enabling local concentrations of CO, C02, 02, N2, H20 and fuel
to be evaluated. Predictions have also been obtained for the case • of a diffusion flame with both pre-mixed, pre-vaporized 1 and spray fuel. It is shown that a 2-dimensional model can be used in the immediate vicinity of the fuel,nozzle.
Complementary to the above algorithm, a procedure has been formulated in terms of interconnected stirred and plug-flow reactors to handle realistic chemical kinetics, unmixedness and evaporation. This presently considers "13 species undergoing 18 reactions to model the combustion of a typical aviation fuel like kerosene. Concentrations of minor constituents of combustion are predicted with a view to study in detail pollutant-formation mechanisms.
Attention is drawn to some of the current difficulties in these modelling procedures; nevertheless, in spite of the inherent mathematical and physical assumptions involved, predictions from both sections of the study rexnal. remarkedly good agreement with experiments .
Conclusions
1.	The problem of mathematically modelling gas turbine combustion systems has been approached by a combination of three-dimensional finite difference and stirred reactor network methods, both incorporating spray processes and kinetic schemes.
2.	The finite difference model predicts the flow and turbulence field and provides the data for setting up the stirred reactor ahetwork. It predicts design features of the combustor such as temperature profiles and relates these to the geometry.
3.	The stirred reactor network model incorporates unmixedness and fuel evaporation and predicts the combustion efficiency and pollutant production.
4.	Experiments so far carried out have indicated that the flow profiles, fuel evaporation and chemical species (CO, NO etc.) can be successfully predicted.
5* Eurther work is needed to experimentally verify the methods over a wider range of combustors and operating conditions, and also to develop improved mathematical techniques.
6. This study presents a phase of progress in a complex but rapidly evolving subject.
Exercise 3. Read the following passage and prove that different basic types of writing are used in the first and second paragraphs. Memorize the underlined active expressions.
Introduction
Угаепке! (1962. 1963) has shown that a certain set of Jeffery-Hamel (henceforth J.-H.) profiles, which are exact solutions for viscous, incompressible, steady, radial flow in a wedge-shaped channel, are good approximations to the profiles in certain symmetric, divergent channels with small wall-curvature. If L, half the local divergence angle of the channel, varies smoothly and sufficiently slowly'in a certain range containing L = 0, then the approximate solution appropriate to the local L and a given Reynolds number R is uniquely determined from the infinite set of J.-H. solutions by the requirement that the stream function should be analytic as a function of L. In this paper we consider the stability of a certain family of such flows, including some profiles with reversed flow near the walls.
In § 2 the validity of the Orr-Sommerfeld equation is dis-cussed for wedge-shaped channels and the problem selected for computation described. In § 3 the method of computation is briefly described and its accuracy estimated. In §4 the main results are presented. Reutral stability curves in the (R, k)-planes are given and very low values of the critical Reynolds number are found, in comparison with the critical values for parallel flow. More unexpectedly, the result was obtained that, on the lower branches of the neutral stability curves for these profiles with regions of reversed flow near the walls, the eigensolution of the Orr-Sommerfeld equation remains viscous as R tends to infinity, in the sense that kR tends to a finite limit. Moreover, on these lower branches the wave speed becomes negative, and substantially less than the minimum value of the basic velocity. These Surprising results are further discussed in 5* In § 6 a comparison of the stability calculations is made with some experimental results of Patterson (1934, 1935) and the conclusion reached that most of the avalailable evidence is consistent with the present calculations, but that more experiments are needed to make a proper comparison.
CHAPTER Ill
Working for Effective Paragraphs
The paragraph is so important as a unit of. the paper that a great deal of the general effectiveness is dependent upon its construction. One must remember that a paragraph is more than an arrangement for providing breathing space, though this function is also important. The paragraph covers definite ground, builds up a single important (controlling) idea by a series of related sentences, and has a necessary purpose in the development of the whole paper. Good paragraphing demands more than haphazard subdividing. * In fact,'paragraphing is a signal to the reader that a new step in the development of the subject has been reached.
1.	Topic Sentence
The paragraph supposedly grows out of its topic sentence. It is this sentence that tells the reader what the paragraph ought to be about. The topic sentence is the author’s most general statement. 'It controls or limits which ideas and information the author will include in the text, as well as the selection of rhetorical devices. Frequently more than one sentence is used to clarify the controlling idea. It does not always control just one paragraph but the content of a long series of paragraphs.
The topic sentence is usually the opening sentence of the paragraph. The reader of a paper often skips. His eye normally hits the first part of each section, the first sentences of many paragraphs. If important matter is hidden away in the middle of paragraphs, the hasty reader will miss it. The first sentence of a paragraph, therefore, should either indicate the exact subject of the paragraph, summarize its contents, or be clearly preparatory to the^ statements that are to follow.
. tt should be remembered that a paragraph cannot be regarded as Satisfactory unless all the sentences within the paragraph are arranged in a clear and logical order. Each .sentence must lead to the following one and all must be linked up. A smooth flow of sen-tencds within the paragraph can be achieved by certain lexical and grammatical means.
2.	Lexical Means of Connection Within the Paragraph
The amalgamation of sentences within the paragraph can be achieved:
Г-ПЧО
a)	by repeating some key words in successive sentences. lor example: The sensitivity of any gravitational-radiation detector would be proportional to both its mass and its size. The largest solid mass available for use as a detector is the earth itself;
b)	by using synonyms in successive sentences. lor example: Behind the shock front is . a region where the stress decreases rapidly from its peak value. This part of the pulse is called the rarefaction front;
c)	by using a pronoun to refer to a word in the previous sentence. for example: Graph is the picture of mathematical equation. It is a method of showing on squared paper the changes in value of an expression containing unknown quantities;
d)	by using words with the same root, for example: Contrary to popular opinion, physics is usually not a very exact science. A physicist is often quite pleased with himself if he measures some property of matter to an accuracy of within a few percent and finds that his measurement agrees with a theoretical prediction:
e)	by using words or word-combinations belonging to the same thematic series, for example: The question of how the ion tails are made was long a mystery and has been solved only in the era of space exploration. Space probes have sent back data showing that the sun continuously ejects a million tons of gas per second;
f)	by using pro-words "one", "that" ("those"), "do", and mutually correlated pro-words "former ... latter", for example: About 100 comets of the 600 so far observed move in orbits with periods of less than 200 years. All of those with periods of less than 30 years move around the sun in the same direction as planets.
3.	Grammatical Means of Connection Within the Paragraph
The sentences within the paragraph can also be linked together with the help of transitional words and phrases (conjunctions and conjunctional phrases):
a)	addition: and, and then, and thus, and now, and yet, again, also then, moreover, likewise, similarly, further, furthermore, besides, in addition, in addition to, in a similar way, more than that;
b)	contrast: but, but then, but even, however, nevertheless, conversely, reversely, yet, on the one hand, on the other hand, on the contrary, still, in spite of, in contrast, with, contrary to;
Ь)	consequence: hence, thus, therefore, so, consequently, in any case, as a result, because, in short;
d)	cause: for that reason, this is the reason why, this is why; e) clarification: evidently, in fact, in other words, of course;
f)	summary: in conclusion, in summary, in short, to sum up, to summarize, in brief, in sum, on the whole, to conclude;
g)	enumeration: first, second, firstly, secondly, in the first place, to begin with, in the second place, lastly, the latter, the former;
h)	generalization: in general, on the whole,- as a rule, as usual, usually, normally, generally;
i)	illustration: for example, thus for example, for instance, to illustrate this, as an illustration;
J) explanation: as for, as to, as regards, in respect of (to), with regard to, with respect to, concerning, in relation to;
k)	repetition: in other words, stated another way, to be more precise, otherwise, stated, to put it another way, that is;
1)	comparison: in comparison with, as compared with;
m)	result: as a result;
n) degrees of probability: perhaps, maybe, possibly, probably, anyhow, anyway, indeed, certainly, surely, doubtless
4,	Transitional Devices Between Paragraphs
a)	The smooth flow of ideas between paragraphs is often achieved by using the same grammatical means which play an important role in linking sentences within the paragraph. Usually they stand at the head of the paragraph and signal to the reader how the ideas are developed (generalization, deduction, consequence, enumeration, amplification).
b)	But the succeeding paragraph may also turn to an entirely new thought, relevant to, but not consequent on, the preceding one. Thus, there exists the second kind of relation among paragraphs -that which exists between any one paragrapg and the entire piece of writing in which it appears. Not all paragraphs need be labelled to show their exact position in the structure of the whole, but at certain kinds of critical points, special connecting elements can be helpful, for example:

One more point should be mentioned in connection with the problem in question.
One more set of postulates should be commented on*
Another feature of spectrograms must be briefly described*
One crucial aspect of this definition of information can be made clear.
Two more aspects of categorization must be touched upon.
A few words can be added here on another electromagnetic change.
Now a few comments to show how this is actually done*
Attention^should first of all be drawn to the topological aspect of the problem*
Now a few words of comment are obviously called for.
There is one more category to be introduced before we go any further,
One or two points remain to be proved.
These statements will now be discussed in turn.
We make the following assertions.
This is an important step in our argument.
We are now in position to evaluate the expansion.
The following verbs and expressions are often used in connecting sentences whose function consists in effecting transition from one relatively complete part of the text to another: begin (with), start (with), turn (to), return (to), go (to), go back (to), come (to), go on, continue (with), get away (from), pass (from), proceed, approach. Nor example:
We may start with ...
We shall begin this chapter by giving ...
We shall now go back and say a few words about ...
We thus come to ...
We shall now proceed to explain ...
We shall now turn to ...
Linking sentences with the verbs of "acquiring and passing on” knowledge also serve as boundary-signals between different paragraphs and, at the same time, bring them together. Here is a list of such verbs: show, demonstrate, present, point out, give, introduce, compare, illustrate, exemplify, discuss, interpret, explain, clarify, characterise, define, formulate, sum up, mention, describe, introduce, analyze, add, repeat, concentrate,
deal, dwell, take look, list; see, observe, notice, find, understand, realize, assume. Рог example:
We ought therefore to mention this device ...
We primarily need to explain the models ... We may demonstrate one of these methods •.• We would now like to sum up the main points made above. We may illustrate the method by an analysis of ... If we compare ... we may observe ...
Before we go on to ... more will have to be said about ... Before discussing some other results ... we should recall that •••
Some other expressions are also used in this function: take into consideration, take a look (at), take an example, give an example, give some instances, afford more examples, serve as an example, have a glance (at), cast a glance (at), draw a distinct line, call attention (to), draw attention (to), restrict attention (to), lay stress (on), say a few words, make a few remarks, give reasons, give some account of. For example:
We shall not restrict this study to ...
We must also take in consideration,the difference between ... I will give a couple of examples ...
/ We should also like to say a few words ... We shall now draw attention to •. •
! We shall begin with a discussion of ...
‘ from what has been said above we can conclude that transitional devices are writting tools which are used to put the finishing / touches on a writer's material. They do more than just give the writing a little more polish, however. When they are used carefully, they provide a network of signals available to the reader, and they enable him to go through the material with more ease, more efficiency, greater understanding,, and surely a greater awareness of how the material is held together - an awareness of the relatedness of things.
5.	Some Guidelines for Building Effective Paragraphs
1.	Be sure to construct paragraphs according to their waning.
2.	Begin a new paragraph whenr a new step in the development of the subject has been reached.
3.	Use the beginning and ending of paragraphs to express the most , inportant points.
s- нчо
4.	Begin each paragraph either with a sentence that suggests the topic or with a sentence that helps the transition of the main idea.
5.	Make your topic sentence clear. If it is implied rather than stated, leave no doubt as to its precise meaning.
6.	Take care to make transitions within and between paragraphs smooth.
7.	Avoid making paragraphs 200 to JOO words in length. Keep them short, but do not limit them to single sentences, except for transition paragraphs between larger units of material.
8.	A preferred length of the paragraph in scientific papers, although this well obviously vary with subject matter and purpose of the paper, is 75*200 words. Thus, the paragraph should not exceed 7-8 sentences. On the other hand, paragraphs of less than 3-4 sentences are also rare except in conclusions and transition paragraphs between larger units of material.
Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.
1. What is the paragraphs?
2. What is the topic sentence?
J. How should the writer use the beginning and ending of paragraphs?
4. How can a smooth flow of sentences within the paragraph be \ achieved?
J. What lexical means of connecting sentences within the parag- . raph do you know?
6. What are the grammatical means of connection of sentences?
7* What is the role of transitional devices between paragraphs?
8.	What is an average length of the paragraph in scientific papers?
9* How can one show the exact position of a paragraph in the structure of the whole?
10.	What special connecting elements can be helpful?
11.	Will you enumerate the expressions used in connecting sentences whose function consists effecting transition from one relatively complete part of the text to another?
Exercise 2. Head the paragraph. Study all the lexical and grammatical means of connection of the sentences within the paragraph.
Three regimes of liquid flow over a body are defined, namely:’ a) noncavitating flow; b) cavitating flow with a relatively small number of cavitation bubbles in the field of flow; and c) cavitating flow with a single large cavity about the body. The assumption is made that, for the second regime of flow, the pressure coefficient in the flow field is no different from that in the noncavitating flow. On this basis, the equation of motion for the growth and collapse of a cavitation bubble containing vapor is derived and applied to experimental observations on such bubbles. The limitations of this equation of motion are pointed out, and include the effect of the finite rate of evaporation and condensation, and compressibility of vapor and liquid. A brief discussion of the role of "nuclei” in the liquid in the rate of formation of cavitation bubbles is also given.
Sxercise j. Complete the following sentences and memorize the active expressions.
We now turn to the problem of ...
To discuss these flows we adopt the following notation •.. It turns out that ..•
In Part II we shall develop this idea in detail by introducing ...
To sum up: •. •
Similarly for the functions of type 2 we find ...
This can be seen quite easily by considering a neighbourhood .. •
As has already been noted •••
This completes our description of ... For the sake of simplicity and brevity ... It is sufficient to consider only ...
Let us now suppose that •.• It is evident that ...
One can criticize these solutions on the following mathematical grounds • • •
Our conclusions remain valid if ...
We cannot say without detailed study ...
With regard to the remainder of statements (5) to (6) we observe ...
It was mentioned in § 1 that a major difficulty ...
We may conjecture by analogy that ...
It also follows from differential equation that ...
It is easily verified that •..
In order to carry out the integration of System III we assume that • •.
for this reason we can conclude that ..•
Bxaming the Blasius solution we note that . ..
Our starting point is (8.2) which we write in the following form • • •
for the purpose of our development, it will be sufficient to determine ...
By Cauchy’s theorem we know that the value of the integral will remain unchanged if ...
This point of view suggests the condition that ...
We begin by formulating the exact problem of steady, laminar, incompressible flow in ...
Before proceeding with the discussion of backflow we shall compare our results with ...
It is clear that it is no simple matter to find ...
Exercise 4. Read the following paragraph, find the key words and lexical means of connection of the sentences within the paragraph.
Abstract
A gas-solids contacting method has been developed which offers broad opportunities for improving reaction, separation, and filtration processes. This technology centers on a magnetically stabilized fluid bed (MSB) in which bubbles and turbulence normally found in conventional fluidized beds are completely eliminated. A suitable magnetic field is imposed on a gas-solids fluidized bed, in which the solids have a magnetic component as well as other desired characteristics such as catalytic properties. The stabilized behavior of thQ bed as predicted from magnetic hydrodynamic analysis is confirmed by experiment. This stabilized fluid bed combines highly desirable features of both conventional fluid bed and fixed bed contactors while avoiding some of the inherent shortcomings of these systems. Specific applications of this technology are described for particulate removal from gases, naphtha reforming, and an adsorption process for separating normal from iso-paraffins.
CHAPTER IV
Building Active Vocabulary %
The aim of this chapter is to provide the reader with the active vocabulary typical of the main structural parts of scientific papers.
Introduction
Formulating the Aim of the Research
а)	цель - aim, purpose; задача - task; исследование - research; статья - paper, article; задача (проблема) - problem;
b)	ОСНОВНОЙ - main, primary, principal, chief;
с)	изучать - study; исследовать (всесторонне) - investigate; анализировать - analyze; рассматривать consider; обсуждать -discuss; описывать - describe; описывать (кратко, в общих чертах) - outline; получать - obtain; определять - determine; находить - find; устанавливать - establish; вычислять - cal- ч culate; производить численный расчет (с помощью ЭВМ) - compute; оценивать (приблизительно) - estimate; оценивать (величину) -evaluate; разрабатывать - develop; проектировать - design; сооружать - construct; собирать (прибор) - assemble; решать (уравнение) - solve; проводить (эксперимент) - make, carry out, perform; измерять - measure; взвешивать - weigh; быть посвященным (проблеме)- be concerned with, be devoted to, deal with;
d)	тщательно - accurately; внимательно- carefully; детально - in detail; подробно-thoroughly .
Exercise i. Cover up the right-hand side of the exercise and
translate the sentences into English; then check your translations in the right-hand side.
I. Настоящая статья посвящена вопросу приложения метода конечных элементов при решении широкого круга задач динамики жид-
The present paper is concerned with the application of the concept of finite elements to the solution of a wide range of problems in fluid dynamics.
кости.
2.Цель настоящей статьи заключается в том, чтобы познакомить читателя с основными принципами ко-* дарования и программирования.
(Luufi
The purpose of the present paper is to introduce the readers to the fundamental principles of ending and programming.
3.	Основная цель работы состоит в том, чтобы собрать новые данные для объяснения этого странного космического явления.
4.	Книга посвящена основным проблемам гидродинамики магнитных жидкостей, кото-pie имеют боль'* ; теоретическое и практическое значение в современной технике.
5.	Это исследование было проведено для того, чтобы установить, является ли Юпитер источником возникновения мощных радиопомех.
6.	Определение (оценка) константы проводилось по графику, рассчитанному с помощью ЭВМ.
7.	В настоящей статье мы рассматриваем течения, которые описываются более сложными трехмерными уравнениями Навье-Стокса.,
8.	Для упрощения изложения были введены схемы и диаграммы.
9.	Основная цель этой статьи состоит в том, чтобы проверить этот подход для лабораторной турбулентности: потока жидкости в канале, приводимого в движение равномерным градиентом давления.
10	.Результаты, приведенные в таблице II, имеют своей целью показать значение скорости возмущения.
The main aim of the study is to collect some new data for providing explanation for this strange space phenomenon.
The book deals with the basic problems of hydrodynamics of magnetic fluids which have great theoretical and practical significance in the present-day techno-logy.
The research was intended to establish if Jupiter was a source of radio noise storms.
The constants were estimated by means of computor-calculated graphs.
In the present article we consider flows described by the more complicated three-dimensional Navier-Stokes equations.
Diagrams and schemes were introduced to simplify the discussion.
The main purpose of the paper is to test this approach upon an interesting case of laboratory turbulence: channel flow driven by a uniform pressure gradient.
I I
The results given in Table II are intended to indicate the magnitude of the perturbation velocity.
Discussing the Characteristic features of the Problem *
а)	черта - features особенность- peculiarity;свойство - property; характеристика - characteristic; компонент - component; часть -part;
Ъ)	главный - most important, basic, essential; примечательный -di g-h-i ngiii abedt remarkable, notable характерный — specific, characteristic;исключительный - unique, peculiar;
с)	характеризоваться - be characterized by; быть характерным для -be characteristic of; быть ТИПИЧНЫМ ДЛЯ - be typical of;
включать - include; состоять из - c* isist of, содержать - contain; заключаться в том, чтобы - consist in;
d)	устранять - eliminate (error, deffeet, oscillation, fluctuation); уменьшать - diminish, reduce, minimize (friction, temperature, voltage); устранять - remove (obstacle, barrier, effect);
избегать - avoid (use, error, difficulty); создавать - create (theory, charged particles); давать, обеспечивать - provide (evidence, an estimate of, a basis for); производить, давать -produce (an effect on, a change in, energy, voltage); порождать -generate (force, energy); приносить, давать - yield (results, precision).
Bxercise 2. Cover up the right-hand side of the exercise and translate the sentences into English; then check your translation in the right-hand side.
I.	Термин программирование обычно включает в себя как общее планирование использования ЭВМ для решения конкретной задачи, так и написание отдельных списков команд.
2.	Этот процесс имеет следующие характерные особенности.
3.	Новый прибор, в котором используется усовершенствованная электронная система, характеризуется очень высокой чувствительностью.
The term programming usually includes the overall planning of the use of the computer for a particular problem as well as the writing of the instruction lists.
The process has (shows, exhibits) the following characteristic peculiarities.
A new device which uses an improved electronic system is charac terized by very high sensitivity.
4.	Описан метод, позволяющий получить высокую точность измерений.
5.	Приводятся метода получения синтетических волокон.
6.	Первый момент, на который следует обратить внимание, это то, что данная химическая реакция типична только для очень высоких температур.
7.	В этой статье описаны новые метода создания заряженных частиц.
8.	В эту систему входит специальная аэродинамическая труба и вакуумные насосы%
9.	Разработан новый метод получения сигналов высокой частоты.
10.	Другой подход заключается в наблюдении поверхности кристаллов.
A method, is described which yields high precision measurements .
Methods for producing synthetic fibres are presented.
The first point to notice is that this chemical reaction is typical only of very high temperatures.
The paper describes new methods of creating charged particles.
The system includes a special type of wind tunnel and vacuum pumps.
A new method has been developed to produce impulses of high frequency.
Another approach consists in observing crystal surface.
Bxercise 3. Translate the following sentences into Russian. Memorize the underlined active expressions typical of- introduction of scientific papers.
1.	It is the purpose of this paper to give the exact solution and a numerical discussion of the thermal distribution for the Jeffery-Hamel flow. 
2.	One problem considered, in this paper is the numerical solution of the Havier-Stokes equations.
3.	The other problem considered in this paper is that of circulation flow in a rectangular channel.
4.	The problems that have arisen in numerous applications .of this method over the last several years have forced the present authors to confront some of these issues.
5* The writing of the present paper was undertaken with the goal of making a wider audience aware of some alternatives that may prove useful.
6. The approach adopted in writing thia paper assumes that the reader has an intimate familiarity with Patakar’s writings.
7» Many problems of practical interest require the numerical simulation of two-or-three-dimensional, elliptic, incompressible fluid flows, and numerical methods of treating such problems . have evolved rapidly over the last two decades.
8.	A clear and detailed description of thia method, together with the improvements that have evolved since 1972, has been provided . by Smith.
9.	As with any other algorithm, the application of this method is not without its difficulties and questions.
10.	Although this paper is focused on SIMELE-like methods, some of the ideas advanced may be fruitfully adopted in methods that are quite different from SIMPLE.
11.	Problems of this type have been solved by a number of authors by using finite-difference techniques.
12.	The numerical solution of the Eavier-Stokes equations for problems with a free boundary is complicated by the need to trace accurately the path in time of the free surface.
13-	When formualted in this way, the free surface problem takas a ery elegant and concise form.
Exercise 4» Head the following passage. . Memorize the underlined active expressions.
Pinite-Element Analogue of Eavier-Stokes Equation by J.Finsley Oden
Introduction
Applications of numerical techniques to problems of unsteady fluid flow have long been looked upon as the only means"for obtaining quantitative solutions to problems involving complex geometries and boundary conditions. A great deal of literature exists on discrete models of fluid flow obtained by using finite difference approximations of the governing differential equations. Models of linear problems based on the finite-element concept have only recently appeared in the literature, but these exhibit~many advantages over conventional methods~f discretation due to the simplicity with which boundary conditions can be applied and the ease with which complex and multiplyconnected domains can be approximated.
Applications of the finite' element method to a restricted
class of problems in potential flow and. the flow of viscous incompressible fluids have recently been presented. (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)» These have either required, the availability of an associated, variational principle or have considered, incompressible flow under prescribed pressure fields or compressible flow in which the continuity equation is implicitly satisfied and the fluid density is known as,a function of time. As such, they do not represent completely general models of general fluid flow or of the Navier-Stokes equations . It is the purpose herein to present brief derivations of the finite element equations describing a discrete model of compressible and incompressible Stokesian fluids. The ideas presented represent extensions and elaborations of a similar procedure described elsewhere.
2.	Methods and Materials Describing Method, Equipment and Conditions of Experiments
а)	метод, способ - method; методика, техника проведения опыта -technique;Процедура, метод - procedure; ПОДХОД - approach; способ - way; небольшой прибор - device; измерительный прибор -instrument; оборудование - equipment; аппаратура - apparatus; блок установки - unit; оборудование (все, что облегчает работу) - facility; установка - set up; сооружение - construction; конструкция - design; инструмент, приспособление - tool; установка (большая) - installation;
Ъ)	общий - general;дополнительный - additional; современный -current, up-to-date; общепринятый - conventional, usual; нестандартный - unconventional; ценный - valuable; удобный -convenient; удовлетворительный- satisfactory; соответствующий -appropriate; надежный - reliable;неточный- crude; прямой -straightforward, direct; косвенный - indirect; тщательно разработанный - elaborate; эффективный - effective; строгий -rigorous; ЭКОНОМИЧНЫЙ - efficient; дорогой - expensive; недорогой - inexpensive; разносторонний - versatile; применимый к данному случаю - valid; отвечающий требованиям, пригодный -adequate; перспективный - perspective; многообещающий -promising; противоположный - alternative; усовершенствованный -improved; видоизмененный - modified;
с)	давать возможность - enable, permit, allow; делать возможным -make it possible;ПОЗВОЛЯТЬ - be capable of;
d)	under the influence (action) of; under certain conditions (circumstances); under irradiation; under illumination; under load; under control; in the presence (absence) of; in vacuum; in (with) some approximation; in the range of; within the range of; within the range from • •• to • ••; at the temperature of;
at the pressure of; at the voltage of; at the energy of; at the concentration of; at the frequency of; at the speed of; at the wavelength of; at the angle of; at the point of; at the altitude of.
Bxercise 5. Cover up the right-hand side of the exercise and translate the sentences into English; then check your translations in the right-hand side.
I. Если условия будут благоприятными, № сможем применить этот метод на практике.
2.Задачу эксперимента нужно определить более точно.
3. У нас не будет возможности увидеть это оборудование снова.
у4. Выполнение этих расчетов может оказаться очень S длительной про-
роятно, что этот кется успешным ия многих задач намике.
начала необходи-ть, что метод не летворительных ов для решения язанных со сверхполетами.
м этапе програм-используется процедура для граммы в память ЭВМ.
If conditions are favourable we shall be able to apply this method in practice.
The task of the experiment should be defined more precisely.
We shall have no chance of seeing this equipment again.
Making these calculations may prove to be a very difficult and time-consuming procedure.
It is not unlikely that this method will be successful for the solution of many problems in hydrodynamics.
It should be noted from the outset that this technique fails to give satisfactory results for the solution of the problems connected with supersonic flights.
In the third stage of programming some procedure is used to get the code into the memory of the computer.
8.	Метод, разработанный в нашей лаборатории, позволяет уменьшить трение и устранить флуктуацию.
9.	Простота конструкции делает этот усилитель пригодным для наших опытов.
10.	Необходимо указать на то, что устройство надежно в работе.
The method developed in our laboratory enables us to reduce friction and eliminate fluctuation.
The simplicity of construction makes the amplifier a valuable tool for our experiments.
It is necessary to point out that the device is reliable in operation.
Bxercise 6. Translate the following abstract into Huss ian. Memorize the underlined active expressions typical of the description of mathematical methods.
Finite-Hlement Method for Time-Dependent Incompressible free Surface flow
O.S.Jrederiksen and A.M.Watts
University, St .Lucia, 4067, Queensland, Australia
. Abstract	/
We present a finite-element method for time-dependent incom-/ pressible free surface fluid flow problems described by the Navier-Stokes equations. The elements chosen have dimensions in both / space and time, and the resulting system of equations is block- / tridiagonal and lends itself to solution by standard techniques? In the present article we restrict our attention to two-dimensional problems although three-dimensional problems may be solved /by a straightforward generalization. The /method is essentially an implicit time stepping technique and therefore stable even top relatively large time steps. With this choice of elements, the method is completely adaptive to the changing nature of the /kolvt-tion. An iterative procedure is used to find the position of the free surfaces this procedure is found to be"rapidly convergent determining accurately the shape of the free surface withiJ a few iterations. Numerical results are given for the problen of entrainment of fluid by a vertically moving plate, which i/as ap-plications to the chemical engineering problems of the free coating of metals. We also consider the problem of circulation flow in a rectangular channel.
'$• Results
Obtaining Results
а)	результат - result; результаты, геологические и археологические находки - findings; данные - data;QaKT - fact;доказательства -evidence;точка зрения - viewpoint; мнение- opinion;допущение -assumption;предположение - supposition; представление, идея -idea; правильность - correctness;справедливость - validity;
b)	предварительный - preliminary; окончательный - final; хороший -good, excellent;убедительный - convincing; точный - exact; аккуратный, верный - accurate удовлетворительный - satisfactory противоречивый - contradictoryпредыдущий - previous, early;всеобъемлющий - complete;
с)	получать - obtain; давать - give, present, provide; сообщать -report;проверять - verify, check, test; обрабатывать - treat; собирать - collect;суммировать - sum up, summarize; искать -search for;находить - find;распространяться на - extend to; доказывать - prove;подтверждать - confirm; поддерживать -support;говорить в пользу - favour;показывать - show, indicate, demonstrate противоречить - contradict.
Exercise 7. Cover up the right-hand side of the exercise and translate the sentences into English; then check your translations in the right-hand side.
I.	Полученные точные результаты убедительно доказывают справедливость рассматриваемой теории.
2.	На основе спектроскопического анализа представлены новые убедительные данные, касающиеся структуры новых композитов.
3.	Мы проверили предварительные результаты методом Блэка (на основании метода Блэка).
4.	Окончательные результаты работы прибора, построенного по этому принципу, даны в таблице I.
The accurate results obtained give strong evidence for (of) the validity of the theory under consideration (in question).
New convincing data on (concerning) the structure of new composite materials are presented on the basis of their spectroscopic analysis.
We verified the preliminary results, using (on the basis of, according to) Black’s method.
The final results of device’s performance based on this principle are given (presented, plotted) in Table I.
5. По утверждению профессора Диксона, результаты вычислений оказались очень важными для объяснения происхождения солнечной системы.
6.Результаты, которые я хочу здесь представить, еще нигде не были опубликованы.
7.	Из наших предыдущих результатов нельзя сделать вывод о течении в этой части канала.
8.	Эти результаты, видимо, противоречат нашему предыдущему предположению.
9.	Эти данные позволяют определить окончательные результаты опыта.
10.Все результаты нашего теста составляют довольно большую таблицу, которую мы здесь приводить не будем.
According to Professor Dickson the results of the calculations have proved (turned out, happened) to be very important for the explanation of the origin of the solar system. The data which I want to present here have not yet been published anywhere.
Prom our earlier results no conclusion could be drawn about the flow in this portion of the channel.
The findings seem (appear) to contradict our previous supposition.
These data enable us to calculate final results of the experiment.
The complete results of our test make up a table of some magnitude, which will not be reproduced here.
Showing Agreement and Discrepancy
а)	соответствие - agreement; соотношение - correlation;совпадение - fit; соответствие, согласие - match;
b)	хороший - close, good; достаточный - reasonable; достаточно хороший - fairly good; плохой, недостаточный - poor; полный -complete, full;
с)	расхождение - discrepancy; расхождение в мнениях - disagreement;
d)	большой, разительный - great, striking; небольшой, некоторый -slight, certain, some;
e)	соответствовать - agree with; находиться в соответствии - be in agreement with; давать соответствие - give agreement with; обнаруживать соответствие - find agreement with; не соответствовать — be in disagreement with; расходиться — show disagreement with; совпадать - fit; подходить, годиться - be fit,
Bxercise 8, Cover up the right-hand side of the exercise and translate the sentences into English; then check your translations in the right-hand side.
I.	Для этой задачи есть надежные экспериментальные результаты, и наши решения находятся с ними в достаточно хорошем соответствии.
2.	Есть полное соответствие между полученными результа-ми и предыдущими данными.
3.	Результаты, полученные в нашей лаборатории, достаточно хорошо согласуются с теоретическими предсказаниями.
4.	Вычисленные значения определяемой функции хорошо согласуются со значениями, полученными экспериментально .
5.	Этот метод дает хорошев совпадение теоретических данных и экспериментальных значений.
6.	Теоретические и экспериментальные результаты исследования в этом случае в общем совпадают.
7.	Ни один из этих методов не подходит для генерации электронов с высокой скоростью.
8.	Мы обнаружили, что максимум обеих кривых можно совместить.
9.	Экспериментальные точки хорошо ложатся на прямую в данных координатах.
10	.Эти кривые обычно не описываются общепринятыми
There exist reliable experimental results for this problem and our solutions are in good agreement with these.
There is a full agreement (correlation) between the results obtained and the previous data. The results obtained in our lab show fairly good agreement with theoretical predictions.
The calculated values of the function agree well with experimentally determined values.
The method provides good fit of theoretical data and experimental values.
The theoretical and experimental results are found to be in.general agreement in this case.
None of these methods are fit for generating high speed electrons.
We have found that the maxima of the two curves can be matched.
The experimental points fit well on the straight line in the given coordinates.
These curves commonly do not fit the standard equations.
уравнениями
Discussing Advantages and Drawbacks
а)	преимущество - advantage; достоинство - merit;
b)	основной - fundamental; главный - main, chief; существенный -essential;важный - important; значительный - marked; очевидный - obvious; ЯВНЫЙ - distinct; некоторый - certain;
с)	недостаток - disadvantage; недочет - drawback, shortcoming; ограничение - limitation; трудность - difficulty;
d)	серьезный - serious; небольшой - slight, some;
e)	иметь - have; страдать - suffer from; накладывать ограничения на- place, put, set, impose limitations (restrictions) on; преодолевать - overcome; уменьшать - reduce; иметь преимущество по сравнению - have (offer) advantage over-
Exercise 9. Cover up the right-hand side of the exercise and translate the sentences into English; then check your translation in the right-hand side.
I.	К сожалению, метод, разработанный в нашем институте, имеет два недостатка.
2.	Факторы, которые обсуждались выше, накладывают определенные ограничения на рассматриваемую конструкцию.
3.	Необходимо отметить, что прибор, описанный в предыдущей главе, снимает это ограничение.
4.	Хотя .данное оборудование не вполне свободно от недостатков, оно успешно используется- в ряде экспериментов.
5.	Преимуществом новой конструкции является простота расчетов.
6.	Большое преимущество ново-ч го метода состоит в том,
Unfortunately, the method developed in our institute has (suffers from) two disadvantages• The factors discussed above put (place, set, impose) certain limitations (restrictions) on the design in question.
It must be stressed (emphasized, underlined) that the device described in the previous Chapter reduces this limitation.
Although the facility is not completely free from limitations, it is used in a number of experiments.
The advantage of the new design is the ease of calculation (is that it permits easy calculation). The great advantage of the new method is the fact that it gives
что он дает точные и надежные результаты.
7.	Основной недостаток заключается в невозможности получить эмиссию при температуре ниже 450° С.
8.	Ртуть обладает еще одним преимуществом, поскольку с ней можно легко работать в стеклянных или металлических системах.
9.	Для преодоления этих трудностей был предложен несколько иной подход.
10.Отклонения от линейности характеристик прибора, сконструированного в этом институте, могут быть обусловлены двумя основными причинами.
(provides, yields) accurate and reliable results. The main drawback is the fact * that it is impossible to generate emission at temperatures below 450°C.
Mercury offers an additional advantage of being readily handled in glass or metal systems.
To overcome the difficulties a slightly modified approach was suggested.
The limitations of linear performance of the instrument designed at our institute can be related to two major sources (reasons).
Analyzing errors
а)	ошибка, погрешность - error? источник ошибки - source of error? в пределах погрешности эксперимента - within the experimental error ?
b)	маленький - little? грубый, серьезный - gross, appreciable; вероятный - probable? случайный - random? постоянный - constant; систематический - systematic; д. ;устимый, предельный -permissible, admissible? возможный - possible?
с)	делать, допускать - make? устранять eliminate? уменьшать -reduce? сводить до минимума - minimize? ошибки возникают из-за -errors arise due to (from, as a result of); ошибка вкрадывается -an error is introduced;ошибки связаны с “ errors are due to.
Exercise 10. Cover up the right-hand side of the exercise and translate the sentences into English? then check your translations in the right-hand side.
*
I.	Этот прибор сводит к мини- The device minimizes errors муму ошибки, вызванные тур- caused by turbulent flows, булентностью потока.
2.	Погрешности, вызванные шумом, легко устранимы.
3.	Эта поправка устраняет ошибку в расчетах.
4.	Требуется поправка на температурное расширение.
5.	Были определены влияния возможных источников, ошибок. '
6.	Погрешности могут возникать из-за температурных флуктуаций.
7.	В пределах экспериментальных ошибок сигналы изменяются в соответствии с расчетом.
8.	Была введена поправка на коэффициент объемного расширения. .
9.	Должно бцть, при сборке этой машины были допущены некоторые ошибки.
10.	В пределах ошибок эксперимента наши значения совпадают со значениями, полученными другим методом.
Errors due to^olse are easily reduced.
The correction» eliminates the error of the experiment.
The correction,for thermal expansion is .needed.
The effects of possible sources of error were estimated.
Errors may arise due to temperature fluctuations.
Within the experimental error the signals vary as predicted.
The correction for the volume expansion coefficient was made (performed),.
Some mistakes must have been made in assembling the parts of the machine.
Within the experimental error our values are equal to those obtained by using another method.
4. Discussion
Giving explanation
а)	объяснение - explanation; интерпретация - interpretation;
b)	простой - simple; СЛОЖНЫЙ. - complicated; ПОЛНЫЙ - exhaustive; исчерпывающий - conqplete; соответствующий adequate; убедительный . - convicing; приемлемый - reasonable; удовлетворительный - satisfactory;
с)	объяснять - explain, account for; разъяснять - elucidate; интерпретировать - interprets; давать объяснение - give (provide, offer) an explanation предлагать - suggest, make a suggestion; приписывать, считать причиной - ascribe to; относить за счет - attribute to; связывать с - associate with; соотно-
вить - relate to; обусловливаться - be due tor принимать во внимание - taktinto consideration (account); подтверждать -support, confirm.
Exercise 11. Cover up the left-hand side of the exercise and translate the sentences Into English; then check up your transla-
tions In the left-hand side.
I.	Уравнение решено в перемен- , ных, связанных с траекториями элементов.
2.	Полученные результаты полностью объясняют природу структуры соединения.
3.	Имеющиеся в нашем распоряжении данные были объяснены с помощью этой гипотезы.
4.	Деформацию следует отнести за счет увеличения фактора и.
5.	Выяснена тесная связь между характеристиками этих кривых и особенностями рассматриваемой поверхности.
\6. Лебедеву удалось эксперимен-i тально подтвердить сущест-\ вование давления света.
7у Для того, чтобы провести \ исчерпывающий анализ этих \данных, мы рассмотрим этот вопрос с различных точек зрения.
8. МьПне были уверены, даст ли эта теория объяснение данвдм явлениям.
. 9. Эффект был объяснен только качественно; однако нам не удалось дать количественно!^ объяснения.
10 .Для исчерпывающего объяснения эт\х явлений должны быть учтены многие другие . процессы. \
The equation is solved in variables associated with element trajectories* The results obtained provide an exhaustive interpretation of the structure of the compound. The data we have at our disposal were explained with the help of the hypothesis.
The deformation should be attributed to the Increase of U factor. A close relationship between the characteristics of the curves and the peculiarities of the surface considered is elucidated. Lebedev succeeded in experimentally confirming the existence of light pressure. To make an exhaustive analysis of these data we shall consider the question from several points of view.
We were not sure whether this theory would account for these phenomena.
The effect was explained qualitatively, however we failed to provide a quantitative interpretation, for a complete explanation of the phenomena many other processes have to be taken into account.
Expressing relation, dependence y influence
а)	связь между - relation between ... and; отношение к/мевду-relationship to/be tween; связь с/между - connection with/ between;ycTaH3BjniBaTb связь - establish relation; быть связанным с - be connected (associated) with; быть взаимосвязанным -be interrelated with;возникать в результате - arise from; быть обусловленным - be duel to; вызывать, быть причиной -cause;приводить к - lead to; благодаря- due to;из-за because of;в результате - as a result of; благодаря тому, что -as a result of the fact;
b)	зависимость от - dependence of (on, upon); изменение в зависимости OTS- variation of ... with (change of ... with); зависеть от- depend on (upon); находиться в зависимости от -be dependent on; не зависеть от - be independent of;изменяться (колебаться ) в зависимости от - vary (change) with; определяться - be governed by; В зависимости ОТ - depending on; как функция от - as a function of;
с)	влияние - influence of ... on (effect of ... on)$ .воздействие -action of ... on; влиять - influence; действовать на - act on (upon); воздействовать - affect; оказывать воздействие на produce an effect on.
Exercise 12. Cover up the right-hand side of the exercise and translate the sentences into English; then check your translations in the right-hand side.
I. Для того, чтобы показать We have performed a number of /
связь между параметрами течения (давление, температура, скорость) и механизмом возникновения кавитации, мы провели целый ряд экспериментов.
2. На поведение металлов большое влияние оказывают изменения температуры.
3. Если эта полиатомная молекула присутствует в достаточном количестве, она влияет на характер разряда.
experiments to show the connect tion between, the flow parameter; (pressure, temperature, rate^ and the mechanism of cavitation inception.	/
i The behaviour of metals id greatly affected by the changes in temperature.	j
This polyatorpic molecule, if present in appreciable Amount, affects the character of the discharge.	/
4.	С электронной микроскопией тесно связаны электронная дифракция и рентгеновский микроанализ.
5.	Выяснена тесная связь между характеристиками указанных экспериментальных кривых и особенностями структуры поверхности Ферми.
6.	Все свойства этого вещества, как показывают наши опыты, связаны со строением его ядра.
7.	Наблюдаемая ориентация, по всей вероятности, не может быть отнесена за счет остаточных напряжений в кристалле.
8.	Показано, что сильное резонансное поглощение гиперзвука связано с переходами между возбужденными уровнями триплета.
9.	Атомная связь обусловлена электростатическим взаимодействием противоположно заряженных ионов.
10	.Понижение температуры приводит к резкому возрастанию электропластического эффекта.
Closely allied to electron microscopy are electron diffraction and x-ray microanalysis.
A close relationship between the characteristics of the energy distribution and the structure of the Fermi surface is elucidated.
A whole series of properties as shown by our experiments are associated with the structure of its nucleus.
The observed orientation probab-* ly cannot be related to residual stresses inside the crystal.
It is shown that the strong resonance absorption of hypersound is due to transitions between excited triplet levels.
The ionic bond results from the electrostatic interaction of oppositely charged ions.
A reduction of the temperature causes a sharp increase in the electroplastic effects.
Making comparison
а)	сопоставление - comparison; сравнивать - compare •. • with • • •, make a comparison of • • • with • • •; проводить сравнение между • • И... - give (make) a comparison between ... and • ••;
b)	быть одинаковым- be the same; быть похожим- be similar (analogous) to; быть аналогичным- be identical with;напоминать -resemble;быть другим - be different;, быть отличным от -be different from; отличаться друг от друга - differ;
отличаться от - differ from; отличаться от ... на величину-differ from ... by ... (be different from ... by ...); превосходить - be superior to; уступать - be inferior
Exercise 13* Cover up the left-hand side of the exercise and translate the sentences into English; then check your translations in the left-hand side.
1.	Сравнение результатов часто выполняют с помощью ЭВМ.
2.	Необходимо различать эти два топологических понятия.
3.	Различие месэду профилями скорости и и v только количественное, а не качественное.
4.	Метод, разработанный в нашей лаборатории, немного отличается от применявшегося ранее.
5.	Эта ситуация похожа на случай, встречающийся в теории пограничного слоя.
6.	Возникает вопрос о том, есть ли существенное различие в кинетике реакций, происходящих в конденсированных средах, по сравнению с газовым состоянием.
7.	Необходимо подчеркнуть, что эти два подхода мало отличаются друг от друга.
8.	В отличие от обычного употребления символов в математике, символы в формальных теориях не заменяют собой никаких других объектов.
9.	Еще одна важнейшая отличительная черта формальных теорий состоит в том, что
Comparison of results is often carried out with the aid of computers.
One must distinguish between these two topological concepts (notions).
The distinction between the velocity profiles U and V is a purely mathematical one and of no physical importance.
The method developed in our lab is slightly different from that previously used.
The situation is similar to that occuring in the boundary layer theory.
The question arises whether there is any fundamental difference in the kinetics of reactions occuring in condensed media compared to the gaseous state.
It must be stressed that these two approaches differ slightly.
In contrast to the usual usage of symbols in mathematics, symbols in a formal theory do not stand for any objects.
One further important distinguishing feature of a formal theory is the fact that the system of
предполагаемая логическая система явным образом включается в теорию.
10.Было проведено сравнение между свойствами композитов и характерными чертами их основных составляющих частей.
logic employed is explicitly incorporated into the theory.
A comparison between the properties of composite materials and characteristic features of their major constituents was made.
Exercise 14. Bead the following sentences paying attention to the words expressing time relationship typical of Discussion.
1. Up to this point the special nature of the boundary of the channel has not been used.
2. So far it has been implicitly assumed that R is bounded.
5. Previously, we evaluated this integral on the assumption that x was large and the path of integration was moved to the left to - «М».
4. We will now try to develop a theory in which the backflow is found to occur at some finite point.
5» We are now concerned with obtaining a. solution of System III.
6. The solution was then finally obtained for values of R that are small.
7• Furthermore, in order to insure the occurrence of backflow, we assume that the Reynolds number is large.
8.	First of all all the Reynolds number R must be large for practical purposes.
9.	Secondly, the parameter m should be allowed to take on values which are not necessarily small.
10.	Finally, we give an example of a particular channel, the flow in which will be studied in §8.
5» Conclusions
Making Conclusions
а)	заключение-conclusion; резюме - summary;
b)	общий - general; убедительный - convincing; важный - important; предварительный - preliminary; окончательный - final;
с)приходить к выводу - conclude; делать вывод относительно того, что - make (draw, reach) a conclusion that, come to a conclusion that; приводить к заключению относительно - lead to a conclusion concerning; давать возможность заключить - make it
possible to conclude;
d)	следует отметить, что - it should be noted that; можно утверждать - it may be stated that; необходимо подчеркнуть - it is necessary to stress (emphasize, underline);
e)	таким образом - thus, therefore; следовательно - hence, consequently; в результате - as a recult of;
f)	оказывается -prove, turn out, happen;кажется - seem, appear;
g)	предложение - suggestion; вносить предложение в отношении того, как - sake a suggestion as to how; предлагать- purpose, suggest; рекомендовать - recommend; предлагается что-либо сделать -it is suggested that smth should be done; необходимо сделать что-либо - it is necessary to do smth; быть необходимым - need.
Exercise 15. Cover up the right-hand side of the exercise and translate the sentences into English; then check your translation in the right-hand side#
I.	Мы можем прийти к заключению, что этот метод применим к изучению рядов независимых случайных величин.
2.	На основании полученных результатов приходим к выводу, что все рассматриваемые свойства связаны со строением ядра.
3.	Собранный материал приводит нас к общему выводу относительно влияния термического расширения образцов на пики деформации.
4.	Наше исследование дает воз-, можность заключить, что теоретические и экспериментальные данные в общем совпадают.
5.	Следовательно, нет данных относительно того, как именно ведет себя эта магнитная жидкость в вакууме.
We can conclude that the me-thod is ‘applicable to the investigation of series of independent random variables. From the results obtained it is concluded that all the properties under consideration are associated with nucleus structure. The data collected lead us to a general conclusion concerning the influence of thermal expansion of the samples on the deformation peaks. Our research makes it possible to conclude that the theoretical and experimental results are in general agreement.
Consequently there is no evidence as to the exact behaviour of the magnetic liquid in vacuum.
6.	Эта проблема, кажется, ставится на обсуждение Учего Совета.
7.	Для того, чтобы лучше понять этот процесс, необходимо изучить его более детально.
8.	Автор не показывает, что для повышения точности этой методики необходимы дополнительные исследования.
9	«В настоящее время исследователи рассматривают вопрос применения этого метода к более сложным задачам, например, таким^как трехмерные .
10.	Потребуется много страниц для того, чтобы суммировать результаты этого колоссального труда.
The problem seems to be suggested for the discussion of Scientific council.
To understand the process better it is necessary that a more thorough study of it should be performed.
The author fails to show that additional work is needed to improve the precision of the method.
The researchers are at present looking at the adaptation of this method to more difficult problems, such as, for example, those, involving three dimensions.
To summarize the findings of this tremendous work would require many pages.
Exercise 16. Translate the following sentences into Russian. Memorize the underlined active expressions typical of Conclusions of a scientific paper.
1. It has been confirmed that direct numerical solution of Burgers’ equation is feasible at high Re.
2. This suggests that conclusions about subgrid modelling drawn from Burger’s equation should be reasonable applicable to the Navier-Stokes equations.
5. Detailed study of these effects leads to the conclusion that the simple Smagorinsky subgrid modal is superior to the more complex forms derived from it.
4.	It cannot be concluded without testing that the same result would hold for the Havier-Stokes equations.
5.	The standard Smagorinsky representation proves to be very satis-factory provided that the equation is prefiltered.
6.	This result appears to depend on a shock propagation phenomenon. 7* It seems likely that this method and its variants will continue to enjoy widespread use and to evolve.
8• The contributions of this paper are not intended to be the ’’final word” on this method, but rather to represent a stage in its continuing development.
9» We must conclude therefore that there is some basis difference in the situation here.
10.It is suggested that a more precise measuring instrument should be used.
Finding Application
а)	применение- application; использование- use;
b)	широкий - wide; ограниченный - limited; различный * different; разнообразный - various; современный - modern; новейший -recent; обещающий - promising; возможный - possible; перспективный - perspective;
с)	использовать - use, utilize, employ; применять- apply to; использоваться - find use применяться - have application; использоваться - be applicable to; быть полезным - be useful (of use); ГОДИТЬСЯ - be suitable; быть удобным - be convenient; быть эффектиным - be efficient (helpful); удовлетворять требованиям - be adequate; быть надежным - be reliable; быть справедливым (хорошо обоснованным ) - be valid
.Exercise 17. Cover up the right-hand side of the exercise
and translate the sentences into tions in the right-hand side.
I.	Описанный метод наиболее подходит для вычисления высоких скоростей элементарных частит!.
2.	Полученные формулы справедливы только при определенных условиях.
3.	Описывется прибор, удобный для измерения характеристик летающих объектов.
4.	Метод находит широкое применение при вычислении этих величин в гидродинамике.
English: then check your transla-
The technique described is best suited in evaluating high speeds of elenfentary particles.
The formulas obtained are valid under certain conditions only.
A device is described applicable for measuring characteristics of flying objects.
The method finds wide use in calculating these values in hydrodynamics.
5.	Эта теория применима к широкому кругу задач теоретической механики.
6.	В несколько измененном виде прибор может быть использован при работе с этими новыми материалами.
7.	Методика, описанная выше, особенно эффективна при вычислении этих .параметров.
8.	Интерес к изучению таких материалов объясняется возможностью их применения в космических исследованиях .
9.	Уравнение непрерывности служит для решения разнообразных задач.
10.В статье сообщается только о новейшем использовании этого прибора.
The theory is applicable to a wide range of problems in theoretical mechanics.
With slight modifications the device can be used when working with the new materials.
The technique described above is most efficient in calculating these parameters.
Interest in the study of such materials is. due to the possibilities of their application in space research.
The continuity equation serves to solve various problems.
Only recent applications of the apparatus are reported in the paper.
Exercise 18. Translate the following Conclusions into Russian. Memorize the underlined active expressions.
Conclusions
It is confirmed that numerical simulation of the three-dimensional turbulent recirculating flow in a ventilated room by means of k -8 model corresponds well to experimental results.
There still remain several problems in numerical simulation, such as the boundary conditions of inflow and others; more study must be conducted to clarify these problems.
Conclusions
A number of modifications to the application of SIMPLE and its variants have been recommended in this paper, including
The E-factor formulation
The SIMPLEC approximation
Treatment of p* where velocity boundary conditions are specified and where pressure is specified
Convergence criterion for the p’ equation
These modifications result in either simplification of the application of SIMPLE-like methods or improved economy* The applicability of the proposals set forth was illustrated in two problems and the computational costs of SIMPLE, SIMPLER, and SIMPLEC were compared. These results illustrate that both SIMPLER and SIMPLEC are substantially more economic than SIMPLE and the SIMPLEC is usually less expensive than SIMPLER for the problems solved.
Summary
We now summarize the main conclusions of this work.
(1) Large-eddy simulation of the shear-free turbulent boundary layer has predicted the primary Reynolds-number effects on the behaviour of the tangential turbulence variances hear the walldamping at low Reynolds number and amplification at high Reynolds number.
(2) Comparisons with the low-Reynolds-number experiments suggest that the SCS model should be modified to provide less energy extraction near the wall.
Writing Acknowledgment
Exercise 19* Translate the following acknowledgments into Russian. Memorize the underlined active expressions*
Acknowledgment
The author gratefully acknowledges the important comments of Drs. J.W.Deardorff, D.K.Lilly, and W.C.Reynolds who read a draft of the manuscript. Contributions by Drs. J.H.Perziger, C.H.Gibson, and S.Corrsin were also most helpful* Messrs. John Clay and Steve McConnell kindly made available their experimental measurements prior to publication. This work was supported by a grant from NASA Ames Research Center.
Acknowledgment
This work was carried out while the author was a scholar of the Commonwealth Universities Association in the United Kingdom, and at the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Imperial College of Science and Technology, London. The author thanks Drs* A.D^Gos-man and В .E .Launder for encouragement and many useful discussions* Thanks are also due to Dr. D.Grand for providing his data, both published and unpublished*
Ac kno wl e dgment
I gratefully acknowledge the suggestions and advice of D.K.Lilly at several stages of this study. The interest and comments of S.A. Orszag on the internal consistency of the model are also appreciated. The National Center for Atmospheric Research is sponsored by the National Science foundation.
Acknowle dg ment
I am much indebted to Professor D.C.Leslie for his encouragement of this work and for many useful and lively discussions. His comments and those of the referees have also added substantially to the style and content of this paper.
This work was supported by S.R.C. under grant B/Rg/5559«
Acknowledgment
This work supported in part by the NASA/Ames Research Center. The senior author was on leave from the Bogaziqi University on an AID fellowship during the period of this work. The helpful assis-tance and advice of Professor Parviz Moin and Professor Joel For-zinger are greatly appreciated.
Acknowledgment
This work wag initiated at Imperial College where the author is a part-time student. Thanks are due to Mr.L.E.Fraenkel for supervising the work, to Dr. G.T.Stuart for suggesting the use of equations (15) and (26), and to Dr.A.W.Gillies and Professor R.S. Scorer for their interest; also to the staff of London University Computing Centre for their help.
CHAPTER. V
Gaining Skill in Writing Abstracts
The importance of abstracts and abstracting is increasing in the modern world so far as the abstracts summarize currect research and also give an initial access to the information contained in a piece of scientific literature. The intent of an abstract is to present the basic structure of the scientific paper and report the important findings or  mew processes presented in a piece of scientific or technical literature.The abstract stands as a readable and complete item in its.own right and is therefore a separate work
that can be used for the benefit of research workers. It enables the reader to identify the basic content of a document quickly and accurately, and to determine its relevance to his interest.
1. Types of Abstracts
To meet the interests of different readers and to specify the intentions of the authors abstracts can be successfully identified either as indicative or informative according to the manner of the presentation of the material and the degree of the compression used for each type of an abstract respectively.
The function of an indicative abstract (annotation) is to permit the reader to decide whether the article would be of value or interest to him. This kind of abstracts acts as a guide to the article, not as a substitute for it because it tells the reader only what subjects he will find in the article and nothing more. The typical length of the indicative abstract varies from 100 (or even less) up to 250 words and depends on the publishers’ requirements.
The function of an informative abstract is to provide the reader with the basic information of the article. It is designed to give the reader important data from the original, providing sufficient details of quantitative and qualitative information and can substitute the primary document to some extent. The informative abstract is longer than'the indicative one and may contain up to 500 words. Practically its length is limited by the publisher’s requirements. It is more likely for the informative abstract to be published apart the original paper. It is intended for the use of the reader who does not have access to or cannot use the original.
2; Methods Used in Abstracting
To present the text of a scientific paper in the form of either an indicative or an informative abstract one should rearrange the material of the original so that it contains a certain number of words (from about 100 up to 500) according to the demands of the publishers, following certain recommendations concerning its function, content and form.
It is generally agreed that abstracts should include four main topics: purpose, methods, results and conclusions following the compositional structure of the work it is based on. This conventional order of an abstract is preferable. Practically the process of compression results in three parallel operations: inclusion, exclu-
sion and generalization.
	Items to Include
To prepare an abstract special attention should be given to analysis of the paper aiming at the efforts to choose the essential information from each structural element of the text. The following recommendations should be taken into consideration.	
Purpose: (Presentation)	A statement of primary objectives, goals and aims of the research or reasons why the article was written. These statements should be included in both the informative and indicative abstracts.
Methods: (Statement)	A statement about the way used to obtain the results. If the abstract is informative more details should be included.
Besuits: (Reasoning)	A statement of using experimental or theoretical results obtained, data collected, effects observed, etc. The informative abstract tends to be more quantitative than the indicative one.
Conclusions: (Results of reasoning)	A statement of findings dealing with the interpretation or significance of the results, including recommendations, evaluations, applications, suggestions, new relationships and hypothesis accepted or rejected.
	Items to Exclude
To rearrange the full text of a paper into an abstract the author is forced to save space and exclude some pieces of information which are of the secondary character and some elements of de-* duction used in the arrangement of the discourse.
The following items are generally considered to be excluded from abstracts:
a)	material that is old or.well-known to professions;
b)	detailed description of experiments or methodology;
c)	unsubstaintiated remarks or generally known facts; d) repetitions.
Generalization
Limitation of the length of an abstract to a number of words or to a certain part of a page may force an auther to generalize. Generalization is an ability to sum up the facts, examples, and ideas into a short generalized statement, converging a number of items into one.
3* Some Guidelines for Writing Abstracts
1.	An abstract should be a self-contained text. Short abstracts can be written as a single, unified, coherent paragraoh, but for long documents more than one paragraph should form an abstract. Most of indicative abstracts are organized as a single paragrapg, their average length being from И00 words (or less) up to 250 words. In informative abstracts the number of structural elements of the original determines the number of paragraphs, the length of such abstracts usually reaches 500 words.
2.	The transitional elements smoothing the flow of ideas between the paragraphs and sentences and indicating* the stated information are greatly reduced in abstracts owing to publisher’s instructions to save space. In indicative abstracts the transitional elements are practically eliminated; in informative abstracts short connective words are used, such as: "hence”, "as”, "for”, ”in", "of”, ’’thus”, "now”, etc. -
3.	It is more likely for an indicative abstract to precede the original. In this case the passive voice of either present or past tenses seems to be a typical stylistic feature especially in the statements in which the receiver of the action should be stressed. In all other cases both in indicative and informative abstracts the active voice of verbs is used, whenever possible because it contributes to clear, brief and forceful writing.
Exercise 1. Study the following abstracts, compare them and tell the difference.
Brinell and scratch hardness tests were made on sinle ice crystals with a modified Olsen Baby Brinell Hardness Tester and a Spencer Microcharacter, respectively. Hardness increased with
The experimental procedures and results of Brinell and scratch hardness tests on single ice crystals are given. The effects of temperature and c-axis orientation on hardness are discussed, and the experimental data are
decrease in temperatures Bri- tabulated and graphed, nell hardness numbers ranged from about 4 at - 50 to 17 at -50 C. A similar temperature dependence for scratch hardness was noted. The single ice crystal was harder parallel to the c-axis than in the normal direction.
Exercise 2. Bead and analyze the following abstracts, tell what type they belong to. Memorize the underlined active expressions.
A Metric Grammar of Patterns
The paper gives a mathematical model for the analysis and recognition of patterns. Patterns are studied in simple and basic terms such as signs, compositions and images and using the basic relations similarity and synonymity. In this way the analysis can be formulated as a discrimination problem for pure images. In most practical cases the pure images are deformed and the question arises how the deformed images can be used to arrive at reasonable decision concerning the generating patterns. A number of special cases are studied with the purpose of illustrating the concepts introduced and to point to problems of relevance. The statistical properties of images are studied, especially for the important class of contrast patterns.
Knotted Spheres and Belated Geometric Problems
The different kinds of groups of knotted spheres occur in many geometrical problems: classification of manifolds, smoothing of embeddings, and so on.'
As an example, we consider the problem of the classification of regular neighbourhoods. Let V be a piecewise linear manifold of dimension n. A regular neighbourhood of codimension q of V is a piecewise linear manifold N of dimension N + q, containing V as a submanifold, and which is collapsible on V.
Isomorphism classes of regular neighbourhoods of codimension q of V are in 1 - 1 correspondence with homotopy classes of V in a classifying space BPL^, where PL^ is a simplicial group. Bor
i regular neighbourhoods, one can define IJhitney sum, quotient, complement, induced neighbourhood, and so on. There is a complete analogy with the theory of vector bundles over V, the orthogonal group 0q being replaced by the group PL^.
The homotopy group 5Г n(PL^) is isomorphic to the group P^ of concordance classes of smoothings of the sphere Sn in Sn+^ with a normal framing; for q>2 and n> 4, this group is isomorphic to the group of knotted homotopy n-spheres in with a normal framing. Other groups of knotted spheres occur in the problem of existence of a smooth neighbourhood of V.
Exercise 3. Bead the following indicative abstracts and memorize the underlined active expressions.
Thermal Distributions in Jeffery-Hamel Blow Between Nonparallel Plane Walls Knox Millsaps and Karl Pohlhausen Plight Bese arch Laboratory, U.S.A.
Abstract
The authors give the exact solution for the thermal distributions for the steady laminar flow of a viscous incompressible fluid between nonparallel plane* walls held at a constant temperature. The velocity profiles are determined with the aid of Jacobi-an elliptic functions by using the Jeffery-Hamel solution of the hydrodynamic problem. It is shown that in this special case the energy equation giving the temperature profiles can be reduced to an ordinary linear differential equation with variable coefficients. After the intx*o duct ion of dimensionless parameters, numerical solutions are given for diverging and converging channels with total openings of 10° for the possible combinations of three Reynolds Numbers and five Prandtl Numbers.
On the Jeffery-Hamel Solutions for Plow Between Plane Walls
By L.E.Praenkel
Imperial College, London
Abstract
The Jeffery-Hamel solutions for plane, viscous, source or sink flow between straight walls are not unique. In this paper
these solutions are regarded as providing the leading term of a series solution for a class of channels with walls that are nearly straight in a certain sense, but are such that the fluid is not required to emerge from, or converge on, a point. This ap-proach suggests a further condition which the appropriate solution must satisfy, and hence leads to uniqueness in a limited domain of the physical parameters. The resulting velocity profiles include, at one extreme, the parabolic one of Poiseuille flow, and, at the other, profiles with a single region of flow reversal at each wall.. The way is thus opened to an asymptotic series solution of the Navier-Stokes equations which shows laminar separation.
The Stability of a Family of Jeffery-Hamel Solutions for Divergent Channel Flow
By P.M .Eagles Northampton College of Advanced Technology, London
Abstract
A set of Jeffery-Hamel profiles (for radial, viscous, incompressible flow) have been shown by Fraenkel (1962, 1963) to approximate to profiles in certain two-dimensional divergent channels. The stability of a family of these profiles is investigated by a numerical solution of the Orr-Sommerfeld problem. Neutral-stability curves are calculated in the (R, k)-planes (where R is the Reynolds number of the basic flow and К is the wave-number of the disturbance), and fairly low critical Reynolds numbers are found. For those profiles that have regions of reversed flow, negative wave velocities are found on the lower branch of the neutral curve, and also it is found that Rk tends to a finite limit as R -r oo on the lower branch. These unexpected results are further discussed and verified by independent methods. The relation of the calculations to some experiments of Patterson (1935) is discussed.
Analysis of Flow of Viscous Fluids by the Finite-Element Method
J.Tinsley Oden and L.Carter Wellford University of Alabama
Abstract
General finite-element models of compressible and incompres-
sible fluid flow are derived. These involve local approximations of the velocity field, the density, and the temperature for compressible fluids and the velocity, temperature, and pressure for incompressible fluids. Theories of local solenoidal approximations and mixed finite-element models for compressible flow are derived. A number of computational schemes are developed for the numerical solution of both transient and steady nonuniform flow problems involving incompressible fluids. Numerical results obtained from several test problems are given. It is shown that the finite element method has great potential for use i$ flow problems, and represents a powerful new tool for the analysis of viscous flows.
Exercise 4. Analyze the following indicative and informative abstracts.
Surface Phenomena in Ferrohydrodynamics V.V.Gogosov, V.A.Naletova, N.G.Taktarov, Chyong Za Binh and G. A. Shaposhnikova
Indicative Abstract
Various models are constructed to describe magnetic fluids. A system of equations governing the behaviour of a magnetizable medium in electromagnetic fields is written. The medium is assumed to consist of several phases and components, each one having its own temperature and being magnetized in compliance with its own law.
Equations governing the behaviour of magnetizable surfaceactive substances (magnetic surfactants) is derived. Proceeding from these equations, corresponding boundary conditions relating values of parameters of bulk phases are derived.
The effect of a film of a magnetic surfactant on the motion of a nonmagnetic liquid drop and solid particle in another nonmagnetic liquid is considered. An expression was obtained for the drop velocity in terms of the magnetic field gradient as well as of the parameters of bulk phases and magnetic surfactant film.
The effect of a magnetic surfactant on the damping of surface waves propagating along the surface of a common nonmagnetic liquid is investigated. Damping coefficients of surface waves are calculated for different orders of magnitude of the quanti-- 64 -
ties involved.
Informative Abstract
The importance of use of magnetic fluids in the present-day engineering and technology is discussed* Particular emphasis is made on the application of such fluids under weightlessness conditions. Various models are constructed to describe magnetic fluids. A system of equations governing the behaviour of a magnetizable medium in electromagnetic fields is derived. The medium is assumed to consist of several phases and components, each one having its own temperature and being magnetized in compliance with its own law. An expression has been derived for the force . such a medium is acted upon by an electromagnetic field; it involves terms resulting from the irreversibility of the process (velocity derivatives, differences of pressures, chemical potentials and temperatures of various phases). The part of the force proportional to the difference of pressures* chemical potentials and phase temperatures enters into the equations of motion even if there is no interaction, between the medium and the electromagnetic field or when the field isk absent. The terms related to magnetization or polarization enter into this part of the force by virtue of the difference of pressures and chemical potentials of various phases.
Methods of irreversible thermodynamics make it possible to write down equations for diffusion flows, heat flow and for the rates of change of mass of the <4-th phase (component), of entropy of the «^-th phase (component) as well as an equation for the rate of change of volume concentration of the <^-th phase (component). The equations derived, for the rates of change of entropy take the place, in "diffusion approximation", of more cumbersome energy equations commonly used in the hydrodynamics of multiphase media.
It should be particularly noted that the method presented allows one to obtain equations for the change of volume concentrations of the phases. Instead of these equations, an equation of the type of Rayleigh equation for bubble pulsations is usually applied to close the system describing liquid-gas bubbles mixtures; the latter is not valid for magnetizable media. The results arrived at and the corollaries thereof have been compared
with those obtained by other authors.
The above approach is used to derive equations governing the behaviour of magnetizable surface-active substances (magnetic surfactants). Proceeding from these equations, corresponding boundary conditions relating values of parameters of bulk phases are derived.
The effect of a magnetic surfactant on the, damping of surface waves propagating along the surface of а commop. nonmagnetic liquid is investigated. Damping coefficients of surface waves are calculated for different orders of magnitude of the quantities involved. A nonuniform magnetic field was shown to have influence both upon the frequency and the damping coefficient of surface waves. The damping effect of a magnetic field shows itself even at comparatively small field gradients; it increases with increasing gradient and may become rather great at sufficiently high gradients of the magnetic field.Damping properties of a nonmagnetic surfactant film depend on so-called elastic constant of the film. For magnetic surfactant the nature of damping is determined also by parameters associated with the magnetic field and the film magnetization. Estimation of the surface waves damping coefficient in the short-wavelength range was carried out in the case when the magnetic field effects are greater than those accounted for by the elastic constant of the surfactant film. The damping coefficient was found to be equal to 10’5 sec~^	following values of the parameters: surface
tension 20 dyn/cm, bulk phase density 1 g/ern^, wave number 62.8 cm , bulk phase kinematic viscosity 1.5 x 10 cm /sec, magnetization per unit area of surfactant 5 x 10’5 Qauss x cm> magnetic field gradient 10^ oersted/cm, surface concentration 12	—2
of magnetic particles of surfactant - 10 cm . It is shown that not only does nonuniform magnetic field intensify the damping of surface waves, but it also can, under'certain conditions, weaken the damping effect.
The effect of a film of a magnetic fluids (surfactant) on the motion of a nonmagnetic liquid drop in another nonmagnetic liquid is considered. An expression was obtained for the drop velocity in terms of the magnetic field gradient as well as of the parameters of bulk phases and surfactant film. Various particular cases were analyzed. The velocity of a grease oil drop
covered with a film of a magnetic fluids (surfactant) mnv-i ng in water was found to be 5 x HO cm/sec. The estimation was carried out at the following values of the parameters; the density and viscosity of grease oil were O.95 g/cm^ and 3.5 g/(cm x sec), respectively, the drop radius 10“2 cm, the field gradient 10 oersted/cm, the surface concentration of surfactant particles 10 cm , the magnetization of a separate surfactant particle 5 x 101? Gauss x cm^.
Exercise 5* Bead the following paper and write an indicative abstract of it.
Three-dimensional Two-phase Mathematical Modelling of Gas Turbine Combustors
J.Swithenbank, A.Turan, and B«G.Belton University of Sheffield Sheffield, England
Combustion is one of the most difficult processes to model mathematically since it generally involves the simultaneous processes of three-dimensional two-phase fluid dynamics, turbulent mixing, fuel evaporation, radiative and convective heat transfer, and chemical kinetics. In order to design combustors based on fundamental principles, a comprehensive model incorporating all these factors is required. Unfortunately, although we can write down a set of governing differential equations, the solution of these equations is much beyond the capability of the present computers and a compromise has therefore been’ sought. In €his study, the approach takes advantage of the fact that there is relatively weak coupling between the fluid dynamic aspects of the flow and the chemical kinetics. That is, the flow pattern is largely defined by the geometry of the combustor and is insensitive to the detailed chemical species present in the flow provided the approximate temperature rise is represented. The calculation is therefore divided into two sections each of which is within the capabilities of the present computers.
It is fair to ask what are the advantages of such a procedure in view of the fact that combustors have been designed and operated for many years without the benefit of these methods. The answer is that combustor development by cut-and-try methods is expensive and does not necessarily produce the optimum answer.
Present pressures to minimize both fuel consumption and combustion generated pollution has led to the need to turn increasingly to fundamental considerations, for example to help reduce nitric oxide production. A key factor in such solutions is the effective fuel distribution, and this is determined by the fuel preparation technique. It is therefore essential that the model incorporates an accurate representation of the fuel droplet (or particle) size distribution and solves the relevant equations for the trajectory and evaporation.
Previous experience has shown that mathematical models of the above nature are not entirely devoid of errors that might have been introduced due to the simplifying assumptions in the mathematical or physical stages of modelling. Turbulence models which have been available since I^O’s, have only been critically assessed in simplified two dimensional isothermal cases. It appears that the extensive testing period required to remove all the uncertainties associated with their use, has not yet been completed. Furthermore the inherent constants in the resulting equations cannot claim true universalism.
Models of turbulence employed in combustion situations have, on the other hand, frequently assumed extended forms of isothermal cases, the flame ~ turbulence interaction being represented by simple expressions lacking rigorous formulation. However, recently models are being developed which can account directly for the strong coupling between the turbulence quantities and the reaction rate.
Incorporation of radiation effects in a burning environment present an additional problem in that the classical equations appear as integro-differential in the popular zone method of analysis. The present capability of computers is severely prohibitive in tackling a practical radiation problem without prior knowledge of the flow field. Furthermore, information about the field distribution of absorption and scattering coefficients is rarely available. The flux methods of radiation computation, because of the approximate nature of the equations fall, short of a precise description even though the trends and the overall effect is correctly predicted.
Two-phase flow and the related evaporation of fuel spray have not yet been tackled in a comprehensive manner. Problems
here range from the inability to reprent the terms due to turbulence interaction on one hand and the excessive computational time and storage that will be required to incorporate the interphase drag effects in a three dimensional algorithm, on the other* Simplifications have been introduced to. model the fuel spray dominant section of the combustor as a two dimensional case.
Incorporation of realistic chemical kinetics to predict pollutant concentrations simultaneously with other variables, is yet another urgent problem which cannot be overcome with the present computational facilities.
However, in spite of all the above short comings the last decade has seen the birth of an almost revolutionary approach to combustor design. Means now exist to perform detailed flow predictions coupled with head and mass transfer, in a complex three dimensional geometry. Various physical hypotheses proposed to model the relevant phenomena can be claimed, within the framework of their associated assumptions, to be sufficient for engineering purposes. Trends and the overall characteristics are predicted correctly. Furthermore, incorporation of refinements concerning the numerical and physical aspects of modelling to yield better local agreement with experiments, is no major problem. New theories of combustion, alternative modelling procedures, can be combined in a comprehensive manner within the basic structure to this end.
As mentioned previously, this is the strategy adopted in Sheffield. Thus the first stage of the calculation consists of predicting the tree-dimensional flow pattern, employing a two step chemical kinetic scheme and a spray size distribution algorithm within the basic finite difference scheme. The second stage aims to predict the combustion efficiency and pollution levels produced by a particular combustor design, via a network of interconnected stirred and plug flow reactors assumed to represent the combustor. A refined model of fuel evaporation and kinetic scheme is built into this phase of the computation.
The link between the first and second stages of the calculation consists of identifying the appropriate reactor network from the computed flow pattern. The basic criterion used for this link is that mixing at the molecular level is carried out
by the movement of molecules between turbulent eddies of different concentrations. Since the molecules also carry momentum and hence dissipate turbulence, it is hypothesized that mixing rate is proportional to turbulence dissipation rate. The finite difference solution yields the distribution of turbulence dissipation, high values prevailing in the vicinity of the gas jet injections. These regions thus become well stirred reactors of corresponding volume with the degree of stirring or mixing rate factor being determined from the total dissipation within the reactor. Reactors having low mixing rates are represented as plug flow reactors and it is assumed that reactions taking place there are confined to the material which is already mixed. The flow rates and'interconnections between the reactors forming the network are determined directly from the overall flow pattern.
Contents
Предисловие................................................. 3
Методическая записка........................................ 8
Chapter I Organizing a Scientific Paper..................... q
Chapter II Mastering Basic Types of Writing . . . .
1.	Definition............................. ^2
2.	Descriptive	Exposition................. 14
3-	Narrative Exposition................... Ig
4.	Argument............................... 29
5-	Summary..............................   21
Chapter III Working for Effective Paragraphs ....
1. Topic Sentence.......................... 25
2. Lexical Means of Connection Within
the Paragraph . . . .................... 25
3» Grammatical Means of Connection
Within the Paragraph.................... 26
4. Transitional Devices Between
Paragraphs.............................. 2?
5. Some Guidelines for Building Effective Paragraphs..............................  29
Chapter IV Building Active Vocabulary .......
1.	Introduction .......................
Formulating the Aim of the Research. •	33
Discussing the Characteristic Featu-r-res of the Problem.....................  55
2.	Methods and Materials ........
Describing Method and Equipment ...	58
3.	Results .... .......................
Obtaining Results • • • . .............. 41
Showing Agreement and Discrepancy • • Discussing Advantages and Drawbacks .
Analyzing Errors........................ ^5
4.	Discussion .........................
Giving Explanation and Interpretation Expressing Relation, Dependence and да
Influence ...........................
Making Comparison....................
5* Conclusions .........................
Making Conclusions ................. 51
Finding	Application................ 54
Writing	Acknowledgment............. 56
Chapter V	Gaining Skill in Writing Abstracts .
1.	Types	Abstracts.................... 58
2.	Methods	Used in Abstracting ...	58
3.	Some Guidelines for Writing
Abstracts .... ..................
Учебное издание Кораеева Марина Сергеевна, Перекальская Татьяна Константиновна
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