4-m
ю. н. пинягин
ВЕЛИКОБРИТАНИЯ :
ИСТОРИЯ, КУЛЬТУРА, ОБРАЗ ЖИЗНИ
Лингвострановедческий очерк
йЗЬ^Опсихопоги.<
Издательство Пермского университета
Пермь 1996
ББК 63.3/4=Вл/-7
П32
Редактор Л.А. Богданова
Рецензенты: профессор Алан МакГиллври, университет
Стрэтклайда, Глазго /Шотландия/; доцент Пермского
педагогического университета И.В. Егорова
Печатается в соответствии с решением редакционно-изда-
тельского совета Пермского университета
ПИНЯГИН Ю.Н.
П32 Великобритания:	история, культура, образ жизни
лингвострановедческий очерк. - Пермь: Изд-во Перм. ун-та, 1996»
296 с.
ISBN 5-8241 - 0113 - 2
Книга является первой попыткой системного описания
Великобритании с лингвострановедческой точки зрения. Основное
внимание уделяется освещению гуманитарных аспектов - истории,
культуре, образованию, средствам массовой информации, традициям
и образу жизни.
Для студентов и аспирантов романо-германской специальности,
а также преподавателей, читающих курс страноведения.
The book attempts to give a systematic description of the
background information on Great Britain. It embraces the issues
which constitute the core of information essential for the
Russian learners of English. For this reason the author
concentrated on such aspects as history, culture, education,
mass media, traditions and way of life.
4602020102 - 9
П--------------- Без объявл.
H 55(03)-96
ISBN 5 - 8241
0113
С) Ю.Н.Пинягин 1996
2
ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ
Автором предпринята попытка системного описания Великобрита-
нии с лингвострановедческой точки зрения. Книга содержит матери-
ал, охватывающий круг вопросов, которые являются предметом изу-
чения студентов романо-германских специальностей. Представленная
в ней разнообразная информация дает возможность преподавателю,
читающему курс страноведения, самому определить его оптимальный
объем. Отдельные главы и разделы книги могут использоваться ас-
пирантами и студентами по истории Англии, Шотландии, Уэльса, ис-
кусству Великобритании и т.д.
В основе создания книги заложено несколько принципов, важ-
нейшим из которых является лингвострановедческий, направленный
на раскрытие и объяснение специфических черт британской истории,
культуры и образа жизни средствами английского языка. Вследствие
этого у читателя могут возникнуть проблемы в понимании отдельных
абзацев, которые можно разрешить, обратившись к известному линг-
вострановедческому англо-русскому словарю ’’Великобритания” . Тем
не менее автор попытался сделать все возможное, чтобы работа с
материалом не вызывала непреодолимых трудностей у читателя, для
которого английский язык не является родным.
Второй принцип, который последовательно реализуется в книге,
- это объяснение причин многих исторических событий, происхожде-
ния британских институтов и их оценка с точки зрения современ-
ности. Это, по мнению автора, необходимо для понимания многих
аспектов жизни такой страны, как Великобритания. Глава о нацио-
нальных традициях не большая по объему, и поэтому автор не пре-
тендует в ней на полное их освещение, однако многие традиции и
традиционные процедуры описаны в соответствующих главах и разде-
лах, в частности посвященных Шотландии и Уэльсу.
Третий принцип, логически вытекающий из предыдущих, - это
описание основных событий в истории Англии, Шотландии и Уэльса
4
таким образом, как оценивают их национальные историки, т.е. так,
чтобы национальная история и самобытность не растворились в по-
нятии "история Великобритании". Это представляется исключительно
важным для понимания исторических фактов прошлого и некоторых
специфических проблем, с которыми сталкивается Великобритания
сегодня. Такой подход, насколько известно автору, осуществляется
впервые в курсе страноведения Великобритании, ибо ранее преобла-
дал так называемый "общебританский" подход к пониманию и оценке
истории и культуры этой многонациональной страны.
Для автора этой книги главным в освещении исторического раз-
вития Великобритании было установление причинно-следственных
связей событий и повествование о людях, в них участвовавших, с
целью объективного осознания исторических процессов, которые, в
конечном счете, и определили судьбу одной из самых устойчивых
демократий в Европе. Это понимание для нас особенно важно в нас-
тоящее время, так как Россия ищет свой путь к демократии, пре-
тендующей на европейский уровень.
PREFACE
Myself a Russian, I have known Great Britain for most of my life as a
tolerant and kindly hostess and I trust that my national detachment has been
more help than hindrance in the pleasures of appreciation.
This book is intended for the Russian learners of English at university
level and is aimed at giving an overall coverage of Great Britain and at the
same time portraying the most essential features of the three countries
comprising it. An inquisitive reader can find lots of material both on the
main aspects of life and just something very particular to satisfy one's
professional interests. I have had in mind, while making my choice, the
Russian learners of English who are entering upon the discovery of the British
heritage in history, culture and traditions and in the richly diverse fabric
of the British way of life. I have therefore made my selection with an eye to
their needs and have included explanations that may seem obvious to those more
fully equipped with the knowledge of the subjects discussed.
With such a mass of material the problems of covering the essentials and
of rejecting, out of necessity, what others will think essential, have been
inevitably severe. There was so much that I wanted to put in and so much that
I had to leave out. This explanation is necessary since there is bound to be
regret, and even astonishment, that certain places and names are not to be
found. These absentees are not the victims of neglect; many things considered
were reluctantly passed over, for reasons of space.
My gratitude goes to those who have invited me to undertake this task and
assisted me in its execution. I am extremely thankful to the British Council
(Moscow) and the British Council (Glasgow) branches for their sponsorship and
support. During the period of two years that I spent working on the book,
I always appreciated the understanding and sincere support of Mr Mark Evans,
Director of the British Council Moscow branch. I am also indebted to Dr Martin
Montgomery and his colleagues at the Department of English Studies of the
University of Strathclyde, and to Professor Alan MacGilliveray who was always
ready with advice in the shaping of the "style and usage". I would like to
lhank all who have come to my aid: the staff of The Andersonian Library of the
University of Strathclyde in Glasgow, and Mr Peter 3. Westwood, Honorary
President of the Burns Federation, who gave expert assistance on Ayr and the
creative work of Robert Burns. While working on the book in Scotland I could
nut be impartial to the people who surrounded me, so probably one would find
the chapter on Scotland somewhat biased, but it only reflects the strong
positive impact Scotland produced on me.
- 6 -
Several friends in England helped me at various stages in the planning and
executing of this project. I am particularly obliged to Tony and Christa
Gillett, and John and Barbara Greening who inspired me and helped to shape
some articles of the book. I am also grateful to Douglas and Karen Hewitt, Roy
and Deborah Manley, and John and Linda Ward, who were most generous in sharing
their views on some aspects of life in Great Britain and helped me to under-
stand the role.and functions of the British institutions. I am grateful to
Mi Christopher Schuman who kindly revised the material and contributed to
the texts.
The author gratefully acknowledges the co-operation of Her Majesty’s
Stationery Office and the Central Office of Information who have given
permission for the materials of Crown Copyright ’’Britain 1993: an Official
Handbook” to appear in these pages.
I could not possibly have written this brief account of history, culture
and the way of life in Great Britain without considerable help from a number
of editors. I am extremely grateful to the following for permission to
reproduce copyright material:
An Illustrated History of Britain by David McDowall, Longman 1993.
Anglistik & Englischuhterricht in Scotland: Literature, Culture, Politics.
Band 38/39. Heidelberg, 1989. Great Britain: Its History from Earliest Times
to the Present Day, by T.K. Derry, C.H.C. Blount, and T.L. Jarman. Oxford
University Press 1962. The New Wales. Ed. by David Cole. University of Wales
Press 1990. Life in Modern Britain, by Peter Bromhead. Longman Group Limited
1993. Scotland: A Concise Cultural History, 1993. Mainstream Publishing Co.
(Edinburg) Ltd. The Xenophobe’s Guide to the English, by Antony Miall. Oval
Projects Ltd., 1993.
I hope that the reader will find here much that will help his under-
standing of the nation’s life, history and culture. This book combines facts
and my own observations and is like a portrait whose subject changes in its
details while the artist draws. It is in this manner that I have interpreted
my commission to compose the book and in this manner that I have tried to
catch t^he likeness in its latest phase.
- 7 -
GREAT BRITAIN IN PROFILE
Britain forms the greater part of the British Isles, which lie off the
north-west coast of mainland Europe. The full name is the United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Great Britain comprises England, Wales and
Scotland. The area totals some 242,500 sq km. Britain is just under 1,000 km
long from the south coast of England to the extreme north of Scotland, and
just under 500 km across in the widest part. With some 57 million oeople,
Britain ranks sixteenth in the world in terms of population. The population
has remained relatively stable over the last decade, but has aged. Britain is
a relatively densely populated country. England has the highest population
density of the four lands and Scotland the lowest.
The British tendency to moderation perhaps reflects the climate, which is
exceptionally moderate: not too hot or cold, not too wet or dry. The tempera-
ture rarely goes below -5°C or over 25°C. But the weather is often dull and
damp with too little sunshine. The frequent winds make it feel colder than it
really is. July and August are sometimes fine, but more often miserable. There
ore no great differences of climate between the sections of the UK, except
that the west has more rain than the east, and the northern mountains,
particularly in Scotland, have much more rain and snow. More generally, the
southern parts of England and Wales are a little warmer, sunnier and less
misty than the rest.
Within England the eight administrative regions do not have strong
cultural identities of their own. The styles of architecture do not vary,
though there are parts of the south-west and north where stone houses were
more common until recently than the red brick houses which predominate in most
nt tier regions. There is a clear difference between the northern way of speak-
ing English and the southern way, though each has local variants and each is
ilif trrent from what has been called ’’standard English” or "received pronun-
< iiition", which has no regional basis and is spoken by about 3 per cent of the
pr>i|il(.', scattered around the country.
london’s dominant position has been strengthened by the needs of modern
I lines, lor 100 years the central government has extended its responsibilities,
partly by undertaking functions which were not performed at all before. With
Hinny local problems local representatives go to London to see central govern-
inriil officials. The main newspapers and publishers have their offices in Lon-
.. .. no loo do the advertisers and producers of television programmes. Like
I I liner I ngI and suffers, as compared with Germany, Italy and Spain, from exces-
nivo cinicc.nlration of cultural life as well as business in a giant capital.
- ь -
London has changed n great den) in Lt*e past f ifty years, and is now more
tolerant and easygoing than it used to be, with its society less consciously
stratified. Far fewer people live in its central areas than fifty years ago.
The air is now polluted more by petrol fumes than by smoke. There are no
longer any of the yellow-black winter fogs that once shut out the sun.
A large proportion of the more prosperous city workers now live in distant
suburbs, but there are a few rather small fashionable residential districts in
the West End of London — though Mayfair, south of Oxford Street, now consists
of offices. In summer, London is now full of foreign visitors, but those who
see London as though it were the whole country are mistaken.
Outside of London the southern half of England had for a long time more
people than the rest of Britain. But from about 1800 the industrial revolu-
tion brought enormous development to the English north and midlands, to the
Clyde estuary in Scotland and to South Wales. These were the areas rich in the
coal to power the machines in the factories, and there was wool from the sheep
on the nearby hills. By 1850 Manchester was a major industrial and commercial
centre, with cotton mills mainly in the towns around it.
When people speak of the industrial north they think mainly of Lancashire
and Yorkshire. Between .the great port of Liverpool in the west and the smaller
port of Hull in the east, the big cities of Manchester, Sheffield, Leeds and
Bradford, along with some twenty big factory towns, form a great industrial
belt. Some of the buildings there are still black from smoke, some have been
cleaned, and some demolished.. Further to the north-east, Newcastle upon Tyne
is the centre of another industrial area, which is based on coal, iron, steel
and shipbuilding.
But more than half the northern land area is sheep country, where the
bleak moors of the Pennines have fine scenery and the valleys have picturesque
villages. Many of the shepherds’ cottages and village houses are now holiday
and weekend homes for the people of the towns.
Not far to the south of Lancashire, Birmingham is the centre of the West
Midlands conurbation. This is as big as Manchester’s and has a vast variety of
industries, particularly engineering. All through the east midlands there are
other manufacturing towns, big and small, as well as coalmines.
Apart from London, the south has fewer big towns and far fewer smokestack
industries than the north. Except for quite small.moorlands it has almost no
hills too high for cultivation. Most of it is undulating country with hundreds
of small market towns. With its lack of heavy industry and its slightly
sunnier and milder.climate the south is more agreeable to some people than the
- 9 -
north, though it has less good scenery. In the past fifty years its relative
advantages have grown. Being nearer both to London and to the Continent it has
had easier connections with the outside world. The south's economy has adapted
itself more easily than the north's to the needs of the late twentieth centu-
ry, and it is the main base of the most modern industries and enterprises.
More people stay at school after the age of sixteen, more go to university,
fewer are unemployed, more have middle-class jobs. More have cars, more own
their own homes and more have central heating. Health is better: fewer people
die of bronchitis or of other illnesses associated with poor living conditions
pollution or bad diet. Fewer vote for the Labour Party. It is sometimes said
that there are two nations, north and south, with a growing division between
the two.
Who are the British? Many foreigners say "England" and "English" when
they mean "Britain", or the "UK", and "British". This is very annoying for the
5 million people who live in Scotland, the 2,8 million in Wales and 1,5 mil-
lion in Northern Ireland who are certainly not English. However, the
people from Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland and English are all British.
"The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland" is the politi-
cal name of the country. Great Britain is the name of the island which is made
up of England, Scotland and Wales and so, strictly speaking, it does not in-
clude Northern Ireland. This book centres on the description of these three
nations, the history and cultures of which were and still are, so closely
interconnected.
It took centuries to form the United Kingdom, and a lot of armed struggle
was involved. In the fifteenth century, a Welsh prince, Henry Tudor, became
King Henry VII of England. Then his son, King Henry VIII, united England and
Wales under one Parliament in 1536. In Scotland a similar thing happened. The
King of Scotland inherited the crown of England and Wales in 1603, so he be-
came King James I of England and Wales and King James VI of Scotland. The
Parliaments of England, Wales and Scotland were united a century later in 1707.
The Scottish and Welsh are proud and independent people. In recent years
I here have been attempts at devolution in the two countries, particularly in
Scotland where the Scottish Nationalist Party was very strong for a while.
However, in .a referendum in 1978 the Welsh rejected devolution and in 1979 the
Scots did the same. So it seems that most Welsh and Scottish people are not
tiiiolnst this union, even though they sometimes complain that they are domina-
ted by England, and particularly by London.
lhe whole of Ireland was united with Great Britain from 1801 up until 1922.
- 10 -
In that year the independent Republic of Ireland was formed in the South,
while Northern Ireland became part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland.
The flag of the United Kingdom, known as the Union Jack, is made up of
three crosses: the English cross of St George (a red cross on a white field),
the Scottish cross of St Andrew (a diagonal white cross on a blue field) and
the Irish cross of St Patrick (a diagonal red cross on a white field).
The English. Almost every nation has a reputation of some kind. The French
are supposed to be amorous, gay, fond of champagne; the Germans dull, formal,
efficient, fond of military uniforms, and parades; the Americans boastful,
energetic and vulgar. The English are reputed to be cold, reserved people who
do not yell in the. street, make love in public or change their governments as
often as they change their underclothes. They are steady, easy-going, and fond
of sport.
The Russians’ view of the English for a long time was based on the type of
Englishman they read about in the novels by Dickens and Galsworthy. Since
these were largely members of the upper and middle classes, it is obvious that
their behaviour cannot be taken as general for the whole people. There are,
however, certain kinds' of behaviour, manners and customs which are peculiar to
England.
The English are a nation of stay-at-homes. There is no place like home,
they say. And when a man is not working he withdraws from the world to the
company of his wife and children and busies himself with the affairs of the
home. "The Englishman's home is his castle", is a saying known all over the
world; and it is true that English people prefer small houses, built to house
one family. A garden is an indispensable feature of any house there (see ill.
22-23).
The fire is the focus of the English home. What do other nations sit
round? The answer is they don't. They go out to cafes or sit round the cock-
tail bar. For the English it is the open fire and the ceremony of English tea.
Even when central heating is installed it is kept so low in the English home
that Americans and Russians get chilblains, as the English get nervous head-
aches from stuffiness in theirs.
Apart from the conservatism on a grand scale which the attitude to the
monarchy typifies, England is full of small-scale and local conservatisms,
some of them of a highly individual or particular character. Regiments in the
army, municipal corporations, schools and societies have their own private
traditions which command strong loyalties. Such groups have customs of their
- 11
own which they are very reluctant to change, and they like to think of their
private customs as differentiating them, as groups, from the rest of the world.
Most English people have been slow to adopt rational reforms such as the
metric system, which came into general use in 1975. They have suffered
inconvenience from adhering to old ways, because they did not want the trouble
of adapting themselves to new. All the same, several of the most notorious
symbols of conservatism were abandoned, as for example, the old system of money
which was substituted by the decimal system in 1971.
The Scots. The Scots are not English. Nor are the Scots British. No self-
respecting Scot calls himself a Briton. The words Briton and British were
uneasily disinterred after a long burial as a kind of palliative to Scottish
feelings when their Parliament was merged with the English one at Westminster.
But the attempt was not successful. The best things on either side of the
Border remain either English or Scottish. Are Shakespeare and Burns British
poets? When Australians play football (that was born on the fields of England),
do they play a British game? And is there anyone in the whole world who has
over asked for a British whisky?
The two nations have each derived from mixed sources, racially and, as it
were, historically. Each has developed strong national characteristics which
separate them in custom, habit, religion, law and even in language.
The English are amongst the most amiable people in the world; they can
so be very ruthless. They have a genius for compromise, but can enforce
I heir idea of compromise on others with surprising efficiency. They are gene-
rous in small matters but more cautious in big ones. The Scots are proverbial-
ly kindly, but at first glance are not so amiable. They abhor compromise, lean
much upon logic and run much to extremes.
In general the nation of modern Scotland derives from three main racial
sources. The Celts, the Scandinavians and the mysterious and shadowy Picts.
Thuac Picts were the first inhabitants of what we now call Scotland. They were
о small tough people and have left their strain in the blood and occasional
marks Ln the land and language. They were conquered by the invading Celts from
Ireland who, incidentally, were called Scots and from whom the name of modern
nation- comes.
Ihrec centuries later, however, the Celts retreated into the north-western
hllla and islands, their place in the east and south lowlands being taken by
llu; Scandinavians and Angles. Hence the celebrated division of the Scottish
iwiiiplo into Highlanders and Lowlanders. It was a division which marked the
•HatInclion between people of different culture, temperament and language. It
- 12 -
is from the Celts that there comes the more colourful, exciting and extrava-
gant strain in the Scots: the Gaelic language and song, the tartan, the
bagpipes, the Highland spirit and so on. It is from the Lowland strain that
there comes the splendid courage in defence, providing a complementary virtue
to the splendid Highland courage in attack.
Since the break-up of the old Highland system in the eighteenth octury
the Scots became so mixed up in blood that most of them combine something of
the characteristics of both Highlander and Lowlander. All Scots living north
and west of the Highland line which, geographically speaking, still runs dia-
gonally across Scotland were true Celtic Highlanders. That is to say they
spoke the Gaelic language, lived under the ancient Celtic system of land te-
nure and, of course, as members of clans, bore Highland names. South and east
of that line in the Lowland towns, villages and in the countryside, Highland
names were rare.
The Welsh. The national spirit in Wales is very strong and many tradi-
tions are cherished there. The Welsh wear their national dress on festive
occasions (ill. 47); the Welsh language is still very much a living force and
is taught side by side with English in schools; and Welshmen, who have a high-
ly developed artistic sense, have a distinguished record in the realm of poet-
ry, song and drama.
Welsh history begins with the Anglo-Saxon victories in the sixth and
seventh centuries which isolated the Welsh from the rest of the Celtic popula-
tion of Britain. Henceforth the people of Wales were vulnerable on two fronts:
on the east they were constantly harried by the English chieftains, and until
the eleventh century the vikings made frequent raids on the coasts. Then came
the Normans who penetrated into the south of the country and established many
strongholds, in spite of strong resistance organised by the Welsh. Eventually,
however, the subjection of the people was completed by Edward I, who built ma-
ny castles and made his soq the first Prince of Wales.
The population of Wales amounts to about three million. The Welsh language
is a Celtic branch of the Indo-European languages and has some roots in common
with them. The Welsh call their country Cymru, and themselves they call Cymry,
a word which has the same root as "camrador" (friend). All over Wales children
at schools are required to spend some time learning Welsh, though many of them
do not remember much beyond the correct pronunciation of place names. At the
1981 census 19 per cent of the whole population claimed that they could speak
Welsh, as compared with 29 per cent in 1951.
Summing up some of the national characteristics of the people living in
- 13 -
Britain, one may say that the things they agree about make them British; the
things they disagree about make them interesting.
(Based on P. Bromhead. Life in Modern Britain)
AN OUTLINE OF BRITISH HISTORY
Some Dates in British History
55 and 54 BC, Julius Caesar's expeditions to Britain
AD 43, Roman conquest begins
122-38, Hadrian's Wall built
409, Roman army withdraws from Britain
450s onwards, foundation of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms
B32-60, Scots and Picts merge to form what is to become the kingdom of Scotia
U60s, Danes overrun East Anglia, Northumbria and East Mercia
1066, William the Conqueror defeats Harold at Hastings and takes the throne
1086, Doomsday survey
1215, King John signs Magna Carta, to protect feudal rights of the barons
1157, Hundred Years War between England and France begins
I Mil, Peasants' Revolt in England
1455-87, Wars of the Roses, between Lancastrians and Yorkists
ГН4-40, English Reformation: Henry VIII breaks with the papacy
Г»16 42, Acts of Union unite England and Wales
Г*4/ 53, Protestantism becomes official religion in England under Edward VI
l*»5 5 >H, Catholic reaction under Магу I
I••••II |6U5, Reign of Elizabeth I. Moderate Protestantism established
Г'ПИ, Did ent of Spanish Armada
Г»,/Ц 1л 15, Plays of Shakespeare written
H.42 '»|, Civil War between King and Parliament
h.44, I xucution of Charles I
Ia‘.1 Ч1, (Jliver Cromwell rules as Lord Protector
InMl, Krnloration of the monarchy under Charles II
|л11П. Glorious Revolution: Accession of William III and Магу II
I/и/, Л<1 of Union unites England and Scotland
I /oil III Ml, Industrial Revolution
Illi/ 1'411, Hcltjn of Queen Victoria
IмИ III, I I nit World War
I’ll’/ »»'., '.ocoimI World War
l‘»/|, Ih Ihiln nnluni European Community
- 14 -
Earliest Times
Britain's prehistory. The Celts. The Romans. About 2400 BC there came the
men from the continent who brought neolithic (New Stone Age) culture to Bri-
tain. A little later an even more important wave of immigrants, Iberians, com-
ing from Spain colonized Ireland, the coastline of Britain and the extreme
north of Scottish mainland. The most important contribution of these settlers
to the development of Britain was their discovery and use of copper, gold and
also tin in Cornwall. Salisbury Plain was the centre of this civilization and
Stonehenge (ill. 1) is its greatest surviving monument. It was erected about
1500 BC, and the precise purposes of Stonehenge remain a mystery, but it was
almost certainly a sort of capital, to which the chiefs of other groups came
from all over Britain.
About 1000 BC invaders from Europe started to come again and the newcomers
were the Celts. Britain has taken its name from one branch of them, the
Britons, because this was the people whom the Romans first met in their occu-
pation of the island, and the name Britannia which the Romans therefore gave
to it has stuck. The Celts imposed their language on the whole of Ireland and
Britain, and it still survives in different forms in Ireland, Wales and
Scotland. They brought' with them iron weapons and tools, which enabled to be-
gin the move from the poor light soils to the richer heavier soils. The centre
of wealth and civilization shifted to the region of the Thames estuary with
towns on the sites of present-day St Albans and Colchester.
The Celtic tribes were ruled over by a warrior class, of which the priests
or Druids, seem to have been particularly important members. These Druids
could not read or write, but they memorised all the religious teachings, the
tribal laws, history, medicine and other knowledge necessary in Celtic society.
The Druids from different tribes all over Britain probably met once a year.
They had no temples, but they met in sacred groves of trees, on certain hills
or by rivers. Stonehenge is supposed to be one of their meeting places.
During the years of 60 to 55 BC Julius Caesar conquered the whole of Gaul
(modern France) for the Romans. There was a close connection between Gaul and
Britain in culture, language and trade, and the British gave help to the
people in Gaul against the Romans. This brought Caesar across the Channel
twice in 55 and 54 BC to put a stop to this help and also to explore the
island, but the conquest did not begin until AD 43 — nearly one hundred years
later. In the meantime trade between Britain and Roman Gaul and the import of
luxury goods from the Roman Empire grew so much that the nobles in Britain
were to a great extent converted to Roman ways of living. Thus by AD 43 Roman
- 15 -
trade and culture had already prepared the way for Roman conquest. By 47 all
the lowlands up to the rivers Severn and Trent had been conquered by the army
of the Emperor Claudius. The Romans could not conquer "Caledonia", as they
culled Scotland, although they spent over a century trying to do that. Later
on, in 122-28, the Emperor Hadrian constructed a great defensive wall across
Britain at the Tyne — Solway isthmus (ill. 2) and the Emperor Antonius built
и second wall at the Forth — Clyde isthmus about 142. Both of these walls
were aimed at stopping the highland tribes from attacking the Romans from the
north and they remained the most impressive of all monuments of the Roman occu-
pation of Britain.
Iho Saxon Invasion
The Invaders. Christianity. The Vikings. Britain remained the province of
tho Roman Empire for four hundred years. It was not colonized by the Romans as
it had been by the Celts and was to be by the English. It was an outlying pro-
vince of a unified empire, ruled from Rome. High officials and senior army
offleers came to Britain for a tour of duty and returned home when it was overj
innrchnnts also came and went, though some perhaps settled in Britain.
Under Roman rule Britain enjoyed two and a half centuries of peace, of com-
plete freedom from foreign invasion and internal war. This remains to this day
llwi longest such period in British history. During this period most of the
•Ivll population ceased to possess weapons and the skills to use them. The
iiiwnti had walls and trained men to defend them, but apart from this Britain
i!'i|inii(lcd on the professional army for defence. This was one of the reasons why
Ih llaln was so quickly conquered by foreign invaders when the Roman Empire
in «4*1’ down.
I Im Romans left about twenty large towns and almost one hundred smaller
niitiii. Миру of these towns were at first army camps, and the Latin word for
• limp, "cunira", has remained part of many town names to this day (with the end-
ing tliohler, caster or cester): Winchester, Lancaster and many others. London
min <i rnpitnl city of about 20,000 people and was twice the size of Paris, and
|iiMinilily the most important trading centre of northern Europe. Magnificent
nhHirt pnvrid rnnds formed a network radiating out to all the provinces from
liiinliiii. '.riiltcrcd all over the lowlands are the remains of the villas of the
a — Britons, for the most part, who had prospered under Roman rule
nod iiiiiipird the Roman style of living. These varied between mansions and
H"dnnl f in idiouecfi in accordance with the amount of land that went with them.
Iln Uni и 11 ri of the social life of the Romano-Britons are still being made
iIhuiih lliniiiijh I hr ntudy of the remains of these villas, with their hot-air
- 16 -
heating systems, mosaic decorations and shrines for religious worship.
In the military area,north and west of central Britain,life was quite dif-
ferent. The tribes of Wales and Scotland had not been converted to Roman ways
of living and were held down only by force based on a network of military
forts. The immense effort was put into building Hadrian’s and the Antonian
Walls to keep these tribes from raiding Britain. Only the strength of the
Roman army kept the province safe. But from the end of the second century on-
wards the central government of the Empire at Rome fell into increasing dis-
order, and in 367 the Picts, Scots and Saxons made simultaneous attacks on
Britain from the north, west and east. The waves of people who moved into
Britain between the fourth and sixth centuries were Angles, Saxons and Jutes.
Gradually they changed Angle to English and called the land they had conquered
England.
The British were killed, enslaved, or driven into the highlands of Wales
and the north-west, where their Christian religion and their Celtic language
survived. Over this same long period the newcomers gradually united into large
kingdoms, such as Northumbria, Mercia, Wessex. Many English counties today
bear the names of early kingdoms: Kent, Sussex and Essex are three examples;
while Norfolk and Suffolk took their names from the North Folk and the South
Folk of the kingdom of East Anglia. The Germanic influence on the place-names
may be traced today in such words as Birmingham, Nottingham, Southampton in
which "ham" means "farm" and "ton" stands for "settlement".
The Saxons created institutions which made the English state strong enough
for the next 500 years. One of these institutions was the King's Council,
called the Witan. The Witan probably grew out of informal groups of senior
warriors and churchmen .to whom kings had turned for advice or support on
difficult matters. By the tenth century the Witan was a formal body, issuing
laws and charters. It was not at all democratic, and the king could decide to
ignore the Witan's advice. But he knew that it might be dangerous to do so,
for the Witan's authority was based on its right to choose kings, and to agree
the use of the king's laws. Without its support the king's own authority was
in danger. The Witan established a system which remained an important part of
the king's method of government. Even today, the king or queen has a Privy
Council, a group of advisers on the affairs of the state.
The Saxons divided the land into new administrative areas, based on shires,
or counties. These shires, established by the end of the tenth century, remain-
ed almost exactly the same for a thousand years. "Shire" is the Saxon word,
"county" the Norman one, but both are still used. Over each shire was appoint-
- 17 -
ed a "shire reeve", the king's local administrator. In time his name became
shortened to "sheriff".
In the last hundred years of Roman government Christianity became firmly
ivitablished across Britain, both in Roman-controlled areas and beyond.
However, the Anglo-Saxons belonged to an older Germanic religion, and they
drove the Celts into the west and north. In the Celtic areas Christianity
continued to spread, bringing paganism to an end. In 597 Pope Gregory the
Great sent a monk, Augustine, to re-establish Christianity in England. Kent
was converted without difficulty, because it had frequent contacts with Chris-
tian France, and Canterbury, the Kentish capital became the seat of the arch-
bishop who is the spiritual leader of the modern English Church, but outside
Kent conversion was slow.
In the eighth century England emerged from confusion and ignorance of the
English conquest and seemed fAirly embarked on the long road back Fo a secure
life. But this prospect of better life was shattered at the end of the eighth
century by the beginning of a period of savage raiding and invasion of the
vikings. "Vikings" is the name given to the Scandinavians who came from modern
Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, the very word meaning "sea-rovers" or "pirates".
Flic most important reason for the Viking Age of raiding and settlement was
over-population. The vikings, who most seriously affected England were the
Brines, who raided the eastern and southern coasts from 789 to 865. As the
English had done five centuries earlier, they went up the rivers in their long
fihips. When they reached the point where the ships would no longer float, they
Innncd a fortified camp, seized horses, and rode far and wide over the country
rereading fire and slaughter. The once fierce English had in their turn become
prncc-loving farmers, and were no match for these strong warriors. In ten
yours (865-75) all English kingdoms, with the exception of Wessex, passed into
Ilio possession of the Danes. Alfred, King of Wessex, was a wise statesman who
iiiiiiinged to outwit and later on to defeat the Danes, so that in 878 England was
divided between Alfred and the Danes by a line roughly from London to Chester.
I hr. Dnnes in England became established in their half of the country as land-
iiwners and energetic colonists among the English. The period from the death of
Allred in 899 to the death of his grandson Edgar in 975 has been called the
Bolden Age of Anglo-Saxon England.
there were several waves of the vikings invasions to Britain in subsequent
yiiiirn. Ilieir attacks so weakened the large Pictish kingdom in northern Scot-
I mil Hint in 843 Kenneth MacAlpine, ruler of Scots, was able to conquer the
18 -
Picts and become the first king of Scotland.
The Norman Conquest
Feudalism, England of Doomsday Book. Magna Carta and the decline of
feudalism. The beginnings of Parliament. When Edward the Confessor became
king of England in 1042 he was thirty-seven years old and had lived most of
his life in Normandy, because his mother was a daughter of the Duke of Norman-
dy. He was, therefore, more French than English in language, manners and
tastes, and when he became king there began a close association between Eng-
land and Normandy. Edward died in 1066 without an obvious heir. The question
of who should follow him as king was one of the most important in English his-
tory. Edward had brought many Normans to his English court from France, who
were not liked by the more powerful Saxon nobles, that is why the Witan chose
Harold from Wessex to be the next king of England. Harold's right to the Eng-
lish throne was challenged by Duke William of Normandy who in 1066 landed near
the town of Hastings. Harold was defeated and killed in the battle. William
very soon reached London and was crowned king of England in Westminster Abbey
on Christmas Day 1066.
The only resistance to William after this was a series of risings in dif-
ferent parts of the country. He made no attempts to conquer Wales and Scotland.
Instead he established exceptionally strong military earldoms along the fron-
tiers of both countries. In 1072 William in person led an expedition into
Scotland and forced the king to swear allegiance to him, but there were many
border wars in the next two centuries. In Wales the rugged mountains made the
north of the country impregnable, but in the less mountainous south there was
constantrfighting with varying success and much castle-building by the Normans.
As a result of the Norman conquest some 200 Norman nobles and about 4,000
knights took over the leadership of the English people from the English nobles.
This was the last time in English history that foreigners entered the island
from overseas and imposed themselves on the previous inhabitants by force.
Immediately after his coronation William seized the land of all, who had
fought against him at Hastings, and gave it to his nobles. Thereafter he
confiscated the land of anyone who rebelled against him. Thus within a few
years the English landowning class had been almost entirely replaced by a
Norman landowning class of earls and barons, some two hundred all in all. Most
of these tenants-in-chief (that is, men holding their land directly from the
king) owned many estates, called manors, scattered all over England. In return
for his land each tenant-in-chief had to swear a most solemn oath to the king,
promising his personal loyalty and performance of all the feudal services due
- 19 -
to his land. The most important of these services was to supply a number of
rirmoured knights when the king called for them. In addition to military
ocrvice each feudal had to attend the lord's court to advise him and help him
administer justice. On three very expensive occasions the tenant had to make
money contributions: the knighting of the lord's eldest son, the marriage of
his eldest daughter, and the payment of his ransom if he was taken prisoner in
battle.
When his re-organization of England was finished, William decided to carry
out a complete investigation of the ownership and value of all the land in
England. In the spring of 1086 he sent commissioners to visit every shire
court and make the recordings of all possessions of his subjects. After
William's death in 1087 this vast mass of information was digested into two
great volumes, known as Doomsday Book, and for generations this book remained
in daily use as a basis for taxation and for proving who owned the land.
The twelfth century saw many changes in the system of law and government.
I he two kings who did most to make the ways of government simpler and more
effective were Henry I and Henry II. The king governed the country with the
advice and help of his Council. He had a Great Council, consisting of all
tenants-in-chief, which met only occasionally to advise and take decisions on
the most important questions. He also had a small Council, which was always
with him as he moved about the country. This Council consisted of a few of the
most .important nobles and bishops, and also the king's ministers.
The improvements in the machinery and methods of government greatly
increased the power of Henry II over his subjects, and his son, King John,
faced great problems in dealing with the barons and their supporters. In 1215
the barons forced King John to accept a document, called in Latin Magna Carta,
which described in detail all his breaches of the law, and recorded his
promise to govern in future in accordance with the law or with the advice and
consent of his Great Council. In fact Magna Carta gave no real freedom to the
majority of people in England. The nobles who wrote it and forced King John to
sign it had no such thing in mind. They had one main aim: to make sure John
did not go beyond his rights as feudal lord. Feudalism began to weaken, but it
took another hundred years before it disappeared completely, and Magna Carta
was one of the greatest landmarks in the development of the English constitu-
tion.
John's son Henry III was the first king of England since the Norman
Conquest to be free from the distraction of ruling extensive lands in France.
But he pursued an expensive and unsuccessful foreign policy, trying to recover
- 20 -
the French dominions lost by his father, which eventually brought him into
collision with the barons under the leadership of Simon de Monfort. At a
meeting of the Great Council in 1258 Henry III had to agree to the Provisions
of Oxford: he would give up his foreign ventures and consult the Great Council
three times a year. It was at this time that meetings of the Great Council
began to be called Parliaments, that is meetings for discussions. Henry’s
agreement to the Provisions of Oxford was published in English — the first
important document to be issued by the government in English since the days of
William the Conqueror. This shows the extent to which both sides in the
dispute relied on the support of the country gentry and townspeople.
Edward I brought together the first real parliament. Simon de Monfort's
council had been called a parliament, but it included only nobles. It had been
able to make laws and political decisions, but the lords were less able to
provide the king with money. Edward I created a "representative institution"
which could provide the money he needed. This institution became the House of
Commons. Unlike the House of Lords it contained a mixture of gentry (knights
and other wealthy freemen from the shires) and merchants from the towns. These
were two broad classes of people who produced and controlled England's wealth.
In 1275 Edward I commanded each shire and each town to send two representa-
tives to his parliament. These "commoners" would have stayed away if they
could, to avoid giving Edward money, but few dared risk Edward's anger. They
became unwilling representatives of their local community. This parliament
came by tradition to be regarded as the model of all future parliaments.
The First "United Kingdom"
Since England, Wales and Scotland all lie within a comparatively small
island, it was certain that, sooner or later, the ruler of the strongest of
these three states would conquer the other two and make the island a single
united kingdom. Greater area, population, and natural resources made England
the strongest of the three states. The conquest of Wales was completed by the
end of the thirteenth century because it lay nearer than Scotland to the main
area of Anglo-Norman wealth and power. Scotland, on the other hand, success-
fully defended its independence for three hundred years longer than Wales.
The first Welsh ruler to make himself master of the whole Wales was
Llewelyn the Great (1194-1240). His grandson, Llewelyn II (1247-82), enjoyed
for a time even greater and wider power in Wales, but he supported Simon de
Monfort in the civil war against Henry III and soon after Simon's defeat
Llewelyn had to make peace with Henry and he had to recognize the king of
- 21
England as his overlord. When Edward I succeeded his father as king of
England in 1272, Llewelyn should have renewed his homage to the new king, but
his refusal to do so was the beginning of his downfall. Edward invaded Wales
in 1276 and made Llewelyn surrender. He was allowed to keep the hereditary
title of Prince of Wales, but his authority was restricted to a small area in
Wales.
In 1282 Llewelyn’s brother David started a rebellion, but Edward once
again called together his army and after some months of fighting Llewelyn was
killed in battle, and David was captured and executed as a traitor. By the
Statute of Wales, issued in 1284, the land and people became directly subject
to the king of England. One month later a son was born to Edward I at
Carnarvon Castle. In 1301 the title Prince of Wales was revived for this young
man. Since then the eldest son of the king of England has always had the title
Prince of Wales conferred on him. King Edward I greatly extended his system
of castles, adding a ring of castles around Welsh stronghold of Snowdonia, at
Conway, Carnarvon and Harlech (ill. 42-44). These were the largest and
strongest castles which the English had ever built.
Scotland had become a centralized feudal kingdom in the middle of the
twelfth century. But when in 1286 Alexander III died suddenly without a
direct heir there were two possible successors to his throne. To avoid civil
war the leading men of Scotland invited Edward I of England to decide between
these two claims. Edward gave judgement in favour of John Balliol, who paid
homage to Edward and was crowned King John of Scotland. But soon Edward began
to make effective use of his clearly defined overlordship over Scotland, but
the Scots resented their loss of independence and resisted. Open revolt broke
out in 1295 and in the spring of 1296 Edward invaded Scotland and defeated the
Scots. Thus Edward reduced Scotland to much the same condition as Wales after
the rebellion of 1282. The kingdom of Scotland had been abolished and the land
had been incorporated into the dominions of the king of England. But Scottish
strength had not been broken by Edward’s triumphant tour. Armed resistance to
English rule continued under the leadership of William Wallace, who inflicted
a major defeat on the English at Stirling Bridge in 1297. In 1298 Edward took
revenge for Stirling at Falkirk, but he was distracted from Scotland because
of the war with France. He took Stirling Castle in 1304 after a long siege and
Wallace was captured and executed in London. Edward tried to make Scotland a
part of England, as he had done with Wales. Some Scottish nobles accepted him,
but the people refused to be ruled by the English king. Scottish nationalism
was born on the day Wallace died.
- 22 -
The argument between the two countries continued later on between the son
of Edward I and Robert Bruce, crowned King Robert of Scotland. In 1314 Bruce
defeated the English army at Bannockburn and Scotland became a strong indepen-
dent kingdom, bitterly hostile to England. An alliance grew between Scotland
and France, known as "the Old Alliance", with the result that on the many
occasions when England was at war with France, it had to fight on two fronts.
When the Union of Crowns finally came in 1603, it was the result not of
conquest, but of the accident that James VI of Scotland was the heir of the
childless Elizabeth I of England.
The Century of War, Plague and Disorder
The grandson of Edward I, Edward III (1327-77), was another of England's
great warrior kings. The chief event of his reign was the beginning of a long
and dramatic struggle for mastery between the kings of England and France
which lasted, with intervals of peace, for more than one hundred years (1337-
1453), and had a profound effect on the history of both countries.
Edward III and Philip VI of France drifted into the war without any notion
that they were starting such a long and destructive struggle. Edward feared
French encroachments on the English possessions in France — Gascony, resented
the French Alliance with Scotland, desired to protect Flanders, which bought
most of the English wool every year, from the French aggression, and he also
hoped to regain all the possessions in France which had been lost by King
John. Philip wanted to drive • the English out of France altogether and to
extend his authority to the rich county of Flanders. It was only after war had
broken out that Edward advanced a claim to the French crown, which, soundly
based in law, was utterly unacceptable tn the people of France.
The warfare was interrupted by Black Death — the bubonic plague in 1348,
which was the greatest catastrophe in the history of England. In spite of this
disaster the war was renewed in 1355 by Edward, Prince of Wales, known from
the colour of his armour as the Black Prince. He lived only for war; his chief
interest in war seems to have been slaughter and destruction. He defeated the
French in 1360 and both sides had signed a truce, which was violated by both
sides many times in the years to come.
Peace lasted until 1415 and this long interval in the Hundred Years' War
was occupied by the reigns of Richard II and Henry IV. It was the time of
great social and political unrest, caused by the destructive influence of the
war on all aspects of life in England’. In 1381 the peasants rose in revolt
against their lords and government. Led by Wat Tyler, they entered London and
- 23 -
(or two days controlled the capital. They released the prisoners from prison
mid murdered all the lawyers they could catch. With great courage the young
king met the rebels in an open space. Tyler spoke for the rebels. An alterca-
I ion followed, in which he was killed. Just as the great mass of the rebels
wnu about to overwhelm the king and his small party, Richard promised to grant
nil their demands. They accepted and dispersed to their homes. The rebellion
was over. The government then ignored the king’s promises and took a terrible
revenge on the peasants.
During the reigns of Henry IV and Henry V the war with France continued
and France inflicted heavy losses until a leader of miraculous powers appeared
In France, re-united the nobles, and gave confidence to the people. This was
Joan of Arc, a poor illiterate peasant girl who was inspired by the belief
(hat she was sent by God to save France from the English. In only just over
two years, from her capture of Orleans in 1429 to her burning as a witch in
1431, her work was finished. Although it took the French another twenty—two
years to recover their land from the English, they never lost the spirit Joan
liad given them. When the war at last ended in 1453 the English held only
Calais.
I be England of Chaucer
In the middle of the fourteenth century the clergy, lawyers and scholars
проке Latin; people in aristocratic society still spoke French; but everybody
проке English. In 1362 Edward III ordered that English should be spoken in
Parliament and it was a major step in the development of English as the
national language. In the year when Edward issued his order, Geoffrey Chaucer,
the first person to use the English language for a masterpiece of literature,
wns twenty-two years old. He was writing poetry in English all through his
life, and his masterpiece, "The Canterbury Tales”, was written about 1386-
9(1. The popularity of his book did much to establish the kind of English
прокоп in London and the East Midlands as standard English of all educated men.
In the fourteenth century England was the chief wool-producing country» in
I иrope, and the great cloth industry of Flanders depended on English wool.
(*«»nrse cloth for wear by the ordinary people had always been woven in England,
but the upper classes wore fine cloth imported from abroad. Towns were growing
In number, size and importance with the development of industry and trade, hut
I own life was not completely cut off from the country life as it is in the
modern industrial community. There were a few large towns: London had about
4U,000 inhabitants, York and Bristol about 10,000 each, but over the country
- 24 -
as a whole 2,000 to 3,000 inhabitants represented a fair-sized town.
Trade and industry within each town were organized by the Merchant and
Craft Guilds. The Merchant Guild supported the citizens who traded outside the
town in competition with merchants from other towns. There was a Craft Guild
for each craft, as for example, weaving, carpeting, etc., which controlled the
quality of the products. The guilds also produced miracle and morality plays
during the.great festivals of the Church, such as Christmas and Easter. These
plays were among the devices used by the medieval Church to keep the people,
who could not read, constantly reminded of the great stories of their religion
— painted glass windows and the paintings with which the walls of churches
were covered, were other devices.
Great wealth also found expression in the building of fine houses and
magnificent churches, and the foundation of schools and colleges — as, for
example, Eton College near Windsor and King’s College at Cambridge University,
founded by Henry VI, or New College at Oxford University. But in 1455, only
two years after the end of the Hundred Years’ War, a series of civil wars
began between the great nobles for the control of the government.
The Wars of the Roses
Henry VI, who had become king as a baby, was a mentally ill king and hated
the warlike nobles. There were not more than sixty noble families controlling
England at that time. Because. of the fact that England had lost the war with
France and was ruled by a mentally ill king, it was perhaps natural that the
nobles began to ask questions about who should be ruling the country. Eventual-
ly by 1460 the nobility were divided between those who remained loyal to Henry,
the "Lancastrians”, and those who supported the duke of York, the "Yorkists".
According to tradition the Lancastrians took a red rose as their emblem and
the supporters of the duke of York took a white rose, which gave the name to
these wars as the Wars of the Roses.
In 1461 Duke of York defeated the Lancastrians and was crowned king as
Edward IV. He began the horrible practice, which was continued by both sides
for the rest of the wars, of executing noble captives after each victory. As a
result, few of the old feudal nobility survived the Wars of the Roses-— those
who were not killed in the battles were executed qfterwards, and most of the
old noble families became extinct.
When Edward IV died in 1483 his brother Richard took the Crown and became
King Richard III. He was not popular as king and both Lancastrians and
Yorkists disliked him. In 1485 a challenger from France with a very distant
- 25 -
clriim to royal blood landed in England to claim the throne. His name was Henry
ludor. Many discontented lords on both sides joined him and the battle of
Booworth quickly ended in defeat and death of Richard III. Eventually, in 1485
the House of York gave place to the House of Tudor, and the Wars of the Roses
were over. England had at last found a ruler sufficiently strong, clever and
ublc to solve her problems. The violence and uncertainty which dominated
I ngland for over a generation before 1485 were hated by all except the small
group who profited from them and the people were willing to welcome and
support any king strong enough to restore and maintain good government and
respect for the law. This was the foundation of the strength and success
Of Henry VII.
Ihe New Monarchy and the New Age
The Tudors, the Reformation, the Protestant — Catholic Struggle, the New
I oreiqn Policy. Many revolutionary changes were taking place in England under
Henry VII, but even more far-reaching changes were taking place in Europe and
til footing the outside world. They were the invention of printing and the
Renaissance, and their impact on England is associated with William Caxton and
I rnsmus.
Caxton was a prosperous merchant who lived for over thirty years in
I landers where he learned the recently invented art of printing. In 1476 he
returned to England and set up his press in Westminster. During his life he
printed nearly a hundred books and thus completed Chaucer’s work of establish-
ing the kind of English spoken in London and the East Midlands as the standard
I nglish of all educated men.
In the early years of the sixteenth century the Dutchman Erasmus was the
input distinguished scholar in Europe. Through visits to England, where he was
Гос a time Professor of Divinity and Greek at Cambridge University, Erasmus
did more than any other man to extend the full fruits of Renaissance to
Inqland. One important result was a thorough reform of the methods and subject
unit ter of education.
The century of Tudor rule (1485-1603) is often thought of as a most
glorious period in English history. Henry VII built the foundations of a
wnnlthy state and a powerful monarchy. His son, Henry VIII, kept a magnificent
rnurt, and made the Church of England truly English by breaking away from the
R(»mun Catholic Church. Finally, his daughter Elizabeth brought glory to the
im’W state by defeating in 1588 the powerful navy of Spain, the greatest
I urnpean power of the time. During the Tudor age England experienced one of
- 26 -
the greatest artistic periods in its history. There is, however, a less
glorious view of the Tudor century. Henry VIII wasted the wealth saved by his
father. Elizabeth weakened the quality-of government by selling official posts.
She did this to avoid asking Parliament for money.
Henry VIII was always looking for new sources of money. His father had
become powerful by taking over the nobles’ land, but the lands owned by the
Church and the monasteries had not been touched. The Church was a huge
landowner, and the monasteries were no longer important to economic and social
growth in the way they had been two hundred years earlier. Henry VIII disliked
the power of the Church in England because, since it was an international
organisation, he could not completely control it. He was not the only European
king with a wish to ’’centralise’’ state authority. But Henry VIII had another
reason for standing up to the authority of the Church.
It was the failure of Catherine of Aragon to provide a male heir to the
throne which led to a great quarrel between Henry VIII and the Pope. By 1527
the only living child of Henry VIII was a daughter, Mary. He feared the
outbreak of a civil war if he died without a son to succeed him, so in 1527 he
instructed Cardinal Wolsey to get the Pope to dissolve his marriage to
Catherine, in order that he might marry Anne Boleyn and have a son. But the
Pope was not in a position to do that, so in 1529 Wolsey fell from his power,
and Henry prepared to use the English hatred of the wealthy clergy to force
the Pope to do what he wanted. Slowly Henry VIII put pressure on the Pope and
after several refusals of the Pope to give way Henry in 1533 made himself head
of the Church of England in place of the Pope. The new Archbishop of Canter-
bury, Thomas Cranmer, declared that Henry had never been lawfully married to
Catherine and that his four-month secret marriage to Anne was legal.
In this way the Church of England lost its power to the king and Parlia-
ment, but its immense wealth had as yet been hardly touched. So between 1536
and 1539 his new minister Thomas Cromwell, with the support of the Parliament,
dissolved the monasteries and transferred all their property to the king. The
monks and nuns who co-operated, were found jobs in the Church or were
pensioned off; the few who resisted, were hanged. The king's need for
money was so great that he could not keep the monastic lands and spend only
the income. He began to sell them to his officials and wealthy merchants.
Henry married in all six wives, but only three children survived his death
in 1547: Mary, born to Catherine of Aragon, Elizabeth, born to Anne Boleyn and
Edward, born to Jane Seymour.
The son of Henry, Edward VI, was only a child when he became king, so the
- 27 -
country was ruled by a council. All the members of this council were from the
new nobility created by the Tudors. They were keen protestant reformers
because they had benefited from the sale of monastery lands. All the new land-
owners knew that they could only be sure of keeping their lands if they made
I nqland truly Protestant. In 1552 a new prayer book was introduced to make
rmre that all churches followed the new Protestant religion, but the people
did not like the changes in belief, and in some places there was trouble.
When Elizabeth I became queen in 1558, she wanted to find a peaceful
answer to the problems of the English Reformation. She wanted to bring
together again those parts of English society which were in religious disagree-
incnt. The struggle between Catholics and Protestants continued to endanger
llizabeth's position for the next thirty years. Both France and Spain were
Catholic, and Elizabeth and her advisers wanted to avoid open quarrels with
both of them. There was also a danger from those Catholic nobles who wished to
remove Elizabeth I and replace her with the queen of Scotland, who was
Cntholic.
The story of the relationship of Elizabeth and Mary Queen of Scots (Mary
Slunrt) is a tragic history of relationship of two queens, which inspired many
writers of the past and present to give their own vision of a personality
during the most crucial period of the history of England and Scotland. After
an unsuccessful marriage in France Mary had returned to Scotland and married
hcr cousin, who was killed in circumstances which made it almost certain that
ho had been murdered. Mary's ardent Roman Catholicism had already made her
unpopular with her Protestant subjects. She had to abdicate in favour of her
Infant son James and fled to England in 1568. Her cousin Elizabeth I could
neither send her back to Scotland, because the Scots were determined to kill
her, nor let her go free in England, because to all Roman Catholics she was
tho rightful queen of England. 5o she remained a prisoner for nineteen years,
until the Catholic plots to make her queen instead of Elizabeth became so
ihiiujcrous that she was executed in 1587. By that time most English people
believed that to be a Catholic was to be an enemy of England. This hatred of
everything Catholic became an important political force.
One of Elizabeth's most remarkable achievements in the first half of her
reign was the restoration of the country's finances to a sound condition for
I he first time over thirty years. The rapidly increasing prosperity gave many
p-rople more leisure for recreation and more money to spend on pleasure. This
produced an outburst of artistic achievement, particularly in music, poetry
and drama. Elizabethan age is unique, because in it lived and worked a
- 28 -
uniquely great artist — William Shakespeare (ill. 11-12).
The Elizabethan drama was rapidly developed from the miracle and morality
plays of the Middle Ages by a group of writers, of whom only Christopher
Marlowe is still performed. Plays of the new type were first performed in the
colleges of Oxford and Cambridge Universities (ill. 7-10), in the courtyards
of the great mansions. Companies of actors were therefore always on the move.
Permanent theatres were built later, in London, but were regarded with
suspicion by the authorities as places where criticism of the government might
lead to riots. Shakespeare hardly ever wrote directly about current affairs,
for to do so was far too dangerous when many questions of home and foreign
policy were burning issues. Yet we can learn even more about Elizabethan
England from Shakespeare than we can about the fourteenth century from
Chaucer, because whatever the plot, period or country with which Shakespeare
is dealing, it is Elizabethan men and women who move and speak on his stage.
The great geographical discoveries at the end of the fifteenth century
gave control of the new ocean trade routes to Portugal and Spain. England
meanwhile devoted much attention to developing its trade with Europe, but no
spectacular fortunes could be made from such trade. The possibility of vast
profits, though at the price of gigantic risks, tempted a few adventurous
Englishmen to challenge the Spanish monopoly of trade with its colonies. One
of them was Francis Drake, who after three years of wandering in the Pacific
returned home laden with Spanish treasure. Queen Elizabeth recognized his
merits for the country and knighted him.
Although England and Spain did not go to war with each other officially
until 1585, there was a state of undeclared war between them. The long-
expected Spanish attack on England became imminent when, in 1586, Elizabeth
sent an army to help the Dutch rebels. Philip II of Spain became convinced
that he would never defeat the Dutch while England remained unconquered, and
began to prepare a huge fleet, or Armada, for the invasion of England. The
Armada sailed in July 1588 and the Spanish plan was to make contact with their
army in the Netherlands, defeat the English fleet, and convoy the army across
the Channel to invade England. For this purpose the 130 ships of the Armada
carried 18,000 soldiers but only 8,000 sailors, and were commanded by a
general, not an admiral. The English ships were faster, so they were able to
avoid close combat. After two days of fighting the Spanish ships sailed north-
wards in an attempt to get back to Spain by going round Scotland, but a
tremendous westerly gale completed the damage done by the English guns and
fire-ships. Only fifty ships of the Armada got back to Spain.
- 29 -
By the death of Elizabeth I in 1603 England was one of the leading trading
notions in the world, and on the eve of the founding of colonies and expansion
of trade which were to make it the greatest colonial and trading power in
the world.
Пю Stuarts
Parliament against the Crown, Civil War, Restoration. When the son of
Mary Stuart, King James VI of Scotland, succeeded to the throne as James I of
I ngland i,n 1603, he inherited the problems which a much wiser and more adapt-
able man than he might well have failed to solve. The prolonged crisis during
the Tudor period, which resulted from the changes in religion and the threat
of foreign invasion, caused the Tudor rulers to co-operate more fully and more
continuously with Parliament than any previous rulers had done. Three things
produced the head-on collision between James and Parliament which Elizabeth
had with such care and difficulty avoided: James’s constant need for money,
religion and his inability to understand and manage the House of Commons.
In his over-confident way James on his arrival in England so handled
religious affairs that he gave the impression that he favoured Roman Catholi-
cism. This was a bad foundation for his relations with Parliament, where the
Puritans, the party who considered that the Church of England was still too
similar to the Roman Church, were strongly represented • Anxious to rule
over a united, contented and happy people, James suspended the ferocious laws
nqninst Roman Catholics. The result was the fantastic but dangerous Gunpowder
Plot of 1605. The plotters’ intention was to blow up the king and both Houses
of Parliament on the only occasion when they would all be assembled in the
Iknjse of Lords for the State Opening of Parliament on the 5th of November. But
LIkj king’s ministers became aware of the plot and Guy Fawkes was arrested in a
room under the House of Lords. The plot raised popular hatred of Roman Catho-
lics to a frenzy. Bonfires were lighted everywhere to celebrate the escape of
the king and Parliament, and effigies of Guy Fawkes were burned — as they
till 11 are on the 5th of November each year.
Charles I inherited an even more difficult situation than his father. His
iniirriage to Henrietta Maria, the Roman Catholic sister of the king of France,
nnd the knowledge that she had great influence over him gave strength to the
•kunpicion that Charles intended to re-establish the Roman Church in England.
At the beginning of Charles’s reign Parliament deliberately kept him short of
money in order to compel him to call it frequently. There was nothing in the
law of England to compel the king to call Parliament at any fixed intervals,
- 30 -
so for eleven years Charles succeeded in raising enough money without breaking
the law. The first actions of the Long Parliament in 1641 were to secure its
own position and to make illegal the methods by which the king had ruled so
successfully for eleven years without Parliament.
The event which did in fact bring about the formation of a Royalist party
and a Parliamentary party, and made war between them almost unavoidable, was a
rebellion -by the Roman Catholic Irish in October 1641. An army had to be
raised to put down the Irish rebellion, but the Parliament dared not provide
Charles with an army, for fear that he would use it to recover all the
authority which had been taken away from him, and perhaps more. Throughout
English history command of the army had belonged to the king, and it would be
a revolutionary action for Parliament to attempt to transfer command to them-
selves. It was upon this issue of control of the army that the Civil War
broke out.
Charles retired to York in January 1642 and, relying on his supporters to
provide money voluntarily, began to raise an army. Eighty peers and one hund-
red and seventy-five members of the House of Commons joined the king; thirty
peers and three hundred members of the Commons remained in London. The only
clear distinction between the two parties was religion: supporters of the
Church of England and Roman Catholics sided with the king; opponents of the
Church of England sided with the Parliament. But this religious division did
have certain geographical and social consequences. The more sparsely populated
and poor north and west of England in general supported the king; the more
densely populated and rich south and east supported Parliament.
The initiative in the first two campaigns in 1642-3 lay with the king, and
he tried to seize London. Had he succeeded, he would probably have won the
war. During the winter of 1643-4 both sides sought allies. All that Charles
could do was to reach an agreement with the Irish rebels, but these troops
were of poor quality and were of little help to him. Parliament signed the
Covenant with the Scots, by which they secured the help of a powerful Scottish
army in return for their promise (as the Scots understood it, at least) to
make England a Presbyterian country. As a result of this agreement the Anglo-
Scottish army won an overwhelming victory in 1644, and control of northern
England passed from the king to Parliament. In the summer of 1645 the New
Model Army won a victory at Naseby, which finally broke the Royalist power. In
1646 Charles surrendered to the Scots and proceeded to play off the Scots,
Parliament and the army against each other. In the negotiations which followed,
Oliver Cromwell came to the front as the leader of the army. He was a Puritan,
- 31
opposed to the Church of England and fanatically hostile to the Church of Rome,
hut with these two exceptions he was not prepared to force any particular form
ol Christianity on others. This view was shared by the. army as a whole. Those
who took it were called Independents, and there was bound to be a quarrel .
hoi ween them and Parliament, for Parliament wanted to make England uniform
with Scotland in religion. As a result, a second Civil War broke out in
January 1648, in \-hich the Presbyterian Parliament, Scots and Royalists tried
Io defeat the Independent army which had won the first Civil War.
There was set up a court which tried the king and condemned him to death
lor waging war against Parliament and people. He was beheaded outside the
lluiiqueting Hall of his own Palace at Whitehall on the 31st of January 1649.
I ha trial and execution of the king had been to a great extent Cromwell's
personal work, but he tried to make the revolutionary act look as legal as
IMinsible.
From 1653 Britain was governed by Cromwell alone. He became "Lord
Protector", with far greater powers than King Charles had had. His efforts to
govern the country through the army were extremely unpopular, and the idea of
•ining the army to maintain law and order in the kingdom has remained unpopular
over since. Cromwell's government was unpopular for other reasons. For
oxiunple, people were forbidden to celebrate Christmas and Easter, or to play
ijn.inos on a Sunday. The genius of Cromwell kept the government going so long as
Im lived, but after his death in 1658 it collapsed and there was no alterna-
tive but to call Charles II from France to his father's throne.
Charles II was welcomed back from his exile in France with great outburst
•if popular rejoicing in 1660. The Puritan kill-joys of the Commonwealth were
no longer in power, and the theatres were re-opened and new dramatists wrote
I ho plays which reflected the pleasure-seeking spirit of the age. The new king
wiit* typical of the period. He had spent nearly half of the thirty years of his
life in exile on the continent and he was determined to enjoy to the utmost
nil the pleasures which are open to a king. His court was the most notorious
In I nglish history for its low moral standards.
Iwo great events happened in London soon after Charles II had come back
io England. The Great Plague in 1665 was the last outbreak of bubonic plague
In lhe country and it killed about 68,600 people in London. The Great Fire of
was one of the most disastrous of the fires known in medieval cities,
wllh their narrow streets and close-packed houses. The old city of London
wllliin its walls was almost completely destroyed, with its great Gothic
<nllmdral of St Paul and some 13,000 houses. England was fortunate in having
- 32 -
at this time one of the ablest architects in her history, Sir Christopher Wren,
to superintend the reconstruction. The plan he drew up for an entirely new
city of broad ways and spacious squares was not carried out, but the new city
was much more spacious than the old, and Wren himself designed a magnificent
new St Paul's Cathedral in the fashionable classical style.
There was a great deal of political struggle in England during the reign
of Charles II. As a result of it the modern system of parties in Parliament
began to develop, one party supporting the government and the other opposing
it. Members who supported the government in this age of bitter party strife
were called Tories by the opponents, and replied by calling the opposition
Whigs. Both words were terms of abuse, Tories being Roman Catholic rebels
against the government in Ireland, and Whigs — Presbyterian rebels against
the government in Scotland. But like many names, first given to discredit and
hurt, they outlasted their original purpose and became titles borne with pride
and honour. During this struggle one statute was passed in the Parliament
which was of permanent benefit to English liberties. The Habeas Corpus Act of
1679 greatly improved the ancient procedure by which an Englishman who had
been imprisoned without trial could secure his release. After this it was
almost impossible for the government to put people in prison simply for
opposing its policies.
James II who succeeded his brother Charles II in 1685, was a fanatical
Roman Catholic, prepared to sacrifice everything in an attempt to make England
a Roman Catholic country. This united almost everyone in the country against
him. Tories, Whigs and the Anglican Church were looking forward to the
succession of James's daughter, Mary. She was Protestant and married to the
Protestant ruler of Holland, William of Orange. So an invitation to save
England from tyranny and Roman Catholicism, signed by leaders of both parties
and of the Church, was sent to William. He landed with a strong army in Devon-
shire in November 1688, James II fled to France and Parliament declared that
William and Mary were joint rulers in his place.
Like the Civil War of 1642, the Glorious Revolution, as the political
results of the events of 1688 were called, was completely unplanned and
unprepared for. It was hardly a revolution, more a coup d'etat by the ruling
class, but the fact that Parliament made William king, not by inheritance but
by their choice, was revolutionary. Parliament was now beyond question more
powerful than the king, and would remain so. Its power over the monarch was
written into the Bill of Rights in T689. The king was now unable to raise
taxes or keep the army without the agreement of Parliament, or to act against
- 33 -
nny MP for what he said or did in Parliament. In 1701 Parliament finally
pnuacd the.Act of Settlement, to make sure only a Protestant could inherit the
crown. Even today, if a son or daughter of the monarch becomes a Catholic, he
or she cannot inherit the throne.
I lie Eighteenth Century
The Revolution of 1688 was a victory for the Church of England as well as t
Гог Parliament. The gains of Scotland from the Revolution were even greater
Ilion those of England. In Scotland the bulk of the people were Presbyterians,
•invngely persecuted since 1660 by the supporters of the Church of England,
they therefore made it a condition of their acceptance of William and Mary
I hut the Presbyterian Church should be established as the national Church of
Scotland. The Scottish Parliament, too, which had been almost completely
controlled by the English kings of the period, now secured the same powers as
I he English Parliament.
Separation of the two kingdoms, with war raging in Europe and a disputed
iiiirccssion in England, inevitable on the death of the monarch, would have been
n disaster for both. But the interests, they had in common, were greater than
I lie forces pulling them apart, so after long and difficult negotiations, Acts
to establish a real union between the countries were passed by both Parlia-
ments in 1707. Instead of separate kingdoms of England and Scotland sharing a
ningle king, a United Kingdom of Great Britain was created. The Parliament of
I he United Kingdom was to sit at Westminster, and the Scots were to send forty-
live members to the House of Commons and sixteen peers to the House of Lords
— they would always be in a minority. Both countries gained enormously from
I he union. Quite apart from the dangers which they avoided, they both became
•inch richer. The hardy, energetic people of Scotland, by their superior
education, hard work and business ability greatly increased the rate at which
Ин’ English were expanding their industry and trade, so that the union opened
n period of prosperity of Great Britain. There is a saying, half-humorous but
fundamentally true, that the British Empire was created by the Scots.
When Queen Anne, the last of the Stuarts, died in 1714 the population and
prosperity of Great Britain had been growing slowly for' three and a half
г oiiluries, without any great change in the basic way of life of the people.
I (mdon continued to benefit from its unique position, fifty miles up an
induiiry of the Thames navigable by ocean-going ships. Living quarters ranged
I loin the large town houses of the nobles of the West End, through the comfort-
iihlu but more compact houses of merchants and bankers in the City, to the
- 34 -
miserable hovels of the poor in the East End. The drainage and water supply of
this densely populated area remained exceedingly primitive till the middle of
the nineteenth century.
Difficulty in obtaining pure drinking water was one reason why beer
remained the normal drink of nearly everyone in the country. Tea, coffee and
chocolate had been imported from the East since the middle of the seventeenth
century, but they were still far too expensive for any but the rich to drink.
Tea-drinking was a fashionable ritual in wealthy households, but coffee and
chocolate were mainly drunk in coffee houses, to which business men and men of
letters went regularly to meet their friends and read the newspapers. The
first regular newspapers had appeared during the republic, but there was only
one daily newspaper, the Daily Courant, first published in 1703 and the first
successful daily newspaper in the world. These newspapers consisted of single
sheets of paper printed on both sides, and they confined themselves almost
entirely to foreign, political and crime reports.
Comment and discussion were provided by a flood of pamphlets. Each of
these was filled with arguments for the policy of the party which its author
supported. They were often read aloud in the coffee houses, and had a tremen-
dous influence on public opinion. Each party had its paid pamphleteers, among
them some of the best writers of the English language, such as Joseph Addison
for the Whigs and Jonathan Swift for the Tories. Defoe often supported the
Whigs, but sometimes he.struck out an independent line of his own, which got
him into trouble.
During the period of 1714-1760 George I and George II, who came from the
German state of Hanover were kings of Great Britain. They spoke no English,
and neither understood nor had any interest in the complicated system by which
the British divided power between king and Parliament. Charles II and his
successors all presided in person over the meetings of their Cabinets, but
George II ceased to attend them. The absence of the king from Cabinet
meetings for forty-two years settled the modern practice that the king does
not preside in person — the Cabinet meets, discusses, and takes its
decisions, and then reports its decisions to the king. In the absence of the
king, the minister whose force of character and political ability made him the
leading personality naturally presided over the meetings. This emergence of a
leader, where previously all had been equal, was resented, and the term "Prime
Minister" was first used as a criticism, almost an insult. Only a man of
altogether exceptional force and ability, such as Sir Robert Walpole or the
younger William Pitt, could exert any real authority over his colleagues, and
- 35 -
II was not until almost the middle of the nineteenth century that the position
• •Г Lire Prime Minister as it exists today developed — a minister who can
<i|i|H>int and dismiss the other members of the Cabinet at his discretion, and is
11»<i aole channel of communication between the Cabinet and the king.
During the period of 1715-1745 there were two attempts of the Jacobites to
inntore the Stuarts by force, in 1715 and 1745. The ’’Fifteen", as it was
lulled, was not dangerous, although Prince James Edward, the Pretender,
landed in Scotland and was proclaimed King James III. The Pretender was hardly
more attractive personally than George I, and his refusal to become a Pro-
lonlant gave him almost no chance of support in England. The rising was put
down without difficulty, and the Pretender returned to his exile in France.
The "Forty-Five" was a far more serious affair. Prince James Edward's
the dashing and attractive Prince Charles Edward — "Bonnie Prince
Iharlie" to his friends, the Young Pretender to his enemies — landed in
*n nt land and raised his father's standard. Prince Charles rapidly gained
control of Scotland, and then with a Scots army invaded England. But there was
uv»u less support than in 1715, and at Derby, not far from London, the Scots
lofueed to advance any further. While they were advancing southwards the
iiikIlences in the London theatres began for the first time to sing "God save
i»nr Lord the King", which with slight changes in the words, became the
National Anthem. The army of Prince Charles was defeated in Scotland, at
lullcxlen, in April 1746, but Prince Charles, after months of wandering,
managed to escape and got back to France, in spite of the huge reward offered
hir his capture. The Highlanders were cruelly punished for their stubborn
loyalty to the Stuarts. The clan system was destroyed and the wearing of the
I nil Im and the kilt, the carrying of arms, and even playing the bagpipes were
Iorhidden.
George III succeeded to the throne in 1760 and was the first of the
llmnivorian kings to be born and brought up in England. The disaster of his
111I911 was the loss of thirteen of Britain's North American colonies. The
• pair nd which led to their loss was a result of Britain's victory in the Seven
Yearn' War. For so long as France possessed colonies in North America, the
hr H inh colonists could hot protect themselves from conquest by the French and
llmlr Indian allies without the help of the British navy and army. But after
Um expulsion of France from North America in 1763 the colonists were no longer
diqmndont on Britain for protection. And taxation of the colonists by the
Hr ItInh Parliament, as a contribution towards the cost of their own defence
nlitiFpened the quarrel between them and the mother-country into an open
- 36 -
conflict. The anti-English party in the colonies was able to revive the
agitation against taxation and in December 1773 they organized the "Boston Tea
Party" — a group of men disguised as Indians boarded the East India Company’s
ships in Boston harbour and threw their cargoes of tea into the water. If the
British government was to remain any authority in its American colonies, it
could not ignore this open defiance and the steps it took to punish Boston,
led to the outbreak of war. In July 1776 the Congress formally broke the legal
ties which bound the colonies to Britain by issuing the Declaration of
Independence, with its immortal phrases "that all men are created equal, that
they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among
these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness". It went on to declare
that governments are established to secure these rights, and that if any
"government becomes destructive, it is the right of the people to alter or
abolish it, and to institute new government" — the very grounds on which the
English had driven out James II and replaced him by William and Mary!
The Industrial Revolution
There were plenty of people in 1783, both in Britain and abroad, who
thought that Britain's loss of American colonies marked the end of a brief
period of greatness and the beginning of decline. In 1783 Britain still
possessed Canada, Newfoundland and some islands in the West Indies. Chance
and private enterprise continuously enlarged the Empire during the eighteenth
century and Britain added some territories of strategic importance on the
trade routes, such as Malta, Cape Colony, Mauritius, Ceylon, etc. In three
remarkable voyages between 1768 and 1779 Captain James Cook explored New
Zealand "and the coast of Australia, and claimed the lands he visited for
Britain. If there is any period when the often repeated saying that "The
British Empire was acquired in a fit of absence of mind" is true, it is true
of this period, after the loss of the American colonies.
The driving force behind the vast expansion of Britain's overseas empire
and also behind the industrial revolution, was a sudden and enormous increase
of population of England. Industry and agriculture were to satisfy the needs
of population and that brought to life new ideas. James Hargreave's spinning
Зеппу, invented about 1765, could spin eight threads (later increased to 120)
at the same time. Richard Arkwright invented a much larger and heavier machine
driven by a water-wheel and became a founder of the modern system, under which
the machines are housed in a large building and the workers come to the
factory, instead of working with small machines at home.
- 37 -
Ihe improvements in the steam engine, which made it for the first time
efficient enough to be a useful source or power, were the work of James Watt,
it Soot of brilliant inventive and mechanical genius. The skilful engineers
Mid calf, Telford and McAdam were working on the improvement of roads and
Invented a technique of surfacing roads, and McAdam's name has passed into the
binquuge to describe his technique — "tar-macadam" or "tarmac". A network of
waterproof and smooth-surfaced roads radiated out from London to all parts of
I hr Island, and as a result road-vehicles became lighter and speedier. For
Inntunce, the time for the journey by coach between London and Newcastle-upon-
lyrvr was'reduced from eight days in 1706 to forty hours in 1820.
The Napoleonic Wars, which lasted until 1815, were an even more dangerous
n!niggle for Britain than the Revolutionary Wars which preceded them. Napoleon
qnllirrcd a huge army for the invasion of England and concluded an alliance
with Spain in order to add Spanish navy to his own. Parliament organized the
third Coalition — Britain, Austria, Russia and Sweden. Admiral Nelson was
nmit to destroy the combined French and Spanish fleet and on 21 October 1805
Nolrjon defeated the Combined Fleet off Cape Trafalgar in perhaps the most
I nmouo naval battle in history. Nelson himself was mortally wounded on the
dink nF his flagship Victory, but he had accomplished his task of reducing
liulh the strength and the spirit of the French navy.
The final battle between Napoleon and the allied armies of British,
l.oimnn, Dutch and Prussian troops, commanded by Wellington, took place on
III June 1815 not far from the village of Waterloo in Belgium. Here Napoleon
nlIncked him with an army which was only slightly superior in number (74,000
•iqninnL 67,000), but greatly superior in quality to Wellington's. With
i nunidrrable difficulty Wellington managed to withstand the repeated attacks
nf lli<’ French veterans and the French were finally routed.
Ihe war-time prosperity of industry and agriculture in Britain came to an
i»lnii|it end in 1815, and between 1815 and 1822 the working people of Britain
irt'id through probably the grimmest experience of misery in their whole
hlnlnry. The sudden collapse of the demand for iron, cloth and leather for Jihe
win effort threw very many people out of work. At the same time the soldiers
and Hiiilors came back home to look for jobs, adding another half a million to
Hui jobloss. Difficult economic and social atmosphere of the subsequent years
hiniiqlil forward the political movement known as Chartism, because its six
ili'mriiidri were stated in a document called the People's Charter, drawn up in
III'/. Ilvoac demands were (each is followed by the year in which it was finally
tn hluvuil): the vote for every man (1918); voting by secret ballot (1872); the
- 38 -
abolition of the property qualification for membership of the House of Commons
(1858); payment of members of the Commons (1911); equal number of voters in
each Parliamentary constituency (1832); and a General Election every year
(every five years, 1911). The Chartists made three major efforts to get their
demands accepted by Parliament, in 1839, 1842, and 1848, by means of monster
petitions, mass meetings and a few riots, but they lacked effective leadership
and were deeply divided. They withdrew from political activity and for half a
century devoted themselves mainly to building up a well organized, prosperous
and powerful trade-union movement. Only when this task was completed did they
return to the political field with the foundation of the Labour Representa-
tion Committee in 1900.
The Victorian Age
Queen Victoria came to the throne as a young woman in 1837 and reigned
until her death in 1901. She married a German, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg,
but he died at the age of forty-two in 1861. She could not get over her sorrow
at his death, and for a long time refused to be seen in public. However, the
queen’s advisers persuaded her to take a more public interest in the business
of the kingdom. She did so, and she soon became extraordinary popular. By the
time Victoria died the monarchy was better loved among the British than it had
ever been before. The increasingly democratic British respected the example of
family life which the queen had given them, and shared its moral and religious
values. She also succeeded in showing a newly industrialized nation that the
monarchy was a connection with a glorious history.
After the loss of the American colonies in 1783, the idea of creating new
colonies remained unpopular until the 1830s. Instead, Britain watched the
oceans carefully to make sure its trade routes were safe, and fought wars in
order to protect its "areas of interest". After about 1850 Britain was driven
more by fear of growing European competition than by commercial need. This led
to the taking of land, the creation of colonies, and to colonial wars that
were extremely expensive.
The fear that Russia would destroy the weak Ottoman Empire and would
change the balance of power in Europe led to the Crimean War. It was the first,
and last, time that newspapers were able to report freely on a British war
without army control. They wrote about the courage of the ordinary soldiers,
and the poor quality of their officers. They also reported the shocking
conditions in army hospitals, and the remarkable work of the famous nurse
Florence Nightingale.
- 39 -
Britain’s interest in Africa was increased by reports of European travel-
h’l i and explorers. The most famous of these was David Livingstone, who was a
 fitthjh doctor, a Christian missionary and an explorer. He discovered areas
•il Africa unknown to Europeans, and "opened” these areas to Christianity,
whh h easily became a tool for building a commercial and political empire in
Africa. By the end of the century, several European countries had taken over
I iiijr nreas of Africa. Britain succeeded in taking most.
I he real problems of British imperial ambition, however, were most obvious
In I <iypt. Britain, anxious about the safety of the route to India through the
mwly dug Suez Canal, invaded Egypt in 1882 and did not leave it until 1954.
By the end of the nineteenth century Britain controlled the oceans and
Inin h of the land areas of the world. Most British strongly believed in their
i hjhl to an empire, and were willing to defend it against the least threat.
Ihln ntate of mind became known as Jingoism, after a famous Music Hall song of
IH/tj. Britain found itself involved in a contradiction between its imperial
idJiillon and the liberal ideas it wished to advance elsewhere. Prime Minister
HI iiil-il one’s view that "the foreign policy of England should always be inspired
by a love of freedom" seemed to have little place in the colonies. In the
Iwnnlirlh century this contradiction was a major reason for the collapse of
Ilin empire.
In 1851 Queen Victoria opened the Great Exhibition of the Industries of
All Nations inside the Crystal Palace, in London. The exhibition aimed to show
Un' world the greatness of Britain's industry. No other nation could produce
ни никh at that time. The greatest example of Britain's industrial power in
Ilin mid nineteenth century was its railway system. George Stephenson, a self-
шип who worked in the collieries, built his first locomotive "Rocket" in
III Hi. When in 1825 a company opened a railway to carry minerals between
hl oi I-1 on and Darlington, a distance of eight and a half miles, Stephenson was
i|ijiiiiiil cd company engineer and persuaded his employers to replace horses with
• i'iihi engines to draw the trains. By 1840 2,400 miles of track had been laid,
< икни<1 Iih) not only the industrial towns of the north, but also London and all
big < Hies. The middle classes soon took advantage of the new opportunity to
iivii Ln I’ruburbs, from which they travelled into the city every day by train,
lb" Mibnrl) was a copy of the country village with all advantages of the town.
Iln d (d the London area was built very rapidly between 1850 and 1880 in
ни |itnirit« Io the enormous demand for a home in the suburbs.
Ilin most striking aspect of social change during the feign of Queen
Vldnrin was the widening and strengthening of the middle classes in the
- 40 -
community. No satisfactory definition of these classes has ever been evolved,
but they were undoubtedly the product of industrialization, which increased
the numbers of business men and their clerks. The middle class in the nine-
teenth century included those who worked in the professions, such as the
Church, the law,'medicine, the civil service, the diplomatic service, merchant
banking and the army and navy. It also included the commercial classes,
however, who were the real creators of wealth in the country. Industrialists
were often ’’self-made” men who came from poor beginnings. They believed in
hard work, a regular style of life and being careful with money. Those of the
middle class who could afford it, sent their sons to "public” schools. These
schools aimed not only to give boys a good education, but to train them in
leadership by taking them away from home and making their living conditions
hard. These public schools provided many of the officers for the armed forces,
the colonial administration and the civil service.
As to higher education, London University had been founded in 1836 and it
was cheaper to be educated there than at Oxford or Cambridge. On the whole,
however, higher education was alien to the middle classes, because the boys
going into businesses, were expected to leave school early, start at the bottom
of the ladder, and work their way upwards.
For the higher education of women Girton and Newnham Colleges were founded
at Cambridge in 1870, but though women were allowed to take university
examinations, degrees were not conferred on them. At Oxford Lady Margaret Hall
and Somerville were opened in the 1880s, these colleges being kept well away
from the men’s colleges. It had not been until 1871 that all posts as well as
degrees became open to nonconformists at Oxford and Cambridge. They were among
the last citadels surrendered by the Church of England.
Church-going was an upper- and middle-class practice. In 1850 few urban
working-class people attended any form of service. This was hardly surprising
when one considers the long hours which most of the wage-earning class were
required to work. Sundays and Christian holidays were their sole recognized
days for relaxation. The public house was the working man's club. Outdoor
amusements included horse racing, dog racing and even pigeon racing. Cock-
fighting and bull-baiting had been banned by acts of Parliament in the 1830s.
Looking back on the Victorian Age from the viewpoint of the end of the
1990s, one can see that respectability and narrow-mindedness were its key
characteristics. The search for respectability was essentially confined to the
expanding middle classes in society and was stimulated by religion. The family
was sacrosanct. The father was expected to be ambitious for himself and his
- 41
children and to increase his income by industry and abstinence. The mother had
Hip duty not merely of supervising the household and correcting the behaviour
nf her children, but also of raising the tone of her husband's mind "from low
anxieties and vulgar cares". Home was a place of rest for the husband where a
Human finds her highest pride in the sweetest humility and the tenderest self-
nuppression. Family prayers, family attendance at church and family holidays
wore unifying habits. A suitor was expected to ask a father's permission to
rmnd his daughter. Fidelity was the supreme virtue in marriage. A good
nxnmplc was set by a virtuous, domesticated and happily married Queen
Vlrloria.
Ihe industrial revolution had increased the power of men, and their
I Hillings about property. A man thought of his wife and daughters as his
property, and so did the law. It was almost impossible for women to get a
divorce, even for those rich enough to pay the legal costs. Until 1882, a
Нитон had to give up all her property to her husband when she married him. And
uni 11 1891, husbands were allowed by law to beat their wives with a stick "no
Ihirker than a man's thumb", and to lock them up in a room if they wished.
Hinnen were probably treated worse in.Britain than in any other industrialized
I iirupi-an country at this time.
After 1870 the situation began to improve. Women were allowed to vote and
In Hr elected to borough or county councils. A very small number started to
niudy at Oxford and Cambridge. Working-class women were more interested in
I Im I r legal rights, concerning working conditions, and they found support in
Ilin trade union movement. In 1888 the policy of the unions was that "where
wiimrii do the same work as men, they should receive equal pay". It was nearly
nmilher century before this principle became law. In 1897 women started to
d<4iuind the right to vote in national elections. Within ten years these women,
Ilin ".suffragettes", had become famous for the extreme methods they were
willing to use. Many politicians who agreed with their aims wefe shocked by
i fin 11* violent methods and stopped supporting them. Nonetheless, these reforms
ним quite inadequate. Of all social transformations that have taken place in
I In twentieth century, the emancipation of women from the position they held
In Victorian times, is the most significant.
lint Iwrjitieth Century
Queen Victoria died on 22 January 1901, and this event, which ended the
liiiigent reign in the British history, seemed to mark the end of an epoch. With
I Un queen, too, ended the nineteenth century, which had been distinguished, on
- 42 -
the whole, by rapidly increasing power, wealth and prosperity. During that
century Britain had reached a position of the greatest authority in inter-
national affairs, its empire stretched to all the far places of the earth, and
statesmen and people had felt a sense of national greatness and of imperial
mission. Of all this the old queen had become the symbol. Amid the hush of
sadness and of mourning which spread over the nation and Empire, men sorrowed
for the past which had gone but turned their minds also to the future, with
its new problems, troubles and storms beginning to open up before them.
There was the social problem at home. The masses of the people were
becoming more and more ready to demand improvements in their lot, and the
Liberal Party, when it came into office in 1905 under such leaders as Asquith
and Lloyd George, was their spokesman in the struggle for better conditions,
higher wages and greater security. Between 1911 and 1914 the old ruling
classes were also alarmed by great strikes on a national basis: miners,
railwaymen, and transport workers were standing together to take direct action
in advancing their cause. In South Africa, India and Egypt', there were grave
problems which the government of Britain would soon have to face. Most
serious, however, was the threat from Germany. Before the Boer War Englishmen
had thought of their country as standing securely alone and protected by the
navy. This attitude came to be known as "splendid isolation". The Boer War,
however, taught Britain the danger of isolation. At the moment of crisis,
Britain had found herself without a friend in Europe. Eventually Britain swung
over to the side of France and Russia. There were no formal alliances, but in
1904 Britain settled some colonial disputes with France, and reached a friend-
ly understanding. In 1907 it reached a similar understanding with Russia. They
were momentous steps, as the future was to prove, for in effect they brought
Britain into the Franco-Russian camp. From the division of Europe into two
hostile groups sprang the First World War in 1914.
Apart from the Crimean War, this was Britain’s first European war for a
century, and the country was quite unprepared for the destructive power of
modern weapons. At first all those who joined the army were volunteers, but in
1926 the government forced men to join the army whether they wanted or not. By
November 1918, when Germany surrendered, Britain had an army of over five
million men,.but by that time over 750,000 had died, and another two million
had been seriously wounded.
When peace came there were great hopes for a better future. These hopes
had been crehted by the government itself, which had made too many promises
about improved conditions of life for soldiers returning from the war. As soon
- 43 -
iin the war had ended, the government started a big programme of building homes
find improving health and education. But there was far less progress than
people had been led to hope for.
The war changed everything. Britain would nave been unable to continue the
wur without the women who took men's places in the factories. By 1918 29 per
cent of the total workforce of Britain was female. Women had to be given the
vote. But it was not until ten years later that the voting age of women came
down to twenty-one, equal with men.
The liberation of women took other forms. They started to wear lighter
clothing, shorter hair and skirts, began to smoke and drink openly, and to
wnnr cosmetics. Married women wanted smaller families, and divorce became
«under, rising from a yearly average of 800 in 1910 to 8,000 in 1939. Undoubt-
iilly many men also moved away from Victorian values. Leading writers like
l»jl. Lawrence, Aldous Huxley, James Joyce and Virginia Woolf freely discussed
unxual and other sensitive matters, which would have been impossible for
iMii lier generations.
Before the beginning of the war the British government had agreed to Home
Rule for Ireland. It was afraid, however, that the Protestants in the north
would start a civil war in Ulster if Home Rule was introduced. For this reason,
when war began in 1914, the government delayed the introduction of Home Rule
(inili-government), and called on Irishmen to join the’army. Many thousands did,
hup Ing that this show of loyalty would help Ireland win self-government when
11 io war ended.
Ihere was another group of Irishmen, however, who did not see why thev
«vlti.iuLd die for the British, who had treated Ireland so badly. They did not
«'«ily want Home Rule, but full independence. At Easter 1916, these republicans
i«’hulled in Dublin. The rising was quickly put down, and most Irish dis-
approved of it. But the British executed all the leaders, which was a serious
ini Inke.
In the 1918 elections the republicans won in almost every area except
IIInlcr. Instead of joining the British parliament, however, they met in their
tiwn new parliament in Dublin and announced that Ireland was now a republic,
hhthmen joined the republic's army, and guerrilla fighting against the
Ih II Isfi began. As a result, the British government in 1921 agreed to the
independence of southern Ireland. But it also insisted that Ulster, or
H«nlhern Ireland as it became known, should remain united with Britain. Within
I Im Republic of Ireland the majority have continued to believe that all
11и hind should one day be united, but without the use of force. A minority,
- 44 -
however, has remained since 1921 ready and willing to use violent means to
achieve a united Ireland.
The people of Britain watched anxiously as German control spread over
Europe in the 1930s. The war had begun as a traditional European struggle,
with Britain fighting to save the "balance of power" in Europe, and to control
the Atlantic Ocean and the seas surrounding Britain. But the war quickly
became worldwide. Everyone in Britain expected Germany to invade, but the
British air force won an important battle against German planes in the air
over Britain. This, however, did not prevent- the German air force from bombing
the towns of Britain. Almost one and a half million people in London were made
homeless by German bombing during the next two months. The Prime Minister,
Winston Churchill, managed to persuade a nation "on its knees" that it would
still win. Britain could not possibly have defeated Germany without the help
of its stronger allies, the Soviet Union and the United States. By 1943 the
Soviet Army was pushing the Germans out of the USSR, and Britain had driven
German and Italian troops out of North Africa. From that point onward the
Germans were slowly pressed back on every front. In May 1945, Germany finally
surrendered. It was victory, overwhelming victory, but not peace, for the
world remained disturbed.
At the end of the war victorious allies created the United Nations, which
expressed the ideas of freedoms the peoples of the world would like to enjoy.
The allies hoped that the success of wartime alliance could be carried into
peacetime. But this depended on a continuing feeling of common purpose, which
no longer existed. The idea of the four allies (Soviet Union, United States,
France and Britain) working together for the recovery of central Europe
collapsed. Europe became divided into two: the eastern part was under Soviet
control, the western part was under protection of the USA. As a result of the
struggle for West Berlin, opposing alliances were formed: the North Atlantic
Treaty Organization and the Warsaw Treaty.
British foreign policy was concerned with finding a new part to play in a
fast-changing world, and getting used to changing relations with its friends,
with the European countries, and with the members of the Commonwealth, a new
association of former British possessions.
Between 1945 and 1965 the rapid growth of independence movements and a
change in thinking in Britain led to self-government of former British
colonies. Britain tried to hold onto its international position through its
Commonwealth, which all the former colonies were invited to join as free and
equal members. This has been successful, because it is based on the kind of
- 45 -
friendship that allows all members to follow their own policies without inter-
ference. Britain also tried to keep its influence by a number of treaties with
friendly governments in the Middle East and in south-east Asia. But most ex-
colonies did not wish to be brought into such arrangements, either with
Britain or with any other powerful country.
By 1985 Britain had few of its old colonial possessions left, and those it
still had were being claimed by other countries: Hong Kong by China, the
Talklands/Malvinas by Argentina, and Gibraltar by Spain. In 1982 Britain went
lo war to take back the Falklands after an Argentinian invasion. The operation
was very popular in Britain, perhaps because it suggested that Britain was
still a world power. But Britain's victory made an eventual solution to the
problem more difficult and possession of the islands extremely expensive.
By the early 1960s Britain was increasingly interested in joining the new
European Community (EC). Britain wanted to join the Community because of the
realisation that it had lost political power internationally, and because of
the growing desire to play a greater part in European politics. When it tried
to join the EC in 1963 and again in 1967, the Trench President General de
Gaulle refused to allow it. Britain only became a member in 1973, but its
attitude towards the EC continued to be unenthusiastic. Although trade with
Europe greatly increased, most British continued to feel that they had not had
any economic benefit from Europe. This feeling was strengthened by the way, in
which Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher argued for a better financial deal for
Britain in the Community's affairs. The way in which she fought, won her some
admiration in Britain, but also anger in many parts of Europe. She welcomed
closer co-operation in the EC but only if this did not mean any lessening of
sovereignty. Many Europeans saw this as a contradiction. Unless member states
were willing to surrender some control over their own affairs, they argued,
there could be little chance of achieving greater European unity. It shows
that probably President de Gaulle was right when he thought that Britain could
not make up its mind whether its first loyalty was to Europe or to the United
States.
Britain felt its "special relationship" with the United States was
particularly important. It rested almost entirely on a common language, on its
wartime alliance with the USA and the Cold War which followed it. After the
war, Britain found itself unable to keep up with the military arms race
between the United States and the Soviet Union and gave up the idea of an
independent nuclear deterrent. Ever since 1945 the United States and political
right in Britain were more openly hostile to the Soviet Union. The Europeans
- /16 -
anti thu British puliticul left were, on the whole, just as suspicious of the
USSR, but were more anxious to improve relations. However, even under Labour
government», Britain remained between the European and American positions. It
won natural, therefore, that under Thatcher, who who was more firmly to the
rl(jhl than any Conservative Prime Minister since the war, British foreign
policy was more closely linked to that of the United States.
Britain was able to recover quickly from the war. Working people now had a
better standard of living than ever before. Wages were about 30 per cent
higher than in 1939 and prices had hardly risen at all. People- had free time
to enjoy themselves. At weekends many watched football matches in large new
stadiums. In the evenings they could go to the cinema.
It was also the age of youth. Young people had more money in their pockets
than ever before. The result was that the young began to influence fashion,
particularly in clothing and music. Nothing expressed the youthful "pop"
culture of the sixties better than the Beatles, whose music quickly became
internationally known. It was no accident that the Beatles were working-class
boys from Liverpool. They were real representatives of a popular culture.
Young people began to express themselves in other ways. They questioned
authority, and the culture in which they had been brought up. In particular
they rebelled against the sexual rules of Christian society. Some young people
started living together without getting married. In the early 1960s the number
was small, perhaps only 6 per cent, but it grew to 20 per cent within twenty
years. Divorce became much easier, and by 1975 one marriage in three ended in
divorce, the highest rate in Europe. Older people were frightened by this
development, and called the new youth culture the "permissive society".
Perhaps the clearest symbol of the permissive age was the mini skirt, a far
shorter skirt than had ever been worn before.
There was a limit to what the permissive society was prepared to accept.
Two cabinet ministers, one in 1963, the other in 1983, had to leave the
government when their sexual relationships outside marriage became widely
known. Public disapproval could still be unexpectedly strong.
During the twentieth century the monarchy became more popular than ever
before. George V, the grandson of Victoria, had attended the first football
Cup Final match at Wembley Stadium. On Christmas Day, 1932, he used the new
BBC radio service to speak to all peoples of the Commonwealth and the Empire.
His broadcast was enormously popular and began a tradition.
However, in 1936 the monarchy experienced a serious crisis when George V’s
son, Edward VIII, gave up the throne in order to marry a divorced woman.
- 47 -
Divorce was still strongly disapproved of at that time, and the event showed
how public opinion now limited the way the royal family could act in private
life. At the time it caused much discussion,, and has remained a matter for
heated argument. During the Second World War George VI, Edward’s brother,
became greatly loved for his visits to the bombed areas of Britain. He and his
wife were admired for refusing to leave Buckingham Palace even after it also
had been bombed. Since 1952, when Elizabeth II became queen, the monarchy has
steadily increased in popularity, though the family problems of some of her
children are a new challenge for the monarchy.
The twentieth century also influenced the development of the national
problems in Britain. When Ireland was divided in 1921, the population of the
new republic was only 5 per cent Protestant. But in Northern Ireland 67 per
cent of the people were Protestant. For many years it seemed that almost
everyone accepted the arrangement, even if some did not like it.
Northern Ireland was a self-governing province, but its government was
controlled by. the Protestants, who feared Catholics and kept them out of
responsible positions. Many Catholics were even unable to vote. Suddenly, in
1969, Ulster people, both Catholics and Protestants, began to gather in the
streets and demand a fairer system. The police could not keep control, and
republicans, who wanted to unite Ireland, turned this civil rights movement
into a nationalist rebellion against British rule.
In order to keep law and order, British soldiers were sent to help the
police, but many Catholics saw them as a foreign army with no right to be
there. Violence has continued, with bomb attacks and shootings by republicans,
which the British army tried to prevent. In 1972 the Northern Ireland govern-
ment was removed and was replaced with direct rule from London. Since then,
Britain has been anxious to find a solution which will please most of the
people there, and offer peace to everyone, but nobody knows how much time and
efforts it will take, though the development of events in 1995 looks promising.
In Scotland and Wales, too, there was a growing feeling by the 1970s that
Ihe government in London had too much power. In Wales, a nationalist party,
Plaid Cymru, became a strong political force, but Welsh nationalism lost
nupport in 1979 when the people of Wales turned down the government’s offer of
limited self-government. When Scotland was offered the same limited form of
n«;lf-government as Wales, just over half of those who voted supported it. But
the government decided that 54 per cent of those who voted was not a big
enough majority, and to the anger of the Scottish Nationalist Party it
nhimdoned the self-government offer.
- 48 -
Britain also experienced new social problems, particularly after the
arrival if immigrants. All through British history there have been times when
large numbers of immigrants have come to settle in the country. But until
recently these people, being Europeans, were not noticeably different from the
British themselves. In the fifties, however, the first black immigrants
started to arrive from the West Indies, looking for work. By 1985 there were
about 5 million recent immigrants and their children out of a total population
of about fifty-six million. As unemployment grew, the new immigrants were
sometimes wrongly blamed. In fact, it was often the immigrants who were
willing to do unpopular work. The relationship between black immigrants and
the white population of Britain was not easy. Black people found it harder to
obtain employment, and were often only able to live in the worst housing. The
government passed laws to prevent unequal treatment of black people, but also
to control the number of immigrants coming to Britain.
Women, too, had reasons for discontent. They spoke out increasingly
against sexism, in advertising, in employment and in journalism. They also
tried to win the same pay and work opportunities as men. Between 1965 and 1985
the number of wives with jobs increased from 37 per cent to 58 per cent. In
1975 it became unlawful to treat women differently from men in matters of
employment and pay, but this law was not fully enforced.
Unemployment increased rapidly at the end of the 1970s, reaching 3.5
million by 1985. In many towns, 15 per cent or more of the working population
was out of work. Unemployment was highest in the industrial north of England,
and in Belfast, Clydeside and south-east Wales. Things became even worse as
steel mills and coal mines were closed.
Few of the problems of the 1980s were entirely new. However, many people
blamed them on the Conservative government, and in particular, Prime Minister
Margaret Thatcher. She had been elected in 1979 because she promised a new
beginning for Britain. The need for such a break with the past had been widely
recognized for some years. As a result the old Conservative — Labour agree-
ment on the guiding principles of the welfare state had already broken down.
In the Conservative Party there had been a strong movement to the right, and
in the Labour Party there had been a similarly strong move to the left. Both
moved further away from the "centre" of British politics than they had done in
living memory.
Margaret Thatcher had come to power calling on the nation for hard work,
patriotism and self-help. Not everyorte in the Conservative Party was happy
about the change in policy. The discontented members became known as "wets".
- 49 -
By the beginning of 1982 the Conservative government had become deeply
unpopular in the country. However, by her firm leadership during the Falklands
War Thatcher captured the imagination of the nation, and was confidently able
to call an election in 1983.
The most serious accusation against the Thatcher government by the middle
of the 1980s was that it created a more unequal society, a society of "two
nations”, one wealthy, and the other poor. The division was also geographical,
between prosperous suburban areas, and neglected inner city areas of decay.
More importantly, people saw a division between the north and south of the
country.
In spite of these problems, Thatcher’s Conservative Party was still more
popular than any other single party in 1987. In the national elections that
year, the Conservative Party was returned to power in a majority of 102 seats.
This was partly because since 1979 personalities had become politically more
important. Thatcher was seen as more determined and more convincing than the
Labour or Alliance (Social Democratic Party and Liberal Party) leaders. After
her retirement Margaret Thatcher is still active in politics and some of her
ideas are being implemented into life by the Cabinet of John Major.
Britain today has more living symbols of its past than many countries. It
still has royal family and a small nobility. Its capital, cities and country-
aide boast many ancient buildings, castles, cathedrals, and the "stately
homes" of the nobility. Every year there are historical ceremonies, for
example the State Opening of Parliament, the Lord Mayor’s Show or Trooping the
Colour. It is easy to think these symbols are a true representation of the
past. Britain's real history, however, is about the whole people of Britain,
and what has shaped them as a society.
When looking at Great Britain today, it is important to remember the great
benefits from the past. No other country has so long a history of political
order, going back almost without interruption to the Norman Conquest. Few
other countries have enjoyed such long periods of economic and social well-
being.
It is also important, however, to remember the less successful aspects of
the past. For example, why did the political views of the Chartists, which
today seem so reasonable, take so long to be accepted? Why did the women's
ritruggle to play a fuller part in national life occur so late, and why was it
then so difficult and painful? Why is there still a feeling of division
between the north and south of Britain? Is Great Britain, which in many ways
Ims been a leader in parliamentary democracy, losing that position of leader-
- 50 -
ship today, and if so, why? The questions are almost endless, and the answers
are neither obvious nor easy. Yet it is the continued discussion and reinter-
pretation of the past which makes a study of Britain’s history of value to its
present and its future.
(Based on: Great Britain. Its History from Earliest Times to the
Present Day, by T.K. Derry, C.H.C. Blount, T.L. Jaman. An Illust-
rated History of Britain, by David McDowall)
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
The British Constitution. The British Constitution is to a large extent a
product of many historical events and has thus evolved over many centuries.
Unlike the constitutions of most other countries, it is not set out in any
single document. Instead it is made up of statute law, common law and conven-
tions. The constitution can be altered by Act of Parliament, or by general
agreement to alter a convention. The constitution is thus adaptable to
changing political conditions.
The organs of government overlap but can be clearly distinguished.
Parliament is the legislature and the supreme authority. The executive
consists of :the Government — the Cabinet and other ministers responsible for
national policies; government departments, responsible for national administra-
tion; local authorities, responsible for many local services. The judiciary
determines common law and interprets statutes, and is independent of both
legislature and executive.
The Monarchy in Britain. When the Queen was born on 21 April 1926, her
grandfather, King George V, was on the throne and her uncle was his heir. The
death of her grandfather and the abdication of her uncle (King Edward VIII)
brought her father to the throne in 1936 as King George VI. Elizabeth II came
to the throne on 6 February 1952 and was crowned on 2 June 1953. Since then,
accompanied by the Duke of Edinburgh, she has undertaken numerous tours
throughout the Commonwealth at the invitation of the host governments and paid
official visits to overseas countries . She has also made many visits through-
out the United Kingdom, to fulfil engagements in connection with agriculture,
industry, education, the arts, medicine and sport and as a means of keeping in
touch with new developments in these fields.
The Duke of Edinburgh was born in 1921 and educated at Gordonstoun and the
Royal Naval College. He served at sea throughout the war, but ceased holding
active naval appointments in 1951. The Duke acts as patron or president of a
large number of national organisations. In particular he interests himself in
- 51
scientific and technological research and development, in the encouragement of
sport, the welfare of young people and in the conservation of the environ-
ment. He has been President of the World Wide Fund for Nature since 1981.
The Queen's heir is Charles, Prince of Wales, who was born in 1948 and
educated at Gordonstoun, at Geelong Grammar School in Australia, at Trinity
College, Cambridge, and at the University College of Wales. He has served in
the Royal Navy and since 1977 has been pursuing a programme of familiarisation
with various aspects of public life in Britain. His particular interests
include industry, government, education, conservation and architecture. On
29 July 1981 the Prince of Wales married Lady Diana Spencer at St Paul's
Cathedral. They have two children: Prince William of Wales, born on 21 June
1982, who is second in line of succession to the throne, and Prince Henry of
Wales, born on 15 September 1984, who is third in line of succession to the
throne.
The Queen's younger sons, Andrew, Duke of York, born in 1960, and Prince
Edward, born in 1964, were both educated in Gordonstoun. The Duke of York
serves as an officer in Royal Navy. Prince Edward, who is pursuing a career in
the theatre, is patron of the National Youth Theatre. Their sister, Anne,
Princess Royal, born in 1950, is Chancellor of the University of London and
President of the Save the Children Fund, on behalf of which she helps the
children in Africa and Middle East.
In the United Kingdom, the Queen's title developed through the union of
the kingdoms of England and Wales, and Scotland (1707), the union with Ireland
(1801), and the creation of the Commonwealth. It is "Elizabeth the Second, by
the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
and of Her other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth,
Defender of Faith".
The Monarch's Role in Government. The Queen personifies the State. In
law, she is* head of the executive, an integral part of the legislature, head
of the judiciary, commander-in-chief of all the armed forces of the Crown, and
Supreme Governor of the established Church of England. As a result of a long
process of evolution, during which the monarchy's absolute power has been
progressively reduced, the Queen acts on the advice of her ministers, which
she cannot ignore. The United Kingdom is governed by Her Majesty's Government
in the name of the Queen. Within this framework there are still important acts
of government which require the Queen’s participation. They include summoning
and dissolving Parliament; giving Royal Assent to Bills passed by both Houses
of Parliament; appointing ministers, judges, officers in the armed forces,
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diplomats and all senior clergy of the Church of England; and conferring
peerages, knighthoods and other honours. Although most honours are conferred
by the Queen on the advice of the Prime Minister, a few are conferred on her
personal selection — the Order of the Garter, the Order of the Thistle, the
Order of Merit and the Royal Victorian Order.
An important function is appointing the Prime Minister. By convention, the
Queen invites the leader of the political party which has a majority in the
House of Commons to form a government. In international affairs, the Queen as
head of State has the power to declare war and make peace, to recognise
foreign states and governments. She is in close contact with the Prime
Minister, who has an audience once a week when the Queen is in London. She has
to be informed and consulted on every aspect of the national life, and must
also show that she is completely impartial in politics.
About 85 per cent of the expenditure arising from the royal family's
official duties is met by public departments and from the Civil List, approved
by Parliament. In 1991 Civil List payments were fixed at £7,9 million a year
for ten years.
The Powers of Parliament. The three elements which make up Parliament —
the Queen, the House of Lords and the elected House of Commons — are constitu-
ted on different principles. They meet together only on occasions of symbolic
significance such as the State Opening of Parliament, when the Commons are
summoned by the Queen to the House of Lords. The agreement of all three
elements is normally required for legislation. Parliament can legislate for
Britain as a whole, or for any part of the country. As there are no legal
restraints imposed by a written constitution, Parliament may legislate as it
pleases, It can make or change any law, and overturn established conventions
or turn them into law.
In practice, however, Parliament does not assert its supremacy in this
way. Its members bear in mind the common law and normally act in accordance
with precedent. The validity of an Act of Parliament, once passed, cannot be
disputed in the law courts. The House of Commons is directly responsible to
the electorate, and in this century the House of Lords has recognised the
supremacy of the elected chamber.
The Functions of Parliament. The main functions of Parliament are: to
pass laws; to provide, by voting taxation, the means of carrying on the work
of government; to scrutinise government policy and administration; to debate
the major issues of the day. In carrying out these functions Parliament helps
to bring the relevant facts and issues before the electorate. By custom,
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Parliament is also informed before all important international treaties and
agreements are ratified.
A Parliament has a maximum duration of five years, but in practice general
elections are usually held before the end of this term. Parliament is dis-
solved and writs for a general election are ordered by the Queen on the advice
of the Prime Minister. The life of a Parliament is divided into sessions. Each
usually lasts for one year — normally beginning and ending in October or
November. The average number of ‘'sitting" days in a session is about 168 in
the House of Commons and about 150 in the House of Lords. At the start of each
session the Queen's speech to Parliament outlines the Government's policies
and proposed legislative programme.
The House of Lords. The House of Lords consists of the Lords Spiritual
and the Lords Temporal. The Lords Spiritual are the Archbishops of Canterbury
and York, and the 24 next most senior bishops of the Church of England. The
Lords Temporal consist of: all hereditary peers of England, Scotland, Great
Britain and the United Kingdom; all other life peers. Peerages, both heredita-
ry and life, are created by the Sovereign on the advice of the Prime Minister.
They are usually granted in recognition of service in politics or other walks
of life. In 1992 there were 1,211 members of the House of Lords, including the
two archbishops and 24 bishops. The Lords Temporal consisted of 758 hereditary
peers and 408 life peers. Not all peers with a right to sit in the House of
Lords attend the sittings. Peers .who attend the House (the average daily
attendance is some 320) receive no salary for their parliamentary work, but
con claim for expenses incurred in attending the House and certain travelling
expenses. The House is presided over by the Lord Chancellor, who takes his
place on the woolsack as the Speaker of the House (ill. 14).
The House of Commons. The House of Commons is elected and consists of 651
Members of Parliament (MPs). At present there are 60 women, three Asian and
three black MPs. Of the 651 seats, 524 are for England, 38 for Wales, 72 for
Scotland, and 17 for Northern Ireland. Members are paid an annual salary of
1'30,854 (from January 1992) and an office costs allowance of up to £39,960.
Ihe chief officer of the House of Commons is the Speaker, elected by the MPs
to preside over the House.
Parliamentary Electoral System. For electoral purposes Britain is divided
Into constituencies, each of which returns one member to the House of Commons.
British citizens may vote provided they are aged 18 or over, included in the
annual register of electors for the constituency and not subject to any
disqualification. People not entitled to vote include members of the House of
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Lords, patients detained under mental health legislation, sentenced prisoners
and people convicted within the previous five years of corrupt or illegal
election practices.
Elections are by secret ballot. Each elector may cast one vote, normally
in person at a polling.station. Electors whose circumstances on polling day
are such that they cannot reasonably be expected to vote in person at their
local polling station apply for an absent vote at a particular election.
Voting is not compulsory; 76.9 per cent of a total electorate of 43.3 million
people voted in the general election in April 1992. The simple majority system
of voting is used. Candidates are elected if they have more votes than any of
the other candidates.
British citizens may stand for election as MPs provided they are aged 21
or over and are not disqualified. Those disqualified include undischarged
bankrupts; people sentenced to more than one year's imprisonment; clergy of
the Church of England, Church of Scotland, Church of Ireland and Roman
Catholic Church; peers; and holders of certain offices listed in the House of
Commons Disqualification Act 1975. The latter include holders of judicial
office, civil servants, members of the regular armed forces, police officers
and some members of government commissions. A candidate's nomination for
election must be proposed and seconded by two electors registered as voters in
the constituency and signed by eight other electors.
Candidates do not have to be backed by a political party. A candidate must
also deposit £500, which is returned if he or she receives 5 per cent or more
of the votes cast. The maximum sum a candidate may spend on a general election
campaign is £4,430 plus 4.9 pence for each elector in a county constituency. A
candidate may post an election address to each elector in the constituency
free of charge.
The Political Party System. The present system depends upon the existence
of organised political parties, each of which presents its policies to the
electorate for approval. The parties are not registered or formally recognised
in law, but in practice most candidates in elections, and almost all winning
candidates, belong to one of the main parties.
For the last 150 years a predominantly two-party system has existed. Since
1945 either the Conservative Party, the origins of which go back to the
eighteenth century, or the Labour Party, which emerged in the last decade of
the nineteenth century, has held power. A new party — the Liberal Democrats—•
was formed in 1988 when the Liberal Party, which could trace its origins to
the eighteenth century, merged with the Social Democratic Party, which was
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formed in 1981. Other parties include two nationalist parties, Plaid Cymru
(founded in Wales in 1925) and the Scottish National Party (founded in 1934).
In Northern Ireland there are a number of parties, including the Ulster
Unionist Party, the Democratic Unionist Party and the Social Democratic and
labour Party.
Since 1945 eight general elections have been won by the Conservative Party
and six by the Labour Party; the great majority of members of the House of
Commons have belonged to one of these two parties. The party which wins most
neats at a general election, usually forms the Government. The largest
minority- party becomes the official Opposition, with its own leader and
’’shadow cabinet". Leaders of the Government and Opposition sit on the front
benches of the Commons with their supporters (the backbenchers) sitting behind
them. Similar arrangements for the parties also apply to the House of Lords;
however, Lords who do not wish to be associated with any political party may
nit on the "cross-benches".
The effectiveness of the party system in Parliament rests largely on the
relationship between the Government and the Opposition parties. Depending on
the relative strengths of the parties in the House of Commons, the Opposition
may seek to overthrow the Government by defeating it in a vote on a "matter of
confidence". In general, however, its aims are to contribute to the formation
of policy and legislation by constructive criticism; to oppose government
proposals it considers objectionable'; to seek amendments to government bills;
imd to put forward its own policies in order to improve its chances of winning
the next general election.
Outside Parliament, party control is exercised by the national and local
organisations. Inside it is exercised by the Chief Whips and their assistants,
who are chosen within the party. Their duties include keeping members informed
of forthcoming parliamentary business, maintaining the party's voting strength
by ensuring members attend important debates, and passing on to the party
leadership the opinions of the backbench members.
Parliamentary Procedure. Parliamentary procedure is based on custom and
precedent. The system of debates is similar in both Houses. The subject starts
uff as a proposal by a member. At the end of each debate the question may be
decided without voting, or by a simple majority vote. The main difference
between the two Houses is that the Lord Chancellor, who acts as Speaker of the
lords, has no authority to curtail debate. Such matters are decided by the
general feeling of the House.
In the Commons the Speaker has full authority to enforce the rules of the
- 56 -
House and must guard egainst the abuse of procedure and protect minority
rights. The Speaker supervises voting in the Commons and announces the final
result. In a tied vote the Speaker gives a casting vote, without expressing an
opinion on the merits of the question. The voting procedure in the House of
Lords is similar, except that the Speaker has an ordinary vote, and no casting
vote.
Proceedings of both Houses are normally public. The minutes and speeches
(Hansard) are published daily. The records of the Lords from 1497 and of the
Commons from 1547 are available to the public through the House of Lords
Record Office. The proceedings of both Houses may be broadcast on television
and radio, either live or, more usually,in recorded or edited form.
The Law-making Process. Draft laws take the form of parliamentary Bills.
Most are public Bills involving measures relating to public policy. Private
Bills are promoted by people or organisations to give them special legal
powers.
Public Bills can be introduced, in either House, by a government minister
or by an ordinary member. Most public Bills that become law are sponsored by
the Government. The process of passing a public Bill is similar in both
Houses. On introduction, the Bill receives a first reading, without debate,
and is printed. After between one day and several weeks, depending on the
nature of the Bill, it is given a second reading after a debate on its general
principles. After a second reading in the Commons, a Bill is usually referred
to a standing committee for detailed examination. At the third reading a Bill
is reviewed in its final form and may be debated again. The House may vote to
limit the time devoted to examining a Bill by passing a government motion,
commonly referred to as a "guillotine".
After the third reading a Commons Bill is sent to the Lords. After the
second reading in the Lords, a Bill is considered by a committee of the whole
House. It is then considered on report and read a third time; at all these
stages amendments may be made. A Bill which starts in the Lords and is passed
by that House, is then sent to the Commons for all its stages there. Amendments
made by the second House must generally be agreed by the first, or a com-
promise reached, before a Bill can become law. When a Bill has passed through
all its parliamentary stages, it is sent to the Queen for Royal Assent, after
which it is known as an Act of Parliament. The Royal Assent has not been
refused since 1707.
Her Majesty's Government: Prime Minister, the Cabinet. Her Majesty's
Government is the body of ministers responsible for the administration of
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notional affairs. The Prime Minister is appointed by the Queen, and all other
ministers • are appointed by the Queen on the recommendation of the Prime
Minister. Most ministers are members of the Commons, although the Government
is also fully represented by ministers in the Lords. The composition of govern-
ments can vary both in the number of ministers and in the titles of some
offices. New ministerial offices may be created, others may be abolished and
functions may be transferred from one minister to another.
The Prime Minister is also, by tradition, First Lord of the Treasury and
Minister for the Civil Service. The Prime Minister’s unique position of
authority derives from majority support in the House of Commons and from the
power to appoint and dismiss ministers. By modern convention, the Prime
Minister always sits in the House of Commons. The Prime Minister presides over
the Cabinet, is responsible for the allocation of functions among ministers
and informs the Queen at regular meetings of the general business of the
Government. The Prime Minister's Office at 10 Downing Street (ill. 16) has a
ntaff of civil servants who assist the Prime Minister.
The Cabinet is composed of about 20 ministers chosen by the Prime Minister.
The functions of the Cabinet are initiating and deciding on policy, the
supreme control of government and the co-ordination of government departments.
Ihe exercise of these functions is vitally affected by the fact that the
Cabinet is a group of party representatives, depending upon majority support
in the House of Commons. The Cabinet meets in private and its proceedings are
confidential. Its members are bound by their oath as Privy Counsellors not to
disclose information about its proceedings, although after 30 years Cabinet
papers may be made available for inspection.
The Privy Council. The Privy Council was formerly the chief source of
executive power in the State; its origins can be traced to the King's Court,
which assisted the Norman monarchs in running the government. Nowadays the
main function of the Privy Council is to advise the Queen to approve Orders in
Council. Responsibility for each Order, however,' rests with the minister
answerable for the policy concerned, regardless of whether he or she was
present at the meeting where approval was given. Cabinet ministers must be
Privy. Counsellors and are sworn in on first assuming office. There are about
400 Privy Counsellors. A full Council is summoned only on the accession of a
new Sovereign or when the Sovereign announces his or her intention to marry.
The Lobby. As press advisers, the Prime Minister's Press Secretary
nnd other staff in the Prime Minister's Press Office, have direct contact
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with the parliamentary press through regular meetings with the Lobby corres-
pondents, who are a group of political correspondents having the special
privilege of access to the Lobby of the House of Commons where they can talk
privately to government ministers and other members of the House. The Prime
Minister's Press Office is the accepted channel through which information
about parliamentary business is passed to the media.
Administration of Scottish, Welsh and Northern Ireland Affairs. Scotland
has its own system of law and wide administrative autonomy. The Secretary of
State for Scotland, a Cabinet minister, has responsibility in Scotland for a
wide range of policy matters. Since 1964 there has been a separate Secretary
of State for Wales who is a member of the Cabinet and is responsible for many
aspects of Welsh affairs. Since the British Government's assumption of direct
responsibility for Northern Ireland in 1972, the Secretary of State for
Northern Ireland has been the Cabinet minister responsible for the affairs in
this part of the UK.
Government Departments and the Civil Service. Government departments are
the main instruments for implementing government policy when Parliament has
passed the necessary legislation, and for advising ministers. Each department
has a large staff of professional civil servants who do most of the work of
running the department on the minister's behalf.
The Civ.il Service is wholly non-political. Those of its members who are in
any way concerned with administration are forbidden to be candidates for
Parliament or to give public support to any political party, though they may
vote at elections. When a new government comes into office the same civil
servants must work for the new ministers, who a few weeks before led the
attack on the old ministers' policies.
In the three weeks before a general election, when ministers, as leading
party politicians, are away campaigning for their party, the civil servants
maintain the continuity of the administration of their departments. But they
have also to prepare themselves for the possibility of a change of government,
so they study the election manifesto of the opposition party, so as to be
prepared to advise new ministers on the implementation of their programme if
the election results in a change of government.
The Civil Service is a life's career. People who hope to become civil
servants must pass through a long selection process, with a series of tests
designed to measure their competence and suitability, and many of those who
are chosen have been among the most successful students in their university
examinations. Л civil servant in an established post has almost complete
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security of tenure, and can in practice only be removed for improper conduct.
Promotion is not automatic according to seniority, but selective, and based on
the recommendation of superior officers. Each civil servant must know exactly
how far his personal responsibility extends, and what questions he ought to
refer to someone higher up.
Many people say that Britain is really managed by the Civil Service, and
that the ministers, being mere amateurs, just do what the civil servants tell
them to do — or find themselves frustrated whenever they try to implement
any new ideas. One of the main professional duties of civil servants is to
shield their ministers from criticism in the House of Commons. Genuine loyalty
to the minister in office is the first element in the professionalism of any
civil servant, skill in defending departmental positions is the second; and an
ability to seem to reconcile the two, even when they conflict, demands
intelligence, hard work and flexibility. A successful civil servant is
rewarded by high pay, state honours and a right to an inflation-proof pension
nt sixty.
Local Government. Although the origins of the Britain's system of local
government can be traced back to Saxon times, the first comprehensive system
of local councils was established in the late nineteenth century. Because
central government cannot administer everything from London, the people also
elect their representatives to local councils which provide services such as
schools, public housing and collection of rubbish. Currently there are several
levels of local government, each meeting different needs.
The top level is the county or regional council elected to deal with the
main services such as education, social services and the police. The district
council collects local taxes, enforces laws on environmental health and is
responsible for public housing and a weekly rubbish collection. Parish and
community councils are closest to the people but have little power. Typical
examples of their concerns are lighting and bus shelters.
England and Wales (outside Greater London) are divided into 53 counties,
sub-divided into 369 districts. Greater London — with a population of some
6.8 million — is divided into 32 boroughs, each of which has a council
responsible for local government in its area. On the mainland of Scotland
local government is on a two-tier basis: nine regions are divided into 53
districts, each of which has an elected council.
In England, Wales and Northern Ireland each council elects its presiding
officer. In boroughs and cities the presiding officer is normally known as the
Mayor. In the City of London and certain other large cities, he or she is
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known as the Lord Mayor. In Scotland the presiding officer of the district
council is called the Lord Provost. Councillors are usually elected for four
years.
Anyone may vote at a local government election in Britain provided he or
she is: aged 18 or over; is a citizen of Britain; is not subject to any legal
incapacity; and is on the electoral register.
EDUCATION
Schools. Parents are required by law to see that their children receive
efficient full-time education between the ages of 5 and 16. Some 8.5 million
children attend Britain’s 30,3000 state schools. A further 600,000 go to 2,500
private schools, often referred to as '’independent" sector, financed from fees
paid by parents.
Boys and girls are taught together in most primary schools. More than 80
per cent of pupils in maintained secondary schools in England and Wales and
over 60 per cent in Northern Ireland attend mixed schools. In Scotland nearly
all secondary schools are mixed. Most independent schools are mixed.
State schools are almost all day schools holding classes between Mondays
and Fridays. The school year in England and Wales normally begins in early
September and continues into the following July. In Scotland it runs generally
from mid-August to the end of June. The year is divided into three terms of
around 13 weeks each.
Rights of Parents. Parents have a right to express a preference for a
particular school for their children, and have an effective channel of appeal
at localrlevel. Schools are obliged to publish their admissions criteria
and basic information about themselves and their public examination results.
Regulations in England and Wales require all maintained schools to send to
parents a written annual report on their child’s progress. The report must
contain: details about the child’s progress in subjects studied; details of
the results of National Curriculum assessments and of public examinations
taken by the child; comparative information about the results of other pupils
of the same age in school.
School Management. In England and Wales schools supported from public
funds are of three main kinds: county schools are owned and maintained by
local education authorities wholly out of public funds; voluntary schools
(mostly Church of England or Roman Catholic schools) which are also financed
by local education authorities; grant-maintained schools receiving funding
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directly from central government. Each publicly maintained school has a
governing body which includes governors appointed by the local education
nuthority and a balance of teacher and parent representatives. Governors work
with the head of the school in areas such as allocation of the school budget,
interviewing/appointment of staff and other matters.
In April 1994 there were 1,500 grant-maintained schools and payment of
grant and financial monitoring has become the responsibility of a new statuary
body, the Funding Agency for Schools. Local education authorities will
continue to be responsible for maintained schools which do not become grant-
maintained.
In Scotland most of the schools supported by public funds are provided by
the education authorities and are known as "public schools". Governing boards
with elected staff and teacher members play a decisive part in running
Scottish state schools. Self-governing schools are equivalent to grant-
maintained schools.
Teachers in publicly maintained schools are appointed by local education
authorities or school governing bodies. Over 500,000 are employed in main-
tained and independent schools, and the average pupil — teacher ratio for all
schools is about 17 to 1. Teachers in maintained schools must hold qualifica-
tions approved by the appropriate education department.
Nursery and Primary Schools. One-half of three- and four-year-olds
receive education in nursery schools or classes or in infants' classes in
primary schools. In addition, many children attend pre-school playgroups, most
of which are organised by parents.
Compulsory education begins at five in Great Britain when children go to
infant schools; at seven many go on to junior schools. The usual age for
transfer from primary to secondary schools is 11 in England and Wales, but
some local authorities in England have established first schools for pupils
□ged 5 to 8, 9 or 10, and middle schools for age-ranges between 8 and 14. In
Scotland primary schools take children from 5 to 12.
Secondary Schools. About 90 per cent of state secondary school pupils in
Ingland, Wales and Scotland go to comprehensive schools. These take children
of all abilities and provide a wide range of secondary education for all or
most of the children in a district within the 11- to 18-year age range.
English and Welsh schools can be organised in a number of ways. They include:
those that take the full secondary school age-range from 11 to 18; middle
schools, whose pupils move on to senior comprehensive schools at 12, 13 or 14,
leaving at 16 or 18; and schools with an age-range of 11 or 12 to 16, combined
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with a six-form or a tertiary college for pupils over 16. Six-form colleges
are schools which may provide non-academic in addition to academic courses.
Tertiary colleges offer a range of Full-time vocational courses for students
over 16, as well as academic courses.
About four per cent of children attend "grammar” schools,"which they enter
at age ц on the basis of their abilities. Grammar schools offer a mainly
academic education for the 11 to 18 or 19-year age group. Six per cent of
children attend "secondary modern" schools which provide a more general
education up to the age of 16, although pupils can stay on beyond the minimum
leaving age. Scottish secondary education is almost completely non-selective;
the majority of schools are six-уеаг comprehensives.
Independent Schools. Fee-paying independent schools must register with
the appropriate education department and are open to inspection. There are
2,475 independent schools educating 608,000 pupils of all ages and about 8 per
cent of schoolchildren attend such schools. They charge fees varying from £300
a term for day pupils at nursery age to £3,500 a term for senior boarding
pupils. Many offer scholarships to children from less well-off families and
the Government gives income-related financial help to gifted children.
Independent schools range from small kindergartens to large day and
boarding schools and from new, and in some cases experimental schools, to
ancient foundations. The 600 boys’, girls' and mixed preparatory schools
prepare children for entry to senior schools. The normal age-range for these
preparatory schools is from 7-plus to 11, 12 or 13, but many of the schools
now have pre-preparatory departments for younger children. A number of
independent schools have been established by religious and ethnic minorities.
Independent schools for older pupils — from 11, 12 or 13 to 18 or 19—include
about 550 which are often referred to as public schools.
Special Educational Needs. Children with special educational needs have
all kinds of learning difficulties, including those resulting from physical
and mental handicap. Wherever possible, such pupils are educated in ordinary
schools. Other children attend some 1,500 day and boarding special schools,
some of which are run by voluntary organisations or in hospitals. Developments
in information technology are greatly improving the quality of education for
children with special needs.
Ethnic Minorities. Most school-aged children from ethnic minority
communities were born in Britain and tend to share the interests and aspira-
tions of children in the population’ at large. Nevertheless, a substantial
number have special needs arising from cultural differences, including those
- 63 -
of language, custom and religion. Ethnic minority children whose mother tongue
is not English are given help to perfect their English and schools take
account of the ethnic and cultural backgrounds of pupils — with curricula
reflecting ethnic and cultural diversity. Measures are being taken to improve
the performance uf ethnic minority children and to prepare all children, not
just those of ethnic minority origin, for living in a multi-ethnic society.
The Curriculum. In 1989 the government began introducing a statutory
National Curriculum in state schools in England and Wales. Previously, many
pupils had tended to drop important subjects like science, technology and
foreign languages and to specialise too early.
The National Curriculum is made up of the "core" subjects of English,
mathematics and science and seven other "foundation” subjects — technology,
history, geography, music, art, physical education and a modern foreign
language. In addition in Wales, Welsh is a core subject in Welsh-speaking
schools and a foundation subject in other schools. There are four key stages —
5 to 7 (infants), 7 to 11 (juniors), 11 to 14 (pre-GCSE), and 14 to 16 (GCSE).
All children between the ages of 5 and 14 must study the first nine of these
subjects. Pupils in Wales must also study Welsh. From age 11 to 14 they must
also study a modern foreign language. Pupils aged 14 to 16 have to take the
core subjects, technology, a modern foreign language and physical education,
plus either history or geography or short courses in both. Programmes of study
have been developed for the core subjects as well as for technology, history
and geography, art, music and physical education for key stages 1 to 4.
Attainment targets are set for each National Curriculum subject. In
English, for instance, there are five basic targets: speaking and listening;
reading; writing; spelling; and handwriting. For each attainment target, there
are ten levels of attainment. Towards the end of each of the first three key
stages, children are assessed against attainment targets using both teacher
assessment and nationally designed tests. At the end of key stage 4, GCSEs are
the' principal means of the National Curriculum assessment. Parents must be
sent an annual written report on their child’s progress at school, including
assessment and examination results.
Religious education is a statutory requirement for all pupils, and is part
of the basic curriculum, but it is not subject to nationally prescribed
programmes of study. Syllabus content is determined by local ’education
authorities. Religious education classes must not seek to convert pupils into a
particular faith, but must give appropriate emphasis to Christianity in view
of the country's traditions, taking account of the other main religions
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represented in Britain. All schools must hold daily collective worship.
Parents have the right to withdraw their children from religious education
classes and from collective worship.
Pupils in Scotland have traditionally studied a broader curriculum.
Although there is no statutory national curriculum, a comprehensive programme
of study has had the same effect. Secondary level pupils follow a broad and
balanced curriculum consisting of English, mathematics, science, a modern
European language, social studies, technological activities, art, music or
drama, religious and moral education, and physical education. New guidelines
on the teaching and testing of mathematics, English, modern languages and
environmental studies have already been published. Provision is made for
teaching in Gaelic in Gaelic-speaking areas. Religious instruction is obliga-
tory and schools are required to practise religious observance. Parents may
withdraw their children from classes of religious instruction and collective
worship.
Examinations and Qualifications. The main qualification taken by second-
ary pupils in England and Wales at around the age of 16 is the General
Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE). The GCSE is the principal means for
assessing attainment at key stage 4 of the National Curriculum, although
vocational qualifications may also be used to certify attainment in National
Curriculum subjects.
The General Certificate of Education (GCE) Advanced (A) level is normally
taken after a further two years of study. Advanced Supplementary (AS) levels
enable six-form pupils to broaden their range of study. Students specialising
in the arts and humanities, for instance, can continue to study mathematics
and technological subjects. AS levels require the same standard of work as
A levels but have only half the content. A and AS levels are the main standard
for entrance to higher education and many forms of professional training.
The public examination system in Scotland is different to that in other
parts of Britain. Scottish pupils take the Scottish Certificate of Education
(SCE) at Standard grade at the end of their fourth year of secondary education
(equivalent to the fifth year in England and Wales). Fifth- and six-year
pupils sit the SCE Higher grade, which allows them to go onto higher education
and training,. The Certificate of Sixth Year Studies (CSYS) is for pupils who
have successfully completed the Higher grade and wish to continue studies in
particular subjects. The Higher grade is taken a year earlier than A levels,
and it is common for pupils to take up to six subjects. While not as advanced
individually as A levels, four or more passes are usually recognised as being
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equivalent to two to three A level passes. The National Certificate is for
students over 16 who have completed a programme of vocational courses based on
study units known as modules.
Higher Education. Twenty-eight per cent of all young people go into full-
time higher education. Higher education covers all post-school courses above
GCE A level standard. These courses are available at universities, the
Scottish central institutions and colleges of education, further and higher
education colleges, adult education centres, colleges of technology, colleges
of art and design, and agricultural and horticultural colleges. There are also
many independent specialist establishments, such as secretarial and correspon-
dence colleges, and colleges for teaching English as a foreign language.
Britain has 88 universities, including the Open University. Included
within this total are 39 "new" universities which have been created since the
1992 Higher Education Act. This allowed the former polytechnics the power to
award their own degrees and the right to adopt a university title.
Universities and most other higher education institutions enjoy complete
academic freedom. They appoint their own staff, decide which students to
admit, provide their own courses and'award their own degrees. The universities
of Oxford and Cambridge date from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and
the Scottish universities of St Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen and Edinburgh from
the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. All the other universities in Britain
were founded in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The 1960s saw consider-
able expansion in the number of universities and students.
Of the 353,000 full-time home and overseas university students in 1990-91,
64,000 were postgraduate. The ratio of staff to full-time students is about
1 to 11. Except at the Open University, first degree courses are mainly full-
time and usually last three years. However, there are some four-year courses,
and medical and veterinary courses normally require five years.
Degree titles vary according to the practice of each university. In
England and Wales the most common titles for a first degree are Bachelor of
Arts (BA) or Bachelor of Science (BSc) and for a second degree Master of Arts
(MA), Master of Science (MSc), and Doctor of Philosophy (PhD).
The Open University is a non-residential university offering degree and
other courses for adult students of all ages in Britain and other parts of
Europe. It uses a combination of specially produced printed texts, correspon-
dence tuition, television and radio broadcasts, audio and video cassettes, and
residential schools. There is also a network of study centres for contact with
part-time tutors and counsellors. No formal academic qualifications are
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required to register for most courses, but the standards of the University's
degrees are the same as of those of other universities. Its first degree is
the BA (Open), a general degree awarded on a system of credits for each course
completed. In 1991 there were 79,500 registered undergraduates, and in all
some 115,000 first degrees have been awarded since the University's inception.
Teacher Training.* Almost all entrants to teaching in maintained and
special schools in England and Wales complete a recognised course of initial
teacher training. Such courses are offered by university departments of
education as well as other higher education establishments. Non-graduates
usually qualify by taking a four-year Bachelor of Education (BEd) honours
degree. There are also specially designed two-year BEd courses — mostly in
subjects where there is a shortage of teachers at the secondary level — for
suitably qualified people. Graduates normally take a one-year Postgraduate
Certificate of Education (PGCE) course. Two year PGCE courses are available in
the secondary shortage subjects for those whose first degree in an associated
subject included at least one year's study of the subject they intend to teach.
Further Education. Further education in England and Wales is for people
over 16 taking courses at various levels up to the standard required for entry
to higher education. • Courses are run by over 500 colleges of further
education, many of which also provide higher education courses. Many further
education courses are vocational,- ranging from lower-level technical and
commercial courses to more advanced courses for those aiming at higher level
jobs in business, administration and the professions. Most colleges also offer
non-vocational courses, including GCSEs and A levels.
Many students on further education courses attend part time, either by day
release or block release from employment or during the evenings. The further
education system has strong ties with commerce and industry.
MASS MEDIA
The Press
Newspapers, magazines, television and radio are all part of daily life in
Britain. The British watch more television and listen to the radio more often
than any other people in Europe. They are also avid readers of newspapers. Two
out of three people over the age of 15 read a national morning newspaper,
while about three out of four read a Sunday newspaper.
From the moment in 1784 when John Walter declared his intention "to
publish a newspaper" and The Daily Universal Register — later renamed The
Times — was born, through to the first television broadcasts by the Scottish
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pioneer, John Logie Baird and on to these times of satellite broadcasting and
cable TV,.the British media have always provided a lively forum for comment
und debate on the issues of the day. They have also enjoyed a long tradition
of freedom and independence.
There is no state control or censorship of the press, but it is subject to
the general laws on publication. The press caters for a variety of political
views, interests and levels of education. Newspapers are almost always
independent of any political party. Where they express pronounced views and
show obvious political leanings in their editorial comments, these derive from
proprietorial and other non-party influences. Nevertheless, during general
election campaigns many newspapers recommend their‘ readers to vote for a
particular political party. Even newspapers which adopt strong political views
in their editorial columns include feature and other types of articles by
authors of a variety of political persuasions.
National Newspapers. There are 12 daily newspapers and 10 Sunday news-
papers in circulation in most parts of the country. In 1994 the most widely
read newspapers were The Sun, which was read by a quarter of all men and one
fifth of all women, and The Daily Mirror, read by one fifth of all men and one
sixth of all women.
National newspapers cater for a wide variety of tastes and interests. They
are often described as either "qualities” or "tabloids" depending upon their
format, style and content. Quality newspapers, which are broadsheet in format,
cater for those readers who want detailed information on a wide range of news
and current affairs. The more popular tabloid papers tend to appeal to those
who want to read shorter, entertaining stories with more human interest/ and
they generally contain a larger number of photographs. Many newspapers are now
printed in colour. At the weekend, some produce colour magazines and separate
sections with features on anything and everything from leisure activities,
travel, books, food and wine to in depth news analysis and financial matters.
Certain British newspapers are renowned throughout the world. The Times is
perhaps the most influential and best known. It was first published in 1785,
making it Britain’s oldest daily newspaper. The Observer, first published in
1791, is the oldest Sunday newspaper lrr the world. More recent additions to
the market include The Independent and Today. In 1990 The European, a weekly
English-language paper for an international readership, was launched.
The gap in quality is not so much between Labour and Conservative, as
between levels of ability to read and appreciate serious news presented
seriously. Of the five quality morning papers only The Daily Telegraph is
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solidly Conservative; nearly all its readers are Conservatives. The Times and
Financial Times have a big minority of non-Conservative readers. Of the
popular papers only the Daily Mirror regularly supports Labour. Plenty of
Labour voters read popular papers with’Conservative inclinations, but do not
change their political opinion because of what they have read. Some of them
are interested only in the human interest stories and in sport, and may well
hardly notice the reporting of political and economic affairs.
At one time London’s Fleet Street was the centre of the newspaper industry.
Now the national newspapers have moved their editorial offices and printing
plants to other parts of the capital — many to Docklands, a regenerated area
to the east of the City. Details of the circulation of the national newspapers
are given in Figure 1.
Figure 1: National Newspapers Circulation
Title	First	published	Controlled by	Circulation
National Dailies			
Tabloids			
Daily Express	1900	United Newspapers	1,445,252
Daily Mail	1896	Associated Newspapers Group	1,720,286
Daily Mirror	1903	Mirror Group Newspapers	2,616,825
Daily Sport	1991	Sport Newspapers Ltd	30,000
Daily Star	1978	United Newspapers	768,845
The Sun	1964	News International	3,719,379
Today	1986	News International	559,300
Qualities			
Financial Times	1888	Pearson	286,124
Daily Telegraph	1855	Daily Telegraph	1,017,648
Guardian	1821	The Guardian and Manchester Evening News	401,638
The Independent	1986	Newspaper Publishing	329,413
The Times	1785	News International	401,368
A number of large publishing groups, as seen from Figure 1, own national
newspapers. There are, however, safeguards against the risks resulting from
undue concentration of ownership of the media. It is unlawful to transfer a
newspaper to a proprietor whose newspapers have an average daily circulation
of 500,000 or more, without consent from the Government.
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Regional Newspapers. Most towns and cities throughout Britain have their
own regional newspapers. These range From morning and evening dailies to
Sunday papers and some 2,000 or more which are published just once or twice a
week. These papers mainly include stories of regional and local interest, but
the dailies also cover national and international news, often looked at from a
local viewpoint. They also provide a valuable medium for local advertising.
Some of the best known morning papers include the Yorkshire Post (Leeds),
the Eastern Daily Press (Norwich) and The Northern Echo (Darlington), each
with a circulation of over 85,000. Of the evening papers, the Manchester
Evening News, the Birmingham Evening Mail and the Liverpool Echo all have
circulations in excess of 200,000. London has its own evening paper, the
Evening Standard, which has a circulation of nearly 470,000 and provides
Londoners with news and features covering events in the capital and of
national and international interest.
In Scotland there are six morning, six evening and four Sunday newspapers.
The Scotsman, the Glasgow Herald and the Daily Record are some of the most
widely read both in Scotland and elsewhere. The Scottish Sundays are the
Sunday Post, the Sunday Mail, the Scottish Sunday Express and Scotland on
Sunday. The Observer and The Sunday Times also include Scottish supplements.
The daily morning paper, The Western Mail, which is published in Cardiff
circulates throughout Wales, as does Wales on Sunday which was launched in
1989. Many others give more local 'coverage of Welsh events and the weekly
press includes Welsh-language and bilingual papers. Welsh community papers
receive an annual grant as part of the Government's wider support for the
Welsh language.
Thousands of free newspapers, which are mainly financed by advertising,
ore distributed to homes every week. They have enjoyed a rapid growth in
recent years and have a total estimated circulation of about 37 million.
The Weekly and Periodical Press. The weekly periodicals with the highest
sales have traditionally been Radio Times and TV Times, which carry full
details of the forthcoming week’s television and radio programmes. Reader's
Digest, a collection of features on a wide variety of subjects, is the highest
selling monthly magazine with a circulation of nearly 1,6 million.
Women's magazines also enjoy large readerships, including several from
abroad such as Bella, Prima and Best. These now compete with old favourites
like Woman and Women's Weekly. Generally younger women are more likely to read
the most popular women's magazines than older women.
Children are well catered for with a vast variety of comics and papers,
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while Smash Hits, with its coverage of the pop music scene and features of
interest to young people, is popular with teenagers.
Good English writing is often to be found in the weekly political and
literary journals, all based in London, all with nationwide circulations in
the tens of thousands. The Economist, founded in 1841, probably has no equal
anywhere. It has a coloured cover and the photographs inside, so that it looks
like Time and Newsweek, but its reports have more depth and breadth than any
of these. It covers world affairs, and even its American section is more
informative about America than its American equivalents. Although by no means
’’popular”, it is vigorous in its comments, and deserves the respect in which
it is generally held. The New Statesman and Spectator are weekly journals of
opinion, one left, one right. They regularly contain well-written articles,
often politically slanted. Both devote nearly half their space to literature
and the arts.
The Times has three weekly "Supplements", all published and sold separate-
ly. The Literary Supplement is devoted almost entirely to book reviews, and
covers all kinds of new literature. It makes good use of academic contributors
and has at last, unlike The Economist, abandoned its old tradition of anony-
mous reviews. The Times Educational and Higher Education Supplement are
obviously specialist, and useful sources for any serious student of these
fields of interest. New Scientist, published by the company which owns the
Daily Mirror, has good and serious articles about scientific research, often
written by academics yet useful for the general reader.
One old British institution, the satirical weekly Punch, survives, more
abrasive than in an earlier generation yet finding it hard to keep the place
it once had in a more secure social system. Its attraction, particularly for
the intellectual youth, has been surpassed by a new rival, Private Eye,
founded in 1962 by people who, not long before, had run a pupils’ magazine in
Shrewsbury School. Its scandalous material is admirably written on atrocious
paper and its circulation rivals that of The Economist.
Glossy weekly or monthly illustrated magazines cater either for women or
for any of a thousand special interests. These, along with commercial tele-
vision, are the great educators of demand for the new and better goods offered
by the modern consumer society. In any big newsagent’s shop the long rows of
magazines seem to go on for ever; beyond the large variety of appeals to women
and teenage girls come those concerned with yachting, tennis, gardening and
cars. For every activity there is a magazine, supported mainly by its
advertisers, and from time to time the police bring a pile of pornographic
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magazines to local magistrates, who have the difficult task of deciding
whether they are sufficiently offensive to be banned.
Television and Radio
Broadcasting in Britain has traditionally been based on the principle that
it is a public service accountable to the* people through Parliament. While
retaining the essential public service element, it is now also embracing the
principles of competition and choice. Three public bodies — the British
Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), the Independent Television Commission (ITC)
and the Radio Authority — have the main responsibility for television and
radio services throughout Britain.
Television viewing is by far Britain's most popular leisure pastime: 95
per cent of households have a colour television set and 68 per cent have a
video recorder. Average viewing time per person is around 24 hours a week.
At present there are four terrestrial television channels, offering a
mixture of drama, light entertainment, films, sport, children's and religious
programmes, news and current affairs, documentaries and educational programmes.
The BBC provides two complementary networks — BBC 1 and BBC 2 — which are
financed almost exclusively by licence fees. Every household with TV must pay
for a licence, which costs about the same for a year as a popular newspaper
every day. The ITC regulates two television services: ITV and Channel 4, which
are expected to complement each other and are largely funded by advertising.
There are 59 BBC local radio stations serving Britain. Some 140 indepen-
dent local radio services are also available to local communities. Stations
supply a comprehensive service of local news and information, music, education,
consumer advice and coverage of local events. "Phone-in" programmes allowing
listeners to express their views on air are popular.
The BBC. The constitution and finances of the BBC are governed by a Royal
Charter. The Corporation's board of 12 governors is appointed by the Queen on
the advice of the Government and it is responsible for all aspects of broad-
casting on the BBC. The BBC has a strong regional structure. The three English
regions — BBC North, BBC Midlands & East and BBC South — and the Scottish,
Welsh and Northern Ireland national regions make programmes for their local
audiences as well as contributing to the national network.
BBC Television. Apart from the break during the war the BBC has made
regular television broadcasts since 1936. Together BBC 1 and BBC 2 transmit
over 17,000 hours of programmes a year for national and regional audiences.
Programmes for both networks are produced in London; a third of all programmes
shown nationally are made in the regions. BBC 1 presents a wide range of
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programmes, including popular drama and light entertainment, sport, news and
current affairs, major documentaries and children’s programmes. BBC 2 presents
music and the arts, new talent and ideas, innovative documentaries, sport,
international films and serious drama, and is a forum for debate.
BBC National Radio. BBC broadcasts around 33,000 hours of programmes a
year on its five networks, serving an audience of over 27 million across
Britain. Radio 1 is a 24-hour rock and pop music station. It caters for a wide
variety of tastes, playing chart hits, new music, classic rock, heavy metal
and dance music. It also broadcasts news programmes and runs social action
campaigns. These range from advice on careers and jobs to dealing with drug
problems. Radio 2 is a 24-hour entertainment station. A daytime mix of music
and conversation is complemented by jazz, big band, light classical, country
and folk music in the evenings and at weekends. Radio 3 broadcasts mainly
classical music. The network draws on the resources of the BBC's five
orchestras and two choirs, and broadcasts all of the world-renowned Promenade
Concerts. Its output also includes a wide range of drama, science programmes
and news about the arts. Radio 4 is the main speech network, broadcasting
most of BBC Radio's news and current affairs output. Its most popular program-
me of news and comment, "Today" attracts 2.5 million listeners every weekday
morning. Radio 5, the BBC's newest network, was launched in 1990. It provides
live coverage of both national and international sporting events, and many
other sports-related programmes. It also broadcasts educational programmes and
speech programmes aimed specifically at children and young people.
BBC World Service. There cannot be many people around the world who have
not tuned into the BBC World Service at one time or another. Its output in
English and in 38 other .languages amounts to more than 850 hours a week. The
World Service seeks to present unbiased news and to reflect British opinion
and the British way of life. Its output • includes news bulletins, current
affairs programmes and political commentaries, along with sport, general
entertainment and phone-ins. The World Service's Headquarters at Bush House in
London is fully equipped with what is believed to be the largest and most
complex news computer system in the world which handles the editing, distribu-
tion and translation of stories in all the broadcast languages. Regular
listeners of the World Service are estimated to number 120 million.Its English
language teaching programmes are particularly popular. English lessons are
broadcast daily with explanations in some 30 different languages, and are
re-broadcast by many radio stations. .
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Independent Broadcasting
Independent Television Commission (ITC). The ITC is responsible for
licensing and regulating non-ВВС television services operating in or from
Britain. These include: Channel 3, Channel 4, the proposed Channel 5; cable
and other local delivery services; independent teletext services; and domestic
nnd non-domestic satellite services available to viewers in Britain.
At present 15 independent (ITV) companies hold contracts to supply
programmes in the 14 independent television geographical regions. The com-
panies operate on a commercial basis, deriving most of their revenue from the
aale of advertising time. The financial resources, advertising revenue and
programme production of the companies vary considerably, depending largely on
the size of the population in the areas in which they operate.
The first regular ITV programmes began in London in 1955. ITV programmes
today are broadcast 24 hours a day in all parts of the country. A common news
service is provided 24 hours a day by Independent Television News (ITN).
Licences for the broadcast are awarded by the ITC for a ten-year period by
competitive tender to the highest bidder who has passed a quality threshold.
Cable services are delivered to consumers by means of underground cables
nnd are normally paid by subscription. Cable systems usually carry a local
channel. Broadcasting by satellite has been available throughout Britain since
1989. The signals from satellite broadcasting are receivable using specially
designed aerialo or "dishes”. British Sky Broadcasting (BSky B) carries
channels devoted to light entertainment, news, feature films and sport,
transmitted from Astra and Marcopolo satellites. MTV is a pop video channel.
Both the BBC and independent television broadcast educational programmes
for schools and continuing education programmes for adults. Broadcasts to
fichools deal with most subjects of the National Curriculum, while education
programmes for adults cover many fields of learning and vocational training.
I nch year the BBC Open University Production Centre produces around 350 radio
nnd audio programmes and 200 television and video programmes are made special-
ly for students of the Open University.
Advertisements are broadcast on independent television and radio between
programmes as well as in breaks during programmes. Advertisers are not allowed
I о influence programme content. Advertisements must be clearly distinguishable
nnd separate from programmes. The time given to them must not be so great as
to distract from the value of the programmes as a medium of information,
(’(location or entertainment. Television advertising is limited to an average of
rirven minutes an hour throughout the day and seven and a half minutes in the
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peak evening viewing period. Advertising is prohibited in religious services
and in broadcasts to schools. There are certain types and methods of adver-
tisement which are prohibited; they include political advertising, advertise-
ments for betting and — on television — tobacco advertising.
Parliamentary and Political Broadcasting. The proceedings of both Houses
of Parliament may be broadcast on television and radio, either live, or more
usually in recorded and edited form in news and current affairs programmes.
The proceedings of the House of Commons have been televised since 1989. They
are produced by an independent company appointed by the House of Commons,
which makes television pictures available to the BBC, ITN and other approved
broadcasters for use in news and current affairs programmes. The House of
Lords proceedings are televised since 1985. Party election broadcasts are
arranged following the announcement of a general election. In addition, the
Government may make ministerial broadcasts on radio and television, with
opposition parties also being allotted broadcast time.
THE WELFARE STATE
Social Security. It is now accepted in Great Britain that the state
should ensure, as far as it can, that nobody should be without the necessities
of life as a result of unemployment, old age, sickness or over-large families.
The operations of the welfare state are in four main parts. First, there is
the system of National Insurance. Everybody who is working is obliged to
contribute a fixed amount each week to the National Insurance Fund, and this
fund, wh^ch receives supplementary contributions from the proceeds of general
taxation, is used for old age pensions and for paying out benefits for limited
periods to people who are unemployed, or unable to earn because they are sick.
Second, free or nearly free medical care is provided for everyone under the
National Health Service, which is also financed partly by weekly contributions
paid by people who are working, but mainly by payments by the state out of
general taxation. Third, supplementary benefits are provided for people whose
incomes are too low for them to be able to live at a minimum standard. Finally
there are services for the benefit of children, apart from the provision of
education. These include allowances paid to parents in respect of each child,
but subsidies for children's food have now been restricted to families who
need them.
Every person who is working must make a single National Insurance contribu-
tion every week. The amount to be paid each week is a little more for
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rjnployees than for people who are self-employed. In the case of employees, the
responsibility for making the payments belongs to the employer, who must
deduct part of each worker's wage or salary, and add larger sums himself. But
the amount collected in contributions has regularly been little more than half
of the total paid out in benefits based on contributions. Payments to retired
people are much the biggest item. The deficit is paid for out of general
taxation, along with the cost of the National Health Service. The insurance
contributions tend to be regarded as though they were one source of revenue,
similar to ordinary taxation.
The retirement pension, or "old age pension" as it is popularly called,
may be received by any man from the age of sixty-five (provided he has made
his weekly contributions to the fund) if he ceases to work, and by any woman
from the age of sixty. A man may continue to work full time after he is sixty-
five, and in that case he.gets no pension at first, but when he is over
seventy he gets a bigger pension whether he works or not. The normal rate of
pension is regularly increased with inflation, but is rather low in comparison
with some other West European countries.
There are in addition non-state methods of providing for retirement
pensions. Some people have life insurance policies. Some contribute to their
trade union pension funds, and then receive pensions from them when they
retire. Most salaried or middle-class types of jobs have some system of
"superannuation", with the employer and employee making payments into a
pension fund, and this system is spreading rapidly for manual workers too.
Many people have one or more of these forms of old age insurance in addition
to the state pension.
People who become unemployed, or unable to work because of sickness,
receive payments from the National Insurance Fund at the same rate as retire-
ment pensioners. The amount of time for which a person is entitled to receive
these benefits (up to about twelve months) depends, to some extent, on
contributions into the insurance fund. Sickness benefit is paid for up to
twenty-eight weeks, at the same rate as retirement pension; after twenty-
eight weeks it is replaced by invalidity benefit, at a lower rate, together
with supplements if necessary. However, a person in a middle-class salaried
job may well be paid a full salary for long periods of absence through
sickness. The detailed provisions for state benefits to people who have long
illnesses affect mainly manual workers. Employers tend to treat their salaried
employees more favourably than their weekly-paid manual workers; the welfare
state goes a little of the way towards redressing this difference.
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The system of payments to people on the basis of proved need has been
altered many times. It is operated through local offices of the Department of
Social Security, not by local government councils. The principle is that every-,
one should be able to live at a minimum standard; these payments do not depend
on insurance contributions. People may get regular weekly payments, help with
rent and various extra payments too, if they show that without such help their
incomes would be below a certain minimum. In very cold weather old people may
get extra payments to cover their extra costs for heating; these payments were
increased in 1987 after reports of old people suffering from hypothermia. On
the other hand the 1980s have brought new restrictions to prevent abuse, and
young people who have left school may be required to undergo training if they
do not get paid work. People who suffer from disablement or handicap get
special payments according to their circumstances — though not always enough
to provide them with the most expensive devices to help them.
A weekly allowance is paid in respect of every child, whatever the parents*
income may be. There are also special allowances for single parents, payable
on proof of need. But at the end of the 1980s the general children’s allowance
was not increased to keep up with inflation, so its real value declined. There
were signs that the Government was considering the possibility of ending the
unconditional allowances for children, on the ground that money handed out to
rich parents would be better spent on increased payments to the poor. Several
benefits for children were ended long ago, such as free milk and orange juice.
In the 1980s they had to pay more for lunch at school, and for school buses,
unless their parents had very low incomes.
The National Health Service. The National Health Service came into
existence in 1948, to give completely free medical treatment of every kind to
everyone needing it. Since then some payment has been brought in for one item
after another, beginning in 1951 when patients had to pay a small fixed amount
for pills or medicine prescribed for them. Children, pregnant women, old
people and the poor have been exempted from some of these charges, but in 1988
the Government began to abolish some general exemptions for pensioners.
People who are ill go first to see their general practitioners (GPs), who
treat minor illnesses themselves. These family doctors work alone or in
partnerships from surgeries or bigger urban medical centres, and when
necessary go to see patients in their homes. Everyone is normally on the list
of a general practitioner (or family doctor), who keeps full records of all
treatments and over the years gets to know the 2,000 or more people on his or
her list. Each GP is paid a fixed amount related to the number of patients on
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the list. General practitioners refer people to hospital, if necessary, for
more specialised treatment, also free of charge both at outpatients' clinics
nnd for those who have to stay in hospital.
Doctors and others who work in hospitals are paid salaries, full time or
part time, graded according to their jobs, with consultants at the top.
England is divided into fourteen regions based on university medical schools
(not on counties); each region is divided into about ten to fifteen districts,
hased on major hospitals. Regions and districts have governing boards appoint-
ed by the Secretary of State for Health.
Most dental treatment is carried out in the dentists1 surgeries which are
scattered around all towns, though difficult cases are sent to dental hos-
pitals. The dentists are paid from health service funds for each item of
treatment. At first their patients did not have to pay, but later part-payment
became necessary, and now people must pay even for check-ups which find
nothing wrong. Only children and a few others are exempt.
Eye tests are usually done in opticians' shops; they too must be paid for,
ns well as any glasses which are needed. Payment for the eye tests was
introduced in 1988, although it was argued that some people would be deterred
from going for tests which could have detected incipient blindness in good
time. People who are found to need further treatment to their eyes are sent to
eye hospitals, where treatment is free.
People do not go directly to hospital unless they are victims of accidents
or for some other reason need urgent treatment. They go to the casualty depart-
ments, which, unlike GP's surgeries, work continuously, mostly receiving
people brought in by Health Service ambulances.
Public opinion has always been extremely favourable to the health service,
with majorities in opinion polls expressing general satisfaction with it and a
strong wish that it should continue. Statistics suggest that it has given
people reasonably effective service. Expectation of life has risen, although
nt a slower rate than in many comparable Western European Countries. However,
one purpose of the Labour government which created the service in 1948 wa^ to
ensure that people's access to medical care of all kinds should not depend on
ability to pay. At that time people in the highest socio-economic categories
suffered less serious illness and lived longer than people in the lowest
categories. These differences have continued with very little change, although
the proportion of people living in unhealthy houses because of poverty has
declined.
Various complex explanations can be suggested for the continuance of class
- 78 -
differentials in health and life expectancy. These include differences in life-
styles, including diet, for which individuals are personally responsible. But
it can be said that, in so far the National Health Service had originally an
egalitarian purpose, some aspects of this purpose have not been achieved.
Although the service was set up by a Labour government, and criticised by
Conservatives in opposition, Conservative governments maintained it when in
office, and appeared to be dedicated to its purposes, until the 1970s. Since
1979 changes have been imposed with the stated intention of introducing a
more businesslike efficiency. Hospitals have been required to put out services
to contract, with the idea that commercial firms give better value than people
employed directly by the service. Doctors have complained that new forms of
management interfere with their clinical judgement.
During this time expenditure on the service has increased more than
inflation. The number of hospital doctors and of nurses has increased substan-
tially, and people are being sent home from hospitals after surgical opera-
tions or childbirth more quickly than before. Very little has been done to
help them when they return home. As old hospitals are closed and new ones
built, the total number of hospital beds has been reduced, and some cannot be
used because there are not enough nurses to care for patients in them.
Patients suffering from painful illnesses are waiting many months for treat-
ment. There has been discontent among hospital staffs, with hostile demonstra-
tions and threats of strikes. Many nurses have disliked the increased dif-
ferences of pay and status within their profession, which have been introduced
to improve incentives.
In 1988-89 the Government proposed some reforms designed to make the
National Health Service use its funds more efficiently, with new elements of
competition. Individual hospitals were to be free to choose to be independent
of their district health authorities, and to get their funds directly from the
government, with their own budgets. Doctors in large partnerships in general
practice were to be allowed to have their own budgets, to choose hospitals for
their patients, and to use their own funds to pay the hospitals for the
treatment given to their patients. The plans were in general not welcomed by
doctors, and opinion polls indicated that the majority of the public would
prefer the service to continue without these changes, but to have more funds
provided for it.
One new problem has arisen from new policies for people with mental
handicaps too severe for them to be able to manage to live adequate lives
while living alone. Many who had been in institutions are now living "in the
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community", with the idea that the local council's social services should give
lw?lp and supervision. As the local authorities' total expenditures are being
restricted they have great difficulty in finding enough funds to do this job
udequately.
There has lately been a big increase in private medical treatment, and
more people have their own health insurance. People are not obliged to use the
National Health Service, and from the beginning a few have gone to doctors
practising privately, paying them for their services. This is done mainly for
specialist treatment, including hospital. Almost a tenth of the people now pay
for their own insurance against possible costs of private specialists and
private hospitals. Many senior medical specialists and surgeons work part time
for the health service and part time for private fee-paying patients. Many
private hospitals have their own operating theatres for surgery, though some
National Health hospitals, with more comprehensive facilities, also have
private wards. People who pay for themselves, with or without the help of
private insurance, can choose their specialists and do not have to wait their
turn for treatment. They also have private and comfortable rooms in hospitals,
Instead of being in large wards with other patients. But the recent big
increase in private health insurance seems to reflect a decline in public
confidence in the National Health Service.
The Social Services. The past fifty years have brought fundamental
changes in provision for the special needs, apart from money, of people who
иге in trouble, or who cannot manage their affairs without help. The old
activities of churches and private or charitable organisations (such as the
National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children) still go on, but
Lhe main part of the work is done by the social services departments of county
and metropolitan borough councils. They sometimes collaborate with the
charitable organisations. Professional social workers are highly trained, with
specialist qualifications from universities and polytechnics.
Inevitably, for example, some children are ill-treated or neglected at
home, or suffer misery or disadvantage as a result of conditions in their
homes. Social service personnel have the duty to discover cases of this nature,
end decide what should be done in an attempt to find a remedy. If they find
lhat their attempts at help and persuasion do not produce results which they
consider satisfactory, and if they see no reason for optimism about the future
they may obtain an order of a court under which a child is put into the care
of the local authority. In that case they must decide whether to find a
"foster-home", where a suitable family is prepared to look after the child, or
- вп -
to put the child iri uno ul I hi* nulhorily's own establishments where children
are looked idler by qunllfied staff. Social workers are also concerned with
children win» hnvo been found, in the special children's courts, to have stolen
or cuminilied nnli-social acts. •
Work with children is only a part of the social worker's task. The local
authorities have duties which extend to a concern with all kinds of depriva-
tion or maladjustment; the welfare state works not only through social
security payments and the National Health Service, but also through active
involvement in positive attempts to promote welfare in cases where neither
money payments nor medical treatment can suffice. Just as the demands on the
National Health Service have grown, so too have the demands on this other
aspect of the social services; and the fastest growth was before the sharp
rise in unemployment after 1976.
(Peter Bromhead. Life in Modern Britain)
RELIGION
British people are perhaps less religious than most others, but religion
is now, as it has always been, an important factor in national life. There is
complete religious freedom and anyone may belong to any religious faith that
he chooses or to none at all. The Church of England is the established Protes-
tant church in England, though perhaps a quarter of the English belong to
other religious denominations and many others cannot be said to have any
active religious attachment. The Church of Scotland is quite separate, having
a different organisation without bishops, and in Wales there has been no
established Church at all (since 1914). Nevertheless, it is natural and
appropriate to concentrate mainly on the Church of England. The Queen is its
head and was crowned, like her predecessors, by the Archbishop of Canterbury
in Westminster Abbey. The establishment of the church is part of the law, and
important changes concerning the church cannot be made without the consent of
Parliament — though many people in the Church wish that this were not so.
The immediate occasion of the Church of England's separation from Rome was
political, not doctrinal. King Henry VIIi and his wife Catherine had a
daughter but no son. He owed his throne to his father's victory in civil war
and feared that, if he died without a son, the succession to the throne would
bring fresh conflict. No queen had yet reigned in England. When it was
unlikely that his wife would have another child, Henry tried to persuade the
Pope to grant him a divorce. He failed. He was in fact unsympathetic to the
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Reformation, and had earlier been granted the papal title "Defender of the
faith" for his defence of the papacy against Martin Luther.
In 1533 Parliament passed the Act of Supremacy, declaring the King to be
head of the Church of England. Henry divorced his wife and remarried, for the
first of five times. The second wife had a daughter, the future Queen
Elizabeth I, and was soon beheaded. The third had a son, then died. The fourth
was divorced, the fifth beheaded, the sixth survived. While Henry was alive
the Church continued as before, though there were the beginnings of a movement
towards reform. The monasteries were dissolved and their vast properties
confiscated. English-language Bibles were placed in all churches and made
«vailable to the people. After Henry died there was a period of confusion,
until his second daughter, Elizabeth, became Queen in 1588 and the Church of
England was established by an Act of Parliament. Except for a period after the
civil wars of the next century, it has remained subject to Parliament and the
Crown ever since. Though Protestant, it has Catholic elements:its beginnings
were an attempt to satisfy as many as possible of the conflicting parties.
The Church of England has kept its bishops and its dioceses, each with a
cathedral. The cathedrals and hundreds of smaller churches, built between the
eleventh century and King Henry VIII’s time, are modern England’s greatest
glory, used by the Church of England; they help to identify it with the
continuity of the nation. But the state does not make itself responsible for
the physical upkeep of the buildings, which has to be paid for by voluntary
contributions. For tourists there are shops and restaurants within the
precincts of many cathedrals. Similarly, the clergy are not paid by the state,
but out of the Church’s own funds, supplemented by money from parishioners.
Most of the vicars in the parishes now live in ordinary small houses; the
grand vicarages built 100 or 200 years ago are too big for them. They are in
general paid less than the average industrial wage.
England is divided into forty-two dioceses, each with a bishop. Every
diocese has a cathedral as its central church. Each of the great old cathed-
rals has a dean and five or six residentiary canons who are together respon-
sible for the cathedral and its services.
The two Archbishops, of Canterbury and York, and twenty-four senior
bishops have seats in the House of Lords, but rarely go there. When the Lords
debate a moral or social issue at least one bishop normally speaks, expressing
<i Christian rather than a party point of view. The bishops have been on the
"liberal" side on issues such as birth control and abortion, and have vigorous-
ly opposed all racial discrimination. In the 1980s several bishops who
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were appointed under Mrs Thatcher criticised her government’s policy of
reducing income tax, particularly on higher incomes, while at the same time
not spending more on health, the social services and education.
In the 1970s a division arose over the proposal that the Church should at
last ordain women as priests. Some other churches in the Anglican communion,
notably in the United States, began to do so. By the 1980s the majority of
bishops and ordinary clergy appeared to be in favour, and there seemed to be a
prospect that a definite positive decision would be made in the 1990s, but
some of the opponents were so strongly opposed that there was a possibility of
actual schism.
For several decades it has been easy to criticise the Church of England
both for its links with the establishment and for its own internal rivalries.
By the 1980s it was • suffering more from indifference than from criticism.
Neighbouring parishes have been amalgamated, for lack of clergy — and though
the number of clergymen has declined there is too little money to support even
the reduced number.
Protestants not belonging to the Church of England were excluded from many
offices and places, including the House of Commons, until the early nineteenth
century; in those days' they were called ’’dissenters", but later the rather
more polite term ’’nonconformist" came to be used instead. Today the term
"members of the Free Churches" is more usual. Of the old dissenting sects, the
Baptists and the United Reform Church, are perhaps the most important, though
many Presbyterians in England are in fact Scottish people who have taken their
own religion southwards across the border. The Quakers have always been a very
small and select group, and have their meeting houses, for the most part, only
in large towns, but they are immensely respected and in general rather
wealthy.
More important numerically than any of these old sects are the Methodists,
who follow the movement started by John Wesley in the eighteenth century. He
was ordained as a clergyman of the Church of England in 1725, and taught and
preached at Oxford for some years, becoming the central figure in a small
group who were called "Methodists" and tried to live a deeply religious life
together. He travelled over the country preaching, often in the open air, and
soon had an immense following. In time many Methodist churches were built and
regular preachers and ministers were appointed. Methodism is probably now the
main religion of the people in many northern mining and industrial areas and
also in Wales, though the Welsh form is distinct from the English. One great
follower of Wesley's path was William Booth, founder of the Salvation Army.
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Its brass bands play hymn tunes in the streets on Sundays, and its officers do
admirable social work.
The Roman Catholic Church was persecuted and weak in England for a long
time after the Reformation. Its English hierarchy was extinct from the
sixteenth century until 1850, but now England and Wales have four archbishops
and fourteen bishops. Many of the Roman Catholics in England are the descend-
ants of immigrants from Ireland, which has always remained predominantly Roman
Catholic, and it is sometimes said that Roman Catholic priests are among the
m^in Irish exports to England.
There is no "Christian" political party and no anti-religious or anti-
clerical party either. On the whole Conservatism and adherence to the Church
of England tend to go together, though many Anglicans vote against the
Conservatives and many members of other denominations vote for them. But the
Conservatives regard themselves as a "national" party, and the Church of
England has a special attraction for them because it is identified with the
nation. Both nineteenth-century liberalism and modern socialism have their
roots partly in nonconformist Protestantism. Among Labour Members of Parlia-
ment, there are many who had their first experience of public speaking and of
social leadership in their local Methodist churches and church activities.
While the intellectual element among Labour Party politicians is perhaps
mainly agnostic, many of the working men who have come up through the trade
unions are Free Church Protestants. Among Roman Catholic congregations,
particularly in the big cities, there are large numbers of Labour Party
supporters, though there are also some English Catholics who are to be counted
as among the most right-wing Conservatives.
The statistics of church membership shows that all the churches mentioned
up to this point lost at least a tenth of their membership in the last ten
years. Also, the number of priests declined by at least the same proportion.
The membership of the main Free Churches has fallen by half in the past forty
years, and the decline is still continuing. Even with the Roman Catholic
church, which had previously been growing, there was a big loss of active
membership. Even so, the Catholic Church has more active members than the
Church of England, and more than all the nonconformist Protestant churches.
Surveys of actual church attendance show that on an average Sunday about 3 per
cent of the population go to Anglican churches, less than 2 per cent to
nonconformist churches, and 4-5 per cent to Catholic churches.
The Church of Scotland has been more successful in Scotland than the
Anglican Church in England in maintaining a fairly large active membership,
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amounting to a fifth of the adult population. In so far as Scottish people are
concerned with their national identity, the Church of Scotland can be seen as
an expression of it. Even so, its membership has been declining at about the
same rate as that of the Anglican Church in England.
About three-fifths of all English people, if asked their religion, would
probably say ’'Church of England", though very many of these never go to church
except for funerals and weddings. About half of all marriages are in churches,
most of them Anglican. Most people form their own opinions about controversial
moral issues. One survey of people's opinions showed that four-fifths of a
sample agreed that a pregnant woman should in principle be free to choose to
have an abortion — including two-thirds of the Catholics in the sample. In
1986, when 500 children in two secondary schools were asked if they believed
in God, half were sceptical, and less than a third found any meaning in
religion.
The Methodist, Presbyterian, Reformed and Baptist denominations, together
with the national English and Scottish churches, are approximately similar to
what Americans commonly call "mainline Protestants". They are all declining in
active membership, and account for most of the people who are partially lapsed
but not atheist.
Among the religions brought to Britain (mainly England) by people who have
come from Asia, Buddhism has had anattraction for some of the native British.
Although there are large numbers of Hindus, strict adherence to some Hindu
practices seems not to be widespread.
There are now nearly a million Muslims in Britain, and the number is
increasing. The biggest and grandest new religious buildings of the 1970s is
the London Mosque. Many Muslim leaders are active in maintaining the distinct-
ness of Islam, and numerous Muslim schools have been brought into the state
educational system, on a basis similar to that of Catholic schools.
(After Peter Bromhead. Life in Modern Britain)
AN OUTLINE OF BRITISH ART
Prehistoric Beginnings. The greatest monument of the Neolithic and
succeeding Early Bronze Age is Stonehenge (ill. 1). Its construction covered
four centuries, approximately 1800-1400 B.C., for it was constantly altered
and added to, and nowhere else is there anything like it: an outer circle of
stones nearly 5 metres high, pillars that support a continuous lintel, and
within it a horseshoe of ten even huger stones, set in pairs. Before it fell
- 85 -
into ruin Stonehenge must have had much of the grandeur of an Egyptian temple.
A new era began when the Celts invaded Britain in the fifth century B.C.
nnd, armed with iron swords against which the soft bronze weapons of the
natives were useless, established themselves as a feudal aristocracy. The
Celtic craftsmen were not interested in realism. Their art, like that of the
Bronze Age, was essentially abstract, dependent on the beauty of its line.
The human heads on their coins are more realistic, but even here the hair
becomes a wave-like pattern that bears little resemblance to the naturalism of
its Roman original.
Roman Britain, 50-450 A D. The southern Celts were introduced to the
civilization and art of Rome very quickly. In the north the architecture was
primarily military: Hadrian’s Wall (ill. 2) and York, founded as a fortress
nnd headquarters of a legion. Chester and Caerleon, commanding the north and
nouth of the Welsh border, were also fortresses, and it was mainly in the
Midlands and south that towns were built as mercantile and residential
centres. Colchester was chosen as the centre of Emperor worship, and within a
few years a temple of Claudius was built there, as well as a senate house and
theatre. The Celts very soon adopted the Roman style of life and turned their
farmhouses into villas, adding new rooms, above all a dining-room and bath-
house, and a front corridor to connect them.
The cave paintings of the Paleolithic hunters were romantic, and so was
the art of the Britons, most of whom were now confronted with a kind of art
that was quite foreign to their tradition. Not only was Roman art classical,
It was also representational, and one wonders what the Britons thought of the
realistic bronze statue of Claudius set up, probably, in the Colchester forum,
or the larger than life figure of Hadrian in London. But these at least were
bronze, the favourite metal of the Celts, and even more foreign to their eyes
would be the marble portrait busts that decorated the public buildings and
houses of the invaders, for to the Britons sculpture in stone was an unknown
iirt. It is all the more interesting, therefore, to see what they made of the
now medium, and a fine example is the limestone head from Gloucester, carved
hy a British sculptor soon after the Roman occupation.
As most of the walls of Romano-British buildings were long ago destroyed,
little remains of their fresco-painting, though sufficient to reveal something
of the elegance of life in those times. The mosaics with which the Romans and
rfonlthier Britons covered their floors, to the native Celts was the strangest
ort of all. Greek in origin, it was developed by the Romans, who set small
rubes of coloured stone in cement to form geometrical or more complex
- 86 -
realistic designs. As the British gentry became more sophisticated and
educated in Roman art and literature, they demanded more complex and vivid
figured mosaics for their villas. One of the most ambitious of these is a
brightly coloured pavement from Low Ham in Somerset, illustrating episodes
from the Aeneid.-
The Anglo-Saxons, 450-1066. At the beginning of the fifth century the
Roman garrisons withdrew, and the long interlude of classical art was over.
The towns were down, temples and theatres in ruin, the statues fallen, columns
broken. The Angles and Saxons, the English, had destroyed Romano-British
civilization, and little or nothing remained but the undestructible roads, the
Latin language, and British Christianity.
At the end of the sixth century England was once again linked to the
classical civilization. In 597 St. Augustine landed in Kent and began the
conversion of the English to Roman Christianity, and with him architecture, as
distinct from building in wood, returned to England. At the end of the seventh
century Bede, a monk in the monastery of Oarrow, wrote his great History of
the English Church and People. As it was written in Latin, it cannot be
claimed as a work of English literature, but it is the first English history,
and one of the most valuable pieces of art. Little remains of Northumbrian
art, though enough to show that by the end of the seventh century the English
were by no means the barbarians they had been before coming of Christianity.
One of the finest examples of Northumbrian art is the Ruthwell Cross: both
front and back are carved with scenes from the life of Christ, and down the
sides there are animals and birds feeding on the grapes, Christian symbol of
the source of life.
The century from about 750 to 850 is one of the darkest periods of the
Dark Ages in Britain, when the Danes came to England and only with the
accession of Alfred as King of Wessex, light began to return. Alfred ordered
the making of much gold- and silver-work, but of this little has survived. The
most important work of his reign is its literature. Not many original works,
however, have survived. It is owing to its rendering into West Saxon dialect
that so much Northumbrian poetry has been preserved: the single precious
manuscript of Beowulf, for example. Alfred gathered round him scholars and
with their help translated the Latin version of Bede’s History, but most
valuable of all was the inception of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a historical
register that was to cover the next two hundred and fifty years.
The Anglo-Normans, 1066-1200. It was not until the Norman Conquest that
the impact of continental Romanesque art was felt in England. The Normans had
- 87 -
n contempt for Saxon church architecture and they began to rebuild thfdr
ihutches. This eleventh-century style was a severe one, but it was disciplined,
«nd gave to English architecture a coherence that it had never had before.
Aiming the cathedrals rebuilt by the Normans during this period were West-
minster Abbey, Winchester Cathedral, Durham Cathedral and Canterbury Cathedral
(111. 6), which have become the pride of the English heritage in architecture.
The unique contribution of the twelfth century to the arts was stained
tjlnss which was begun at Constantinople and developed in western Europe. As
ijIjiss could be made only in small pieces, these were joined by strips of lead,
и noft and heavy metal that had to be supported by iron bars.
The Early Middle Ages, 1200-1350. The men of the thirteenth century had
little sympathy with the static conception of life and art: it was a restless,
experimental age, an age of intellectual ferment, of the foundation of the
universities of Oxford and Cambridge, and this new spirit of aspiration
Inevitably found expression in its art.
The comparatively low Romanesque buildings contradicted the new ideas, the
iirchitectural symbols of which were height, vertical lines, and light. The
first truly Gothic building in England was the choir of Canterbury Cathedral,
।^constructed after the fire of 1174. Canterbury was Anglo-French, but Lincoln
I и!hedral, the rebuilding of which began in 1192 was already Early English.
I ranch logic had been elaborated into English decoration. Gothic architects
l>>ok sculptors into partnership, and, for example, there were more than three
hundred statues and reliefs on the west front of Wells Cathedral, and half of
I hose remain, still showing traces of the colour with which they were enriched.
Salisbury Cathedral (ill. 4), however, is the most perfect example of the
llrst phase of Early English architecture, for, apart from the fourteenth-
cnntury upper tower and spire, it was completely rebuilt on a new site between
I220 and 1258.
Another kind of window, with the additional advantage of giving more
light, was developed about the middle of the century. This was made of plain
glass, the pieces being set in a pattern of leadwork, and lightly painted with
и floral design. The finest example of the window of this glass is the group
ol long lancet-windows at York Minster (ill. 5). They occupy the whole width
(»f the transept and look almost like one huge window.
By the end of the thirteenth century, the freshness, simplicity and
economy of Early Gothic art was giving way to a sophisticated romanticism and
elaboration. '’Decorated" is the word used to distinguish the architecture of
fills Middle Gothic period from 1280 to 1350, and "decorated" admirably
- 88 -
describes its art as a whole, when the English delight in decoration had full
rein.
The Later Middle Ages, 1350-1500. Edward III initiated the rebuilding of
the Norman choir at Gloucester .Cathedral where the original apse was replaced
by a huge window that completely filled the east end. It was a revolutionary
design which got the name of Perpendicular Gothic, a style peculiarly English
and peculiar to England, for in 1338 the Hundred Years' War with France began,
and continental Gothic developed in a different way. The fifteenth century was
a century of war when there were no cathedrals built entirely in the Perpendi-
cular style. It was, however, a great century for building of parish churches,
ventures often financed by the middle class, notably those connected with the
lucrative wool trade. The most obvious development of stained glass was the
greater use of clear glass, combined with delicate painting in silver stain.
This meant that larger pieces of glass could be used, and that leadwork need
not always follow the forms of the design. Such windows became more homely,
the scenes more lively, and a still greater realism was achieved by modelling
the faces. Stained glass was approaching the art of the painter, and by the
end of the century almost all the original conventions, and with them the
mosaic character, had gone. Although stained glass had lost its•thirteenth-
century richness of blue and ruby, these silvery windows are often exceedingly
beautiful, and seem to be the inevitable compliment of Perpendicular churches,
with their tall arcades and high timber roofs.
The walls of these churches are now bare stone, but many of them were once
covered with paintings. Like so many other forms of fifteenth-century art,
church painting was commercialized, and associations of craftsmen supplied
standard work which was generally a vigorous reflection of contemporary life.
During the last quarter of the fifteenth century one of the finest of all
medieval buildings was being built, the Chapel of King's College, Cambridge
(ill. 9). Begun by Henry VI, it was completed by Henry VII. It was a logical
conclusion of Perpendicular Gothic, a linear style in which the supporting
ribs no longer competed for attention with windows — all was now integrated
and harmonized.
The Early Tudors, 1485-1558. After the War of the Roses the medieval
social and economic order was breaking down. The Church was no longer the
chief patron of the arts and demand came now not for churches and stained-
glass windows, but foV houses, handsome chimneypieces, and family portraits.
The Perpendicular style has undergone some modification for secular
purposes, for example, the use of red brick instead of, or in conjunction with,
- 89 -
grey stone. Thus Hampton Court, begun by Cardinal Wolsey in 1514 and completed
by Henry VIII after the Cardinal's fall, was planned on the lines of medieval
colleges of Oxford and Cambridge.
Although innumerable foreign artists and craftsmen visited and settled in
ludor England, particularly after the accession of Elizabeth, there were only
two of the very highest quality: Torrigiano and Holbein. Holbein arrived in
London with a letter of introduction from Erasmus to Sir Thomas More. He was
ncquainted with the works of the great Italian masters, and would almost
certainly have been a painter of religious pictures had it not been for the
Reformation. In all the arts the southern genius is for colour and volume, the
northern genius is for line, which may be why the English have never been a
sculptural people. It was, therefore, as a painter of portrait that Holbein
arrived in England, and in his portraits of More and his circle he continued
nnd confirmed the English linear tradition. It must be remembered that these
nre among the very first English portraits in the modern sense of the word,
portraits for which the subject sat for the artist.
The Elizabethans, 1558-1603. The true Elizabethan drama had begun when in
1587 Christopher Marlowe produced his first play at a new theatre, the Rose,
in London, but the plays of Shakespeare are the greatest monument of the last
decade of Elizabeth’s reign.
The theatres, together with other places of popular entertainment, like
pits for bear-bating and cock-fighting, were mostly to be found on the south
bonk of the Thames. The Puritans seriously thought that the theatre was a
great source of sin and corruption. Then, when a terrible plague killed about
10,000 people in London in 1592, all theatres and public places were immediate-
ly closed. Luckily, however, the nobility supported the theatre and companies
were known by the name of their patrons without whom they could not have
survived as they would have been legally classed as vagabonds. Shakespeare's
company was so good that it became "The Lord Chamberlain’s Men" under Queen
Elizabeth I and later "The King’s Men" under James I;
The creator of the first Globe was the theatre company founded by James
Burbage in 1594. Burbage’s son, Richard, was the leading player, probably the
finest actor of his time, for whom the 30-year-old William Shakespeare was the
playwright. The first Globe opened in 1599. Shakespeare composed his greatest
plays for this theatre and the most powerful roles written for Richard Burbage
were Hamlet, King Lear and Othello. The Shakespeare and Burbage partnership
was to change theatre forever. The Globe and its company enjoyed 14 brilliant
years before, in 1613, a spark from a stage cannon set the thatched roof
- 90 -
ablaze and the theatre burned down. A new Globe was built on the foundations
and continued until 1642 when the Puritans closed it. Two years later The
Globe was demolished and its site eventually forgotten, though its name echoed
down the centuries.
The Early Seventeenth Century, 1603-1660. Inigo Jones was a new phenome-
non in England, a professional architect. He had been to Italy and studied
Roman and Renaissance art and architecture at first hand. He designed a
theatre for Whitehall Palace and built the famous Banqueting House in White-
hall.
A new age began with the accession of Charles I. The princely patron
visited Spain in 1623 and saw the royal portraits by Titian, Rubens and
Velazquez. This led him to search for a comparable painter for the English
court. A knighthood, a pension and a house induced a young Flemish
painter, Anthony Van Dyck, to settle in London in 1632. He ideally suited to
the task of Court Painter: a disciple of Titian, he was able to portray his
royal and aristocratic subjects as they would like to appear and be.remembered,
for his portraits have forever fixed the image of Charles, his family, and the
supporters of his claim for absolutism.
The Later Seventeenth Century, 1660-1714. The Great Fire of London which
occurred in 1666, soon after the Restoration, brought to life the genius of
С»
Christopher Wren. He was commissioned to prepare a plan for reconstructing
St Paul’s Cathedral. The great architect presented three plans, but seven
years passed before, on the basis of the last of his proposed projects, work
was begun. While preparing the site, Wren asked a worker for a stone to mark
the centre of the future cathedral, and he was brought part of a toomstone
from the old cathedral on which was inscribed the Latin word ”resurgam”
("I shall rise again"). Wren saw this as such a good sign that he had the word
inscribed on the outside of St Paul's, under a carving of a phoenix 'rising
from’ the flames.
The first stone of the new cathedral was placed on 21 June 1675, and the
last by Wren's son in 1708, when Wren himself was 76. St Paul's Cathedral is
rightly considered Wren's masterpiece. 0a the facade, in the Renaissance
style, is a portico with six pairs of columns above, surmounted by a pediment.
The dome, its cross 365 feet above the ground, rests on a double drum
structure (ill. 21). The interior of St Paul's too is dominated by the great
dome. Under the church is the crypt, reputed to be the largest in Europe.
The Eighteenth Century, 1714-1789. It was a period of rationalism and
materialism, when any form of "enthusiasm" Was suspect, and imagination
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subordinated to good sense. The architect who influenced English architecture
after Wren was James Gibbs, who studied in Rome. He admired the baroque
element in Wren, and continued the tradition of the great master designing
St Martin-in-the-Fields in London and Radcliffe Camera in Oxford (ill. 8).
Hogarth displayed his genius and originality introducing something quite
new to British art. Very English, insular even, like Fielding he satirised
Englishmen who would look at nothing but foreign works of art, and offered
them subjects other than fashionable portraits. Hogarth offered the English
public his vision of social drama in the six pictures ’’The Harlot’s Progress”,
followed by a similar series, "The Rake’s Progress", and some ten years later
by his masterpiece of satirical observation, "Marriage a la Mode". He made
engravings of these pictures which were avidly bought by the people, but most
of the original paintings remained unsold: modern British paintings were not
for the recently formed aristocratic society. Hogarth was never a fashionable
portrait painter but he was one of the greatest of all English masters. This
can be seen from the brilliant sketch, the "Shrimp Girl", and the seated
figure, Captain Coram, and the sympathetically painted heads of his servants.
All these were revolutionary works: portraits of humble people, painted not
for money but for the sheer joy of painting those whom he found interesting or
admired.
The monumental manner of Reynolds was very different from that of
Gainsborough, who never went to Italy. Reynolds was a townsman, Gainsborough —
a countryman whose heart was in landscape.and who turned to portraiture from
necessity. An experimenter with no academic training, he was more interested
in the transient and accidental than in the solidity of Reynold's forms;
Reynolds is an epic painter, Gainsborough lyrical in his delicacy and light-
ness, both in portrait and landscape. George Romney, their slightly younger
contemporary, had a neoclassical simplicity of contour and a profitable flair
for idealization that made him rival in the fashionable world.
This was the age of the grandiose "history” painting and the subject-
matter of painting was expanding: Joseph Wright of Derby painted scenes of the
early Industrial Revolution, George Stubbs lovingly depicted every form of
nature-, but as horses were his passion he inspired the English genre of
sporting picture.
Josiah Wedgwood became known as the "Father of English Potters’’, end with
good reason. When he was born in 1730, the manufacture of English pottery was
still a cottage craft. Products were basic and often crude, consisting of
butter-pots, jugs and mugs made from local clays. After many years of experi-
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ments and failures he received his first order from the Royal family. Queen
Charlotte was so much pleased with the tea service that Josiah Wedgwood was
granted permission to style himself "Potter of Her Majesty" and call his
creamware "Queen’s Ware".
A few years later the Empress Catherine the Great of Russia ordered a
dinner service for some two dozen people, which was followed by one more order
in 1774 for a huge combined dinner and dessert service for fifty people and
which consisted of 952 hand-painted pieces of gardens and English scenery.
Today, known as a "Green Frog" service, it is kept in the Hermitage Museum,
St Petersburg where some eighty pieces are on display.
Jasper, the most famous of Josiah’s inventions, first appeared in 1774
after thousands of experiments and many trials. An unglazed vitreous fine
stoneware, it was made in blue, green, lilac, yellow, black or white; some-
times one piece combined three or more of these colours. Upon these delicately
coloured grounds would be applied the classical and contemporary reliefs which
are still made today from moulds reproduced from the originals.
Josiah Wedgwood loved Jasper above all his inventions, and in it he
produced the most famous of all his pieces, the replica of the Portland Vase.
The vase, v/hich is in.the British Museum, was made in AD 50, possibly in
Alexandria. It is of deep blue glass, so dark that it looks black. It took
Josiah four years to reproduce the replica in Jasper.
His influence is still strong in the twentieth century, and his pioneer
spirit remains very much alive. Modern technology combined with the ancient
skills.of modelling and decorating continue to produce high quality and varied
wares which are extremely popular with foreign tourists, for whom the very
name of Wedgwood has become a synonym of one of the outstanding English
crafts.
The Romantics, 1789-1837. William Blake was an individualist, belonging
to no school, and rejecting the cult of reason; he pursued the visions of his
own mythology in both poetry and painting. In his paintings he revolted
against the Royal Academy, Reynolds, and realism, and, as oil-colours were
symbolic of all three, he used water-colour to depict the visions inspired by
the Bible, Milton, Dante,-and the Middle Ages.
The beginning’ of the nineteenth century saw the first phase of the
Romantic movement. This was a revolt against the rule of reason and the
restraints of Classicism, for the glorification of freedom, imagination, and
emotion, the rediscovery of wonder, a retreat from town to country, to
medieval romance, the irrational and supernatural.
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Sohn Constable was one of the greatest and most original of the painters
of East Anglia. Like Wordsworth, he really looked at nature with his own eyes,
not through those of other painters, however much he admired them. It was the
new brilliance, greenness, freshness, instead of conventional colouring, that
was so revolutionary in his art, best seen in the preliminary studies made
from nature, like those for The Hay Wain and Leaping Horse, all painted in the
early 1820s. Although Constable did not copy, but represented, interpreted
nature, no other painter has so faithfully reproduced the atmosphere, the
feeling pf the English countryside.
Yet, even after half a century of Romantic art, England was not ready to
accept pure landscape. Richard Wilson had been neglected, Gainsborough was
compelled to abandon landscape for portrait painting, Cotman had to support
himself by teaching, and Constable’s genius was unrecognized in England until
after his death in 1837. The English are incurably literary people: they like
their art to tell a story or point a moral, and all that these East Anglian
painters offered was views of their unsensational countryside. Yet the
greatest of all English landscape painters, 3.M.W. Turner, was more fortunate
in every sense of the word, and for a number of reasons. Born in 1775, he made
a name for himself in the acceptable art of topographical water-colours, and
early oil-paintings, such as Calais Pier, are in the highest degree dramatic.
His travels in France, Germany, Switzerland and Italy gave him an enormous
range of subjects. His later paintings are an interpenetration of the elements:
land, sea, air, and fire, substance dissolving into light in swirling near-
abstract patterns of grey, blue, white, lemon and crimson. Never before had
nature in all its moods been painted with such passionate intensity and under-
standing.
Despite the romantic revolution, the classical tradition of British
portraiture in the manner of Reynolds survived, and Thomas Lawrence in 1792 at
the age of twenty-three succeeded Reynolds as principal portrait painter to
George III. Successful as he was agreeable, he painted the royalty and
ndbility of Europe as well as of England, but success corrupted his genius,
and his natural liveliness too often descended into a flattering artificiality.
□ohn Nash, unscholarly and unfastidious as an architect, was an
extrovert, concerned with exteriors not interiors. At the beginning of the
Regency period his chance came to develop the Crown farmlands in north London,
but he did not succeed in translating his plans into reality and today only
Regent Street reminds us of his ambitious plans. Nonetheless, the classical
Regency style was largely Nash’s creation and i£ soon spread to the provinces,
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notably Brighton and Cheltenham, which retired military men were beginning to
make fashionable.
The Victorians, 1837-1901.• The Romantic Age had also been one of the
industrial and . social revolution. This inevitably affected the arts: new
functional forms had to be devised for factories and aqueducts, bridges and
railway stations.
Tha real occasion for competition was to select painters to decorate the
walls of the new Houses of Parliament. Old Westminster Palace had been
destroyed by fire in 1834, and in 1837 rebuilding had begun. The architect was
Charles Barry, and the style what he called "late medieval and Tudor”, Gothic
being considered the true national style, and Tudor that of the century of
England’s greatest glory.
In 1838 there was- organized a competition for a Nelson memorial in front
of the new National Gallery. It was won by William Railton, a Gothic architect
whose design was a Corinthian column, the base of which was to have bas-
reliefs of Nelson’s victories and recumbent lions at the corners. Something
was felt to be lacking, and Edward Baily, winner of the second prize, was
invited to make a statue of Nelson to crown the column. Trafalgar Square was
levelled and terraced in front of the Gallery, and in 1843 the statue was
hauled to the top of the column. The bas-reliefs were completed a few years
later, but it was 1867 before Lanseer’s bronze lions took up their position.
It was in 1848 that three very young artists were drawn together: Holman
Hunt, John Everett Millais and Dante Gabriel Rossetti. Revolted by the dull
painting of the day, they formed themselves into a ’'Brotherhood’’ whose aim was
"truth to nature" and a return to the simplicity and sincerity of Italian
painting before Raphael — hence the nickname, which they adopted, of the
Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. In 1849 Rossetti exhibited his first picture,
"The Girlhood of Магу", a portrait of his sister Christina. To get the
desired brown of the,. "Old Masters" it was customary to paint on a dark canvas,
but the young revolutionaries painted on a white ground, so that their colours
shone with a quite new brilliance. However, the pictures attracted little
attention, but in the following year, when Hunt and Rossetti had visited
Belgium and called the work of Rubens and Rembrandt "filthy slush", the storm
broke. By 1852, when Millais exhibited Ophelia and Hunt The Hireling Shepherd,
the battle was won and the public prepared to accept the bright colours. Other
painters were affected, notably Ford Madox Brown, who had always been sympathe-
tic. The 1850s were the heyday of Pre-Raphaelitism, but the Brotherhood was
breaking up: Rossetti became more interested in medievalism, water-colours and
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poetry, while Millais gradually declined into successful sentimentalism of
uuch pictures as Bubbles, later used to advertise a brand of soap. The serious
«nd dedicated Hunt alone remained to pursue their original aims. Compared ’*'ith
I he Impressionist movement in France, Pre-Raphaelitism, with its photographic
accuracy was a provincial affair; but then, Victorian England was provincial,
nntisfied with its success as the greatest power in the world.
By 1850, championed by Ruskin, Pugin and Gilbert Scott, Gothic had
triumphed, but the building that housed the Great Exhibition of 1851 was
Gothic of a very different kind: a huge greenhouse designed by Joseph Paxton,
a framework of cast-iron pillars and girders, walled and roofed with glass.
Irected in nine months, with a floor space, including galleries, of twenty-
three, acres, it was a functional forward-looking building of machine-made
prefabricated materials. The Exhibition was primarily to display the utili-
tarian products of British industry, but was later used for Saturday Concerts,
Introducing the public to the classics as well as to contemporary works of
British composers.
The most original and brilliant painter of the Late Victorian Age was the
American-born, Paris-trained James McNeill Whistler. Much influenced by
Japanese colour-prints'and their restricted range of colour, and contemptuous
of Victorian illustration and allegory, he insisted that painting was
nnsentially an aesthetically satisfying arrangement of colour and form, like
music, a harmony in a certain key, and called the portrait of his mother
Arrangement in Grey and Black, his Little White Girl of 1870 Symphony in White.
Criticism was unfavourable, but it was his series of "Nocturnes", paintings of
the Thames "when the evening mist clothes the riverside with poetry", that
brought the bitterest attacks. Whistler was born before his time; recognized
abroad, but in England by only a few percipient ones, he would have been
honoured as leader of a new movement, had he been born in the year of his
quarrel with Ruskin.
The Twentieth Century. There was nothing revolutionary about the arts in
Britain during the Edwardian decade of 1901-10. Architecturally Britain
remained a backwater for thirty years, while the new architecture was deve-
loped in America by Frank Lloyd Wright and in France by Le Corbusier. While in
I rance Picasso and Braque were evolving Cubism from the landscapes of Cezanne,
I he English tradition was maintained in the opulent fashionable portraits of
I he American-born John Singer Sargent, and those of the equally accomplished
William Orpen. Steer, abandoning his earlier Impressionism, reverted to
landscapes in the manner of Constable, while Sickert more gaily found inspire-
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tion in the streets of London, and Frank Brangwyn displayed his gift for
decorative painting. The most vital painter of the period was Augustus John, a
Welshman, who made his name with his early drawings and in his paintings,
brilliant in colour, preferred unconventional types, gipsies and poets, to
fashionable society. There was a similar romantic vitality, with signs of
greater originality, in the sculptures of the young Jacob Epstein.
After two Post-Impressionist Exhibitions in Britain in 1910 and 1912 the
sudden revelation of this European art was bewildering. Wyndham Lewis,
accepting Cubism, painted pictures, hard and sharp-edged as metal strips.
Epstein represented man as a mechanical monster, and David Bomberg painted The
Mud Bath, in which the formalized figures of the bathers are welded into a
semi-abstract design like a machine in motion.
The Bloomsbury Group of the 1920s claimed that beauty of subject has
nothing to do with a work of art, which is "the expression of an emotion felt
by the artist and conveyed to the spectator”. The most representative in this
respect were L.5. Lowry’s grey paintings of industrial Lancashire, its pathos
emphasized by the dark verticals of mill chimneys and isolated human figures.
Another essentially English artist was Stanley Spencer, who with Pre-Raphaelite
realism painted moderri-dress versions of the New Testament stories. The
impetus given by Cubism and Futurism, appeared to have spent itself. Yet a
group of young painters and sculptors formed the Seven and Five Society, one
of whom was Ben Nicholson.
In 1928 both Henry Moore and Barbara Hepworth had their first London
exhibitions, and the stage was set for the revolutionary decade of the 1930s.
Ben Nicholson in 1934 made his first white reliefs, using the geometrical
forms of Cubism. Henry- Moore and Barbara Hepworth independently began to
pierce their carvings with holes, so adding an architectural dimension to
sculpture, the shaping of interior space as well as exterior volume.
Moore is not an abstract sculptor; the human figure is his principal
interest, though he is not concerned with representing a likeness, but is
always aware of correspondences, so that the Reclining Figure (1929) is both
mother earth and a landscape fashioned by weather. Similar "metaphors" animate
all his work, giving additional power and vitality to his monumental forms,
which have more in common with primitive Mexican sculpture than with
classical Greek.
In the three dimensions of her sculpture Barbara Hepworth pressed along
the same path, her work losing the last traces of naturalism as she explored
the architectural themes of relationships in space and tensions between forms.
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After the Second World War there was a great need for houses and schools
to replace those destroyed during the war. Shortage of materials meant
standardization and prefabrication, yet the new towns, planned for living, and
new light and functional schools, pioneered by C.H. Aslin, have set a standard
for the rest of the world.
Then, after the early post-war austerities came a time to relax and
celebrate the centenary of the Great Exhibition of 1851. Many distinguished
architects made their contributions to this Festival of Britain, and one of
the notable buildings of that period was the Royal Festival Hall, designed by
Robert Matthew and Leslie Martin, a great rectangular concert hall, the long
horizontal windows of which reveal the spaciousness of its surrounding public
rooms and promenades, a splendid memorial to the first modern building, the
Crystal Palace. Whatever Prince Albert and Ruskin might have thought of the
festival Hall, had they seen' it, they would have been, to put it moderately,
Burprised by the sculpture, so very different from that of 1851.
There was the monumental work of Moore and Barbara Hepworth, but younger
men in the new Expressionist idiom were beginning to make their names:
Г.Е. McWilliam, a sculptor of rare imagination; Reg Butler, who applied his
knowledge of architecture and engineering to sculpture in wrought and welded
iron; Kenneth Armitage, whose human figures suggested man’s helplessness and
kinship with insects. Even more disquieting expressions of the age of anxiety
and guilt, of the Bomb and Cold War, were the paintings of Francis Bacon, the
magnificent and violent colours of which powerfully emphasized the horror of
the distorted, screaming faces. .
Twentieth-century culture is more complex, more varied, and at its
extremities thinner than even before. The culture of Anglo-Norman times was
essentially that of the Church; in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries it
became more courtly and aristocratic, though still dominated by French
fashions, but the fifteenth century, with the breakdown of feudalism, rise of
о middle class stimulated a vigorous native folk-culture. The Reformation at
the beginning of the sixteenth century inevitably meant the secularization of
culture, which was disseminated by the printing-press and the Elizabethan
drama.was so vigorous because it appealed to all classes of society. The
impact of the European Renaissance in the seventeenth century produced a split
between aristocratic and popular culture, and the culture of the eighteenth
century remained predominantly classical and aristocratic. The Industrial
Revolution led to lowering standards and the complacent insularity of
Victorian times, while the spread of elementary education created a demand for
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more entertaining forms of art, a demand greatly intensified today, despite
the rediscovery of the European tradition and a more serious interest in the
arts.
It is sometimes complained that there has been a break with tradition, yet
a carving by Henry Moore or Barbara Hepworth has much in common with the
monumental forms of Stonehenge, a painting by Ben Nicholson by its quality of
lines goes back to the Middle Ages, and beyond that to the bone carvings of
palaeolithic man in the caves of Derbyshire, with which the cultural history
of England began.
THE PROMOTION OF THE ARTS
Artistic and cultural activity in Great Britain ranges from the highest
standards of professional performance to the enthusiastic support and partici-
pation of amateurs. London is one of the leading world centres for drama,
music, opera and dance, and festivals held in towns and cities throughout the
country attract much interest. Glasgow which has developed into an important
artistic centre, has been chosen as European City of Culture for 1990. Many
British playwrights, composers, film-makers, sculptors, painters, writers,
actors, singers, choreographers and dancers enjoy international reputations.
Television and radio play an important role in bringing a wide range of
artistic events to a large audience. At an amateur level, activities which
make use of local talent and resources take many forms: choral, orchestral,
operatic, dramatic and other societies for the arts abound, and increasing
numbers of people take an interest in such crafts as spinning, lace-making and
wood-carving.
The general aim of the Government's policies for the arts is to encourage
public access to, and enjoyment and appreciation of artistic activity and the
cultural heritage. This is achieved by assisting the provision and development
of the performing and visual arts; encouraging arts and heritage bodies to
increase their income through better marketing and by attracting contributions
from the private sector; maintaining and enhancing the national museums and
galleries; helping to preserve objects of importance to the national heritage.
The British Council promotes a knowledge of British culture overseas and
maintains libraries in many of the 95 countries in which it is represented.
The Council initiates or supports overseas tours by British theatre companies,
orchestras, choirs, opera and dance companies, and jazz, rock and folk groups,
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«is well as by individual actors, musicians and artists. The Council organises
and supports fine arts and other exhibitions overseas as well as British
participation in international exhibitions and film festivals. It also
maintains film libraries in many of the countries in which it works, and
encourages professional interchange between Britain and other countries in all
cultural fields.
Both BBC radio and television and the independent companies broadcast a
wide variety of drama, opera, ballet and music. These have won many inter-
national awards at festivals such as the Prix Italia and Montreux Inter-
national television Festivals. The BBC regularly commissions new music,
particularly by Britisn composers, and sponsors concerts, competitions and
festivals. Each summer it presents and broadcasts the BBC Promenade Concerts
(the ’’Proms") at the Royal Albert Hall.
Some 650 professional arts festivals take place in Britain each year. The
Edinburgh International Festival, featuring a wide range of arts, is the
largest of its kind in the world. Other annual festivals held in the Scottish
capital include International Folk and Jazz Festivals and the Film and
Television Festival, while the Mayfest, the second largest festival in Britain,
takes place in Glasgow. Among others catering for a number of art forms are
the Royal National Eisteddfod of Wales, the Llangollen International Musical
Eisteddfod and the National Gaelic Mod in Scotland.
Drama. Britain has a long and rich dramatic tradition. There are many
companies based in London and other cities, as well as numerous touring
companies. There 64 companies subsidised by the Arts Council; 27 of these are
touring companies.
Contemporary British playwrights who have received international recog-
nition include Harold Pinter, Tom Stoppard, Alan Ayckbourn, Peter Shaffer,
Alan Bennett. The musicals of Sir Andrew Lloyd Webber have been highly
successful both in Britain and overseas. Among the best-known directors are
Sir Peter Hall, Trevor Nunn, Adrian Noble and Terry Hands, while the many
British performers who enjoy international reputations include Sir John
Gielgud, Sir Alec Guinness, Vanessa Redgrave, Sir Ian McKellan, Albert Finney
and some others.
Britain has about 300 theatres intended for professional use which can
seat between 200 and 2,300 people. London has about 100 West End and suburban
theatres, 15 of them permanently occupied by subsidised companies. These
include the Royal National Theatre, which stages a wide range of mndern and
classical plays in its three auditoriums on the South Bank; the Royal Shake-
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speare Company, which presents plays mainly by Shakespeare, as well as some
modern work, both in Stratford-upon-Avon and in the City’s Barbican Centre;
and the English Stage Company at the Royal Court Theatre, which stages the
work of many talented new playwrights.
Most theatres are commercially run and self-financing, relying on popular
shows and musicals to be profitable. By contrast, companies funded by the Arts
Council offer a mixed repertoire of traditional and experimental productions.
In 1989 the partial remains of the Globe Theatre, where Shakespeare acted,
and the Rose Theatre, where his plays were performed during his lifetime, were
excavated on the south bank of the Thames. A modern reconstruction of the
Globe Theatre, on its original site, has been completed in 1995. As well as a
theatre, there is a museum with an exhibition hall.
A number of companies provide theatre for young audiences. Unicorn Theatre
for Children and Polka Children’s Theatre, both in London, present plays
specially written for children. The Young Vic Company in London and Contact
Theatre Company in Manchester stage plays for young people. Numerous Theatre-
in-Education companies perform in schools for all age ranges and abilities.
There has been a marked growth in youth theatres, which number more than 500
in England alone; both the National Youth Theatre in London and the Scottish
Youth Theatre in Glasgow offer early acting opportunities to young people.
The emergence of the contemporary British theatre is usually dated from
8 May 1956' when the Royal Court Theatre in London staged the play by John
Osborne ’’Look Back in Anger”, which gave a portrait of a wounded, passionate
and loveless man, in angry revolt against both the public and the private
realm. Another famous playwright of that period, Arnold Wesker, in his semi-
autobiographical trilogy "Chicken Soup with Barley", "Roots" and "I'm Talking
About Jerusalem" confronts head-on the contradiction between socialist ideals,
cultural impoverishment and human frailties.
For the first wave of new playwrights, from John Osborne and Arnold Wesker
to the early plays of Edward Bond, the primary questions were social and
cultural. As Britain’s rigid class system fell apart, so the new intellectuals
(many of whom had working-class origin) debated the possibilities, con-
sequences and limits of the new cultural democracy. For the next generation,
forged in the fires of the youth revolt of the late 60s, the basic questions
were more aggressively political. They were about the limits of social
democracy and the welfare state (in political terms, the debate between
liberal reform and socialist revolution). By the early 80s, the ground had
shifted once again. Following the failure of traditional socialist ideas to
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achieve mass appeal, playwrights became concerned with questions of identity
nnd difference. The rise of black and women’s theatre, the revival of a self-
conscious theatre of the regions (and nations), and the development of
community theatre were all examples of this phenomenon.
Like all artistic movements, there are major figures who stand outside the
mainstream and pursue their own obsessions. The playwrights closest to the
continental theatre of the absurd — Harold Pinter and Tom Stoppard — turned
to politics relatively recently.
It is a paradox that the work of Britain’s most internationally famous
living dramatist should have emerged from an essentially continental tradition
that ' in general hardly touched British shores, but in Harold Pinter the
Theatre of the Absurd found a particular and unique British voice. In the 80s
he and his work became identified with radical political causes for the first
time; he was particularly concerned with the defence of progressive movements
in South and Central America, and opposing the human rights abuses of right-
wing authoritarian regimes, in plays like "Mountain Language" and "The New
World Order". Harold Pinter’s distinctive tone continues and will continue to
Influence younger writers. His awareness of the importance of silence (the
famous "Pinter Pause")’ did lead to affected imitation, but by and large his
ijxtraordinary sense of the rhythms of spoken dialogue was and remains a
beneficial influence on the writing of his contemporaries and successors.
Tom Stoppard was born in Czechoslovakia and like many of the great post-
war British playwrights is in almost every respect the exception rather than
I he rule. While absurdism declined, he shook hands with it. While the world
was moving towards the barricades of the late 60s, he was writing clever and
literate plays that foregrounded minor Shakespearian characters ("Rosencrantz
nnd Guildenstern are Dead) and set up popular dramatic forms (The Real
Inspector Hound). While liberal humanism was under attack in the universities,
he was defending its values (most notably in "Jumpers"). And when in the late
70s the theatre began to tire of politics, he turned to it, in his East
I uropean plays "Professional Foul'* (BBC) and for the stage "Every Good Boy
Deserves Favour".
Earlier traditions of British comedy and drama have been celebrated in the
work of popular playwrights like Michael Frayn, Peter Shaffer and Alan
Ayckbourn. Initially noted for small, tightly constructed plays of consider-
able technical skill, Shaffer is best known for large-scale plays on epic
themes. All initially presented by the National Theatre, "The Royal Hunt of
the Sun" concerns the colonization of the Inca Empire, "Equus" a psychiat-
102-
rist’s investigation into a boy’s seemingly wanton act of cruelty, and
’’Amadeus" the revenge of the second-rate on the first. Sometimes criticized
for an over-easy evocation of the spiritual, Shaffer’s plays have undoubted
dramatic power.
The popularity of Alan Ayckbourn,, this determinedly regional, unambiguous-
ly bourgeois writer arises from the fact that he articulates the hope and
fears of mjiddle-class provincial England better than anyone else writing, and
does so through plays that, while they contain hardly a single memorable line,
are built round intricate, original and brilliant structural devices, by which
they are often identified. In the late 70s, the mood of Ayckbourn’s plays,
never wholly sunny, began to darken; the plays like "Just Between Ourselves",
"Joking Apart", the river-born "Way Upstream" and the surreal "Woman in Mind"
present a much more pessimistic view of human nature and the likelihood of the
selfish and wicked, outgunning the simple and the good.
The British theatre enters the 1990s in a mood of confusion. Pessimists
point to a growing conservatism in theatre programming, a decline in the
ambition of new plays, and a move towards performance-based theatre that
excludes the literary text. Optimists see first indications that playwrights
and play-makers from an important but essentially insular theatre tradition
are opening out to the world.
Music,Opera and Dance. A wide range of musical interests is catered for
in Great Britain, ranging from classical music to rock and pop music, the
latter being extremely popular among younger people. The first National Music
Day was held in June 1992 and is intended to become an annual event. Its aim
is to celebrate the enjoyment of music by encouraging as many people as
possible to take part as performers or listeners in a day of music-making.
Seasons of orchestral and choral concerts are promoted every year in many
large towns and cities. The principal concert halls in central London are the
Royal Festival Hall in the South Bank Centre, next to which are the Queen
Elizabeth Hall and the Purcell Room; the Royal Albert Hall and Wigmore Hall.
The leading symphony orchestras are the London Philharmonic, the London
Symphony, the BBC Symphony. The works of living composers such as Sir Michael
Tippett, Sir Maxwell Davies and Sir Harrison Birtwistle enj'oy international
acclaim.
The principal choral societies include the Bach Choir, the Brighton
Festival Chorus, the Cardiff Polyphonic Choir, the Edinburgh International
Festival Chorus and the Belfast Philharmonic Society. The English tradition of
church singing is represented by choirs such as those of King’s College Chapel,
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Cambridge, and Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford. There are many male-voice
choirs in Wales and in certain parts of England.
Every week many hundreds of hours of pop and rock music are broadcast
through BBC and independent radio stations, which is by far the most popular
form of musical expression in Britain. Among the characteristics of modern pop
and rock music are the diversity of styles, the frequency with which new
ntyles and stars emerge, and the short lifespan of many groups. In the 1960s
and 70s groups such as- The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, The Who, Led Zeppelin
and Pink Floyd achieved international success. British groups continue to be
popular throughout the world and are more often at the forefront of new
developments in music. Some of the more recent groups include the Cure, Iron
Maiden, Right Said Fred, the Pet Shop Boys and Wet Wet Wet. Well-known
performers include Phil Collins, Sting, Lisa Stansfield, Rod Stuart and Paul
McCartney.
Jazz has an enthusiastic following in Britain and is played in numerous
Clubs and pubs. British musicians such as Barbara Thompson, Stan Tracey, Andy
Sheppard established strong reputations throughout Europe. Festivals of jazz
music are held annually in Soho (London), Edinburgh, Glasgow and at a number
of other places.
Interest in opera has increased greatly in the last ten years. Regular
ncasons of opera and ballet are held at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden,
London. Seasons of opera in English are given by the English National Opera at
the London Coliseum. Scottish Opera has regular seasons at the Theatre Royal
in Glasgow and tours mainly in Scotland. Welsh National Opera presents seasons
In Cardiff and other cities. An opera season for which international casts are
specially assembled is held every summer at Glyndebourne in East Sussex.
Subsidised dance companies include: the Birmingham (formerly Sadler’s
Wells) Royal Ballet, which tours widely in Britain and overseas; English
Notional Ballet, which divides its performances between London and the regions;
find Scottish Ballet, based in Glasgow. Also included are Rambert Dance and
London Contemporary Dance Theatre, which provide regular seasons in London
besides touring extensively.
Sir Kenneth Macmillan and David Bintley are among the foremost British
choreographers, and Michael Clark and Darcey Bussell among the leading
dancers.
Films. Besides feature films, including co-production with other
countries, the industry produces films for television as well as promotional,
advertising, scientific, educational and training films. There are approximate-
104 -
ly 1,640 cinemas in Britain and estimated attendances are currently running at
about 1.7 million a week.
British performers who enjoy international reputations include Sir Dirk
Bogarde, Sean Connery, Anthony Hopkins, Michael Caine and Jeremy Irons.
The development of film, video and television as art forms is promoted by
the British Film Institute, founded in 1933, and in Scotland by the Scottish
Film Council. The British Film Institute runs the ‘ National Film Theatre in
London and the National Film Archive, and has the world’s largest library of
iniormation on film and television. The National Film Archive contains over
200,000 films and television programmes, including newsreels, dating from 1895
to the present. The British Film Institute comprises the Museum of Moving
Image, which traces the history of film and television, and the National Film
Theatre. The latter has three cinemas showing films of historical, artistic or
technical interest, and is unique in offering regular programmes unrestricted
by commercial considerations. In November each year it hosts the London Film
Festival, at which some 250 new films from all over the world are screened.
Cinemas showing films to the public must be licensed by local authorities,
which have a legal duty to prohibit the admission of children under 16 to
unsuitable films, and may prevent the showing of any film. In assessing the
suitability of films the authorities normally rely on the judgement of an
independent non-statutory body, the British Board of Film Classification, to
which films offered to the public must be submitted. Films passed by the Board
are put into one of the following categories: U, meaning universal — suitable
for all; PG, meaning parental guidance, in which some scenes may be unsuit-
able for young children; 12, 15 and 18, for people of not less than 12, 15 and
18 years of age respectively; Restricted 18, for restricted showing only at
segregated premises to which no one under 18 is admitted — for example
licensed ciroma clubs.
Museums and Art Galleries. The national museums and art galleries, many
of which are located in London, contain some of the world's most comprehensive
collections of objects of artistic, archaeological, scientific, historical and
general interest. They are the British Museum, the Natural History Museum, the
Victoria and Albert Museum, the National Gallery, the Tate Gallery, the
National Portrait Gallery, the National Army Museum and many others. An
extension to the National Gallery, the Sainsbury Wing, opened in 1991,
provides a venue for major international touring exhibitions and other events.
A number of modern British sculptors and painters have high international
reputations, and have received many international prizes and commissions for
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major works in foreign cities. Among the best known are the late Henry Moore,
I rancis Bacon and David Hockney.
In Scotland the national collections are held by the National Museums of
Scotland and the National Galleries of Scotland. In Edinburgh there are the
Royal Museum of Scotland, the National Gallery of Scotland, the Scottish
National Portrait Gallery and the Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art.
The National Museum of Wales, in Cardiff, has a number of branches
Including the Welsh Folk Museum and the Slate Museum.
Other important collections in London include the Royal Armouries in the
lower of London, the Museum of London, Sir Oohn Soane’s Museum and Courtauld
collection. The Queen’s Gallery in Buckingham Palace has pictures from the
extensive royal collections.
Most cities and towns have museums devoted to art, archaeology and natural
history. Both Oxford and Cambridge are rich in museums. Many are associated
with their universities, such as the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford (founded in
1603 — the oldest in the world), and the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge.
Many private art collections in historic family mansions, including those
owned by the National Trust, are open’to public, while an increasing number of
open air museums depict the regional life of an area or preserve early
Industrial remains, such as the Oorvik Viking Centre, a reconstruction of the
Viking settlement in York; a new maritime museum in Portsmouth, housing the
restored wreck of the Mary Rose, the flagship of Henry VIII, which sank in
1545 and was raised in 1982.
(Based on: Britain 1993. An Official Handbook)
LONDON AND ITS PLACES OF INTEREST
ondon is the capital of the United Kingdom and with the population of
««bout 8 million people it is one of the largest cities in the world. Histori-
rnl and geographical circumstances have made London one of the world’s most
Important commercial and cultural centres, while its range of historical
connections and its buildings attract millions of tourists from overseas each
year.
London was an important city in Roman times, and there are substantial
Homan remains, mostly below street level. By the Middle Ages, when London
became the political and commercial capital of England, it was one of the
most important cities in Europe. The original commercial nucleus of the City
of London (ill. 18) was adjoined by the City of Westminster, where the
106 -
political centre, established by the monarchy, was supplemented by the
administrative offices of Parliament and Whitehall. Gradually London expanded,
absorbing outlying villages, such as Kensington.and Hampstead, until by the
end of the nineteenth century much of the central area of London had been
developed in a way which is still recognizable today. This pattern of growth
has produced a townscape of great variety, ranging from the narrow medieval
street-patterns of the City to the spacious neo-classical squares of Belgravia.
Almost every style of European architecture can be found in London, from
Roman to "hightech”. After the Second World War a special effort has been made
to preserve the surviving townscape and the best architecture of the past. In
some areas, such as the City, where commercial pressures are most severe, this
has frequently not been possible; the City has, however, some notable examples
of modern architecture, such as the Barbican Centre and the new Lloyd’s
building. The most famous older buildings in London include Buckingham Palace,
the Houses of Parliament, St Paul's Cathedral, Westminster Abbey and the Tower
of London.
London is composed of about thirty boroughs in addition to the City. It
covers an area of about 120 square miles and forms a rough kind of circle with
a radius of 20 miles. The most important parts of London are the City, the West
End, the East End and Westminster.
The City is the heart of business and commercial life of London. It is the
business, banking and insurance area which includes the Bank of England, the
Royal Exchange, the Mansion House (the official residence of the Lord Mayor).
One can also see the spires of 29 City churches which contribute an imagina-
tive element to the City skyline. The biggest and most famous among them is
St Paul’s Cathedral.
The West End, a fashionable shopping and entertainment centre, is to the
west of the City and is renowned for its hotels, restaurants, night-clubs,
cinemas and theatres. The name the West End stands for the high fashion of
Mayfair, the elegant clublife of St James’s, Soho's night life and the famous
department stores of Oxford Street and Regent Street. Among the tried and
tested attractions by numerous tourists are general stores like Selfridges,
Marks & Spencer, John Lewis.
Working class London is centred in the East End. This is a vast area
running eastwards from the City. It includes all the main dock areas and is
heavily industrialized. Here, in Lambeth, you can come across "the citizens of
the Cockneyland". Much of the lively traditional character of the East End
survives, notably in its pubs, some of which offer entertainment in music-
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hnll style and are popular with impression-hungry tourists. Л
Westminster is the political centre оГ ^London for it contains the nation’s
Law-making and administrative nerve centre. The Westminster Palace, the seat
of the British Parliament, Westminster Abbey, burial-place of kings and stage
for coronations, Buckingham Palace, home of the monarch, Whitehall with its
Ministries, Downing Street 10, where the Prime Minister lives and where the
Cabinet meets, are situated there.v—
London is the result of almost 2000 years’ development, most of it
uncontrolled. Attempts to impose a pattern on this vast organism have failed —
notably Sir Christopher Wren's plan for the recreation of its ancient centre
after the Great’ Fire of 1666, and the ambitious scheme of John Nash for
beautifying the West End.
If London’s growth over the centuries has been a largely haphazard affair,
its creation was deliberate enough. The invading Romans in AD 43 wanted a site
somewhere along the Thames which could be settled and fortified, and they
chose the area which was later to become the "square mile" of the City. The
wall which the Romans put around London contained it for 1000 years after
their departure. In the years following the Norman Conquest, the City spilt a
little to the west to meet Westminster,
was accelerated by the Great Fire, which
London has often been described as
The movement of population westwards,
devastated most of the City.
a "collection of villages". This is

true both for the city centre, where districts like Soho and Bloomsbury merge
into each other, yet remain unmistakably themselves, and so of the outer areas,
where such places as Hampstead, Highgate, Greenwich and Richmond still keep
much of their distinctive character.
Houses of Parliament. The Houses of Parliament stand on the north side of
the Thames. The official name of the building is the Palace of Westminster.
There was a royal dwelling on the site as early as the eleventh century which
later became the meeting place of Parliament. In 1834 the Parliament buildings
were destroyed by the fire which attracted a large crowd, and among them was
William Turner, who made celebrated paintings and drawings of the scene. The
Houses of Parliament were rebuilt by Sir Charles Barry in the late Perpendi-
cular style, borrowing many features from Henry VII’s chapel in the nearby
Westminster Abbey. Work began in 1840: the House of Lords was ready by 1847
and the House of Commons by 1850.
The outside appearance of this building is known throughout the world,
particularly as seen from the opposite bank of the Thames: the Clock Tower and
Victoria Tower on either sides of the Houses of Parliament (ill. 13). The
- luu -
I Inil hiwni wun ....pli>l.«)(J lit 1858 nnd is so well known that it has become a
hyinliiil ni I|ih rily of London. The tower is 320 feet high and its clock is said
In htt пни of Un* must accurate in the world. The famous bell, weighing 13
liwiri, in known to all as Big Ben. When the great bell was cast in London
foundry in 1858, the question of its name was discussed in Parliament. One
member said, "Why not call it Big Ben?” There was much laughter among the
members because the man in charge of public buildings was Sir Benjamin Hall, a
very tall, stout man whose nickname was "Big Ben”. From that time the bell has
been known as Big Ben, so it is the name of the bell only — not the clock,
and not the tower.
The Victoria Tower was completed in 1860 and serves as the sovereign's
entrance for the annual ceremonial State Opening of Parliament which takes
place in late October or early November. On the opening of Parliament the
Sovereign delivers the address, a speech worded as though it emanated from the
Crown, though actually it is written by the Prime Minister. This is a day when
ceremony rules every gesture, and when officials appear .to perform their
appointed functions, whose exact role is not clear even to most Britons
themselves.
When Parliament sits, a flag flies over Victoria Tower by day and a light
in the Clock Tower burns above Big Ben by night. The House of Commons sits on
the side of the Clock Tower, the House of Lords — to the Victoria Tower side.
Members of one House may not enter the other. The exception is the day of the
State Opening of Parliament when the Queen makes the speech in the House of
Lords.
In the House of Lords there is a throne of the Queen. In front of the
throne is the celebrated woolsack, recalling the tradition that in olden times
MPs sat on sacks of wool. The woolsack is a traditional seat of the Lord
Chancellor, the Speaker of the House of Lords (ill. 14). The House of Lords is
in a surprising contrast with the simplicity of the House of Commons, with its
plain wood panelling on the walls and green leather benches. The central place
in it is occupied by the Speaker. The seats for the Government are on his
right and the seats for the Opposition on his left (ill. 15). The House of
Commons has seats for only about two-thirds of its members, a thing that
could be difficult to explain.
Westminster Abbey. Westminster Abbey is a fine Gothic building, the work
of many different hands and different ages. It was founded in 1049. The
present-day building was begun by Henry III. From then on extensions, modifica-
tions and embellishments to the Abbey continued for many centuries, the last
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major addition being the towers on the facade by Nicholas Hawksmoor .two
centuries ago. Despite the range of time it covers, the Abbey is a harmonious
whole in the English Gothic style. The interior, with its two aisles, is some
170 metres long and 33 metres high.
In Westminster Abbey the British monarchs are crowned and many are buried;
and not only kings and queens, but also other famous statesmen, soldiers, men
of letters and artists. The Abbey contains the tombs of Charles Darwin, Isaac
Newton, James Maxwell. It has its Poets’ Corner, where many writers are
buried: Geoffrey Chaucer, Ben Johnson, Charles Dickens, Alfred Tennyson,
Thomas Hardy, Rudyard Kipling. Busts and statues of famous writers who are not
buried here have been set up in Poets’ Corner: William Shakespeare, John
Milton, Robert Burns, George Byron, Walter Scott.
The Chapel of Henry VII is perhaps the finest part of all Westminster
Abbey, a great masterpiece of the English Perpendicular style. Built between
1503 and 1519 the chapel contains the tombs of Henry VII and his wife and the
intricately carved stalls of the knights of the Most Honourable Order of the
Bath, founded in 1725.
No. 10, Downing Street. If, after leaving the Palace of Westminster, we
walk up Whitehall towards Trafalgar Square, we may notice on the left hand
side, just above the Cenotaph, a small street leading to St James’s Park. It
is not a very imposing street, yet by name one of the best known in London.
Leading off it to the left is the entrance to the foreign Office, and on its
right hand side stands a solid-looking, largish, but rather unimposing house,
bequeathed to the State over 200 years ago by Sir Robert Walpole, a prominent
statesman of the first half of the eighteenth century. In here, today,
whatever party is in power, lives the Prime Minister. The house is, of course,
No. 10, Downing Street (ill. 16). It is not only the London residence of the
Prime Minister; it also houses his secretariat and is the meeting place of the
Prime Minister’s Cabinet. The number of seats around the conference table is
not fixed. Some Prime Ministers decide on a larger Cabinet than others, but
generally there are about 20 members.
Trafalgar Square. Trafalgar Square is perhaps the liveliest and busiest
part of London. Some reason for a large crowd to gather there is never
lacking: either to celebrate the New Year by taking a swim in .the fountains,
or to stage a protest demonstration, or to sing carols under the huge fir-tree
which Norway gives England every Christmas. Laying out of the great square was
begun in 1830 by the architect John Nash and was completed in 1841. It was
called Trafalgar Square to commemorate the great battle which Lord Nelson won
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in 1805 against the Franco-Spanish fleet. Nelson himself lost his life in the
battle, dying on board his ship, Victory, after hearing the news of his great
victory. And it is to Nelson that the tall granite column, 185 feet high in
the centre of the square is dedicated. It is guarded at the base by four
bronze lions. Round the base are bronze reliefs, representing Nelson’s famous
naval victories.
On the north-east corner of the square stands the magnificent church of
St Martin-in-the-Fields, the Royal parish church at the time of Henry VIII.
The Baroque church as it is today was built between 1722 and 1726 by James
Gibbs. It is well known today for the concerts which are held here every
Tuesday. The church is also the scene of unusual ceremonies, such as the
service held in honour of the "pearl queens", London housewives who spend
months making highly decorated dresses with mother-of-pearl buttons for the
occasion.
National Gallery. On the north side of Trafalgar Square there stands a
long, low building in neo-classical style. This is the National Gallery, which
contains•Britain's best known collection of pictures. The collection was begun
in 1824, with the purchase of thirty-eight pictures that included Hogarth's
satirical "Marriage a la Mode" series, and Titian’s "Venus and Adonis".
The National Gallery is rich in paintings by Italian masters such as
Raphael, Corregio and Veronese, and it contains pictures representing all
European schools of art such as works by Rembrandt, Rubens, Van Dyck, Murillo,
El Greco, and nineteenth century French masters. Many visitors are especially
attracted to Velasquez's "Rokeby Venus" and Leonardo da Vinci's "Virgin of the
Rocks".
Buckingham Palace. Buckingham Palace was neither the first nor the only
residence of the English sovereigns. In fact, from the time of the Norman
Conquest, London has had four different royal palaces. The first was West-
minster, then there was Whitehall and later the honour fell to St James's
Palace. The history of Buckingham Palace began in 1623 and the last modifica-
tion was made in 1913, when Sir Aston Webb rebuilt the facade in the neo-
classical style (ill. 17). Not much can be seen today, through the heavy fence,
of the celebrated palace. The luxurious interior and gardens are of course not
open to the public, and it is only by the presence of the Royal Standard on'
the roof that we know that the Sovereign is in the palace.
St Paul's Cathedral. St Paul's Cathedral is the masterpiece of Sir
Christopher Wren. The Cathedral was built between 1675 and 1710 to replace the
old one that was destroyed in the Great Fire of 1666. From far away you can
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nee the huge dome with a golden ball and cross on the top. The inside of the
Cathedral is very beautiful. After looking round, you can climb 263 steps to
the Whispering Gallery, which runs round the dome. It is called so, because if
aomeone whispers close to the wall on one side, a person with his ear close to
Ihe wall on the other side can hear what is said. Then if you climb another
118 steps you will be able to stand outside the dome and look all over London
(111. 21). The first stone of the new Cathedral was placed in 1675 and the
hist in 1708. St Paul's Cathedral, the second largest in the world after
St Peter's in Rome, is rightly considered Wren's masterpiece. He was buried in
Ihe Cathedral and his tomb carries a marble tablet with the Latin inscription
which in English reads: "Reader, if you seek his monument, look around". But
Ihe church's most famous tomb is neither Wren's nor of the Duke of Wellington:
Ihe most visited tomb is that of Admiral Nelson. The remains of the great
iidmiral who died in the Battle of Trafalgar lie in a marble sarcophagus. Here
nre buried many great men, so in this respect the Cathedral is similar to
Westminster Abbey.
The British Museum. The British Museum is the largest and richest of its
kind in the world. Built in the middle of the last century, it is situated in
Bloomsbury, a district in central London which consists of quiet squares and
streets laid in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. It is famous
lor its various collections which illustrate every aspect of the progress of
civilization. In the first place the British Museum is a great library, which
contains six million books. Secondly the British Museum is a great scientific
Institution, generally known as Natural History Museum. It comprises the
Notional Museum of Archaeology and Ethnography with the departments of
I rjyptian, Assyrian, Greek and Roman Antiquities, British and Medieval
Antiquities, Oriental Antiquities. The Museum contains an enormous collection
of manuscripts ranging in date from the most ancient papyri to modern politi-
cal papers. It was founded by Act of Parliament in 1753 to bring together the
collections of Sir Robert Cotton, which were already national property, and
I hose formed by the two Harleys, first and second Earls of Oxford, and“by
5ir Hans Sloane.
Tower of London. The Tower of London, Europe's oldest palace, fortress
and prison, lies in the south-east corner of the City, on the site where the
ancient Britons probably had a stronghold. The site's strategic position
dominating the river led William the Conqueror to choose it for erecting the
fortress to protect the city and to show its inhabitants the might of their
Norman conquerors. Powerful walls, up to ten feet thick, were erected,
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and inside them the almost square tower, with four turrets, three of them
square and one circular. It is called the White Tower because in the Middle
Ages it was whitewashed. The name has remained over the centuries although
there is now no trace of white about it (ill. 19).
After William various other kings enlarged the Tower, adding walls,
bastions, towers and other structures, until the Tower of London became one of
the most massive, impregnable fortresses in Europe. But it was not only a
defensive building: it was also an armoury, treasury, Royal Palace and prison
for offenders against the state. As such, it has a history with many dramatic
and bloody moments. It was especially during the reign of the Tudors that the
Tower gained its most infamous reputation, not only as state prison but also
as the site of executions. Some ravens whose forefathers used to find blood in
the Tower, still live here. It is legend that the Tower will fall if it
loses its ravens. The birds therefore are carefully guarded.
In the Wakefield Tower, one of the four towers, lie the Crown Jewels and
the Royal Regalia. The Crown is worn by the sovereign on great State occasions.
The Tower of London is guarded by the Yeoman Warders (ill. 20), popularly
called Beefeaters, a nickname which is said to derive from the distant era
when the Saxons accused the Normans of eating the best food in the country they
had conquered. The Yeoman Warders usually wear the dark-blue uniform which
Queen Victoria granted them in 1858, but their more familiar image is perhaps
in their bright scarlet and gold dress uniform, dating from the reign of Queen
Elizabeth I. At 10 o'clock every night the Yeoman Warders and the Chief
Warder perform one of the oldest and one of the most impressive ceremonies in
England — a ceremony which dates back at least 700 years. This ceremony is
known as "The Ceremony of the Keys". The Chief Warder, with a guard escort,
performs the ritual locking up of the Tower for the night.
Piccadilly Circus. This small square irregularly shaped and with no
apparent architectural unity, is usually considered the centre of London. The
square produces the most striking effect by night, when the neon advertising
signs on the facades of the buildings create a vortex of changing light. The
name Piccadilly, now one of the best known parts of London, is said to have
had a curious origin. Actually it immortalized a man who is now forgotten. The
man, Robert .Baker, was a tailor who grew rich by making high collars called
"piccadillies" which had an enthusiastic reception among London's young
noblemen. The tailor's shop itself came to be called Piccadilla House, and the
name, slightly changed, has lived on.
The aluminium statue, designed by Alfred Gilbert and placed on top of the
113 -
square's fountain in 1892, has always been believed to depict Eros. This is an
odd misunderstanding of its symbolism, because it fact it represents the angel
of Christian charity and was erected in memory of the philanthropist Anthony
Cooper, who had dedicated his life to helping the poor of London.
There are a number of theatres and cinemas in the streets around Picca-
dilly Circus, so this part of London is generally called "Theatreland".
The National Theatre. In the panoramic area overlooking the Thames known
as the South Bank is London's greatest complex of buildings dedicated to the
arts. The most recent of these is the National Theatre. Actually it includes
three theatres, opened in 1976: the Olivier Theatre (with seating for 1160),
the Lyttleton Theatre (seating 890) and the Cottesloe Theatre (seating 400).
They were named after the men who played major roles in creating the National
Theatre, including one of Britain's most famous actors Laurence Olivier.
The theatre centre, with a staff of 500 and a company of 100 actors, is
occupied mainly by the National Theatre Company itself, but performances are
also given there by visiting companies from Britain and abroad. Thp National
Theatre, which has a declared policy of keeping the price of the tickets
reasonably low, receives government subsidy.
Madame Tussaud's. ’ Madame Tussaud's is the best-known wax museum in the
world and it history spans more than two hundred years. Born in 1760, Madame
Tussaud learned the art of making life-size portraits in wax when she was a
young girl in France. She survived the French Revolution by making wax figures
of its victims, from Marie Antoinette to Robespierre. In 1802 she came to
England and by 1835 her exhibition had a permanent home in Baker Street,
London. It was already one of London's famous "sights". What was the secret of
her success? Her portraits were lifelike and convincing. She paid great
attention to detail and spent a lot of money on the right clothes and
effective lighting. She also included genuine relics in the exhibition—not
only can you see Louis XVI, the King of France, but you can also see the
actual blade of the guillotine which cut off his head! And Madam Tussaud's
portraits were always up to date and topical.
A visit to Madame Tussaud’s is a unique and unforgettable experience and
every year attracts over two million people of all ages and nationalities. The
museum .comprises six sections: the Tableaux, the Conservatory, Superstars, the
Grand Hall, the Chamber of Horrors and Battle of Trafalgar.
The tradition of presenting time-honoured scenes in tableau form continues
to this day, and many scenes represent some of the most tragic from history.
Ihe tense moment transpires as Guy Fawkes attempts to blow up the Houses of
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Parliament in London in 1605. The so-called "Gunpowder Plot" failed, but the
date is still commemorated in Britain with burning effigies of Guy Fawkes and
fireworks. By contrast the centrepiece of The Tableaux is both sumptuous and
romantic. Upon an ornate canopied bed the Sleeping Beauty lies breathing
gently. This is a likeness of Madame du Barry, Mistress of King Louis XV of
France. Modelled in 1765, it is the earliest surviving figure in the exhibi-
tion. A clockwork mechanism, now electric, started her breathing in 1837 and
has fascinated visitors ever since.
The light and airy Conservatory provides the perfect setting for a variety
of personalities to gather amid the greenery of the plants and palms. Some are
writers, some are artists and many are from the worlds of sport and entertain-
ment. Nearly all subjects of wax portraits give Madame Tussaud’s sculptors a
sitting and those portrayed in The Conservatory are no exception. Agatha
Christie, like most others, presented clothes from her own wardrobe, and
Alfred Hitchcock sent a telegram: "From the flesh to the wax — good luck!"
Martina Navratilova chose to pose for Madame Tussaud's artists at Wimbledon
during the world famous tournament. The following year, when her likeness was
complete, the figure was taken to Wimbledon for her to preview before it was
placed in The Conservatory. The Conservatory reflects the ever changing nature
of fame and as new personalities emerge so Madame Tussaud's records and
preserves the famous. There can be few more famous faces than that of Benny
Hill whose television programmes were broadcast all over the world and now his
character Fred Scuttle is one of the most popular and photographed figures in
the exhibition.
Super,. Stars is one of several areas at Madame Tussaud's to use sound,
light and special effects. The very latest in computer technology provides
complex audio-visual techniques, which add exciting dimensions and give the
illusion of the personalities "coming alive". The true impact of superstardom
was felt at* Madame Tussaud's when Michael Jackson made a special trip to
London to unveil his figure. Thousands of fans blocked the street in front of
the museum for a glimpse of their hero and were finally rewarded when he
jumped onto the roof of his limousine to wave them. Other superstars like
Sylvester Stallone and David Bowie have posed for the museum sculptors and
every detail of their appearance has been carefully noted.
The Grand Hall is for many visitors the essence of Madame Tussaud's where
kings and queens represent the many important periods of British history. The
Grand Hall also encompasses a broad spectrum of influential men and women both
past and present, from royalty and religion to world politics and the arts.
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Queen Victoria’s grandfather George III began the tradition of permitting
royal portraits in wax to be made from life and he gave Madame Tussaud a sit-
ting in 1809. This tradition remains unbroken and Madame Tussaud’s sculptors
have been granted several sittings with HM Queen Elizabeth II during her
reign, as well as with other members of the royal family.
Henry VIII is one of Britain's most important kings, although he is
probably best remembered for his six wives. His imposing figure in the Grand
Hull is surrounded by the queens and the group is one of the most popular
displays in the exhibition. Warriors, too, are represented, and the Duke of
Wellington faces his old adversary Napoleon Bonaparte across a scale model of
the Battle of Waterloo/ Other great names abound in the Grand Hall. Among them
nre Beethoven and Mozart two of the greatest and best loved composers of all
time. American presidents have always taken their place in the Grand Hall and
President Reagan, like Harry Truman, sent one of his own ties for his figure.
Sir Winston Churchill was mo'delled thirteen times from 1908, for it is a
matter of course that portraits be as up to date as possible. Mrs Thatcher has
Deen modelled four times from sittings since her first appearance in the
collection in 1975 and she has been to Madame Tussaud’s to see every likeness.
During the period of the 50s - 90s the Soviet Union was represented by the
portraits of Lenin, Stalin, Brezhnev and Gorbachev.
The Chamber of Horrors is one of the best-known parts of the exhibition, a
new version opened in 1980 with the addition of spine chilling sights and
rounds to ensure a change for the worse. Some methods of execution have
recently been introduced in the Chamber of Horrors. The electric chair is
probably the most widely known of these, and contains the figure of Bruno
Hauptmann who was electrocuted in 1936 in the USA for kidnap and murder.
Another means of execution is the garrotte, a strangling instrument used
chiefly in Spain from the seventeenth century. It was finally abolished in
1979. Since capital punishment has been abolished in Britain, contemporary
criminals serving long term sentences are shown within the confines of a
present day prison while all round them is the sound of rattling keys, locking
and unlocking in the ritual of captivity. As long as crime and punishment
remain a fact of life, the gruesome fascination of the Chamber of Horrors will
never pease..
The Battle of Trafalgar is one of Madame Tussaud's most memorable exhibits.
On the lower gundeck men of Admiral Nelson’s crew, blackened by smoke and
nweating in the heat, load and fire the three ton guns of the British flagship
Victory; the noise was so loud that many of them were deafened for life. The
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recorded sound of the gunfire creates a vivid impression of the naval battle.
HMS Victory is still maintained in dry dock at Portsmouth where its guns were
fired specially so that Madame Tussaud's could record the sound.
Thousands of people still queue up to look at these portraits of the
famous and infamous. What is the attraction? Perhaps it is simply because
people love to stare at the famous. At Madame Tussaud's you do not have to
wait for hours in the rain to catch a glimpse of John Major passing by in a
car or of Michael Jackson getting off a plane. There they are, just a
metre or two away.
Hyde Park. Hyde Park, St James's Park, Green Park and Kensington Gardens
are often called the "lungs" of London. Hyde Park is the largest of the four,
with an area of 630 acres. The park was once the property of Westminster
Abbey, but Henry VIII made the area a royal deer park. Charles I opened it to
the public and it became fashionable for carriage-driving and riding. In 1730
an artificial lake "Serpentine" covering some 37 acres was created in the
park. Boating, sailing and bathing have been popular ever since. The bridge,
crossing the lake marks the boundary between Hyde Park and Kensington Gardens,
and gives a delightful view of distant Westminster Abbey and the Houses of
Parliament. Rotten Row is a sandy, shady track south of Serpentine used by
horseriders. Hyde Park is a place much frequented by Londoners, who love to
take long walks over its grassy slopes, or to stretch out, when possible, and
catch a rare ray of sun. Or else they go to Speakers' Corner, the corner of
Hyde Park where on Sundays orators of all sorts stand up on boxes or chairs
and speak about anything at all, from the Budget to the women's rights, from
socialism to religious problems. It is a sort of Trafalgar Square on a smaller
scale, without the square's huge crowds but with the same democratic freedom
of speech.
LEISURE AND PRIVATE LIFE
Holidays. Nearly all British people in full-time jobs have at least four
weeks' holiday a year,, often in two or three separate periods. The normal
working week is 35-40 hours, Monday to Friday. There are eight official public
holidays a year, only one of them in the six months before Christmas. None of
them celebrates anything to do with state or nation, though the first Monday
in May was made a "bank holiday" by a recent Labour government as the British
holiday in honour of working people.
The most obvious — and traditional — British holiday destination is the
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roast. No place in the country is more than three hours' journey from some
part of it. The coast is full of variety, with good cliffs and rocks between
the beaches, but the uncertain weather and cold sea are serious disadvantages.
Also, two weeks in a hotel room with balcony arid private bath can now cost
less in Spain or Greece, with flight included, than the same in a British
hotel. Most of the hotels in the seaside resort towns were built in the
railway age, between 50 and 100 years ago, and seem now to be used as much by
people going to conferences as by those on holiday. Going to a conference can
be a sort of holiday, even in working time and with expenses paid.
People who go for one or two weeks’ holiday to the coast, or to a country
place, tend now to take their caravans or tents to campsites, or rent static
caravans, cottages or flats. Some take tents, but their optimism is usually
disappointed. Many town dwellers have bought old country cottages, to use for
their own holidays and let to others when they are working themselves. People
on holiday or travelling around often stay at farms or other houses which
provide "bed and breakfast". These are usually comfortable and better value
than hotels.
By now the holiday resorts most popular with the British are on the
Mediterranean coasts, or yet further south. In 1988 a third of all British
people went abroad, mainly to places where warm sea and sunshine can be
confidently expected. Most travel by air on "package" holidays, paying for
flight, local tax and hotel or flat all together, others travel by car or bus
iind ferry. If affluence continues to grow and spread more widely, it seems
likely that foreign travel will grow more quickly still, particularly in
winter to plfeces not too far from the equator.
Sport. The British are great lovers of competitive sports; and when they
ore neither playing nor watching * games they like to talk about them, or when
they cannot do that, to think about them.
The game particularly associated with England is cricket. Many other games
which are English in origin have been adopted with enthusiasm all over the
world, but cricket has been seriously and extensively adopted only in the
former British empire, particularly in Australia, New Zealand,India, Pakistan,
Sri Lanka, the West Indies and South Africa. Organised amateur cricket is
played between club teams, mainly on Saturday afternoons. Nearly every
village, except in the far north, has its cricket club, and there must bo few
places in which the popular image of England, as sentimentalists like to think
of it, is so clearly seen as on a village cricket field. A first-class match
between English counties lasts for up to three .days, with six hours' play on
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each day. The game is slow, and a spectator, sitting in the afternoon sun
after a lunch of sandwiches and beer, may be excused for having a little sleep
for half an hour.
For the great mass of the British public the eight months of the football
season are more important than the four months of cricket. There are plenty of
amateur association football (or "soccer") clubs, and professional football is
big business. The annual Cup Final match dominates the scene; the regular
"league" ggimes, organised in four divisions, provide the main entertainment
through the season and the basis for the vast system of betting on the
football pools. Many of the graffiti on public walls are aggressive statements
of support for football teams, and the hooliganism of some British supporters
has become notorious outside as well as inside Britain.
Rugby football (or "rugger") is played with an egg-shaped ball, which may
be carried and thrown (but not forward). If a player is carrying the ball he
may be "tackled" and made to fall down. Each team has fifteen players, who
spend a lot of time lying in the mud or on top of each other and become very
dirty, but do not need to wear such heavy protective clothing as players of
American football. It is also the game played at most "public schools",
including Rugby itself, where it was invented. International matches, in-
volving England, Wales, Scotland, Ireland and France, are played in capital
cities with crowds of up to 80,000, but a match between two top clubs may be
watched by only a few hundred spectators.
Golf courses are popular meeting places of the business community; it is,
for example, very desirable for bank managers to play golf. There are plenty
of tennis clubs, but most towns provide tennis courts in public parks, and
anyone may play tennis cheaply on a municipal court.
The biggest new development in sport has been with long-distance running.
"Jogging", for healthy outdoor exercise, needing no skill or equipment, became
popular in the 1970s, and soon more and more people took it seriously. Now the
annual London Marathon is like a carnival, with a million people watching as
the world's star runners are followed by 25,000 ordinary people trying to
complete the course. Most of them succeed and then collect money from sup-
porters for charitable causes. Many thousands of people take part in local
marathons all over Britain.
Horse racing is big business, along with the betting which sustains it.
Every day of the year, except Sundays, there is a race meeting at at least one
of Britain's several dozen racecourses. Nine-tenths of the betting is done by
people all over the country, by post or at local betting shops, and it is
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estimated that a tenth of all British men bet regularly on horse races, many
of them never going to a race course.
Greyhound racing has had a remarkable revival in the 1980s, and by 1988 it
accounted for about a quarter of all gambling. Its stadiums are near town
centres and until recently the spectators were mostly male and poor, the
surroundings shabby. The 1980s have changed all this, with the growth of
commercial sponsorship, for advertising. There are fewer stadiums and fewer
spectators than in 1970, but one thing has not changed. The £lite of Britain's
dogs, and their trainers, mostly come from Ireland.
Horse racing accounts for about half of all gambling, dog racing for a
quarter. The total gambling expenditure is estimated at over three billion
pounds a year, or nearly 1 per cent of the gross domestic product — though
those who bet get about three-quarters of their stake back in winnings. About
half of all households bet regularly on the football pools, although half of
the money staked is divided between the state, through taxes, and operators.
People are attracted by the hope of winning huge prizes, but some winners
become miserable with their sudden unaccustomed wealth. The latest development
in this sphere is the National Lottery introduced in 1994. A weekly jackpot
reaches at times £40 million. Bingo sessions, often in old cinemas, are
attractive mainly to women, and have a good social element. More popular are
the slot machines in establishments described as "amusement arcades". There
has been some worry about the addiction of young people to this form of
gambling, which can lead to theft.
The most popular of all outdoor sports is fishing, from the banks of lakes
or rivers or in the sea, from jetties, rocks or beaches. Some British lakes
and rivers are famous for their trout or salmon, and attract enthusiasts from
all over the world.
The British do not shoot small animals or birds for sport, though some
farmers who shoot rabbits or pigeons may enjoy doing so. But "game birds",
mainly pheasant, grouse and partridge, have traditionally provided sport for
the landowning gentry.
Until 1964 many of the prime ministers of the past two hundred years,
along with members of their cabinets, had gone to the grouse moors of Scotland
or the Pennines for the opening of the shooting season on 12 August. Since
1964 all that has changed. Now there are not many leading British politicians
carrying guns in the shooting parties, though there are may be foreign
millionaires, not all of them from America.
Another sport, also associated through the centuries with ownership of
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land, is the hunting of foxes. The hounds chase the fox, followed by people
riding horses, wearing red or black coats and conforming with various rules
and customs. In a few hill areas stags are hunted similarly. Both these types
of hunting are enjoyed mainly by people who can afford the cost of keeping
horses and carrying them to hunt meetings in ."horse boxes", or trailer vans.
Both, particularly stag-hunting, are opposed by people who condemn the cruelty
involved in chasing and killing frightened animals. There have been attempts
to persuade Parliament to pass laws to forbid hunting, but none has been
successful.
Theatre and Cinema. London has several dozen theatres, most of them not
far from Trafalgar Square. A successful play can run for many months or even
years. Outside London some quite big towns have no public theatre at all, and
hardly any towns have more than three. But there are private theatres, some
attached to colleges or schools. Innumerable amateur groups produce plays,
often with some professional help, in these theatres which they hire or
borrow, or in halls temporarily equipped with makeshift stage furniture. Shake-
speare is honoured by a great modern theatre in the small town of Stratford-
upon-Avon, where he was born. But serious theatre needs subsidy to survive.
Several first-rate orchestras are based in London. The largest provincial
centres also maintain permanent orchestras which give regular concerts. All
these orchestras occasionally visit other places to give concerts, and some
financial help is given to them by the Arts Council or by local authorities.
The Royal Opera House at Covent Garden receives a government grant. Seasons of
opera are performed there and also of ballet by the Royal Ballet, which has in
recent years been one of the most successful of British ventures in the arts.
Touring opera and ballet companies visit the principal theatres in major
towns. Opera of the highest quality is performed throughout every summer in
Glyndebourne, 90 kilometres south of London but visited by people who come
from London and its suburbs.
Local enterprise has been responsible for the development in recent years
of "festivals" of the arts in several places, of which the best known is the
annual International Festival of Music and Drama in Edinburgh, held in late
August. As well as the performances by musicians, etc., from all over the
world, the "fringes" of the Festival produce an interesting variety of plays
by less established companies. Among other such festivals are those held in
Bath, Aldeburgh (connected with the composer Benjamin Britten), Pitlochry in
the Scottish Highlands and Llangollen in Wales. The Three Choirs Festival,
which circulates among the three western cathedral cities of Gloucester,
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Worcester and Hereford, has a continuous history going back to 1724.
From about 1930 until quite recent times the cinema enjoyed an immense
popularity, and the large cinemas built in the 1930s were the most impressive
of the buildings to be seen in the streets of many towns. More recently the
rapid spread of television has brought a great change. In 1946 the average
British person went to the cinema forty times a year, but by the 1980s the
figure had fallen to 1.2 times, and 1,500 cinemas were closed during this
period. Most films shown are from Hollywood, but some British films have won
great international success. For foreign-language films there is a healthy
prejudice against "dubbed" English soundtracks, and such films are usually
nhown with English subtitles. More than half of all households have videos,
mied for viewing films at home, and video-film hiring is big business.
Other Recreations. Visitors to provincial England sometimes find the lack
of public activities in the.evenings depressing. There are, however, many
nctivities which visitors do not see. Evening classes, each meeting once a
are flourishing immensely, and not only those which prepare people for
f’Xuminations leading to professional qualifications. Many people attend
•dnsses connected with their hobbies, such as photography, painting, folk
dancing, dog training-, cake decoration, archaeology, local history, car
Kwilntenance and other subjects. Classes may be organised by local education
lUthorities or by the bodies like the Workers’ Educational Association, and in
iham people find an agreeable social life as well as the means of pursuing
I heir own hobbies. All this, together with the popularity of amateur dramatics,
«кт provide some comfort for those who fear’ that modern mass entertainment is
producing a passive society.
Other groups meet regularly for a mixture of social and religious purposes
i*r for the pursuit of hobbies. For young people there are youth clubs, some,
lull not all, of them connected with churches.
Young and old spend leisure time working together for good causes, raising
•"«iney for the benefit of victims of famine, flood or misfortune. All of this
Hamands a good deal of organisation and innumerable committees. Most of it
•mods money, and the workers for charities spend much time in trying to
tract funds from the rest of the community. Subject to the regulations made
by the public authorities and with their permission, the supporters of a
ihnrity may organise a "flag-day", normally not more than once a year in any
lnwn. They stand in the streets with collecting boxes into which generously
disposed passers-by put money, receiving in exchange little paper "flags" to
pin on their coats. Other devices are "bazaars" or "sales of work", where home
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made food and unwanted clothes are sold, and opening speeches are made by
persons of importance. All these activities turn out to be social occasions.
In the course of doing good the public-spirited develop their social lives,
meet their friends and enjoy themselves.
Public libraries, maintained by the local authorities, are well developed
and progressive, and everywhere allow people to borrow books without charge.
The books in the lending section are always kept on open shelves, and library
staffs are very helpful in getting books on request from other libraries
through the exchange system. Most libraries report an increase in borrowing
over the past few years, so television does not seem to be stopping people
from reading, as it was feared that it would. Many towns have well and
imaginatively kept museums and art galleries, with no charge for admission at
least until 1990. By then some of the national museums were charging for
admission.
Britain is famous for its gardens, and most people like gardening. This is
probably one reason why people prefer to live in houses rather than in flats.
Particularly in suburban areas it is possible to pass row after row of
ordinary small houses, each one with a neatly kept patch of grass surrounded
by a great variety of flowers and shrubs.
The traditional cottage garden, with its fruit trees blossoming in spring
and their branches heavy with the gifts of fruit in autumn, with its narrow
paths winding between borders of sweet-scented flowers, with its gaily-
coloured roses climbing along walls and over fences, and its neat rows of
vegetables for the small but welcoming kitchen, has become an ideal with
modern garden designers (ill. 22). But the true cottage gardens cannot be
designed. They must be allowed to grow, with plants given by friends in one
corner, cuttings begged from neighbours in another. They must welcome all
newcomers and find a home for them, especially the self-sown flowers which
often seem to spring up in just the right place to complete the colourful
scene. No traditional plant should be turned away, for the essential spirit of
the cottage garden is its generosity, its wealth of colour and scent.
Some people who have no garden of their own have patches of land or ’’allot-
ments" in special areas. Enthusiasts of gardening — or do-it-yourself
activities — get help from radio programmes, magazines, friends and patient
shop-keepers. Although the task of keeping a garden is essentially individual,
gardening can well become the foundation of social and competitive relation-
ships. Flower shows and vegetable shows, with prizes for the best exhibits,
are popular, and to many gardeners the process of growing the plants seems
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more important than the merely aesthetic pleasure of looking at the flowers or
eating the vegetables.
Two traditional British institutions, the pub and fish-and-chip shop, have
been transformed in the past two or three decades. A few pubs still have
gloomy walls and frosted-glass windows, ugly bars where people drink standing
up. But in most of today's pubs, although the customers still buy their drinks
nt the bar, they usually carry them away to sit comfortably at tables in an
ambience both civilised and aesthetically pleasing. Many pubs have tables
outside, sometimes in well-tented gardens, with swings for children. Many of
them provide food, not only sandwiches but salads and hot dishes, often very
good and usually good value. In the majority of the pubs the most popular
drink is beer. You can have a glass of it, called a pint, or a small glass
which is called a half. If you want English beer, you ask for "bitter" because
in English "beer" is a very general word and can mean lager. Most pubs are
owned by a brewery, the factory that makes the beer, and these sell only the
beer made by that factory. If you see a pub that is a free house, this means
that the pub is independent and can buy its beer from any brewery. These are
(pod pubs to visit if you want to try different kinds of beer.
A thing that confuses foreigners is that a lot of pubs have the same name.
Ihe most popular pub names are: "The Red Lion", "The Crown", "The King's Arms'.'
Another confusing thing about pubs was their opening and closing times. The
pubs used to be (jpen at 10.30 in the morning and closed at 2.30 in the
nfternoon. They opened again at 5.30 and closed at 11.00. This was generally
true but you could always find slightly different opening and closing times in
different parts of the country. The opening hours were liberalised at last in
1988, allowing pubs to stay open all day. However, some still keep to the old
practice, so long imposed by law, of closing for about three hours in the
nfternoon. Although a lot of trouble is caused by people who get drunk, mostly
at weekends, the British drink less alcohol than most other Europeans. They
now drink less beer but more wine than in the past. There are signs that pubs
nre becoming more popular with families: more meals are being served and the
consumption of non-alcoholic drinks is increasing, helped by rigorous applica-
tion of drink-driving laws.
Fish-and-chip shops no longer wrap up their wares in newspapers, to be
eaten in the street outside, but provide more commodious containers. Most
offer chicken or sausages too, or quite often Chinese dishes. Some indeed are
run by people who came originally from China and Hong Kong. They have their
rivals like hamburger and fried chicken bars. And most of the numerous Indian
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and Chinese restaurants are prepared to put their rice and curry, or their
noodle dishes, in little boxes to take away. But these are serious meals, with
twenty minutes' preparation time, so takeaway customers can avoid delay by
telephoning in advance.
For eating out in town there is a marvellous variety of choice. Many of
the Indian restaurants are very good indeed. Other restaurants are of several
different nationalities, including the Russian ones (for example, At Lyuba's in
London), some providing simple dishes, some more ambitious. British people eat
out in restaurants or hotel dining rooms more now than in the past, not only
for conferences, business or club meetings, but as a family activity.
There is a strong tradition of hospitality, and most entertaining in
people's homes is free and easy, informal, and without rituals. The old
afternoon tea party has lost popularity, even on Sunday, partly because few
people dare to eat the fattening scones, butter and jam and cakes which go
with the traditional English tea. Instead, friends and relations are asked for
drinks before lunch or dinner, or for a meal which nowadays is sometimes a
buffet supper eaten away from the table.
Marriage, Home and Family. The mid-twentieth century has brought three
great and obvious changes to family life: contraception, personal mobility,
and concern for the equality of women. Along with these, and linking them,
there is a value system which rejects the idea that anyone is superior to
anyone else, and hence a rejection of established authority except that which
arises within a self-conscious peer-group. Old accepted patterns of behaviour,
including courtship and the ways by which men and women meet, have disappeared
and have been replaced by nothing definable.
At home most parents do not restrict the movements of their children, in
particular their daughters, as much as they used to. Girls expect to go to
work when they finish their education, no matter at what age between sixteen
and twenty-three. They meet men at work, within their peer group and through
their friends. Some form stable relationships early, others have several
relationships in succession. Most young people have sex before marriage. Most
are successful in avoiding unwanted pregnancy at this stage, some marry if
pregnancy does occur. Increasing numbers of couples set up home without being
married.
For those who become pregnant and are unable or unwilling to marry,
abortion has been available, subject to restrictions, since 1967. The
restrictions are not very precise, and their meaning depends mainly on the
interpretations of individual medical practitioners. Even so, the number of
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legal abortions carried out in any year has not exceeded 160,000. The main
effect of the easing of the law has been to reduce enormously the incidence of
bad effects on the health of women. A large proportion of abortions are
performed on married women who already have several children.
In one way the new acceptance of extra-marital sexual activity has been
bad for women; it is easier for men to avoid responsibility, and in a world
where people are encouraged to think that they have a right to whatever they
want, some women suffer from being treated without the personal respect which
older values expected men to show.
Most women who marry continue to go to work until they have children, and
few have more than two children. The birth rate declined in 1965-77 as in most
other countries, and in 1987 was around the EEC average at 13 per 1,000
population. Most women with very small children stay at home to look after
them, unless they can make other arrangements. Few married couples live near
to their own parents, and grandparents are likely to go out to work themselves,
(here are not enough places in nursery schools to provide for all the mothers
Who would like to go to to work, but a few workplaces provide creches, and
children can be left with private "childminders" registered with the local
iiuthorities.
Parents have jbecome more indulgent to their children in every way, giving
them more presents and money and not exercising much discipline. There is so
much variety that generalisation' is unwise, but serious misbehaviour,
Including vandalism, by young children, increased ten times over in twenty
years, and is often blamed on weak parental control. The "problem families"
«re well known to the huge army of social service workers.
In well-adjusted families modern life gives scope for more collective
family activity, which is helped by owning a car and garden. Improved housing
has made family life more private, and with privacy has gone a decline in the
informal social control of neighbours’ opinions. While the nuclear family of
parents and children has grown closer together, the extended family has become
weaker. Young people, when they marry, tend to live well away from their
parents and other relations, often in different towns; and many people in non-
manual careers move from one town to another at intervals of five, ten or
fifteen years, so that many children hardly know their aunts, uncles or
cousins.
Whatever the reason, the nuclear family as an institution has not
universally adapted itself to these recent changes. Until 1971 divorce was
obtainable without much difficulty on the ground of "matrimonial offence", but
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then a new law allowed divorce by agreement, defined as "irretrievable
breakdown of marriage". When married people have difficulties they may ask for
help and advice from the unpaid counsellors of a private organisation, the
former Marriage Guidance Council, now called "Relate". In spite of these
efforts, the divorce rate doubled in ten years, and is now the highest in any
Western European country. About a third of all marriages end in divorce, and a
much smaller number in legal separation. The legal costs involved in divorce
and separation may be substantial, but are often funded from the legal aid
system, paid out of tax revenue. Meanwhile the number of couples who set up
home together without marrying has increased enormously.
The legal arrangements for a divorce or separation normally require the
father to pay a weekly allowance to the mother, but not all fathers keep up
their payments. Magistrates' courts spend much time trying to put pressure on
defaulting fathers, but the ultimate sanction, prison, does not help anyone.
Many children of divorced parents, as well as these of unmarried mothers,
depend on social security payments for their support, and some of them also
need help from the local authorities' social services.
The word "permissiveness" is used to describe a characteristic of modern
times. The laws allow actions which were once forbidden, and when people break
the laws every effort is made to treat them as victims of circumstances rather
than as people deserving anger and punishment. Meanwhile the old social
controls of religion, extended family and close-knit neighbourhood have been
weakened. The new freedoms, along with the newly-available material goods,
have created opportunities for freer and more varied living; and where they
produce misery the public authorities have a vast and caring apparatus through
which to help. Professional social workers have to make difficult decisions —
for example when to recommend that their local authority should take into its
care children who are neglected or ill-treated by their parents. Children in
care are often sent to live with other families who then act as foster
parents. Some decisions have gone wrong, and the damage and distress caused by
such errors has done some harm to public confidence in the official social
services.
According to the latest figures from the Office of Population Censuses and
Surveys for .1995 the number of divorces fell last year for the first time
since 1989 by 4 per cent. The average marriage at the time of divorce had
lasted for 9.8 years, and up to a third of couples now choose to live together
in long-term relationships without marrying.
(After Peter Bromhead. Life in Modern Britain)
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ON THE ENGLISH CHARACTER
Many books have been written, both by Englishmen and, even more, by
foreigners on English traits, English ways of life, and the English character.
Their authors are by no means always in agreement, but they tend to focus on
the peculiarities and contrasts, in the way the English behave. A few of these
contrasts, summing up how the world looks at the English and how the English
see themselves, were very well described by Antony Miall in his recent book
The Xenophobe's Guide to The English. It is probably the only acceptable way
to cover such a vast and highly debatable topic as the English character, and
it will inevitably require from the reader the presence of a sense of humour.
How They See Others. As far as the English are concerned, all of life's
greatest problems can be summed up in one word — foreigners. English views on
foreigners are very simple. The further one travels from the capital in any
direction, the more outlandish the people become.
When it comes to their neighbours in the British Isles, the English are in
absolutely no doubt as to their own innate superiority. This they see as no
petty prejudice but rather as a scientific observation. The Irish are
perceived as being wildly eccentric at best, completely mad at worst. The
Welsh are dishonest and the Scots are dour and mean. However, the Irish, Welsh
nnd Scots should take heart. Гог most English they are not quite as appalling
ns their cousins across the Channel. They should also remember that
"foreign-ness" for the English starts to a certain extent at the end of their
own street.
The French and the English have been sparring partners for so long that
the English have developed a kind of love-hate relationship with them. The
English love France. They love its food and wine and thoroughly approve of its
climate. There is a subconscious historical belief that the French have no
right to be living in France at all, to the extent that thousands of English-
men try annually to turn the more attractive areas of France into little
corners of Surrey. As to the French people, they are perceived as insincere,
unhygienic and given to sexual excess.
When it comes to the Germans, the English are less equivocal. Germans are
megalomaniac, easily led bullies who have not even the saving grace of
culinary skill. Conveniently forgetting the fact that their own Royal family
is of German descent, the English make no pretence at liking the Germans.
Confronted with one, they will constantly be reminding themselves "not to
mention the War'/ whilst secretly wondering whether he or she is old enough to
have fought in it.
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For the rest of Europe, as far as the English are concerned, the Italians
are hysterical and dishonest; the Spanish, lazy; the Russians, gloomy; and the
Scandinavians, Dutch, Belgians and Swiss, dull. Further afield English odium
is no less concentrated. Americans and Australians are vulgar, Canadians are
boring, and all oriental peoples inscrutable and dangerous.
You will only find this out, of course, by listening at keyholes, for to
your face they will always be charming. They appear to be tolerant to a fault.
In actuality, they only value foreigners for their backs — which they can use
for talking behind.
The English have a natural distrust of the unfamiliar and nowhere is this
more clearly seen than in their attitude to the geography of their own
country. Since time immemorial there has been a North — South divide in
England. To the Southerner, civilization ends somewhere near Birmingham.
Beyond that point, he believes, the inhabitants are all ruddier in complexion,
more hirsute and blunt to the point of rudeness. These traits he generously
puts down to the cooler climate.
How Others See Them. To outsiders the English are intellectually
impenetrable. They express little emotion. They are not so much slow as
stationary to anger and the pleasures of life seem to pass them by as they
revel in discomfort and self-denial.
Their culinary appreciation is incomprehensible to most, but especially
the French, and in their hesitation to be direct or state a view, they are
rarely understood.
With an unparalleled sense of historical continuity, they appear to carry
on in their own sweet way largely unmoved by developments in the world around
them. The unlikely effect of all this is that outsiders have a kind of
grudging respect for them. This is partly because they amuse, and partly
because they are consistent.
How They See Themselves. The English don’t just believe themselves
superior to all other nations. They also believe that all other nations
secretly know that they are. They feel themselves to be natural leaders, the
most obvious choice for "top nation". Geography reinforces this belief as the
inhabitants look out to' the sea all around them from the fastness of their
"tight little island". Nobody would ever question the aptness of the newspaper
report: "Fog in the Channel — Continent cut off". •
With their wealth of experience of "running the show", as they see it,
they are also deeply aware of their responsibilities to others. These they
take seriously, which means that throughout life they act rather like head
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boys or head girls in school. They see it as their solemn duty to protect the
weak, strengthen the faint-hearted and shame bullies into submission. These
are their roles in life and they fulfil them, by and large, to their entire
satisfaction.
How They Would Like to be Seen. Although it is impossible for the English
to appear to care what others think of them, deep down they would like to be
loved and appreciated for what they see as the sterling qualities they possess.
These qualities, which they bring selflessly to the world forum, include a
reflex action which leads them to champion the underdog and treat persecutors
with a firm hand, absolute truthfulness and a commitment never to break a
promise or to go back on one's word.
In a perfect world, the English suspect everyone would be more like them.
Then, and only then, would they achieve the recognition and affection they
feel they so richly deserve.
CHARACTER
Stiff Upper Lip. The characteristic English pose involves keeping the
head held high, the upper lip stiff and the best foot forward. In this
position, conversation is difficult and intimacy of any kind almost impossible.
This in itself is a clue to the English character.
Puritanism. Puritanism has always found in the. English its most fertile
breeding ground. For hundreds of years their children have been brainwashed
with trite little sayings — "Silence is golden", "empty vessels make the most
noise" and, most telling —"You are not put on to this earth to enjoy your-
self". Small wonder that they end up, as adults, acting rather like the three
wise monkeys. And still the English defend their character and behaviour
against all comers. Perhaps that is because Puritanism with its punishing work
ethic assures them that their reward for all that restraint will come at a
sort of school prize-giving ceremony in the world to come.
The Good Sport. If an English man or woman refers to you as "a good
sport", you will know that you have really arrived. For to them it is a
qualification normally never awarded to a foreigner and by no means within the
grasp of all the English. Of course, the term is not exclusively a sporting
one. It describes the sort of behaviour both on and off the playing field that
characterises everything the English really respect. In all physical trials,
the "good sport" will play without having been seen to practise too hard and
will, ideally, win from innate superiority.
It goes without saying that the "good sport" will also be a "good loser".
There will be no arguing with umpires or outward signs of disappointment. On
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the contrary, a remark such as "The best man won!" tossed airily to everyone,
and never through clenched teeth, is obligatory even in the face of crushing
defeat. This does not really fool anyone, for the English are fiercely
competitive especially in matters sporting. They would rather be crossed in
love than beaten on the tennis courts, but it would be going too far to let it
be seen.
Moderation. If there is one trait that absolutely singles out the English
that is their shared dislike for anyone or anything that "goes too far".
"Going too far", as the English see it, covers displaying an excess of
emotion, getting drunk, discussing money in public or cracking off-colour
jokes and then laughing at them noisily. Beyond the pale altogether is the man
or woman who regales one with his or her titles or qualifications. The only
acceptable place to air these is on an envelope.
To the English the proper way to behave in almost all situations is to
display a languid indifference to almost everything, though one may be
seething underneath. Even in the affairs of the heart, it is considered
unseemly to show one’s feelings except behind closed doors.
Self-doubt. It is the apparent colossal self-confidence and moral
certainty of the English that is paradoxically one of their greatest stumbling
blocks. For both qualities are, to a certain extent, only illusions. Whilst
they may appear fearless and calm on the surface, deep down the English suffer
from agonising self-doubt, feeling that in many areas of human activity they
just cannot cut the mustard.
All the time there were countries to be conquered and foreigners to be
governed, the English could sublimate all their clamouring uncertainty. The
scent of'success served as incense at the altar of their self-assurance. But
with the helter-skelter slide from Empire to Commonwealth and ever downwards,
their doubts, like itches, have begun to plague them and it is considered bad
form to scratch in public.
Sentiment and Conservatism. The English have a strong sense of history.
Because their past was so infinitely more glamorous than their present, they
cling to it tenaciously. Mix this love of bygone ages with an unrivalled
sentimentality and you have a heady mixture which can be sensed in every
aspect of the. English life.
Antique shops clutter up every town and village. English homes are filled
with old things not only because they please the eye but because there is a
feeling that anything that has stood the test of <"ime must be better than its
modern counterpart. The English generally distrust the new-fangled or modern.
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Shininess is vulgar and patina of age lends respectability. Thus they cling on
to old furniture, old carpets, old china, old kitchen gadgets and garden
Implements long after common sense dictates that they should be replaced.
”It was good enough for my grandfather/grandmother, it’s good enough for
me!’’ The English cry goes up and each new invasion from the future is greeted
with the indignant question: "What was wrong with the old one?" And as far as
the English are concerned, there is no answer to that.
Inventiveness. The English are endlessly resourceful and inventive, but
rarely profit from their inventions. The inventor in his garden shed turning
out gadgets tends to be almost exclusively male, lacking the more practical
female genes in any great numbers.
Often perceiving needs in daily life which have gone unobserved by the
rest of his compatriots, he will beaver away 24 hours a day creating such
indispensable items as the perfect egg jtoiler or the self-creasing trouser.
Occasionally, though, he will come up with something with real promise like
the hovercraft which will then be ignored by his countrymen and taken up by
Ioreigners.
BELIEFS AND VALUES*
The English are governed by a simple set of beliefs and values that
everyone has to pay lip service to, whether they believe in them or not. There
Is one exception to this and that is common sense.
Common sense is central to the English attitude to almost everything in
life. It is common sense to carry an umbrella in case of rain. It is common
nense not to sit on cold stone. It is common sense to wear clean underwear in
case one is run over and taken to hospital. In fact, it is common sense and
thoroughly English never to be wrong-footed in any way. To fall foul of
changing circumstances is inexcusable. At all times "Be prepared".
For the English, common sense is part of the historical imperative. It was
common sense that beat back the Armada and won the Empire. The lack of it
caused the Fall of Troy, the French Revolution and almost any other foreign
collapse you care to mention. It is common sense that sets the English apart.
Whilst they may look silly in their plastic macs on the Riviera, the last
laugh will be theirs if the Mistral is early. Of course it does not always
work. Sometimes germs get through despite their best efforts. Then, to the
Intense delight of foreigners, they demonstrate their will-power.
Class. The English class system is central to the whole English way of
life and its importance should never be dismissed. It is the unseen joker in
the pack — the card that negates or validates the whole game of life and
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turns winners into losers and vice versa. Essentially the class system is a
reflection of the fierce competitiveness of the English. Its existence is a
living proof of their devotion to tradition, their innate feelings of
inferiority and their desire to better themselves in the eyes of their
compatriots. Whilst the whole thing can appear to be of paramount importance,
there is also, ironically, something of the game about it. Like all English
games it is more important to play than to win.
English tradition demands the existence of three classes. Once upon a time
these equated to the old groupings of aristocracy, merchants and workers. With
the irresistible rise of the middle class, however, the main focus has
switched to it and its own three divisions — the’upper middle, middle and
lower.middle classes. The aristocracy is historically above joining in the
class game although it still serves as the arbiter of it. The old lower or
working class, also considers the game beneath contempt. It is among the
middle classes that the game is at its most exciting and the competition at
its fiercest.
The middle class English can never relax. They are conscious that in every
aspect of life they must project the ’’right” image, one based on their
perception of what the aristocracy would cultivate if they had to bother. They
care desperately about what they wear, what they say, what they eat and drink,
where they live and with whom they are seen. It is an exhausting business
because there is so much at stake. For while it is almost impossible to move
down a class, a glorious upward move can be achieved provided the player does
not make a single false move when on trial. And, of course, social life is
nothing if not a succession of trials for the middle class English.
Trial by Conversation. The English attach enormous importance to a
person’s accent. Nowadays a regional drawl is not necessarily a fatal flaw but
what used to be called an Oxford accent or BBC pronunciation will still stand
the accused in the best stead. Prdbably even more important than vowel sounds
is vocabulary. Euphemisms are used to curse people. Coarseness is preferable
to hyper-delicacy. A spade, in short, is always a spade — never a garden
implement. The most important word in the the social climber's vocabulary is
"common". It should be used frequently to describe anyone or anything which
offends one’s assumed level of sensibility. There is no appeal against common-
ness.
Trial by Table Manners. The English have traditionally little interest in
food as such. The ritual of meals and table manners, on the other hand,
holds a peculiar fascination for them. This means that mealtimes are probably
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the most testing times for any player. If the meal starts with soup, remember
the English maritime tradition and tip the bowl away from you to avoid the
soup spilling on to your suit in the event of a swell.
Trial by Dress. Traditionally, the English are intensely practical about
clothes. They are primarily concerned with keeping warm and criticize im-
practical fashion victims that they will "catch their death of cold" if they
are not wearing a vest. For while fashion is transitory, the English way of
life goes on for ever and so, it sometimes seems, do English clothes. Formal
outfits have to be bought sometimes, of course, but they should never look
new. Neither should old school, regimental or club ties. Casual clothes should
be chosen for their comfort, not for their appearance. Conspicuously stained
jerseys, threadbare trousers and skirts covered with dog hairs are quite in
order as long as they are "old favourites". Preferred colours, browns and
greyish-browns, should strike a country camouflage note with head-scarves for
women in tone.
Finally, sporting the correct items of clothing, acceptable vowels and
Lnble manners, the player moves on to the most dangerous trial of all •—
trial by love.
Trial by Love. Love is something that does not come all that naturally to
lo the English, who see romanticism as a threat to practicality and common
rvunse. In terms of the social climb, however, it is central. It is, after all,
the one way in which one can move upwards in one bound. A good marriage can
put a social climber in a commanding position. But in the game of life, even
the English acknowledge that the love card is wild. That is why they are so
frightened of it.
To the rest of the world, it seems unbelievable that the English do
reproduce sexually. For while other countries celebrate their sexuality, to a
greater or lesser extent, the English regard theirs as the enemy within. This
In strange, for the English are fearless in their confrontation of almost
everything else.
Because of their inclination to ignore the existence of the sexual
Impulse, the English have never really seen it as a fit subject for study or
discussion. The result of this is that their attitudes towards sex are still
I о some degree characterised by the superstitions, myths and taboos of less
enlightened ages. The English, however, love to read about sex. Newspapers are
full of the bedtime exploits of others and the sins of the famous are a
constant thrill.
Wealth and Success. The English generally prefer the old to the new in
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their daily life, so dislike change in the status of their relatives and
acquaintances. ’'Old” money is infinitely preferable to "new” money. Those who
suddenly achieve wealth are referred to dismissively, in French, as "nouveau
riche" or "parvenu". Pool winners are warned that no good will come of their
having won and that "money cannot buy happiness".
Unlike their transatlantic cousins, the English have an inherent distrust
of success and look upon money with disdain. Misquoting the Bible to underline
this attitude, they affirm that: "Money is the root of all evil".
What they really mean is that everybody else's is.
BEHAVIOUR
The Family. Annual holidays apart, the English do not tend to spend much
time	with	their families.	Once the tiresome business of	childhood is over,
they	set	out on life's	journey largely unhampered by	considerations of
siblings or parents. Free	at last, they can apply themselves to cultivating
that	most	English talent	— not getting on with others	— and to starting
their own uncommunicative families.
Children. Children make the Englishmen nervous because they are unpredict-
able. An English childhood is something to be got over as soon as possible. To
be an English grown-up — that is the only really glorious thing. No wonder
English children are in such a hurry to grow up.
The English embarrassment about love is nothing to the embarrassment they
show about its consequences. Pregnancy is not really considered a topic for
polite conversation. The sooner a mother is back on her feet after childbirth
the better and, despite the best efforts of feminists, breast-feeding is still
considered almost as private a bodily function as the others. Only when the
baby is beautifully dressed in a christening robe will the English outside the
immediate family condescend to acknowledge its existence.
Even today, many English parents still give the upbringing of their
children over to 'others. But at least the modern English child can be sure of
being looked after by someone who either wants to do it or who is being very
well paid fop her trouble. Children in the past could not be sure of either
eventuality. Winston Churchill's childhood was, by his own admission,
miserable and his nanny was a monster. He, of course, went on to become a hero
when he grew up, thus confirming the efficacy of the English upbringing to the
entire satisfaction of all concerned.
Animals. It is an tnglish maxim .that anyone who likes animals cannot be
all bad. The English adore animals — all kinds of animals. They keep them,
not, as other nationalities do, primarily to guard their property or for
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scientific interest or for status, but for company. For while they are not
always very good at talking to each other, they excel in conversation with
their animals. Although they are not often successful at forming tactile bonds
with their children, they continually chuck the chins of their lap dogs and
whisper sweet nothings into their hairy ears.
This is mainly, of course, because, unlike people, the wretched things
cannot answer back. If they could, the English might learn quite a lot about
themselves. As it is, .they are assumed to be in total agreement with their
masters and mistresses and, consequently, enjoy an unrivalled position in the
English affection. Pet-owners' homes are shrines to their animals. The best
seats, the warmest spots, the choicest morsels are handed over to these
household gods as a matter of course. Cats and dogs, parrots and guinea pigs
are all excused behaviour which if perpetrated by children might well end in
assault. They are deemed, by their owners, to be incapable of almost any
misdeed. So when dog bites man, it is always man’s fault — even if he is just
a passer-by: "Fang wouldn’t hurt a fly!"
Eccentrics. To the rest of the world, the entire English race is eccentric.
To the English themselves the concept of eccentricity is a useful way of
coping with the problem of antisocial or un-English behaviour. Solidarity
dictates that all the English, whether sane or barking, are basically good
nggs and worth any ten foreigners at twice the price. So, to a certain extent,
the English cultivate the idea of eccentricity as agreeable and even admirable.
The phenomenon of the eccentric does exist in its own right. Class and
money have a great deal to do with it. Mental affliction, usually described as
lunacy in the poor, is more grandly referred to as eccentricity in the rich.
It is all a question of scale. Thus non-threatening silly behaviour, such
on Lord Berner’s predilection for travelling about the country in a motor
drawn horse-box filled with butterflies, playing a grand piano, was met with a
kind of admiration. He was, after all, a Lord.
The builders of crazy ornamental buildings serving no practical purposes
nnd underground ballrooms are considered eccentric and applauded, provided
I hoy spend enough on their creations. And all these eccentrics are, in fact,
excused from many of the conventions of correct English conduct.
However .enjoyable they are, eccentrics do represent an element of danger
Io the English, for they flout convention. So to have a few is all very well,
•»ut not too many.
Immigrants. Traditionally the English have always been the first to
iu'cept refugees from less enlightened nations. But they do not see why any
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immigrant should expect to become part of the community within a matter of
days, months or years of his arrival. Such ease of assimilation flies in the
face of the thousands of years it took to produce England and the English. .
They are, however, generally a tolerant people, their attitude towards
minority groups being kindly, if condescending. Anyone visiting an English
town cannot fail to be aware of the rich mix of nationalities on view. This is
because the English are better hosts to foreigners than most other nations.
They are used to having aliens about the place and usually accord them just
enough civility to make their lives bearable. In many ways foreigners get the
same treatment as English children do. That is to say they are seen but not
heard.
MANNERS
It is generally believed that the English are more formal than they really
are. In fact, in day to day contact, they are less inclined to formality than
the French or the Germans. Perhaps it is the awesome appearance of their state
occasions that has given rise to the popularly held belief that even English
husbands and wives call each other by their titles and surnames.
In reality, first names are commonly used among colleagues. The American
habit of using these on the telephone even before the people have met is now
beginning to be common. Some ex-public-schoolboys call each other by their
surnames but this is merely an affectation. By and large, first names do.
Do Not Touch. However informal they are in their manner of address, when
it comes to physical contact the English are still deeply reserved. They are
not tactile people. When greeting each other men will shake hands on a first
meeting but probably avoid it on subsequent ones. The preferred English hand-
shake is a brief, vigorous affair with no hint of lingering. The traditional
question, "How do you do?" and the answer "How do you do?" signal the end of
the ritual and hands should be crisply withdrawn from contact. Any deviation
from the above procedure can cause all sorts of problems and suspicions of
freemasonry, or worse.
Women may kiss on one or both cheeks. If they do, the miss-kiss is
preferred, the kisser making a kissing gesture with appropriate sound-effects
in the air in the general region of the kissee’s ear or ears. Men may kiss
women on greeting, but only on the cheek. Trying to get a kiss on both cheeks
can be risky as most women only expect the one, do not turn their heads for
the second and receive it full frontally, which can result in the worst being
feared — that it was an intentional cunning manoeuvre. Men, that is to say
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proper, English, men, never hug or (perish the thought!) kiss other men. They
leave that to foreigners.
In public places, the English make strenuous efforts not to touch
strangers even by accident. If such an accident should occur, apologies are
fulsome but should never be used as an excuse for further conversation. On
crowded public transport where it is sometimes unavoidable, physical contact
with a stranger is permitted. In such circumstances, though, eye contact
should be avoided at all costs.
Ps and Qs. English children have their own particular rules of acceptable
public conduct to learn. The first rule in the English canon is to "mind your
Ps and Qs". Contrary to what you might expect, these have nothing to do with
waiting politely to use the lavatory. Ps and Qs are short for "Pleases" and
"Thank Yous". Supplication, gratitude and, most important of all, apology are
central to English social intercourse, which is why English people seem to
express them endlessly as if’ to the hard of hearing. It is difficult for the
foreigner to learn how to use the small vocabulary necessary. But the starting
point is to understand that it is almost impossible linguistically to be over
grateful, over apologetic or over polite when it comes to the point. Thus, the
English man or woman whose toe you tread on will be "so sorry", presumably for
not having had the offending toe amputated earlier. He or she will thank you
"so much" when you stop treading on it or, if you.do not, ask you to do so
with a routine of pleases and thank yous, but never a rebuke. It is just the
English way.
But it is important for you to try to play the game. A lack of abundance
in the demonstrations of your gratitude or apology will certainly land you in
the "not very nice" camp from which there is little chance of escape.
Queuing. Foreigners look with amazement at the English queue. It is not
their way of doing things at all. But for the English, queuing is a way of
life. One of the few plus points of the last war was the proliferation of
queues. There were queues for everything. People would join one and then ask
the person in front what the queue was for. And that is the secret of English
queue-mania. A queue is the only place where it is not considered bad manners
to talk to a stranger without being introduced.
Such an enjoyable custom should, to the English way of thinking, commend
itself naturally to all peoples. But it does not. Nevertheless, the English do
not take kindly to those who fail to recognise a queue when they see one:
"There is a queue, you know!", or who will not join in and play the queue game
nicely.
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SENSE OF HUMOUR
The English appear to be a deeply serious people, which, by and large,
they are. This gives an added piquancy to the English sense of humour. For it
comes as a surprise to foreigners to find that it exists at all. English
humour refuses to be caught and examined and just when you think you have
cracked it, you realize that you have been duped once again. The English never
say what they mean, often the exact opposite, and tend towards reticence and
understatement. Their humour is partly based on an exaggeration of this facet
of their own character. So, while in conversation they avoid confrontation, in
their humour they mock that avoidance. English humour is as much about
recognition, as it is about their ability to laugh at themselves — e.g:
During a television programme on sex the audience was asked "How many
people here have sex more than three times a week?" There was a weak show of
hands. "And how many have sex once a month?" A sea of hands shot up. "Anyone
less than that?" One delighted man waved his arm surprisingly enthusiastically.
"Once a year," he said. "But tonight's the night!"
The English prefer gentle, clever and subtle humour. The wry smile that
greets the well judged understatement is a characteristic English expression.
They love irony and expect others to appreciate it too. In this, they are all
too often disappointed as foreigners feel being offended by what appears to
them to be unbearable rudeness. This, of course, merely confirms what the
English have always secretly suspected — foreigners cannot take a joke.
CONVERSATION
In conversation the English hardly ever say what they mean, and very often
say the exact opposite. Thus when you are telling a story to an Englishman or
woman which elicits the response: "How interesting!", it should not be taken
at face value. Faint praise damns as surely as criticism.
When an English man or woman enquires about the health of another, he or
she will invariably hear the response: "Mustn't grumble!" This is English
hypocrisy, for grumbling is a national pastime. They love to find fault, and
no aspect of their lives escapes their venom. Their health, the Government,
bureaucracy, the price of food, young people, old people — all are grist to
their mill. Finally, refreshed by a good grumbling session, they unite in the
moaners' amen- — "Typical!"
Conversational Triggers. Conversation does not come easily to the
English. For this reason they have developed a bewildering battery of
metaphors with which even the least educated English man or woman is familiar
and comfortable. These include euphemisms for the avoidance of verbal confron-
139 -
tation with "tricky" subjects. Thus the English do not die, they "pass over",
"shuffle off" or merely "go".
They are devoted to a huge range of meaningless expressions which they
drag out frequently to keep the conversational ball in play or to cover their
escape. Because they are slightly ashamed of the triteness of these, they
refer to them dismissively in French as "cliches". Moving from one to another,
the skilful user will defy categorization and avoid taking a firm stand on any
subject under discussion. Distancing themselves from any confrontation, they
will play down any anger or enthusiasm they may feel in a way which is
satisfyingly maddening to foreigners. They have even evolved a special
vocabulary for the purpose, one of the stars of which is a little word "nice".
"Nice" is the most overworked word in the English language whose meaning
can only be divined by its context. Being essentially non-specific, it can be
used on any occasion to convey a response generally tending towards non-
committal approval of anything from the weather to working practices. In its
negative form — "not very nice" — it describes habits as diverse as nose
picking and cannibalism. The English grow up with "nice". As children they are
warned off antisocial behaviour with the reprimand "Nice boys (or girls) don't
do that!" and by the time they totter into their first conversations, they can
use the word with deadly effect. They may even imitate their elders by using
it sarcastically to put down bad behaviour: "That's .nice! That's very nice!",
when the tone of voice says it all. Sarcasm, the heavier the better, is very
much part of the English conversational stock in trade.
English Weather. Without the topic of the weather, the English would be
without one of the most useful weapons in their conversational armoury. The
weather in the British Isles is particularly unpredictable and the English
have,of course, lived with this situation for hundreds of years. Nevertheless,
it appears that the changeability of the weather always takes them by surprise.
If it snows, the country's transport systems grind immediately to a halt while
negotiations are made to import snow-ploughs from abroad. In the spring ,
flash flooding annually drives householders up on to their roofs and the
innocent falling leaves of autumn cause the railways to seize up completely.
The weather is not just their preferred conversational topic, it is their
favourite topic for grumbling. If it is hot, it is always "too hot". If it is
cold, it is "freezing".
Of course it is all so much mouth music and you can bet that the English
man or woman you are talking to is merely marking conversational time and
either planning an escape route or a deadly verbal thrust.
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OBSESSIONS
DIY — Do-It-Yourself. It is largely thanks to the awful climate in
England that the English pay so much attention, to their homes and gardens.
They employ their leisure hours with an endless cycle of "home improvements".
For no English home can ever be considered fully improved. Inside and out they
work hard, installing electronic gadgets, showers, built-in furniture and very
many other things which are offered by numerous DIY shops. You might think
that, with all this self-servicing, self-plumbing, self-decorating and im-
proving, English skilled labourers would be out of a job or two. But that is
not the case. Sooner or later, these experts have to be called in to make good
the damage caused by the over enthusiastic amateur, but no disaster will ever
convince the Englishman that any job is beyond him. Every job is a challenge
and all challenges are to be met.
Gardening. Gardening is a national sport and "green fingers" is one of
the nicknames of the nation. While other nationalities tinker away with pots
in an attempt to increase the foodstore and add a splash of colour, the
English are landscaping — dreaming of grandiose sweeps of green, decorated
with plantations of exotic shrubs. While the French content themselves with a
sprinkling of mostly native plants, the English suburban garden is a riot of
international flora — lilies from Tibet, wisteria from China and gunnera from
Patagonia. .Every garden or window box is a national park in the English imagi-
nation.
For the English the first sound of spring is not really the song of the
cuckoo, but the echo of the unprintable oath of the gardener who discovers
that his lawn mower will.not start* After that first primaeval shout, they are
off. And so, throughout the summer while other people in the world are sitting
outside their houses chatting, the English apply themselves to the horti-
cultural labours of Hercules. They weed monstrous herbaceous borders, build
rockeries, divert waters to prime fountains and cultivate giant marrows for
the annual village show.
If they feel in need of a change, they will go and visit someone else’s
garden, returning home via the garden centre with another car boot full of
plants, implements and compost... Come rain or shine, but mostly come rain,
the English are busy in the garden all the year round, rejoicing in the
dignity of labour.
A Nice Cup of Tea. The English are very much devoted to what they
consider to be one of the few good things ever to come from across the sea —
balm for the wounds of the Empire builder. The English constitution demands
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tea and they have imbued it with almost mystical curative and comforting
qualities. In moments of crisis, as a remedy for shock or just at a social
gathering someone will suggest tea. It is probably their only addiction:
"I like a nice cup of tea in the morning,
Just to start the day, you see.
And round about eleven,
My idea of heaven
Is a nice cup of tea.
1 like a nice cup of tea with my dinner
And a nice cup of tea with my tea.
And about this time of night,
There’s nothing quite so right
As a nice cup of tea!”
Tea to the average English man or woman usually means Indian tea. It is
served with milk and sugar and the folklore surrounding its preparation is
enormous. First the teapot has to be heated. The tea, once made, has to be
left to ’’stand" and ’’brew" — but not so long that it becomes ’’stewed". Cold
milk is poured into the bottom of each cup and then tea is added either with
the addition of water or, more normally, "just as it comes" — neat and not
very strong.
Among the upper classes, China tea is considered smarter. Preparation
rituals are similar, but milk is always added after the tea, if it is taken at
all. A slice of lemon is often substituted. Sugar goes in last.
LEISURE AND PLEASURE
English magazines will often advertise themselves as being devoted to
sport and leisure. This is puzzling for to the English sport is seldom
leisurely. The reason they are lumped together can only be that, in English
eyes, leisure activities share with sport the element of competition so
essential to the English way of life. Leisure is a challenge and one must make
one’s own better than anyone else's.
The high flying executive who plays with model helicopters on the Common
is subconsciously waiting for another high flier with similar toys to compete
with.|The^nar> who cleans his car in a suburban street on a Sunday morning is
really running a polishing race with his neighbours. ^Even va^ peaceful morning
pint in the local pub can easily turn into a drinking competition if the right
adversary turns up.
When bad weather threatens, the English, unlike other people, do not
invariably take shelter in their houses. For Jieavy weather is the ultimate
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adversary — a worthy and familiar opponent. Wrapped from head to foot in
waterproof clothing, they set out on extended hikes, carrying maps in little
plastic bags around their necks. Up hill and down dale, the English follow they
footpaths on these route marches which they deceptively refer to as "rambles”/
The Challenge. Uncomfortable forays of this kind are a particular English
favourite. In summer months they will travel miles to the Lake District, where
rain can be almost guaranteed, to pit their stamina against the worst that
nature can throw at them. So popular are these struggles that some enter-
prising individuals have formulated courses in physical discomfort in remote
and inhospitable areas of the British Isles where other English people pay
substantial fees to be assured of a serious challenge. These courses, known
under such romantic titles as "Survival", are pursued for their perceived
character building qualities. The stiffening of the upper lips is guaranteed.
English companies, sparing no expense, will send their executives away to
play these games. The assumption is that a man or woman who can shine in
physical adversity will also excel in stressful business struggles. It never
occurs to these companies to sack all their employees and take on the men who
run the courses instead.
Cricket. Cricket to the English is not just a game. It is a symbol —
a twenty-two man personification of all English beliefs and philosophies.
Ignore it at your peril. The English invented cricket 750 years ago and are
fiercely proprietorial about it. Its actual rules are one of the great
mysteries of life, passed on among the initiated in a coded language. In the
past they took the game all over the world and always won. Gradually, though,
other nations' teams have got better at it; until now the English stand a
jolly good chance of being beaten wherever they go.
(After Antony Miall. The Xenophobe's Guide to The English)
ON BRITISH TRADITIONS
Public Holidays and Celebrations. There are eight public holidays a year
in Great Britain, that is days on which people need not go in to work. They
ares Christmas Day, Boxing Day, New Year’s Day, Good Friday, Easter Monday,
May Day, Spring Bank Holiday and Late Summer Bank Holiday. Besides public holi-
days, there are days like Pancake Day, bn which certain traditions are
observed, but unless they fall on a Sunday, they are ordinary working days.
New Year Celebrations. In England, the New Year is not as enthusiastically
observed as Christmas. Some people ignore it completely and go to bed at the
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same time as usual on New Year’s Eve. Many others, however, do celebrate it
mainly by watching television programmes from Scotland, because nowhere else
in Britain is the arrival of the New. Year celebrated so wholeheartedly as in
Scotland.
The most famous celebration in London is round the statue of Eros in
Piccadilly Circus where crowds gather and sing and welcome the New Year. In
Trafalgar Square there is also a big crowd round the Christmas tree (an annual
gift from Norway) and someone usually falls into the fountain. On New Year’s
Day the "New Year Honours List” is published in the newspapers, that is a list
of leading politicians, writers, actors, public figures and sometimes ordinary
people who are given knighthoods or honours of various types by the monarch.
This is also the traditional time for making "New Year resolutions’', for
example, giving up smoking, getting up earlier, passing your driving test or
switching to coca-cola instead of wine. However, these are generally more
talked about than put into practice and are usually the subject matter of New
Year greetings for family members.
The Night of Hogmanay. Hogmanay, as New Year’s Eve is called in Scotland,
is the survival of the festivities of medieval times. Throughout Scotland, the
preparations for greeting the New Year start with a minor "spring-cleaning".
Brass and silver must be glittering, the fresh linen must be put on the beds.
No routine work may be left unfinished: clocks wound up, musical instruments
tuned, and pictures hung straight. In addition, all outstanding bills are
paid, overdue letters written and borrowed books returned. At least , that is
the ideal. Most important of all, there must be plenty of good things to eat.
In the cities and burghs, the New Year receives a communal welcome, in the
traditional gathering-place. As the night advances, Princes Street in
Edinburgh becomes as crowded as it normally is at noon, and there is growing
excitement in the air. Towards midnight, all steps turn to Tron Kirk, where a
lively crowd awaits the striking of 12 o'clock. As the hands of the clock in
the tower approach the hour, the atmosphere grows tense, and then suddenly
there comes a roar from a myriad of throats. The bells peal forth, the sirens
scream — the New Year is born!
Many families prefer to bring in the New Year at home, with music or
dancing, cards or talk. As the evening advances, the fire is piled high—-for
the brighter the fire, the better the luck. The members of the household seat
themselves round the hearth and when the hands of the clock approach the hour,
the head of the house rises, goes to the main door, opens it wide, and holds
it thus until the last stroke of midnight has died away. Then he shuts it
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quietly and returns to the family circle. He has let the Old Year out and the
New Year in. New Year greetings and small gifts are exchanged, glasses are
filled — and already the first-footers are at the door.
First-footing, in the usual,sense of the term, means visiting in the early
hours of New Year’s morning. But the first-foot, strictly speaking, is the
first person (other than a member of the household) who crosses the threshold
after the midnight. According to the ancient Celtic tradition, the appearance
of the first-foot indicates the character of the luck that will attend the
household in the coming year, and it is therefore a matter of concern that he_,
or she, should be well-favoured. Generally speaking, any healthy, robust
person, or one of kindly disposition or good repute, is lucky; and, conversely,
any ill-favoured person, or one of disagreeable or ill repute is considered
unlucky.
The first-foot, on crossing the threshold, greets the family with "A Happy
New Year!", and pours out a glass from the flask he carries. This must be
drunk to the dregs by the head of the house, who, in turn, pours out a glass
for each of his visitors. The glass handed to the first-footer himself must
also be drunk to the dregs. A popular toast is: "Your good health!" The first-
footers must take something to eat as well as to drink, and after .an exchange
of greetings they go off again on their rounds.
St Valentine’s Day. When all the fun of Christmas and New Year is over,
there is a feeling of anti-climax. The rest of January is dreary and cold. But
before long the empty shops seem to come to life once again with displays of
attractive and brightly coloured "I love you" Valentine cards.
St Valentine was a priest who lived in Rome and died for his faith in
AD 170. His feast happens to fall on February 14th — the traditional day
for lovers. But this is mere coincidence. He was not noted for helping lovers
in distress and was not therefore the true patron saint of lovers.
There was in early times a strong belief that on this day birds choose
their mates. To some extent this might explain why love-birds seem to be such
popular motifs on Valentine cards.
There used to be a custom in England on St Valentine’s Day, mentioned by
Chaucer and Shakespeare: .the names of young unmarried men and girls were mixed
up and drawn out by chance. The person of the opposite sex whose name came out
after yours was your chosen "Valentine" for the year.
Just over a century ago it became fashionable to send pretty lace-edged
cards. Earlier, ludicrous and sometimes vulgar cartoons were sent to friends
and strangers on this day.
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In our own time, too, the Valentine tradition has undergone a sort of
revival in Britain. There seems to be no limit to the variety of cards on sale
for this celebration. They are happy or sad, romantic or humorous, serious or
ridiculous. The card manufacturers, realising they are on to a good thing,
cater for all tastes — including the vulgar. You can pay anything from
10 pence to £10, depending on the depth of your love and the depth of your
pocket! If you really want to get rid of some money you can always use the
St Valentine's Day Greetings Telegram — a service put on specially for
February 14th by the Royal Mail, for the really love-sick.
Of all the Valentine cards on the market the humorous variety seem to be
the most popular, but some of them are so cruel you would have to be quite
heartless to send them, even to your worst enemy. Anonymity is, of course,
part of the thrill of sending Valentine cards — you must not say who you are.
The person receiving it must' be left to wonder. You can send cards to anyone
you like, or, for that matter, even people you do not like. There are cards
specially printed to My Wife, My Husband, Mother, Father, Sweetheart, and,
would you believe it, Grandmother and Grandfather. At least it is good to know
that in this troubled world love is still living and spreading a little
happiness, especially in dreary February.
Pancake Day. In England Shrove Tuesday is the day for pancakes. At home,
families have pancakes for dinner. At school, the children and teachers have
pancakes for school dinner, and in restaurants customers often ask for pan-
cakes on Shrove Tuesday.
Everyone knows that pancakes are delicious to eat but in England, on
Shrove Tuesday, people race with them and fight for them. In some villages and
towns there is a pancake race every year. The Olney Pancake Race is for
housewives. The race at Oxford is for anyone who likes to enter; students
often take part. In all these races, one has to make the pancake first and
then run, tossing the pancake as one goes. The Olney Race is 415 yards
(373 metres) long; the housewives have to toss their pancakes three times
during the race. This does not sound a very difficult thing to do, but try it
and you will see that it is!
At Westminster School, in London, the boys have pancakes for dinner on
Shrove Tuesday. But before dinner there is the pancake fight. The school cook
tosses a pancake high into the air. The boys (one from each class) fight for
the pancake. The winner of the fight is the boy who gets the biggest piece of
pancake. He usually is given a symbolical money prize. And the boys who do not
win at least get a pancake for dinner.
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Easter. Easter is a time when certain old traditions are observed. In
England it is a time for the giving and receiving of presents which tradi-
tionally take the.form of an Easter egg. The Easter egg is the most popular
emblem of Easter, but fluffy little chicks, baby rabbits and spring-time
flowers like daffodils, tulips, etc., are also used to signify the Nature's
reawakening. In their modern form, the Easter eggs are frequently artificial,
mere imitations of the real thing, made of chocolate or marzipan or sugar, or
of two pieces of coloured and decorated cardboard fitted together to make an
egg-shaped case containing .some small gift. These are the Easter eggs of
commerce, which now appear in shop-windows almost as soon as Ash Wednesday is
past, and by so doing lose much of their original festival significance. They
are, however, comparative newcomers, hardly more than a hundred years old.
Artificial eggs do not seem to have been used before the middle of the last
century, and popular as they are today, they have not yet entirely displaced
the true Easter egg of tradition.
This is a real egg, hard-boiled, dyed in bright colours, and sometimes
elaborately decorated. It still appears upon the breakfast-tables on Easter
Day, or is hidden about the house and garden for the children to find.
Colouring and decorating the festival eggs seems to have been customary since
time immemorial. There are many ways of tinting and decorating the eggs, some
simple and some requiring a high degree of skill. They can be dipped into a
prepared dye, or more usually, boiled in it, or they may be boiled inside a
covering of onion peel. The outer skin of an onion, wrapped round an egg and
boiled with it, is still very often used to obtain a delicate yellow, or a
pleasant brown. Similarly, if strips of coloured rag or ribbon ere bound on, a
marbled effect is produced. One or two of the most beautifully ornamented
Easter eggs would be saved and kept in a cupboard where they could be easily
seen. An egg that is boiled really hard, will last for years. Some very fine
specimens would survive for several years, but the majority would be eaten
during the festive season, or broken to pieces in the vigorous egg-games that
are played at this season.
Egg-rolling is a traditional Easter pastime which still flourishes in
northern England and Scotland. It takes place on Easter Sunday or Monday, and
consists of .rolling coloured, hard-boiled eggs down a slope until they are
cracked and broken, after which they are eaten by their owners. In some
districts, this is a competitive game, the winner being the player whose egg
remains longest undamaged, but more usually, the fun consists simply of the
rolling and eating. In Argyllshire, Scotland, it was customary for young men
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to roll the eggs in one place, and for young women to roll theirs in another.
The man or girl whose egg went farthest and most smoothly would be the first
person to marry in that particular group.
Eating hot cross buns at breakfast on Good Friday morning is a custom
which flourishes in most English households. Formerly, these round, spiced
cakes marked with a cross, eaten hot, were made at home by housewives. In
towns, and especially in London, street vendors used to come out early in the
mornings, carrying trays or baskets full of hot buns covered by a blanket and
white cloth to preserve heat.
There is an old belief that the buns have curative powers, especially for
ailments like whooping-cough. Within living memory, it was still quite usual
in country districts for a few buns to be set aside each year, hardened in the
oven, and hung from the kitchen ceiling until they were needed. When illness
came, as much as was necessary was finely grated and mixed with milk or water,
to make a medicine which the patient drank. One may believe it or not, but
this is how Christina Hole describes Easter traditions in her Dictionary of
British Folk Customs.
April Fool's Day. British tradition dictates that this a day of
practical jokes, when not all telephone messages are to be trusted and the
most innocent-seeming invitation should be treated with caution. Even the news
media take part occasionally. One leading national newspaper ran an April 1
editorial about a luxury Round the World Tour which cost the unlikely figure
of £200, and one year the BBC showed a very convincing film of spaghetti,
growing on trees. Rumour has it that London Zoo takes its phone off the hook
at this time of year, for so many people are passed messages to ring a Mr Lyon
and when they dial the number given it turns out to be the Zoo. One of the
most famous April Fool’s jokes was carried out by undergraduates at Cambridge
University. They approached a group of workmen digging up the road and warned
them that some fellow students, disguised as policemen, would be along shortly
to tell them to move on. They then visited the police station and reported
that students, dressed as council workmen, were digging up one of Cambridge’s
streets. The resulting confrontation was memorable.
May Day. In olden days in Europe May Day was widely celebrated as the
beginning of warm weather and natural fruition. The Romans held games in
honour of the goddess of flowers around this date, and the druids lit new
fires in honour of the god Bel. In the Middle Ages most European communities
celebrated May by decorating their homes with new flowers (the custom of
carrying in baskets of flowers was known as "bringing in the May"), choosing a
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May Queen, and erecting and dancing around a Maypole. An expert on British
folk customs, Christina Hole, below gives a description of some of the living
traditions of May Day.
The Maypole is an ancient fertility emblem belonging to the beginning of
summer, and it also represents a tree; indeed, at one time it was a tree,
brought in from the woods with ceremony, and set up on the village green. In
the darkness of the early morning the young people went out on May Day and cut
down a tall, young tree, lopped off most of its branches, leaving only a few
at the top, and so brought it home, to be adorned with flowers and garlands,
and to serve as a centre for their dances.
Sometimes the parish possessed a standing Maypole, a permanent shaft which
remained in position all the year, and was freshly painted and adorned when
May Day came round. A few still stand, or their descendants arrive on the same
site, for the average age of a Maypole is not much more than fifteen years.
After that, it begins to rot at the foot and has to be renewed. These
permanent poles are usually very tall. There are still a good many Maypoles
today. Most schools have them, on May Day, or on some convenient day during
the month, and some villages maintain the old tradition, especially in places
where there are standing-poles.
The central figure of May Day celebrations (held nowadays traditionally on
the first Monday of May) is the May Queen, usually a schoolgirl elected by her
fellows, and crowned by her predecessor of the year before, or by some local
notability. Formerly, she was not a child, but a young woman, the prettiest
girl in the area or the most popular, and she was not usually alone, as she is
now. There was often a May King who reigned with her, or a Lord and Lady of
May. In the Isle of Man, until about the end of the eighteenth century, May
Day was marked by a battle between the Queen of May and the Queen of Winter.
Today the girls wishing to participate in this contest put on their best
summer frocks, plait flowers in their hair and round the waists and eagerly
await the crowning of the May Queen. The most beautiful girl is crowned with a
д-irland of flowers. After this great event there is dancing, often Morris
dancing, with the dancers dressed in fancy costumes usually representing some
characters in the Robin Hood legend. May Day games and sports are followed by
refreshments in the open.
On the second Saturday of	May the	famous May	Queen Festival at	Hayes,
Kent, attracts masses of	people	and over	a thousand	children	take part	in it.
The procession forms up	in the	village	about 1.50	p.m. and	makes its	way to
the Common by way of the	village	church.	The actual	crowning	takes place about
149 -
5 p.m. As many as forty May Queens from different parts of the country are
present, and with their attendants present a colourful spectacle. Their
dresses are beautifully made, with a distinctive colour scheme for almost all
the different "Realms". The Festival has been held since 1880.
Late Summer Bank Holiday. On Bank Holiday (the last Monday of August) the
townsfolk usually flock into the country and to the coast. If the weather is
fine many families take a picnic-lunch or tea with them and enjoy their meal
in the open. Seaside towns near London are invaded by thousands of trippers
who come in cars and coaches, trains, motor cycles and bicycles. Great
amusement parks do a roaring trade with their scenic railways, shooting
galleries, water-shoots and so on. Trippers will wear comic paper hats with
slogans such as "Kiss Me Quick" and they will eat and drink the weirdest
mixture of stuff: sea food like cockles, mussels, shrimps and fried fish and
chips, beer, tea and soft drinks.
Bank Holiday is also an occasion for big sports meetings, mainly all kinds
of athletics. There are also horse races all over the country, and most
traditional of all, there are large fairs, with swings, roundabouts, a Punch
and Judy show, and every kind of side-show including, in recent years, bingo.
Ihese fairs are pitched on open spaces of common land, and the most famous of
them is the huge one on Hampstead Heath near London. It is at Hampstead Heath
you will see the Pearly Kings, those Cockney street traders, who wear suits of
I rocks with thousands of tiny pearl buttons stitched all over them, also over
their caps and hats, in case of their Queens. There is also much boating
activity on the Thames, regattas at Henley and on other rivers and the English
climate being what it is, it invariably rains.
Halloween. Halloween is a combination of holidays. As a night of ghosts
and witches it was started by the Celts. They were people who lived in France
and the British Isles hundreds of years ago. The Celts had a holiday called
Samhain which meant "end of summer". So Samhain was a festival marking the end
of the food-growing season. The Celts believed that spirits of the fruits and
vegetables, and also the ghosts of people, visited the earth on Samhain, wt^ich
was October 31. The Celts lit huge bonfires on hill tops to scare the ghosts
away. Years later, the Celts became Christians. They celebrated All-Hallows
Day (now called All Saints' Day) on November 1. It was a day to remember
important Christians who had died. The Celts called the night of October 31,
Allhallows E'en, or holy evening, which was later shortened to "Halloween".
Although it is a much more important festival in the USA than in Britain,
it is celebrated by many people in the UK. At parties people dress up in
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strange costumes and pretend they are witches. They cut horrible faces in
potatoes and pumpkins and put a candle inside, which shines through the eyes.
Children may play difficult games such as trying to eat an apple from a bucket
of water without using their hdnds. In recent years children, dressed in white
sheets, knock on doors at Halloween and ask if you would like a "trick” or
"treat". If you give them something nice, a "treat", they go away. However, if
you do not, they play a "trick" on you, such as making a lot of noise or
spilling flour on your front doorstep.
Guy Fawkes Night. A protestant King James I was very unpopular with the
Roman Catholics, so some of them planned to blow up the Houses of Parliament
on November 5, 1605, when the king was going to open Parliament. Someone wrote
a letter to a member of Parliament. It warned him of the plot. Searchers
discovered 36 barrels of gunpowder in the cellar. They arrested Guy Fawkes
just as he was about to light the gunpowder. He and his helpers were executed.
Since that day the British traditionally celebrate this day and when
November 5th comes many people feel that they should give their dog a sedative,
for some dogs get very nervous when they hear loud bangs, and the evening of
Guy Fawkes Day is sure to be noisy if there are children living in the
neighbourhood. On that' day children are traditionally allowed, under proper
supervision, to let off fireworks, to make bonfires and burn on them the
figure of a ragged dummy (a "guy") made of old clothes, straw, and — if
possible — one of father’s oldest hats. Even the smaller children are allowed
to stay up until it is really dark, so that they can admire the rockets that
burst in the sky and send down a shower of many-coloured sparks.
In the days before Guy Fawkes Day, some children may be seen going about
the streets with their faces blackened, and wearing some kind of disguise.
Sometimes they have a little cart or an old pram, and in it there is a "guy";
they ask the passers-by to spare "a penny for the guy". With the coppers they
get, they buy fireworks.
Christmas. The word "Christmas" is derived from the words "Christ's Mass"
— the celebration of the birth of Jesus Christ. But although Christmas is
undoubtedly a Christian celebration, it is also true to say that it - is an
unusual combination of pagan and Christian festivities.
A Christmas tree stands in everybody's living room at Christmas, but in
pre-Christian times evergreens, trees that remain green throughout the year,
were worshipped in Northern Europe as symbols of eternal life. Mistletoe, hung
up as a Christmas decoration, allows you to kiss whoever you like underneath
it. Kissing under the mistletoe is an entirely English custom. Its long-
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lived popularity may be partly due to the fact that, until at least as late as
the early seventeenth century, the English were much given to kissing as a
form of greeting. Various - foreign visitors noted with surprise and pleasure
how freely men and women kissed each other on meeting and parting, and how
even strangers, on their first introduction into a family, were permitted and
indeed expected, to kiss the host’s wife and daughters on the lips. Times have
changed since then, and manners with them; but even today a girl who stands
under the mistletoe must expect to be kissed and, by custom, has no real right
to refuse.
Holly, however, a well-known Christmas decoration today, does have
Christian associations. In Norway, Sweden and Denmark holly is known as
"Christ’s thorns'’, the legend being that Christ wore a crown of holly thorns
before his death. Some people have seen associations between the word "holly"
nnd ’’holy". Its natural significance was the promise of everlasting life
because it bore red berries in winter. It was the male life element whereas
ivy was the female. The use of both together would bring fertility to the
household. Holly is used not only to decorate the inside of homes and churches
but is also incorporated in Advent wreaths which are hung outside the front
door for the the whole period of Advent.
The Christmas tree is the focal point of the decorations in most homes and
In almost all countries. The fir tree was sacred to the Birth Goddess and as
Buch its usage pre-dates the birth of Christ, being part of the celebration of
the winter solstice. The Scandinavians worshipped trees and when they became
Christians, they made the fir tree and other evergreens an integral part of
the Christian festival. The Germans are credited with being the first to use
the Christmas tree in their celebrations and Martin Luther with being the
first to place a star on the top of the tree. This was to represent the star
that came to rest over the stable in which Christ was born and which guided
the shepherds to the birthplace.
The tree only gained popularity in England when Queen Victoria used it, no
doubt because of the influence of her husband. Since then, trees have beqome
more and more decorative. The branches adorned with fairy lights, angels,
•wnall toys and, in European countries, little packets of nuts, candies and
npecial biscuits. Presents are piled around the tree and artificial "frost"
scattered over the branches, making them sparkle.
The origin of lighting candles at Christmas, too, goes back to pre-
Christian roots. One such root is the Roman festival called Saturnalia when
fire, food and light were celebrated as though to keep out or forget the
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darkness of deepest winter.
Carol singing is an essential part of Christmas. The carols may be
traditional or by known composers, or new arrangements of old tunes; they may
be simple narrative songs or highly symbolic mystifications; they can express
a wide range of feelings, from jubilation to quiet contemplation. It can be a
doubtful treat when children come round in the evening singing carols and
asking for pennies. Once householders in Romford, Essex, were delighted by un-
usually beautiful choral carol singing in their quiet streets. Coming to their
front doors with generous tokens of appreciation, they were amused to find not
a large professional choir supported by a brass band, but three small children
— one holding a lantern, another extending an expectant hand, and the third
with her finger placed firmly on the button of a portable tape recorder.
Giving presents and gifts goes back again to Roman Saturnalia when good
luck gifts of fruit, pastry or gold were given to friends on New Year’s Day.
In Britain the traditional day to give presents until relatively recently was
December 26th and not as it is today, Christmas Day. December 26th is known as
Boxing Day, for it was then that the priests of the Middle Ages opened alms
boxes to give to the poor. Later it was customary for servants and public
workers to be given "boxes" on this day.
It is a traditional custom in Britain for children to hang stockings at
the foot of the beds on Christmas Eve for Father Christmas, who is supposed to
come down the chimney and fill them with presents. Every year almost a quar-
ter of a million children post letters addressed to Father Christmas, telling
him what presents they would like! The Royal Mail delivers the letters (to a
special office in Scotland) and children get a reply on a printed card
postmarked Reindeerland. The character of Father Christmas may perhaps be
traced back to St Nicholas (or Santa Claus), a Bishop of Myra in part of the
Roman Empire in the third century AD, who is said to have saved many children
from death.
Not all Christmas customs and traditions are of ancient origin. Although
various people have claimed to have designed the first Christmas card, William
Egley, an English artist, seems to have the best claim. In 1842 he designed
his own card and sent it to one hundred of his friends.
Christmas food, too, has changed relatively recently. Before the sixteenth
century the Christmas dinner would have been a boar's head followed by roast
peacock. It was not until sailors came back from the New World bringing with
them a strange-looking bird from Mexico that turkey became the traditional
British Christmas dinner. Other Christmas foods the British have, also need
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explaining. Mince pies today are not made from meat as they once were, but
contain raisins, currants, sugar and apples. Nor does the great British plum
pudding contain plums. It used to consist of prunes, but now the ingredients
are a rich concoction of currants, raisins, sultanas, eggs, spices and suet.
Some families make the pudding months before they intend to eat it. Believe it
or not, it tastes better this way. Into the mixture go coins as well. The
lucky eater usually found a sixpence, the unlucky eater swallowed it!
BRITISH CUISINE
Food, both eating it and cooking it, is a favourite topic of conversation
in Britain these days. If you look at any newspaper or magazine, you will find
recipes and stories about food. If you go into any bookshop in Britain, you
will find hundreds of cookery' books, and new ones appear every week. There are
radio and television programmes about cooking, and if you do not know what to
cook for lunch, you can telephone a special number and get some ideas.
Most people, men as well as women, are much more interested in food and
cooking than they used to be. They see cooking as an art which makes life more
enjoyable. Today it is not unusual for men to help their wives in the kitchen.
That did not happen fifty years ago — cooking was women’s work in those days.
If you go to a friend’s house for a meal today, one of the topics of conversa-
tion will certainly be food. This, too, did not happen fifty years ago. Then
it was very impolite to talk about food at a friend's house. Now it is
impolite if you do not.
Sadly, many foreign visitors to Britain believe that the British have no
interest in eating or cooking good food. This is true of a few people certain-
ly. There are always some people who do not care if they eat brown paper or
caviar. But it has never been true of all British people and it is certainly
not true today.
But why do foreign visitors have this idea that the British are un-
interested in food? Perhaps because the best British food has always been
found in family houses add not in restaurants or hotels. And the housewife has
usually done the cooking herself. This was true in the nineteenth century and
it is still true today. There are good restaurants which serve delicious
British food, but many of the restaurants in Britain do not serve British
food, and so foreign visitors do not always have a chance to taste the best of
British cooking. Today at least half of the restaurants in Britain serve
foreign food — you can eat food from France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Greece,
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Turkey, India, China, Hong Kong, Japan and many more countries. Even the
smallest town has a Chinese restaurant. This is exciting if you are British
and live in Britain. When you go out for a meal you want to taste different
food from the food you eat at home. But it is a shame if you are a foreign
visitor and you want to taste real British food. Most of these restaurants
have opened in the last twenty years because during that time the eating
habits of the British have changed a great deal.
Firstly, people are much more willing to try different kinds of food
(at least once!). This is perhaps because many more people now travel all over
the world on business and on holiday. While they are abroad they taste
exciting new dishes. Then, when they return, they often want to cook those
dishes. There is another reason. You can easily buy the ingredients for
foreign dishes in Great Britain, because there are now many foreign people who
were not born here. These people like eating food from their own countries, so
there are now many shops which sell food from the Caribbean, Hong Kong, India,
Bangladesh and many more faraway places. Many British cooks now serve foreign
dishes in their homes — for example, Moussaka from Greece, Coq au vin from
France, Spaghetti bolognese from Italy, Paela from Spain and Curry from India.
Would the Greeks, the* French, the Italians, the Spanish or the Indians
recognise their national dishes? Perhaps not.
There is a second change in the eating habits of the British. Many people
have become very interested in the traditional country recipes of Great
Britain again. There are many hundreds of these recipes from different parts
of the country. The tradition of good cooking in Great Britain goes back a
long way. Many of the cookery books from the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries have been printed again in the last ten years. These books contain
the great traditional British recipes. Many of these recipes were lost or
forgotten during the nineteenth century when so many people moved to the towns
and cities from the country. Perhaps the most famous of all these cookery
books is Mrs Beeton's "Book of Household Management" which first appeared in
1859. It has been used by thousands of British cooks ever since.
The third change in Britist) eating habits is the growing popularity of
healthy foods. People now want to eat food which they know is good for them.
Health foods can mean different things to different people. For some people it
can mean eating more honey or brown sugar and less white sugar. But for others
it can mean not eating any food which has chemicals in it. A lot of people in
Great Britain now recognise that the chemicals which food companies add to our
foods are bad for us, and so they try not to eat those foods. Instead they
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often grow their own fruit and vegetables in their garden. Or they buy their
food from special health food shops. Some people are even more careful about
their food’. They will not eat meat at all. They are vegetarians. One can
see that British food means different things to different people. It is
sometimes difficult to decide which dishes are British and which are not.
Anyway we offer you a brief guide to British meals with special accent as to
what they are and when they are eaten.
Breakfast 7.30-9.00 a.m. The "traditional" British breakfast is cereal
(hot porridge or cornflakes) with milk and sugar. Then fried bacon and eggs
and toast. Lastly, toast and butter with marmalade or jam. Tea or coffee is
usually drunk. The "continental" breakfast is becoming more popular.- This is
just toast and butter with marmalade or jam. Tea or coffee is drunk.
Lunch 12-2 p.m. This may be a big meal with two, three or four courses:
a starter, e.g., soup; then the main course, e.g., meat or fish with vege-
tables; then a pudding or dessert, e.g., apple pie and custard sauce; then
perhaps cheese and biscuits. The traditional English lunch time offer includes
lamb with mint sauce or pork with apple sauce. There are many kinds of dessert
for example: apple pie with whipped cream; strawberries; trifle which is
typically English; jelly; orange or lemon cream; mousse; and so on. Some
people may like to have a piece of fruit or a container of yoghurt instead of
a sweet for dessert. Others may prefer to have cheese and savoury biscuits for
dessert. Instead of soup, some people start their meals with a slice of melon
or some grapefruit segments.
Tea 4.00-6.00 p.m. The "traditional" tea is usually bread with butter
and jam, scones, cakes and biscuits. Tea is drunk with milk and sometimes with
sugar. Some people do not have milk. They have a slice of lemon instead. Today
many people do not eat much at teatime, but they still drink a cup of tea in
the afternoon. "High tea", in the north of England and Scotland especially, is
the big meal at about 6 p.m. There is usually a meat or fish course, then a
pudding or dessert. Tea is drunk throughout the meal.
Dinner/Supper 7.00-8.00 p.m. Dinner is the big meal in the evening and
it is like a large lunch with two, three or four courses. People who eat a big
meal at midday often have only a small meal in the evening. This is called
"supper", and there may be only one course, e.g., cauliflower cheese.
Food free Different Parts of Great Britain
Traditionally, different parts of Great Britain are famous for different
dishes. Today more people migrate than they used to in the past. One will find
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people from the north who now live in the south, and so on. But surprisingly,
differences in cooking remain. Traditionally, people in the north of England
and Scotland think that they eat more and better food than ’'southerners”. This
is not necessarily true, but the weather is colder in the north, so perhaps
northerners do need more food!
Scotland
Scotland's weather is colder than England's, and the Scots find it easier
to grow oats than wheat. As a result, many of Scotland's traditional recipes
use oatmeal rather than wheat flour.
Scotland has a long tradition of biscuit and cake making. Scottish
nousewives also make delicious oatcakes, which are really more like biscuits
than cakes. They are not sweet, and are very good to eat with butter and
cheese. Oats are also used in another traditional Scottish dish, porridge.
Porridge is a mixture of oats, salt and water which is cooked very slowly for
a long time, often overnight. Porridge is usually eaten hot for breakfast. If
you are a true Scotsman, you can eat your porridge only with salt. Further
south, however, porridge is often eaten with milk and sugar or syrup. Oats are
also one of the ingredients in haggis, the national dish of Scotland.
Scottish meat is very tasty. From the north of Scotland comes very good
lamb, while in the south there is very good beef. Scotland is also famous for
delicious fish. There is salmon and trout io the rivers, as well as very good
sea fish, especially from the coast around Aberdeen. The famous Scottish
kippers are smoked hering. Other Scottish dishes are described in the Food and
Drink section of the chapter on Scotland.
Hales
The general character of the nation’s cuisine is determined to a very
great extent by the country’s products which are in turn -the result of its
physical environment. Oats, the main cereal crop grown in Wales, and bacon,
which has been an important part of the diet of rural Wales in the past, have
prominent places in many Welsh recipes. Because of the fact that the tradi-
tional symbol of Wales is the leek, the recipe of the Welsh leek pie is to be
found in many books on cooking. This is a good lunch or supper dish when it is
hot, and a good picnic dish when it is cold.
Fish was always popular in Wales. At the turn of the century it was not an
uncommon sight to see whole families burrowing on the beaches on a moonlit
night during the summer months, looking for sand eels. Cockle-gathering was
another popular way of diversifying the ration. Cockles already boiled and
taken out of their shells were carried in wooden pails from door to door by
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women. Catching and selling herrings was a major industry in most seaside
villages during the autumn months. Pickled herrings and baked jacket potatoes
made a delicious meal for dinner or supper. In Wales, all freshwater fish were
generally fried. Salmon steaks or whole trout were fried in bacon fat or
butter. Experienced fishermen would smoke salmon during the winter months
towards the beginning of the salmon season. This was the only method of
preserving them in olden days.
It is certain that the cakes, generally known today as "Welsh Cakes", have
been tea-time favourites in Glamorgan since the latter decades of the last
century. At one period they would be eaten regularly in farmhouses and
cottages alike, and the miner would also expect to find them in his food-
box. Baking them on a bakestone over an open fire was the most general
practice throughout the country. The Welsh names given to the local varieties
of the cakes were usually based on the Welsh name for the bakestone.
Pancakes were an essential part of the welcome given to visitors when
invited for afternoon tea in the counties of Caernarvon and Anglesey. They
were also prepared there on Shrove Tuesday. On this occasion three kinds of
pancakes were prepared in the farmhouses. For the master, his family and the
servants. It was also a general custom on Shrove Tuesday for the children to
go around from house to house singing suitable verse at the door while begging
for pancakes:
Please may I have some pancakes?
My mouth is parched for pancakes,
My mother is too poor to buy flour,
My father is too lazy to work,
Please may I have some pancakes?
Oatcakes are common to all Celtic countries, but the art of making them
varies considerably from country to country. Basically, the ingredients of
oatmeal and water, and sometimes a little fat, are mixed to form a dough which
is finally baked on a bakestone. The art lies in the rolling out of the dough
to form large, wafer-thin rounds with fine, even edges. A favourite way- of
eating an oatcake in Wales was to put a large piece between two slices of
bread or on top of one slice of ordinary bread to make a sandwich.
Mixing the Christmas pudding involved the whole family when each member
would take his turn to stir the pudding and in doing so would cast a secret
wish. It was a common custom also when preparing the pudding to put small
coins in the mixture — the old silver threepenny or sixpenny pieces, and the
lucky recipients on Christmas day regarded them as tokens of good luck. The
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mixture was then placed on a large damp cloth, the edges of which were then
bunched together and tied securely with strong cord to form a bag. This bag
was then suspended from a stick placed across the top of the boiler and
immersed in boiling water.
Pembrokeshire buns were given to children as part of their New Year’s gift
on New Year’s Day in many districts. The housewife would bake them in large
quantities for this special occasion and the children would carry them home in
clean pillow cases on their backs. Generally, each child would be given some
two cakes at every house after he had wished the members of the household a
very happy New Year. These wishes were frequently conveyed in verse or song.
Toffee Evening was a traditional part of Christmas or New Year festivities
in north Wales earlier this century. Families, in their turn, would invite
friends to their homes for supper, usually in the form of a Christmas dinner,
and it would be followed by merriment, playing games, making toffee, and story
telling.
England
The British, and especially the English, are great meat eaters. Roast beef
and Yorkshire nodding is famous all over the world. Yorkshire pudding has a
long history. At first it was made so that people did not eat too much
expensive roast meat. In those days it was served before the meat. Then people
were not so hungry when the meat appeared. Today it is served with the meat.
The English eat a lot of roast meat, and a lot of ham and bacon too. Different
parts of the country make different kinds of ham. In the past almost every
part of England made its own kind of ham. Sadly, many of these are not made
nowadays.
The English also love meat pies and puddings. Steak and kidney pudding is
one of the great English dishes. There are, however, many recipes for meat
pies, as for example, Cornish pasties, which contain beef or lamb and can be
eaten hot or cold. They were first made in Cornwall, in the southwest of
England. Yorkshire, in the northeast of England, used to be famous for its
Christmas pies. These are very large pies which contain a chicken inside a
goose inside a turkey inside the pie! In the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries Yorkshire housewives always sent Christmas pies to their friends who
lived in London. The pastry had to be very thick because of the long journey,
or it would break into pieces!
The fish and chip shop is an important tradition in Britain, especially in
the north of England. Fish and chip' shops began at the end of the last
century. They were really the first of the modern takeaway food shops. At that
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time women as well as men often worked outside their homes, so fish and chip
shops sold cheap, good food to people who did not have time to cook at home.
No one knows who first put fish and chips together. Some people say that a
Belgian, Edouard de Gurnier, first sold chips in Britain. He opened a shop in
Dundee in Scotland in 1870. He did not sell fish with chips. Instead he sold
peas as he had done in Belgium. The man who first sold fish and chips together
was a clever man — they taste delicious. Today there are fish and chip shops
in most towns in Britain. Fish and chips is no longer a very cheap meal, but
it is still good value. The fish is usually cod, haddock or plaice, cooked in
batter. In the past fish and chips was sold in newspaper, but today it will be
on a paper plate.
There are many different vegetables in Britain and many different ways of
cooking them. It is impossible to give a complete picture of all the vege-
tables which are used, but potatoes are the most common vegetable of all. They
are baked, roasted, boiled, mashed with butter and milk, and made into chips.
Some people think that a meal is not a meal without potatoes! Sir Walter
Raleigh first brought them to England in 1585. He can hardly have known then,
how popular they would become! Before the sixteenth century parsnips were the
most common vegetable. *
There are three golden rules for cooking vegetables shared almost
universally in Britain. First of all, put root vegetables into cold water and
then bring them to the boil. But always put green vegetables into boiling
water from the beginning. Secondly, do not overcook vegetables. They will lose
all their flavour and goodness if you do. Well-cooked vegetables are tender
but not.too soft. Thirdly, always drain vegetables well after you hive cooked
them. There is nothing worse than watery vegetables. If necessary, put cooked
vegetables back into the saucepan after you have drained them. Then dry them
over a low heat.
For some people any sweet course at the end of a meal is called a "pudding.
Гог others, a hot sweet course is called 8 "pudding", but a cold sweet course
is called a "dessert". Some people use the word "sweet" for everything. The
names may often change in different parts of the country. Rice pudding is very
<jood for a cold winter day. Some people also like it cold with cooked fruit. In
Britain rice, pudding is often remembered from childhood — and the memories
are not good ones! But if it is made with good creamy milk and if it is cooked
very slowly for a long time, rice pudding is very delicious indeed.
Apple pie is probably the best-known British pudding. It is usually served
with custard sauce or cream. Vanilla icecream, is also good with it. In the
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north of England many people like to eat apple pie with a big slice of cheese.
It sounds strange but it tastes good!
Food for Festivals
Food plays an important part in British festivals. The biggest festival of
the year in Britain is Christmas. Only the Scots may not agree. For them,
Hogmanay or New Year's Eve on 31st December is more important. In fact, the
Christmas *and New Year festivals have almost become one long holiday in
Britain.
Cooking for Christmas begins in late October or early November. At that
time housewives make their Christmas cakes. These taste better if they are
made a month or two before they are eaten. Christmas dinner is the most
important meal of the year. Some families eat Christmas dinner at one or two
o'clock in the afternoon. Others eat it in the evening. The menu is usually
roast turkey with chestnut stuffing, roast potatoes, brussels sprouts, bread
sauce, bacon rolls and gravy. In the past most families had roast goose, but
today turkey is more popular. There is more meat and less fat on a turkey than
on a goose.
Easter is the other important religious festival in Britain. The date
changes from year to year, but it is always in March or April. The six weeks
before Easter are called Lent. Lent begins on Ash Wednesday, and the day
before that, Shrove Tuesday, is when British people always eat pancakes. In
the past people ate very little during Lent, and Shrove Tuesday was the last
day when they could eat a lot.
On Easter Sunday morning every child receives a chocolate Easter egg, and
usually people have boiled eggs for breakfast. Easter Sunday lunch is usually
roast lamb with roast potatoes, vegetables and gravy. At teatime on Easter
Sunday many families eat Simnel cake. This is a* rich fruit cake, like
Christmas cake, with almond paste but no icing on the top. There are eleven
little balls of almond paste on the top. These are for the eleven friends of
Jesus Christ. Only the twelfth, Judas Iscariot, is missing. Sometimes then*
are little chocolate eggs or fresh flowers on top, too. In some families
Simnel cake is eaten three weeks before Easter, halfway through Lent, on
Mothering Sunday. On that day all children give presents to their mothers and
try to be kind to them for at least one day in the year!
The other festivals in Great Britain are not really religious. Hogmanay is
a very important festival in Scotland and the north of England, but in thr
south people do not celebrate the New Year very much. Haggis, turnips and
potatoes ("neeps and tatties" as they are called in Scotland) are eaten and n
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lot of Scotch whisky is drunk, too! The first footers must also be given
shortbread.
On 25th January there is another important festival in Scotland: Burns*
Night. On that evening all true Scotsmen remember their poet, Robert Burns.
Again haggis is on the menu. Burns immortalized haggis in his poems and the
most important person at the Burns* Night party must read the poet's words
before anyone can start eating haggis.
In the autumn there are two festivals very near each other. On 31st
October there is Halloween. This started as a religious festival, but now it
is not really a religious festival. Halloween is celebrated more in the north
of England than in the south. Children often put white sheets over their heads
so that they look like the ghosts of dead people. Then they go out in the
streets at night and try to make other people afraid. They are often more
afraid themselves! Afterwards they come home and have a party. They eat hot
soup and baked potatoes. Then they play games like bob apple and duck apple.
In bob apple, apples are hung on a string from the ceiling. You must take a
bit out of your apple but you must not touch it with your hands. In duck apple
some apples are put into a big bowl of water. Again you must take a bite of
your apple without touching it with your hands. The first person to take a
bite out of their apple wins the prize.
Six days later, on 5th November, there is another festival. Some people
call it Bonfire Night, others call it Guy Fawkes* Night. People make big
bonfires outside and burn figures of Guy Fawkes on them. The children ask
people for "A penny for the Guy" and buy .fireworks with the money which they
get. People eat special sweets and Parkin (a dark cake with a strong taste
made of oatmeal) while they stand beside the bonfire and watch the fireworks.
They usually cook baked potatoes in the bonfire. Then they eat them with lots
of butter and grated cheese and salt and pepper. Often they roast chestnuts in
the fire, too. After the fireworks everyone goes inside and eats hot soup or
Steak and kidney pudding to get warm again. In fact, there has been a festival
with bonfires since long before Guy Fawkes* time. In Derbyshire children
still eat Thor or Thar cakes at the beginning of November. These are called
after Thor, one of the gods of the Norsemen who came to Britain from Scandi-
navia ’nearly two thousand years ago. Before the British celebrated Guy Fawkes*
Night, they lit bonfires to celebrate the god, Thor.
The other important festival in the year is one’s birthday. Mothers and
fathers usually give a party on their child's birthday. They eat the child's
favourite food and a special cake is baked. Small children usually like sponge
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cakes. Older children often like a rich fruit cake better. On top of the
birthday cake there are small candles, one for each year of your life. You
will be lucky in the following year if you can blow out all the candles with
one breath. When you are more than twenty-one years old, you usually have one
candle for every ten years of your life.
SPORT AND ACTIVE RECREATION
The British invented and codified the rules of many of the sports and
games now played all over the world, and today there is widespread participa-
tion in and watching of sport in Great Britain. Large crowds attend occasions
such as the football and rugby league Challenge Cup Finals at Wembley Stadium,
international rugby union matches at Murrayfield (Edinburgh) and Cardiff Arms
Park, the Wimbledon lawn tennis championships, the classic horse races, the
Open Golf Championship and international cricket matches.
Levels of participation in sport have been rising, due mainly to an
increase in leisure time and facilities, greater mobility and improvements in
living standards. A growing awareness of the importance of regular exercise
for good health has also contributed to this trend and is reflected in the
upsurge of interest in jogging, keep fit and dance-related forms of exercise.
It has been estimated that 29 million people over the age of 16 regularly take
part in sport or exercise. Walking, including rambling and hiking, is by far
the most popular recreation, followed by swimming, snooker (billiards) pool,
keep fit (yoga) aerobics, cycling, darts,golf, running and football.
All rschools are expected to have a playing field and most secondary
schools have a gymnasium. Some have other amenities such as swimming pools,
sports halls, etc. Physical education is a compulsory subject for all pupils
aged 5 to 16 in state-maintained schools. One of the requirements of the
National Curriculum for physical education is that from the end of 1994, all
children should be able to swim 25 metres before they leave primary school.
. Some of the major sports and recreations in Great Britain are described
below. Some sports — like hockey and rowing — are amateur, but in others the
distinction between amateur status and professional one is less strictly
defined, or does not exist..
Association Football is the largest spectator sport and one of the most
popular participation sports. It is controlled by separate football associa-
tions in England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. The Football Associa-
tion (FA), founded in 1863, and the Football League, founded in 1888, were
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both the first of their kind in the world. Tn England 340 clubs are affiliated
to the English FA and in Scotland there are three divisions, with 38 clubs,
which play in the Scottish Football League. During the season, which lasts
from August until May, over 2,000 English League matches are played; total
attendances reached over 20 million in 1991-92.
Spectator violence associated with football both in Britain and overseas
has been a subject of widespread concern. After serious disturbances involving
English supporters at the European Cup Final in Brussels in 1985 which led to
the deaths of 38 spectators, English clubs were withdrawn from European
competitions. Legislation introduced in Britain in 1985, restricts the sale of
alcohol in football grounds and bans its sale on transport to matches. It is
an offence to take cans or bottles into grounds. Possessions of smoke bombs
nnd fireworks at or on entry to a football ground has also become an offence.
Greater use is being made of closed-circuit television to identify the
football hooligans.
Athletics is attracting increasing numbers of participants in part because
of the success of British competitors and the wide coverage of athletics
events on television. The London Marathon, which takes place every spring,
draws leading runners from a number of countries and is a mass-participation
event — more than 25,000 runners took part in 1995.
Many British athletes, especially middle-distance runners, have enjoyed
distinguished reputations: in 1954, for example, Sir Roger Bannister became
the first man to run a mile in under four minutes. In September 1992 Britons
held world records in a number of events, including the 800 metres (Sebastian
Coe), the mile (Steve Cram) and javelin (Steve Backley).
Angling. The most popular country sport is fishing, and there are about 4
million anglers in Great Britain. Many fish for salmon and trout, particularly
in the rivers and lochs of Scotland and in Wales, but in England and Wales the
most widely practised form of fishing is for coarse fish such as pike, perch,
carp, tench and bream. The National Federation of Anglers in England organises
national championships for coarse fishing and enters a team in the world
angling championships. Freshwater fishing usually has to be paid for: most
coarse fishing is let to angling clubs by private owners, while trout and
salmon fishermen may rent a stretch of river, join a club, or pay for the
right to fish by the day, week or month.
. Badminton. The sport of badminton takes its name from the Duke of
Beaufort's country home, Badminton House, where badminton was first played in
the nineteenth century. Badminton is one of the fastest growing sports —
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around 5 million people play badminton in Britain and there are over 5,000
clubs. In 1992 badminton became a full Olympic sport.
Billiards and Snooker. The character of the. present game of billiards was
established in Britain at the end of the seventeenth century. Snooker, a more
varied game invented by the British in India in 1875, has greatly increased in
popularity and become a major spectator sport as a result of widespread
television coverage of the professional tournaments. It is estimated that
between 7 and 8 million people now play the game. The main tournament is the
annual Embassy World Professional Championship, held in Sheffield.
Boxing in its modern form dates back from 1865, when the Marquess of
Queensberry drew up a set of rules eliminating much of the brutality in prize-
fighting and making skill the basis of the sport. British boxing has a
distinguished record and at various times British boxers have held European,
Commonwealth and world championship titles.
Bowls has been played in Britain since the thirteenth century. The game of
lawn bowls is played on a flat green; in the Midlands and north of England and
in north Wales a variation called crown green bowls is played, so named
because the centre of the green is higher than its boundaries. Lawn and crown
green bowls are mainly summer games; in winter indoor bowls, played on
synthetic greens, is growing in popularity. Once regarded as a pastime for the
elderly, bowls is increasingly played by adults of all ages. About 4,000 lawn
bowling clubs are affiliated to the national Bowling Associations.
Cricket is among the most popular of summer sports and is sometimes called
the English national game, having been played as early as the 1550s. Cricket
is played in schools, colleges and universities, and in cities, towns and
villages amateur teams play weekly games from late April to the end of
September. The main competition in professional cricket is the Britannic
Assurance County Championship, played by 18 county teams.
Curling. The ice sport of curling originated in Scotland, where it is now
played by men and women almost exclusively on purpose-built rinks indoors. The
Royal Caledonian Curling Club was formed in 1838 and has over 21,000 members.
Curling is played in 24 other countries, including England and Wales.
Darts, an indoor game which has its origins in medieval archery, is played
mainly in pubs as a casual recreation to accompany drinking. It has gained in.
popularity as a result of widespread television coverage of the professional
game. An estimated 4 million people play the game regularly. The rules of the
British Darts Organisation have become the code for the world sport. The
Organisation arranges events in Britain which bring entrants from 45 countries.
165 -
Golf originated in Scotland, where for centuries it has carried the title
of the Royal and Ancient Game. The oldest golf club in the world is the
Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers. The Royal and Ancient Golf Club, the
ruling authority of the sport for most of the world, is situated at St Andrews
on the east coast of Scotland. Golf is played throughout Britain and there are
golf courses near most towns; there are 1,900 golf courses in Great Britain.
The main event of the British golfing year is the Open Championship, one of
the world's leading tournaments.
Field Sports. British field sports include hunting, fishing, shooting,
falconry and coursing. Fox hunting on horseback with a pack of hounds is the
most popular British hunting sport. Game shooting as an organised sport
probably originated in the early part of the nineteenth century, and takes
place in many parts of Great Britain. Game consists of grouse, ptarmigan,
partridge and pheasant, species which are protected by law during a close
neason when they are allowed to breed on numerous estates supervised by
<H»mekeepers. It is necessary to have a licence to kill game and a certificate
Insued by the police to own a shot-gun. There is considerable public oppo-
sition to field sports and it is organised through such bodies as the League
Against Cruel Sports.
Highland Games. Scottish Highland Games are events at which sports such
tin tossing the caber, putting the weight and throwing the hammer take place
nnd attract large numbers of spectators from all over the world. Among best-
known- Highland Games are the annual Breemar Gathering, the Argyllshire and
1‘owol Gatherings.
Horse-racinq takes two forms — flat racing and steeplechasing and hurdle
dicing. The Derby, run at Epsom, is the outstanding event in the flat racing
rnlendar. Other classic races are: the Two Thousand Guineas and the One
Ihousand Guineas, both run at Newmarket; the Oaks, run at Epsom. The most
Important steeplechase and hurdle race meeting is the National Hunt Festival
Hunting held at Cheltenham in March. The Grand National, run at Aintree near
llverpool, is the world's best-known steeplechase and dates from 1837.
Horse riding takes a number of forms ranging from recreational riding to
tihow jumping. The art of riding is promoted by the British Horse Society,
which is concerned with the welfare of horses, road safety, bridle-paths and
(mining. With some 41,000 members, the Society holds rallies, meetings and
iumpetitions culminating in annual national championships. Three-day events
hold each year include those at Badminton, Windsor and many other places.
Rowing is taught in many schools, colleges and rowing clubs throughout
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Great Britain. The University Boat Race, between eight-oared crews from Oxford
and Cambridge, has been rowed on the Thames almost every spring since 1836.
The Head of the River Race, also on the Thames, is the largest assembly of
racing craft in the world, with more than 420 eights racing in procession. At
the Henley Regatta in Oxfordshire, founded in 1839, crews from all over the
world compete each July in various kinds of race over a straight course of
1 mile 550 yards (about 2.1 km).
Rugby -football takes its name from Rugby School, in Warwickshire, where it
is believed to have originated in 1823. Since 1893 the game has been played
according to two different codes: rugby union (a 15-a-side game) is played by
amateurs and rugby league (a 13-a-side game) by professionals as well as
amateurs. Rugby union is played under the auspices of the Rugby Football Union
in England and similar bodies in Wales, Scotland and Ireland. The Five Nations
Tournament between England, Scotland, Wales, Ireland and France takes place
each year and there are overseas tours by the national sides and by the
British Lions, a team representing Great Britain and Ireland.
Rugby league is played mainly in the north of England. The governing body
of the professional game is the Rugby Football League, which sends touring
teams representing Great Britain to Australia and New Zealand; annual matches
are also played against France. The Challenge Cup Final, the major club match
of the season, is played at Wembley Stadium in London.
Mountaineering and Rock-Climbing. The popularity of mountaineering and
rock-climbing has increased steadily. There are 330 clubs, ranging from
national clubs such as the Alpine Club (founded in 1857, the oldest mountainee-
ring club in the world) and the Scottish Mountaineering Club to small regional
clubs with 20 to 30 members. The most popular areas in Britain for climbing
include the Peak District of Derbyshire, the Lake District, Snowdonia in north
Wales and the Western Highlands of Scotland. British mountaineers have taken a
leading part in exploring mountain ranges and climbing many of the great
mountains of. the world, achieving, for example, Everest in 1953.
Squash rackets originated at Harrow School in the 1850s. Squash enjoyed a
period of very rapid growth during the 1970s and remains a popular sport.
There are 9,100 squash courts in England, and the estimated number of players
in Britain is 2.4 million.
Tennis. The modern game of tennis originated in England in 1872 and the
first championships were played at Wimbledon in 1877. Since then the main
event of the season is the annual Wimbledon fortnight, widely regarded as the
most important tennis event in the world.
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SCOTLAND
Scotland in Profile
Today, for a number of reasons, interest in Scotland is stronger and more
widespread than ever, because Scotland very much remains a nation within a
nation, one with its own history and culture, and its own legal, ecclesiasti-
cal and educational systems.
The name "Scotland” derives from the Scoti, a Celtic tribe who migrated to
Scotland .from Ireland during the fifth and sixth centuries and who in time
merged through intermarriage with the Pictish tribes to form the nucleus of
the Scottish nation. The main point about Scottish nationhood is that it means
a great deal to Scots themselves, and they quite naturally do not like to hear
other people use the term "England" or "English" when in fact they mean
"Britain" or "British".
Scotland is a country of some 77,852 square kilometres. It is bounded west
and north by the Atlantic Ocean and on the east by the North Sea, while in the
south the border with England runs about 100 kilometres roughly along the line
of the Cheviot Hills. Scotland has some 790 islands ranging from large rocks
to land several hundred square miles in area. Of these, the largest and best
known are the groups of Shetland and Orkney in the north-east and the Hebrides
which lie off the west coast of Scotland. Altogether, about 130 of the
Scottish islands are inhabited.
The comparatively modest dimensions of mainland Scotland are revealed in
the fact that the greatest distance from north to south is only 440 kilometres,
while the maximum width is 248 kilometres. By British standards, Scotland is a
mountainous country. It is the home of the highest peak in the United Kingdom—
Hen Nevis, 1,356 metres (ill. 25). Such heights are, of course, modest by
Luropean standards, but the Scottish mountains have a beauty and colour rarely
matched elsewhere. Its longest river, the Clyde, is likewise of comparatively
modest dimensions, being only 170 kilometres in length. But, as the Scots
point out, "guid gear gangs in sma’ bouk", which, freely translated, means
"quality and smallness go together". This is certainly true of the Scottish
environment which combines beauty of scenery with abundant supplies of fresh
wnter and a rich and exciting variety of flora and fauna. In addition, with a
population of just over five million people, most of them concentrated in the
Industrial areas of the Central Lowlands, Scotland has plenty of living space
for everyone to enjoy. Glorious areas of coast and countryside are located
often within less than an hour’s drive from larger towns and cities.
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As regards geographic structure, Scotland consists of three main regions.
These are the Highlands, the Central Lowlands and Southern Uplands. The High-
lands in the north, including the Hebridean islands, account for somewhat more
than half of the total area of Scotland. The term "Lowlands" is misleading,
for the region - includes a number of hill ranges. In the Southern Uplands,
likewise, magnificent scenery abounds, though as a rule, of a gentler
character than that found in the Highlands.
Despite the northern latitudes, the climate of Scotland is remarkably
temperate, one of the main reasons being that the country is influenced by the
warm Gulf Stream. The Highlands of Scotland are often wet, though long, fine,
dry summers in this region are by no means unknown. The range of temperature
in major towns and cities of Scotland is, as a rule, much less than in cities
such as Stockholm or Copenhagen, for example. The east coast of Scotland is
markedly drier than the west coast. As to temperature, winters in the main
towns and cities of Scotland are much less severe than in southern Sweden or
Denmark. They are similar, in fact, to winters in northern France, although
Scottish summers are usually a little cooler.
The Scottish people embody all the variety one would expect to find in a
nation descended from a rich ethnic mixture of Pict, Celt, Briton, Angle and
Norse, with a dash of Italian, Polish and others from later immigrations. A
large number of Scots do have certain attitudes and characteristics in common,
however, and one of these is a genuine interest in the world at large. This is
best instanced by the considerable number of people with Scottish blood living
in other parts of the world. Their total is estimated at between 25,000,000
and 40,000,000, in addition to whom many thousands of native Scots are to be
found living overseas.
Any assessment of the Scots must take into account the impact of the
Scottish form of Calvinism on the Scottish way of life, but the appeal of this
religion lay not in its doctrine of gloom, but in advocating personal
independence and self-reliance. The Scot is more distinguished by high spirits
and a preference for cheerful company; it might be even said that a whiff of
Calvinism is often needed to keep him in check. People really familiar with
the Scots agree that many are indeed out-and-out romantics, but they do not
wear their hearts on their sleeves nor do they welcome public displays of
sentiment in others.
The democratic tradition in Scotland is both strong and enduring, going
back far into Scottish history. From'time immemorial, Scottish monarchs were
referred to as "King of Scots" or "Queen of Scots", never as King or Queen
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"of Scotland". Implicit in this distinction was the notion that, to a large
degree, the monarch ruled with the consent of the people.
On the other hand, although many Scots hold radical views, their conduct
is invariably tempered by a strong vein of practical common sense. The Scot
understands better than most the art of the possible, and very rarely adopts
extreme positions from which he is unable to withdraw with dignity. This also
accounts in some measure for the sardonic note in so much Scottish humour,
which is used as a safeguard against making oneself vulnerable through the
display of too much emotion.
The friendliness of the Scots in general is something that is appreciated
not only by the visitor, but by firms which have set up shop in the country.
Quite- a number from Europe, America and Japan have already done so and very
few have any reason to regret their decision.
To.sum up, however, the newcomer to Scotland may have many a surprise, but
he will find that most are likely to be pleasant ones.
HISTORY
The beginning of the prehistory of Scotland is usually associated with the
immigration of the representatives of the Celtic peoples in the middle of the
first millenium BC, by the end of which the distinction between the two
principal Celtic peoples in Scotland became recognised. North of the Forth —
Clyde line there were the Picts, a conglomeration of immigrants using the
Pictish variety of the Celtic language. South of this line there were the
Britons, speaking the Brittonic version of the Celtic language. Their capital,
Dun Eidyn, became eventually the capital of Scotland.
The Picts did not wish to become a part of the Roman Empire and they also
saw the hardships brought by the establishment of Roman rule to the Celtic
British people farther south, so they fought to keep the Romans from advancing.
This part of the island which had neither been conquered or occupied by the
Roman legions, was called "Caledonia" by the Romans, a name which is used to
this day as a poetic name for Scotland. The Romans built Hadrian's Wall
(ill. 2) from Tyne to Solway and later the Antonine Wall from Forth to Clyde,
which protected them from the Picts.
If you consult the Oxford English Dictionary for a definition of the word
"Scot", you will see: "A Gaelic tribe that migrated from Ireland to Scotland
about the sixth century". It is from this tribe that Scotland received in the
coming centuries its name. Caledonia was not a united country but a land
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loosely held by Pictish kings, by British tribes speaking a language similar
to modern Welsh, and by Angles from northern England. During a period of more
than 150 years there was tribal warfare between Picts and Scots in which the
Scots managed to subdue the Picts. The Scots and the Britons were Christian.
Christianity came to the Picts, and subsequently to the Angles, following the
arrival in Scotland of the Irish monk Columba, who landed on the island of
Iona in the Inner Hebrides in 563. There had been a considerable amount of
inter-marriage between various peoples in Scotland, so that it came as no
surprise when, in 844, Kenneth MacAlpin, King of Scots, was proclaimed King of
Picts and Scots.
The Norse invasions afflicted not only the whole island of Britain but
also Ireland and much of continental Europe, so there is no need to chronicle
them in detail in Scotland, save to note two facts. The first is that many
Norsemen — not content with”hit, wound, kill, burn and run” tactics — settled
down in parts of Scotland, particularly in the islands and on the coast. Over
the centuries they have been utterly absorbed into the racial mixture of Scot-
land. The second important result of the Norse invasion of north Britain was
the disappearance of the Picts from the Scottish scene. From about 1000, Scot-
land had a distinct separate identity and organised system of government, but
the history of Scotland in the form of a true nation begins with Alexander III
in the thirteenth century. Before that there had happened the Norman Conquest
of south Britain, which made its effect felt on Scotland in two ways.
The first effect was the introduction of the tongue, we now call Scots,
into an exclusively Gaelic kingdom. This resulted when the Anglo-Danish
speakers, coming from Northumbria, came into an existing community of "Inglis"
speakers"in Lothian. They brought with them a form of English that was to be
transformed into one of the national languages of Scotland. On its incoming,
however, it was called "Inglis", "Scots", to the true Scot of the period,
was Gaelic.
The second effect on Scotland of the Norman Conquest in the south was the
arrival of the Princess Margaret, from the royal Anglo-Saxon house that had
been defeated at the Battle of Hastings and expelled from England.
Margaret was a princess of beauty and strong determination. Malcolm III
took her to.be his queen. Love and respect inspired him to give his wife
complete freedom in the reform of the Celtic Church. It was Queen Margaret who
reformed the half-isolated early Scottish Church by bringing it into line with
the Church Universal. There are still those today who blame Margaret for
Anglicizing the Celtic Church of Scotland. Queen Margaret may have been an
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English princess in origin, but she was the first and most potent agent to
make Scotland a true unit within the great structure of the Christian Church,
as it was then universally accepted.
By the beginning of the twelfth century southern Britain had been united
by Norman Conquest and bore the name of England. Since that time there started
powerful infiltration of Anglo-Normans to southern Scotland. Their success was
such that their influence penetrated everywhere and by the time Alexander III
had ascended the throne, Norman French was the language of the court and of all
the nobility and clergy south of the mountainous and Celtic parts of the
Kingdom of Scotland. Scotland, as it was to do with a number of other incomers,
was to absorb its Normans into the concept of Scotland.
The Kingdom of Scotland Established. The reign of Alexander III was a
lengthy period of internal and external peace and of national hope. It was the
foundation not only of the Kingdom of Scotland, but of the nation of Scotland
that existed in fact until the Union of England and Scotland in 1707. He early
understood that the internal strife of ambitious nobles was one of Scotland’s
endemic evils. He enforced order among them without bloodshed.
After his death there were no fewer than twelve claimants to the Scottish
throne, all of whom were short-sighted enough to invite Edward I, King of
England, to arbitrate among them. After Edward had failed to submit Scotland
to his overlordship, he marched North, sacked and destroyed the richest and
most powerful of the Scottish burghs. He returned to London, bringing with him
the celebrated Stone of Destiny, on which all Scottish kings had been crowned.
The remainder of the contending nobles in central Scotland had sworn loyalty
to Edward. Scotland was prostrate.
The Wars of Independence. The first signs of its future salvation came
from a patriot William Wallace, who defeated the English forces at Stirling
Bridge. Edward captured Wallace and executed him, but he was, and remains, the
people’s hero. He had paved the way to another Scottish hero, who was to
succeed where Wallace failed, and to achieve the impossible — the restoration
of the Kingdom of Scotland.
In 1305 after the death of Wallace, Robert Bruce, a Scoto-Norman claimed
the Scottish throne. The further events’began to develop in such a way, that
they shaped not only the destiny of this man of just thirty-one, but the
destiny of the nation of Scotland. He gave himself to the unification of
Scotland by two means: first, in guerrilla war against the occupying English;
second, in the open war upon the great Scottish families who were opposed to
hin. In both he was successful. His great foe, Edward I, died planning a
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crushing blow against him in 1307. Thereafter, faced by the lesser determina-
tion of. Edward II, he was able to bring his war against England more into the
open. He won the hearts of the people of.Scotland by his outstanding personal
heroism and had an intuitive knowledge of the art of war. Both features of his
character played a decisive role in 1314, when only about 5,000 trained men of
his army defeated Edward's 20,000 strong force. It all happened at a place now
called Bannockburn.
Bannockburn was won, but peace was signed between England and Scotland
only in 1328. It was signed by Edward III — King of England and King Robert I
of Scotland, now recognized as an independent kingdom. But before it happened
there had been signed the Declaration of Arbroath, which is considered to be
one of the greatest pronouncements of freedom in the history of Europe. In
1320, six years after Bannockburn, when there were still many useless out-
breaks of warfare between England and Scotland, a self-convened assembly of
nobles and ecclesiastics met at Arbroath. There they deliberated and
dispatched eventually to the Pope a declaration, proclaiming Scotland's right
to freedom.
Medieval Scotland. The next page in the history of Scotland is connected
with Robert the Steward, the son of one of Bruce’s commanders at Bannockburn,
who had married the king's daughter. With him, and as a result of taking his
title as a family name, began the long and ill-fated line of the Stewart
(later corrupted by French usage to Stuart) kings and queens.
Between the reign of James I and that of James IV, which ended in the
disaster of the battle of Flodden, Scotland was intent on becoming a part of
Europe. It was in this period that it attained the quality of a nation within
itself. The first university at St Andrews (1412) was followed by universities
at Glasgow (1451), at Aberdeen (1495) and at Edinburgh (1583). During this
period there was much building of monasteries, the merchant classes arose and
made themselves felt, the burghs grew in number and importance and were, in
Parliament, represented as the Third Estate. Finally, at the end of this
period, under James IV there was an astonishing flowering of literary talent
and occasional genius expressing itself in the Scots tongue. Scotland had
grown up not only to be a nation, but a civilized nation.
The official excuse for James IV to invade England was the long-standing
Franco-Scottish agreement known as Auld Alliance. This had officially begun
with a treaty made by Bruce in 1326 before the uneasy peace had been signed
with England. But as Scotland and France continued to suffer from English
invasion, this alliance was to last officially for 233 years. It was an
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arrangement made by two hard-headed peoples who had between them an ex-
pansionist neighbour — England. Small though Scotland’s population was, it
was able to contribute brave fighting men to the French cause during the
Hundred Years War. But Scotland’s main contribution to France’s efforts in
aelf-defence was to act as a menace at England's back door. "He that will
France win must with Scotland first begin", ran a popular English saying.
Trench influence on Scottish life was so considerable in architecture,
literature and language, that even the celebrated Scots dish of haggis, for
example, derives from the French "hachis", meaning minced beef.
France, England, the Reformation, the Union of Crowns. It was during the
reign of James V that the French influence was to become so paramount as to be
embarrassing. As all Stuart monarchs had to. do, he faced the inevitable
disunity of his ambitious nobles who struggled for the control of his person.
Of the outside powers seeking for his alliance were England and France. France
became his choice. James twice married into France and just before he died,
his wife Mary of Guise had borne him a daughter. She set up an all-time record
Гог Stuart minority by succeeding to the Scottish throne when she was less
than a week old. She was to be Mary Queen of Scots.
She spent the first five years of her life closely guarded in Scotland and
later she was sent to the court of France, where at fifteen she was married to
the Dauphin. It now looked as if the Auld Alliance was going to turn Scotland
into a province of France. This improbable outcome was prevented by the death
of Mary’s husband and Mary's consequent return in 1561 to govern her own
kingdom.
Beautiful, intelligent, nurtured in the Catholic faith, exposed in her
formative years to the refinements of the French court, this woman returned to
her native northern country, which must have appeared grim to her. It was the
country where one event of the greatest importance had taken place in the year
just before her arrival. That was the denunciation of the Catholic faith by
Parliament of Scotland, and the establishment of Protestantism. Mary was
realist enough to accept the facts. As a Catholic queen, she demanded freedom
to practise her own faith, but guaranteed religious freedom to her subjects.
Fhis did not please the Protestants, particularly John Knox.
She soon married her cousin, Henry Stewart, Lord Darnley, who was murdered
In 1567 and Mary was strongly suspected of complicity in the crime, but this
has never been proved. She gave birth to a son who was to become the future
James VI of Scotland and I of England.
She allowed herself to be captivated and finally married by the Earl of
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Bothwell, who was known to have been one of the murderers of Darnley. He was a
Protestant and the marriage between him and Mary, conducted according to
Protestant rites, took place too soon after Darnley’s death, thus Mary
succeeded in offending everyone in Scotland. Abandoned by all except her new
husband’s followers, she was captured and imprisoned on an island in Loch
Leven; she escaped, had two weeks’ freedom, and then, after final defeat,
abdicated .in favour of her son James.
She fled to England, hoping that Queen Elizabeth would give her refuge.
Elizabeth did, but not in the way the Queen of Scots had hoped. Mary, as
granddaughter of Margaret Tudor, Henry VIII’s sister, was next in succession
to the throne of England. Catholics in England thought Elizabeth to be il-
legitimate and believed that Mary was already their rightful queen. Too
dangerous a rival to be treated as a guest at liberty, she was imprisoned and
after nineteen years, executed.
Her dramatic story has been of interest to the world, but of greater
importance to Scotland was the coming of the Protestant Reformed Faith. This
huge event marks the greatest watershed in the history of the country. It is
so important, has aroused so many passions and has been responsible for so
many changes, that there is only one way of describing it — to give the facts.
The first cause of the Reformation in Scotland was corruption of the
higher clergy since before James IV. The second cause was the fact that
Scottish Protestantism had always been on clear thought and one of the
greatest Scottish minds, a person with an extraordinary power of expression —
John Knox was in the head of it. The third cause was political. After
Flodden Scotland could not stand alone; it had to have the powerful support of
one of the two traditional neighbours — England or France. Those who put
their faith in France were Catholic; those who inclined to England were led to
Protestantism, for Henry VIII had long broken with the Pope.
The geographical position of Scotland made the alliance with England,
however distasteful to many, more practicable than one with France. The
approach to England, with the Union of Crowns on the horizon, did occur, and
with this the last obstacle to the Reformation was removed. The greatest part
of that achievement was the establishing of a really democratic Presbyterian
Kirk in Scotland, very much to the ideas and efforts of John Knox.
James VI, child of Mary Stuart and Darnley, was the first monarch of Scot-
land who was of the Protestant faith. He supported the Scottish Reformed Kirk,
yet he tried to soften the differences between it and the Elizabethan Pro-
testant Church of England. With a mixture of intrigue and wit this clever man
175 -
played for time. And in the end his time came. In 1603 Queen Elizabeth died
and James VI of Scotland became James I of England. He came back to Scotland
only once again in a life that was to last another twenty-two years. His
successors of the Stuart line were equally reluctant to visit their Northern
Kingdom. Although another century of occasional outbreaks of warfare between
England and Scotland was to follow the Union of Crowns of 1603, it was
certainly a first and major step towards political union.
Scotland under the Union of Crowns. When Charles I came to the throne he
attempted to enforce upon the Church of Scotland a new Service Book, based on
the English Book of Common Prayer. There were serious public riots all over
Scotland and the Presbyterians signed two Covenants, binding themselves to
defend the king, but rejecting his Church enforcements.
Then the Civil War in England broke out. Cromwell defeated and executed
Charles I. He cared little that the axe he used for this purpose also beheaded
lhe King of Scots. The Scots did. They were horrified, but saw an opportunity
of resolving the conflict between loyalty and faith. They invited Charles's
exiled son and heir, later Charles II, to Scotland and crowned him so that he
•iupported both covenants. This was too much for Cromwell. He invaded Scotland,
lhe Scots invaded England, but were defeated. Charles escaped from the island,
nnd, until the Restoration of the Monarchy in 1660, Cromwell ruled over
Scotland as well as England. It now formed with England a single Commonwealth.
With the end of the Commonwealth', and the return of Charles II to London,
lhe Scots at first welcomed the Restoration of the Stuart monarchy to the
Ihrones of England and Scotland, but very soon episcopacy was restored and the
congregations lost the right to choose their own ministers. One more attempt
lo re-introduce Catholicism by means of "freedom for all" was undertaken by
the last Stuart James VII and II, but he fled from the country. William and
Мигу, who succeeded to the throne of the last Stuart King, made the Church of
Scotland really democratic and free, and the country became more independent
than it used to be.
The Union with England. In 1707, the Scots Parliament agreed tojhe
treaty of Union by which the Scots Parliament would merge into the English
1’nrliament. The Treaty agreed that the two kingdoms, the two nations, should
become one the United Kingdom of Great Britain.
Two large questions arise. First: what prompted the proud Scots to consent
Io this? Second: what induced England — which had shown no desire for a
jrcater union since the Union of Crowns — not only to agree to it, but
•il rongly press for it?
176 -
There are many potential answers to these questions, backed by the people
on either side of the border, but there is one, which is, probably, the most
essential — just "common sense". In both England and Scotland there must have
been a number of people in power who longed for an agreement that would end,
once and for all, the horrors of war between two nations inhabiting the same
island. At the same time, some historians in Scotland claim that the main
reason that the Act of Union was passed was that large bribes were offered to
the Scots nobles in Parliament. The perspective of new trading opportunities
in the English colonies was also offered to the Scottish merchants. In all the
towns and districts of Scotland there were riots and demonstrations by the
Scottish people, then unrepresented in Parliament. According to these
historians "common sense" is a reason advanced long after the event by Whig
historians in order to rationalise a purely political manoeuvre arising out of
the need to combat France under Louis XIV.
After the Union the Scots could turn their minds to industry, agriculture
and the arts. After a time wealth began to flow into Scotland, and many Scots
became rich. Many people in Scotland even now think that as individuals, they
have benefited, but as a nation, they have lost. Inevitably the nation of
Scotland, as a smaller partner, declined in identity, while England, during
the long period of prosperity, gained in national identity. The intention of
the Treaty of Union was that both England and Scotland should cease to exist
and that the United Kingdom of Great Britain alone be born. This, of course,
was an impossible assumption. Two nations can agree to unite; they cannot
agree that they shall cease to exist.
Freed from the fear of neighbourly strife the Scots made great contribu-
tions to the Industrial Revolution, to commerce, science, education, colonial
development; the Scottish regiments played a proud part in the British Army.
There was the extraordinary flowering of literary and intellectual talent
during the second half of the eighteenth century. The names of Adam Smith,
David Hume, Robert Burns, Walter Scott, Henry Raeburn and Adam brothers (who
have left their stamp on Edinburgh's Neo-Georgian New Town) are only some that
come to mind. But apart from individuals the nation of Scotland did not act
upon the world or upon her neighbours; it had no power to do so.
But there were a few considerable events that happened within Scotland and
shook it from end to end. There were two Jacobite attempts to restore the
Stuarts to their ancestral thrones of England and Scotland. The first was in
1715 when James Stuart, known to his opponents as the Pretender and to his
supporters as James VIII and III, made an attempt to claim his right to the
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throne, but failed. In 1745 his eldest son, Charles Edward Stuart, later
called the Bonnie Prince Charlie by sentimental Jacobites, sailed from France
to the Highlands and marched south with Highlanders, gathering men as he went.
His march south was at first highly successful and he nearly reached London,
but all'of a sudden Charles retreated into Scotland, where in the end he was
thoroughly beaten at the Battle of Culloden by the Duke of Cumberland. Prince
Charles’s wanderings in the Highlands also added to the romantic image of his.
A price of £30,000 was laid on his head by the government, but none among
those poor Highland folk was found to give him away, though Charles himself
did not deserve the loyalty he received: he was foolish, treacherous and
drunken. He escaped from Scotland, five months after Culloden, and died forty-
three years later in Rome.
The real tragedy was not his failure, but its effect on the Highlands. The
government destroyed many Highland traditions, disarmed the Highlanders,
prohibited their national dress and did its best to forbid the use of Gaelic
as the language of rebel savages. The Highland Clearances happened, a
tragedy, the effects of which may still be seen today — the conquered
Highlander, much though he loved his land, felt he was not wanted there, and
he turned his eyes overseas. The Highlanders did not only go overseas, but to
the sea-coasts to become fishermen, to the industrial cities to become factory
workers and on to the roads to become gipsies and tinkers. The people in the
Highland glens were replaced by sheep. All that was the most serious blow to
the Scottish national pride. The Clearances lasted till the late nineteenth
century, but they also coincided with the romantic revival of tartan and other
Highland customs, encouraged by Queen Victoria.
From about 1750 onward, it was mainly the turn of industry to profit from
the new creative spirit in Scotland. Ironworks and factories were built, new
shipyards were opened. Economic . change was accompanied by changes in the
social structure. The population itself increased from an estimated 1,100,000
at the time of the Treaty of Union to more than 1,600,000 by 1800. Art,
literature, publishing and architecture flourished. Glasgow and Edinburgh,
each with a population of around 88,000, became two of the most attractive
cities in the United Kingdom, distinguished by elegant squares, streets and
terraces, by. stately civic buildings and extensive parks. Clubs, debating
societies and coffee houses contributed to the new "sophistication”, and it
was not long before Edinburgh was called "the Athens of the North".
The process which began with such promise in the eighteenth century
continued at an accelerating pace throughout the following 100 years.
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Scotland achieved spectacular advances in coalmining, iron and steel produc-
tion and heavy engineering and shipbuilding. Here it was helped greatly by a
flow of discovery and invention. This was the century of Scots such as the
great mathematician and physicist Lord Kelvin, of James Maxwell, discoverer of
the electro-magnetic theory of radiation, of the physicist, James Dewar, who
invented methods of liquifying hydrogen and solidifying air and who invented
the vacuum flask. As if they were not enough, there were also Charles
Macintosh, who invented the waterproof '’mac", Kirkpatrick MacMillan, inventor
of the bicycle and John Dunlop, pioneer of the pneumatic rubber tyre. Moving
to the world of communication, we find Alexander Graham Bell, who invented and
developed the telephone in the USA. Later came John Baird, pioneer and
inventor of television.
In agriculture, despite changing economic fortunes, great progress was
made. Land was reclaimed and drained, labour-saving machinery was introduced
and Scotland’s livestock breeds were developed and improved. About this time
too, in the second half of the century, the excellence of Scotch whisky
started to command the notice of others besides the Scots themselves, begin-
ning with the London clubmen of the period.
Scotland continued with its outstanding contribution to medicine, science,
banking and commerce, while in education the world was beginning to appreciate
its example. In the late nineteenth century, only one child in 1,300 in
England was receiving a secondary education. The corresponding figure for
Scotland was one in 200, a ratio which only Prussia could so much as approach.
Yet even in those prosperous times, Scotland was educating her young people
beyond the capacity of the country to provide enough careers for their
training and skills. As a result, thousands went toff to manage the British
Empire or to try their luck in other lands.
The pace of advance did not slacken until the end of the World War I when
a brief spell of prosperity was followed by almost total economic collapse in
the heavy industrial sector. In 1933, for example, only 56,000 tons of
shipping was built on the Clyde compared with 750,000 tons in 1900. Mass
unemployment and social decay spread like a plague across the Central Lowlands.
For a time, Scotland lost faith in itself.
Some measures have been taken to help Scotland to recover its self-
confidence. Since the end of the World War II, Scotland.has been successful in
attracting a large measure of overseas investment, particularly by American
firms. In addition, new industries have been established, extensive new
housing schemes completed and a network of new communications built. The dis-
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covery of vast quantities of oil in the North Sea has of course inspired the
Scots and not without good reason. Scotland, with its talents, its space, its
resources is uniquely poised to achieve a higher standard of living with a
first-class quality of life. Scotland has become conscious of itself, not only
in sentiment but politically — a revival that may not be without result. The
pervading feeling that the government in London has too much power has lead to
the idea of more Scottish political control through a restored parliament,
either devolved from central government or independent. The Scottish Nationa-
list Party also shows its growing popularity pushing the Conservatives into
third place. . Most people give heavy support to the Labour Party, partly in
protest against a mainly Conservative England.
EDUCATION
The primary and most elementary fact to establish about the Scottish
system is that it is Scottish, not English. Just as with the independent Scot-
tish legal system and with the established Church of Scotland, the education
system of Scotland is distinct from that of the rest of Britain. This system
dates back to the times of Reformation and John Knox. According to the
regulations of those times each parish in Scotland .was to found a school for
all children, both rich and poor, boys and girls alike. There was to be no bar
to children of proven ability. They would be encouraged to rise as high as
they could in this system.
This basic circumstance still colours a great deal of what may be seen
today in schools throughout Scotland. Over 95 per cent of children attend a
local public school (to be distinguished from public schools in England, which
are independent and receive no public funds). Private schools are still much
less common in Scotland than in England. Here it has remained the rule that
everyone’s child is taught in the same school regardless of the background.
This general rule has but one exception — Edinburgh. The capital of Scotland,
in a way, is even more English than a proper English city. The first question
of one Edinburgher on' being introduced to another has always been, "What
school did you go to?” When one learns how many private schools there are in
the city, one can better understand the significance of the question.
In simple terms, there are three types of school: wholly private, semi-
private and public/comprehensive. In most parts of Britain, and especially in
Scotland, the third category is the only one. For Scotland in 1987, the
percentage was 96.4, the remaining 3.6 per cent attending private or semi-
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private schools. In Edinburgh, however, the proportion attending schools of
the first two types is more like 25 per cent. There exists an extensive and
intricate system of -educational institutions which are wholly private, very
expensive, exclusively boarding, often for one sex only and modelled on the
well-known English public schools. There are also other wholly private
schools, less well-known, some with day pupils as well as boarders, some
associated with one or other of the churches and private schools, charging
lower fees and receiving financial assistance from the government. The
uniforms worn by the pupils are recognised by colour among the Edinburgh
populace and the "old school tie" occurs among the employees of the pro-
fessions in Edinburgh and among local university students in statistically
significant proportions. It is possible to say that, per capita, there are
more private and semi-private schools in Edinburgh than anywhere else
in Britain.
Scottish children are sent to school at the age of five. They must remain
there until the age of sixteen. There is some provision of kindergarten and
nursery schooling (559 schools in 1987), mainly in the cities. This provision
is improving, but slowly, and it still benefits only a proportion of the
population. Scottish children remain at primary schools (there were 2425 pri-
mary schools in 1987) for seven years until the age of twelve when they
transfer to high school. There is nd longer any examination of them at the end
of their primary schooling, after which children will move to high school
where they are most often taught in mixed ability classes for the first two
years at least.
Local practice in relation to the details of the transfer from primary to
high school may vary according to the ideas of a particular head teacher or
tradition in a local community. The variation can be seen all across the
spectrum of school life from the wearing or not of uniforms, purchase of text-
books, level of classroom discipline, etc. However, the move to high school at
the age of twelve is universal in Scotland, a year later than the English,
practice. This move, from a nearby, small building where the schooling has
been mainly by a single teacher using group methods, to a much larger school,
where pupils can in their first year encounter as many as a dozen different
teachers, often being taught as an entire class, can cause problems. Most
parents and teachers, having no experience of another way of managing the
transition, seem to accept the situation as more-or-less satisfactory.
And the great majority of children are delighted to discover much more freedom
than they have associated with school attendance.
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Since 1962 it has been the case in Scotland that high school pupils could
sit their first external examinations at the age of sixteen. However, the
Ordinary Grade certificates and examinations — or О-grades (called O-levels
in England) and the courses leading up to them, were designed for only the top
25 to 30 per cent of the ability range in each subject. For the rest —
for the majority — there was nothing. Since the school-leaving age is also
sixteen, this means that most of an entire generation of Scottish pupils left
school with no universally recognized certificate at all. Here and there about
the country, in belated attempts to compensate for this state of affairs,
local provisions were made for certification, by the school or by the local
education authority. In some schools for a time, a Certificate of Secondary
Education (CSE) course, designed in England for less able pupils was imported
by concerned individual head teachers and local authorities.
In the 1990s there was introduced Standard Grade as a development of some
new ideas of certification in Scotland. It contains two main assumptions:
1) it is not acceptable that there should be separate certificate and non-
certificate courses; 2) assessment based on pupil norms should be replaced by
assessment for all pupils based on the criterion of what they have learned.
In other words, there were to be certificates for all and their assessment was
to be criterion-referenced rather than norm-referenced. The great significance
of criterion-referenced assessment is that it demands a contribution from each
school itself — in addition to the contribution traditionally made by the
final examination at age sixteen — to the decision about each pupil's result.
After Standard Grade those pupils who remain at school may sit their Highers.
The Scottish Higher Grade examination, introduced in 1888, is the premier exam
which determines university entrance qualifications. It is normal for pupils
to attempt Higher examinations in five subjects, occasionally more. In
England, three А-level subjects is the norm.
A generation ago parental contact with schools was minimal. Most parents
were evidently content to turn their children over to the schools and leave
the teachers to do their job. Parents' associations were the first attempts to
change the attitude of the parents towards school. Then official School
Councils were set up nationally. These meetings were attended by elected
parents, teachers, pupils and officials of the education authority. Now the
School Councils are replaced by School Boards of which parents constitute a
majority. These boards have wider powers, such as a say in staffing of senior
posts, spending, etc.
The everyday school routine in Scotland looks like this. A child in
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Glasgow or Edinburgh, as well as his rural counterpart in the Highlands or the
Borders, still runs along the road to make the starting bell, which can vary
from 8.30 to 9.00 depending on the school. Normally there will be a break in
the mid-morning, a quarter of an hour usually, another break for lunch—called
school dinner, lasting fifty minutes to an hour, then the bell signalling time
to go home at 3.30 or 4.00 p.m. During the lunch break, some pupils go home,
others eat lunches they have brought from home, others go to the shops to buy
food, and’only a proportion take "school dinners", the lunches provided by the
education authority.
No longer are wrong-doers punished with the famous Scottish tawse, a two-
or three-tongued heavy leather belt or strap used to strike the palm of the
hand (maximum permitted strokes six, "six of the best"). Its recent abolition
caused anxiety among older teachers, a subtle and significant shift in
classroom atmosphere. The remaining sanctions are familiar ones: punishment
exercises, detention after school, expulsion. At this level, nothing much
changes ever.
In high school bells rule everyone. The week is often divided into periods
of 40 or 50 minutes, seven or eight per day. Long gone are the days when
children were beaten for not "speaking proper" — saying "aye" for "yes",
"I dinnae ken" for "I don't know". Nowadays, even the pillar of linguistic
conservatism, the BBC, has dropped such artificiality and recognized that the
speech of the people is what meets the demands of modern life. Furthermore, a
smaller minority pay to send their children to school for purely linguistic
reasons, as opposed to the usual social ones. In the English classroom the
hallmark of correct spoken English is not whether it is "correct" in terms of
grammar or accent but whether it is appropriate to the situation in which it
is being used.
The Scottish universities are the natural destination for the successful
Scottish school leavers. Their entries vary from over 80 per cent (Glasgow) to
well under 50 per cent (St Andrews) of students from Scotland. In addition,
many Scottish school leavers attend institutions of higher learning in teacher
training, technical and vocational education, art school, medical school and
so on.
The predominance of Scottish entrants to the Scottish universities is
quite simply explained in historical terms. The Highers were for many years
discounted or refused as entry qualifications in England, and while this trend
is now relaxed, the inertia of generations is being actively encouraged by the
reluctance of the government to fund studies far from home. The Scottish
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school leaver who wishes to study drama, for example, will get a grant to do
so in Glasgow, but not in London.
Students in Scotland are faced by four ancient universities — St Andrews,
Glasgow, Aberdeen and Edinburgh, and four newer ones — Strathclyde, Stirling,
Heriot-Watt and Dundee. It is a proud feature of Scotland’s educational
tradition that open access to university availability produced generations of
highly-educated people from all social sectors. The internationalism of the
higher educational institutions in Scotland has produced, and produces, a keen
awareness of American and European studies, increasingly of Oriental languages
and society. More recently, fine arts, law, physics and computing have been
notable features of academic research.
In 1992 there was taken the decision to put all institutions of higher
education on an equal footing. Non-university institutions were given a choice
— they could apply for university status in their own right, as did Napier
(Edinburgh), Robert Gordon’s (Aberdeen), Paisley and Glasgow Polytechnic with
the Queen’s College, which eventually became Glasgow Caledonian University.
They could merge with existing universities, as did 3ordar.hill with Strath-
clyde, Moray House with Heriot-Watt, and Craigie with Paisley or they could
associate with the universities which would validate their degrees. Current
university pressures in the area of finance mean stringent reductions through-
out the system, but for a small country of five million people, Scotland
continues to possess a university system remarkable for its size and quality.
(After Scott Griffith. The Scottish Education System: An Out-
sider’s Inside View. Anglistik &Englischunterricht in Scotland: Literature,
Culture, Politics. Heidelberg 1989.)
MEDIA
With its separate systems of law and education, its own Church and
cultural traditions, Scotland has many of the institutions associated with a
sovereign state. But to what extent can the same be said of its media? There
is an important difference between, for example, the position and authority of
BBC Scotland and that of the Church of Scotland. Whereas the Kirk, like the
Church of England, is independent and self-governing, BBC Scotland is a part
of a federal broadcasting system, centred in London. Scottish television, the
other major broadcaster north of the border, is similarly locked into a UK-
wide network, dominated by the English counterparts. Of all the media only
Scottish newspapers come close to the ideal of self-determination, though even
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they are mostly owned by large multinational conglomerates with their head-
quarters outside Scotland.
NEWSPAPERS
Traditionally the Scots preferred newspapers produced north of the border
to those imported from England. As a result the Scottish press has come to
have more in common with its European than with its English counterparts. In
particular its strongly regional character, tempered by coverage of world
news, distinguishes it from those London-based newspapers, all too often
referred to as ’’the British press”.
The Dailies. Among the dailies The Scotsman, published in Edinburgh, and
Herald, published in Glasgow, have long and distinguished histories. Both
papers are classed as ’’quality’’ newspapers. In a UK context this means not
only that they prioritize political and economic news and maintain high
journalist standards, but that they have a large format, are bought mainly by
readers from the upper end of the social scale and are financed more by
advertising revenue than by cover sales. In the European tradition they carry
regional, national and international news on their front pages. Politically,
both newspapers at present occupy a mainly centrist position. But the Herald’s
traditional support for the Conservative Party has become more critical as a
result of the Tories' recent decline in popularity in Scotland. Of the two
papers, The Scotsman has more consistently supported the cause of devolution
for Scotland.
The Sundays. In Scotland the ’’Great British Tradition” of Sunday news-
papers is even more pronounced than elsewhere. Whereas 69 per cent of people
in England and Wales read a Sunday paper, the figure for Scotland is 85 per
cent. The market has traditionally been dominated by three "popular" papers,
Scotland on Sunday, published by The Scotsman in Edinburgh, The Sunday Mail,
published in Glasgow, and The Sunday Post in Dundee.
TELEVISION
In common with other parts of the UK, each area of Scotland currently
receives its range of broadcast television from three organizations: the BBC
provides two channels of programming and ITV and Channel 4. BBC Scotland,
like BBC Wales and BBC Northern Ireland, is a "national regional’’ section of
the BBC, enjoying a degree of autonomy from London. From its headquarters in
Glasgow it makes and broadcasts television programmes to the whole of Scotland,
with regional studios taking responsibility for a modest amount of local
programming. Viewers in the north and Hebrides receive Grampian Television
(from .Aberdeen), those in Central Scotland get Scottish Television (from
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Glasgow), while those in the south, together with English viewers in Cumbria
tune in to Border Television (from Carlisle). Each company operates as a
monopoly supplier of advertising in a given geographical area.
BBC Scotland. BBC Scotland transmits programmes which for the most part
have been made elsewhere in the UK or acquired abroad. However, BBC Scotland
does also make its own programmes. Regional news and sport account are
produced for Scottish-only consumption. Production standards are high and have
been acknowledged, for instance, by the Royal Television Society’s award in
1988 for the best daily regional news magazine.
The problem remains, though, that BBC Scotland has what many Scots feel is
inadequate access to the UK national network. The current situation also
offers inadequate opportunities for programme-makers based in Scotland to
present their work to a wider public. As a consequence, a distinctively
Scottish approach to a range, of cultural and political issues is denied by UK
viewers in favour of programming from London, Manchester and Birmingham. One
striking exception to this is in the area of drama, in which BBC Scotland has
had a remarkable success since 1986. A series of plays has been networked,
though there were grumbles from the•London-based critics of the UK national
press about unintelligible accent. Regrettably, BBC Scotland drama has
recently suffered from cuts in funding and is not maintaining its output.
Scottish Television pic. The programmes made in Scotland are rarely
screened outside Scotland. Two notable exceptions are the soap opera "Take the
High Road" and the thriller series "Taggart". In its own area Scottish
Television broadcasts a half-hour regional news magazine every weekday evening
after the UK national news.
RADIO
The majority of the Scottish population has access to the programmes
produced by the Independent Local Radio (ILR). Although the ILR stations have
captured much of the audience, the BBC still continues to be very influential.
There are two BBC radio services in Scotland which cater for a specifically
Scottish audience.
Radio Scotland. Radio Scotland was set up by the BBC in 1978 with two
aims:.on the one hand it was to reflect the diversity of Scotland as a nation,
on the other it was to report on UK-wide and international events from a
markedly Scottish perspective. It was to reflect the world events through
Scottish eyes, whilst keeping a sensitive finger on the pulse of Scottish
affairs. Since that time there has been a trend towards giving a story of
British or international dimensions a particularly Scottish flavour ("putting
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a kilt on it” in Scottish broadcasters’ jargon). In terms of what Radio
Scotland offers its listeners, it has always believed in the principle of
mixed programming. It has a particularly strong News and Current Affairs
departments which produce five hours of programming a day. Music — whether
classical or folk — has also always figured prominently, and there are
regular programmes for devotees of the bagpipes. Similarly the Radio Drama
department based in Edinburgh has established a good reputation.
A broadcasting service committed to reflecting the cultural diversity of
the Scots nation must also recognize the importance of keeping the Gaelic
language alive. In October 1984 BBC Scotland launched its second radio service
— Radio nan Gaidheal. Designed to promote and preserve the Gaelic language it
puts out twenty-seven hours of programmes per week. These programmes can be
received by most of the population living in the Highlands, but provision is
made for six hours of this output to be broadcast to the rest of Scotland for
the benefit of the Gaelic speakers, and also learners of the tongue, living
elsewhere.
Some of the difficulties Radio Scotland has had in attracting and then
holding a large regular audience have to do with the competition it has faced
from six Scottish ILR stations. Though most of the stations — particularly
Radio Clyde — have been successful in commercial terms, misgivings have
sometimes-been expressed about the service they actually provide. Whilst it is
true that most of the broadcast output of the Scottish ILR stations comes into
the category of "easy listening", it is only fair to point out that each
station includes a range of clearly identifiable local components in its
programming.
(After Richard Kilborn and Peter Meech. The Scottish Media: An
Endangered Species? Ibid.)
ON SCOTTISH LITERATURE
No account of the literature of Scotland can begin without making certain
apparently damaging admissions. It is, by European standards, a literature
that started late, suffered many long, catastrophic interruptions, and was
limited, even in its productive seasons, by political, dogmatic, and social
prejudice, by national poverty and linguistic disunity.
In many of the qualities that are central in the poetry of England, Italy
and Russia, Scots literature is singularly poor. There is little sensuous love
of beauty, little mysticism, little philosophy, and little high imaginative
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creation in Scots poetry. There has been no Scots Blake, no Keats or Shelley,
no Wordsworth or Coleridge. These would seem to be, and are indeed, damaging
admissions, but it is wise to make them at the outset. One must look for other
qualities — qualities more characteristic of the Scot himself — in the Scots
literature.
The Scot is credited with a strong sense of reality, an observant and
accurate eye for detail, a practical, hard-headed shrewdness, a distrust of
extremes and innovations, and a rigid moral sense, narrow, but consistent and
strong. He is reputed to be sceptical, inquisitive, and unsentimental; rough
in his manners, quarrelsome and contentious by nature, sardonic in his humour,
and apt to be convivial to extremes. He is credited with an inordinate
interest in his own history and with a natural antiquarian bent. How far are
these qualities reflected in his literature?
In the golden age of European literature Scotland was almost entirely
given to ecclesiastical writing; it is distressing to have to admit that no
real religious literature emerges from the period. Knox’s "History of the
Reformation in Scotland" (1566) is a magnificent achievement, but it is not
sufficiently objective for history, and it is certainly not religious writing.
One of the strongest recurring strains in Scots pcetry was the poetry of
festive occasions — betrothals, fairs, holidays and games. This is a natural
theme in the literature of a small country, with a scattered population, where
the community meets very seldom and usually for such memorable occasions as
these. Still, Scotland is associated with the poetic works of Dunbar, Henryson,
Barbour and Gavin Douglas. They had elaborated the forms and themes which were
later on used by Robert Burns. He relied very much on the heritage of the song
traditions of Allan Ramsay and Robert Fergusson. Burns infused into them his
own ardent and generous humanity, and used them for the expression of senti-
ments to which "every bosom returns an echo".
The natural reaction against the religious dogmas of his time was an
affectation of wine and women, and this was encouraged in Burns by his study
of Ramsay and Fergusson. But however foolish the affectations that motivated
them, we cannot regret or reject "Scotch Drink”, "Tam O’Shanter" and "Jolly
Beggars" any more than we can wholly regret the drug-inspired dream to which
we owe "Kubla Khan".
The ideas which inflamed Burns’s imagination with patriotic convictions
were equally strong in Walter Scott (1771-1832) and revealed themselves both
in his life and in his work as poet, novelist, historian and ballad-collector.
He read the ballads, collected them, preserved them, composed and enlarged
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them. In them he found the literary material in which his regional patriotism,
family pride, romantic ardour and love of the supernatural were all knit up.
In the novel Scott- found full scope for all his great and varied gifts and
interests. Within the framework of his novels, stretching from medieval France
and England to the lawless Scotland of Waverley and Guy Mannering, Scott
assembled a Homeric profusion of characters, the most authentic and varied
gallery between Shakespeare and Balzac. Scott gave the English novel a new
content and significance, and set the course which romantic and historical
literature in Europe and America was to follow for many generations to come.
Since curiosity, a sense of detail, and a strjong interest in family and
local history have been mentioned as Scots characteristics, it is not
surprising that the two greatest biographies in English should be by Scotsmen.
James Boswell published the most remarkable work in the eighteenth-century
English literature — ’’Life of Samuel Johnson’’ in 1791. John Gibson Lockhart
(1794-1854) was attracted to the writing of his "Life of Scott'* by a motive
similar to Boswell’s own — an overpowering admiration for the great man who
was his subject.
No account of Scots literature, however short, can well omit mention of
"Ossian’’ by James Macpherson (1736-96). He was the first Scotsman, and
certainly the first Highlander, to become a figure in world literature. The
impact of his poem on his European contemporaries was so great that some of
them called Macpherson the modern Homer.
Unlike Macpherson, Thomas Carlyle (1795-1881) had the national cha-
racteristics of spiritual and theological interests, dogmatic assurance, and
critical and analytical temper. His doctrine of the Hero and his place in
society, though it may have been discredited by history, found a ready and
wide response.
R.L. Stevenson is known in the Scottish literary critics not only for his
novels, which made him popular all over the world, but mostly as a writer who
was preoccupied with style and detail. In many of the essays, the English
poems, and some of the novel fragments, it is obvious that the writer was more
concerned with the manner of his expression than with what he had to say.
The poetical tradition in the twentieth century was continued by Hugh
MacDiarmid, a lyrist of rare genius, and the author of a number of long poems
of unequal quality. His work not only enriches the poetry, but aims at
elevating the content of Scots poetry by literary and political allusions of
other countries.
The newcomer to the field of contemporary Scottish fiction will be amazed
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by the richness of material he finds there in the second half of the twentieth
century. The mere number of novels by Scottish writers is impressive: not only
have individual authors like Muriel Spark, Robin Jenkins or Joan Lingard
published more than twenty books of fiction each, but Scotland in general has
become a nation of prolific writers: the annual output of new Scottish novels
lies between thirty and forty. When Alasdair Gray's "Lanark" appeared in 1981,
it created a literary sensation and showed that Scotland had caught up with
the best in international fiction writing. The Scottish short story, too, is a
flourishing genre.
Under the influence of Scotland's greatest modern poet, Hugh MacDiarmid,
who thought that the novel was "an inferior kind of literary expression",
there-had been a certain hostility to the novel as a form among the literary
establishment in Scotland. The eighties, however, have rung in a new phase in
the critical awareness of Scottish fiction. Isobel Murray and Bob Tait's "Ten
Modern Scottish Navels" and Manfred Malzahn's "Aspects of Identity" are
valuable in-depth studies of the modern and contemporary novel.
That Scotland with its long literary tradition has developed distinctive
modes of expression and that the wqfks of Scottish authors cannot properly be
comprehended within the presuppositions of the criticism of English literature
has been a tenet held by most Scottish writers and critics since 1920s. It is
true that Scottish authors, too, have carried Richardson, Dickens and George
Eliot in their schoolbags, yet these were completed by Scott, Stevenson and
other Scottish writers and by the rich tradition of oral Scottish literature.
To stress the distinctness of Scottish literature does not, however, imply
complete isolation from English and international developments. Robin Jenkin's
"Fergus Lamont" (1979), one of the most important novels to come out of
Scotland in the 1970s, has been related to Dickens's "Great Expectations"; the
influence of D.H. Lawrence on Anne Smith's "The Magic Glass" (1981) was soon
pointed out; and James Helman's "The Busconductor Hines" (1984) is obviously
indebted to Joyce. So many of the Scottish critics think that no loss of
nationality is involved when a writer's destiny is to participate in another
of the forms that nationality takes. While there is, for example, no doubt
that Muriel Spark's "The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie" (1961) is a Scottish novel,
the Scottishness of the same author's "A Far Cry from Kensington" (1988), set
in London and describing English people and English manners from an English
narrator's point of view, is much more difficult to determine. The Times
Literary Supplement has praised Spark as the "best English novelist writing
today"; yet the bestowal of the 1987 Scottish Book of the Year Award on her
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has been, according to the Scottish Literary Journal, "much encouragement to
those who wish to see her counted a Scottish writer". The vagueness, confusion
and contradiction in comments on what constitutes Scottishness result from the
failure of Scottish criticisnr to set up reliable cultural and literary
parametres for the discussion of Scottish fiction.
Whereas critics of Scottish poetry have often claimed that the true
Scottish spirit can only be expressed in poems written in Lallans (Lowland
Scots) or Gaelic and that the use of English as a poetic medium tends to
produce a false, unScottish note, no such generalized verdict has been
pronounced on the Scottish novel. The rise of the British novel in the
eighteenth century coincided with a period of very low self esteem in Scotland,
so that Smallett and Mackenzie and, later Scott, naturally turned to English
in their narrative texts, restricting the use of Scots to dialogue. In this
tney have provided the model for most Scottish fiction to date. However, some
writers are now aiming at a linguistic compromise; avoiding literary English,
James Helman's narrative, in "The Busconductor Hines", successfully renders
the Glaswegian speech of his central character. Fred Urquhart in his histori-
cal stories occasionally attempts a slightly archaic Scottish style, as does
David Kerr Cameron in his novel "A Kist of Sorrow" (1987). But these are rare
exceptions. On the whole, the traditional formula still applies, and the use
of Scots is restricted to dialogue passages.
In their search for clues about Scottish identity authors have often
turned to history. Scott's novels are the best-known examples of this, but
Scottish authors in general have shown a marked respect for the past. In "Weir
of Hermiston", R.L. Stevenson has given this tendency classic recognition:
"For that is the mark of the Scot of all classes: there he stands in an
attitude towards the past unthinkable to Englishmen, and remembers and
cherishes the memory of his forebears, good or bad; and there burns alive in
him a sense of identity with the dead even to the twentieth generation".
This partiality for the past has remained the hallmark of Scottish
writing. Authors as different as Neil Munro, Nigel 1 ranter, Dorothy Dunnet
have continued the tradition of the Scottish historical novel.
The remote western Highlands and Islands with their traditional way of
life represent to many writers a sanctuary from modern civilization. Con-
temporary authors often stress the aspect of retreat to these places in an
attempt to recover a positive meaning of life. No one has praised the ancient
virtues of the islanders more than' Mackey Brown. The life of the Orkney
fishermen and crofters is described in his stories and novels. Violence has
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always been a major element in the life of the islanders: the violence of the
natural forces, notably the sea; and human violence, from the early vikings
and crimes of feudal lords or fanatic churchmen to the quarrels of drunken
sailors and domestic tyranny. But this is balanced by love and loyalty, and a
strong sense of belonging. In one of his best short stories, "The Wireless
Set", Brown evokes the stoic acceptance of fateful circumstances (a fisher-
man's son is killed by a German submarine in the Second World War) and the
tightening of the ties of community in times of affliction. The main idea of
this story is that the outside world brings only death and corruption to the
islanders.
Another type of Scottish fiction centring on the past deals with childhood
reminiscences. "The Palace of Green Days" by Fred Urquhart illustrates this
point very well. This novel covers the years of 1918-1925, which coincide with
the author's own childhood. The book is nearly plotless and presents a series
of sketches of Scottish country life as experienced by the three Lovat
children. At times the book reads like a guide, pointing out places of
interest. The rural Scotland in this book is still very much an enclosed
domestic world. England seems a far-away place to most of the inhabitants, and
Ireland, though easily accessible on a day trip from Galloway, "was as much a
foreign land as America".
Another type of fiction that is readily associated with Scottishness is
the motif of supernatural. The "ghost stories" of Fred Urquhart and Muriel
Spark are within the international scope of extravaganza writings. Spark's
atory "The Portobello Road" uses the ghost device as a metaphor of a
murderer's bad conscience. In "The Leaf Sweeper" a man meets his own ghost, or
niter ego; here Spark gives us a modern version of the traditional Scottish
theme of the split personality. Pamela Hill merges the ghost story with the
historical novel in "Fire Opal" (1980).
On the whole, contemporary life as depicted by Scottish writers has very
lew alluring traits: in a world menaced by the ecological disaster, in cities
dehumanized by thoughtless town planners, in a society stifled by middle-
class conventions and the routine of everyday work, all prospect of a better
life seems to be non-existent. This complaint is familiar enough in all
Industrialized countries, and yet the extreme bitterness with which it is
uttered in Scottish writing is remarkable.
This survey has given priority to the recurrent themes in contemporary
fiction because it is there that aspects of Scottish identity are most easily
perceived. Scottish fiction in the twentieth century has been stylistically
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conservative and thematically consistent. On the whole Scottish fiction paints
a rather grim picture of contemporary life. If there is humour it is mostly
black. But there also is courage, sympathy and tenderness, as several writers
have shown in recent works, defying the escapist and defeatist tendencies that
still largely dominate the Scottish literary scene.
(After: Peter Zenzinger. Contemporary Scottish Fiction. Ibid.)
ART
In the Roman period Scotland lived its own life beyond the Wall, but Roman
culture left its mark to the limits of its penetration. The Celtic period is
represented by a fine collection of sculptured stones and, to a lesser extent,
by examples of metal work. No doubt, the heritage of Scotland would have been
richer had it escaped the many invasions and wars that swept over the country.
The peaceful arts had little opportunity of developing under such conditions,
and the preservation of anything precious in itself was rendered almost
impossible.
Art and artists suffered also from centuries of proscription. The Reforma-
tion, more ruthless in Scotland than anywhere else in Britain, forbade all
kinds of sensual expression. Indeed, the first notable evidence of renewed
confidence in native ability in visual arts took place only in the late
seventeenth century, and that mainly through the influence of immigrant
professionals like the Flemish painter John Medina.
The eighteenth century saw the-first attempt to found a Scottish school of
art with the Academy of St Luke, set up in 1729 within the University of
Edinburgh. And although that enterprise lasted only a few years, it included
among its members the architect William Adam, father of Robert Adam who was
destined to set his seal on fashionable Neo-Classical architecture and
interior design not just in Scotland but throughout the British Isles. In the
warm creative climate of the "age of enlightenment" the painters, like Allan
Ramsay and Alexander Nasmyth, architect Robert Adam left home to study abroad
and inevitably brought back new ideas of style and accomplishment. Allan
Ramsay (1713-84) was a central figure in the development of Scottish art. His
creative work combined a commitment to perceived truth with profound sense of
humanity. Ramsay was certainly influenced by the delicacy of contemporary
French painting. The mid-eighteenth century also saw the beginning of Scottish
landscape painting. Alexander Nasmyth’s landscape painting was essentially
neo-classical. He represented a harmonious world in which man and nature, past
and present all coexist in a fruitful and mutually supportive relationship.
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Then came the great and powerful movement toward Romantic ideals, a
movement of which Scotland was in the forefront. For it is worth remembering
that Northern Romanticism which was to sweep right across Europe, had its
source in the Celtic mists and mountains of Scotland, in James Macpherson's
poem "Ossian" and the romantic novels of Sir Walter Scott.
The first painter to reflect an unmistakably Scottish character in his
work was Henry Raeburn. He lived and worked all his life in his native
Edinburgh, painting portraits of the gentry and the rising professional
classes in a strongly individual manner using bold, accurate brushwork and
simplified, directly applied colours. He was influenced by Reynolds, but he
also retained Allan Ramsay's respect for the individual.
After several more attempts the Royal Scottish Academy was founded in
1827. The nineteenth century saw a great upsurge of art activity and interest
in painting became popular with the increasingly prosperous middle classes.
With David Wilkie, the gertre had its first native Scottish master. He
pioneered the attempt to find an appropriate style for modern history and
though his early style was marked by high finish and complex compositions of
small figures, he later initiated the scale and manner of Rubens and Rembrandt.
Wilkie, like others before and after’ him, found the art climate in Scotland
too restrictive. In his early twenties he went to London, and thereafter
travelled and worked in Italy and Spain.
Landscape painting came to its maturity in the work of Glasgow painters —
John Knox and his pupil Horatio McCulloch, a Romantic whose big canvases
reflect Walter Scott's vision of Scotland. But it was in the work of William
McTaggart (1835-1910) that the experience of landscape, and seascape in
particular, found its most expression. In the best McTaggart's seascapes the
luminosity and broken colour of the Impressionists is combined with a far more
subjective, Romantic vision of nature in all her moods. This had links to
Constable and Turner, and pictures like "The Sailing of the Emigrant Ship"
яге really best understood in the tradition of the grand, romantic landscape.
With the growing influence of Glasgow School of Art (foundedxin 1840) the
centre of gravity had shifted from Edinburgh to the West of Scotland, to the
group of painters now known as the "Glasgow School" (Guthrie, Walton, Henry
and others) and to the younger designers led by Charles Rennie Mackintosh,
whose design for the new building to house the growing number of students at
Glasgow School of Art is still a mecca for the people interested in archi-
t ecture.
A new wave of influence from France gave impetus to the younger group of
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painters who became known as the "Scottish Colourists", since Peploe, Hunter,
Cadell and Fergusson made use of the stylistic freedom and vivid, arbitrary
hues of the Post-Impressionists. Those are the milestones which brought the
art and artists of Scotland into the present era.
The National Gallery of Scotland (1850) originally housed both the
National Gallery and the Royal Scottish Academy. The Scottish National
Portrait Gallery was set up in 1889 for the nation to . find likenesses of
famous people in Scottish history. It is here that you will find portraits of
many noted Scots from Mary Queen of Scots to the present Queen Elizabeth the
Queen Mother; from Robert Burns and Sir Walter«, Scott to the contemporary
novelist Muriel Spark. In 1960 a Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art was
opened to house the expanding collection of twentieth-century works. Three-
dimensional work is an important element of the collections housed in this
gallery, for example the works by Henry Moore, Epstein, Giacometti, Zadkine,
etc. The collection of contemporary painting was begun too late to be richly
endowed with great modern masterpieces. Still there are some fine items by
Kirchner, Kokoschka, Ben Nicholson and Paul Nash.
The collection of paintings at Kelvingrove (Glasgow) includes examples
from all the major schools with the French being particularly well represented.
Naturally enough, it is at Kelvingrove that you will find the best examples of
the "Glasgow School". The later • Scottish painters — the Colourists, the
Edinburgh School, Joan Eardly — and the best of English painting between the
wars — Stanley Spencer, Ben Nicholson, Lowry — are admirably present.
The Burrel Collection (Glasgow), built to house the various art
collections amassed over a long lifetime by the Glasgow millionaire shipowner
Sir William Burrel, made news worldwide at the time of its opening in 1983.
The Burrell Collection has been called the finest of its kind outside the
Victoria and Albert Museum in London. This collection remains a prime example
of how a man of taste and perception, of moderate means by multi-millionaire
standards, buying from genuine interest rather than following fashion, can
build up a superb collection of first-class objects and works of art.
(After Cordelia Oliver. Art in Scotland. Ibid.)
MUSIC, SONG AND DANCE
There can be very few countries that live up to the romantic expectations
of the foreign visitor, and Scotland is no exception. The world knows that
Scotland is a land of heather-covered hills which resound to music played by
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giant red-haired kilted natives on bagpipe and fiddle. The reality, alas, is
quite different. Almost nobody wears the kilt and the music to be heard
everywhere is the universal mixture of rock, country and western that the rest
of Europe enjoys. A rich and diversified panorama of Scottish music cannot be
confined to ethnic traditional music on traditional instruments. Scotland had
and has its composers, orchestras and performers in all streams of music from
classical to jazz, all of which have certainly been influenced by the typical-
ly Scottish qualities. Scottish music has been open from the Renaissance
period through to the present day to all the influences of Western European
music, and there is a significant contemporary Scottish school of composing
including one of the most exciting of today’s composers James McMillan.
Nevertheless, most of the world knows that there is music and song that is
instantly recognizable as "Scottish" and had done so for at least 300 years.
Music and song enable the present day Scots to escape from their present back
into their mythical past, for most Scottish music evokes a strong sense of
nostalgia. It is always useful to trace the origins of the present day
traditions in the past and the author of the chapter has not escaped this
temptation.
It is possible to* divide Scottish music into instrumental and mixed —
vocal/instrumental.There are several musical instruments that are traditionally
associated with Scotland:
Fiddle. Although the bagpipe is commonly associated with Scottish music,
it is probably not the oldest of the Scottish instruments. Possibly the fiddle
(the name for the violin in Scottish music) is the oldest instrument in
continuous use, having been played in one form or another since the sixteenth
century.
Badpipe. Although this instrument has existed from earliest times in a
variety of countries throughout the world, it is now regarded as the Scottish
instrument. As well as the Great Highland or Military Bagpipes, there are
smaller versions such as the Chamber pipes, suitable for indoor playing.
Tin Whistle. Although mentioned throughout Scottish history as a simple
instrument, one needs some time to come to terms with it. The whistle can be
played as a solo instrument, but it is usually played in an instrumental group.
Clarsach. This form of small harp is probably the oldest of the Scottish
instruments, having been in use from the ninth century. Unfortunately, by the
middle of the eighteenth century the harp and its music appears to have
disappeared from Scotland. No music has survived and the repertoire is
therefore modern.
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Bodhram. There has been a considerable use recently of this basically
simple drum, consisting of goat hide stretched over a circular frame which is
hit with a small double-headed stick, usually in a rapid, alternating fashion.
It has now become |a standard instrument in Scottish ’’folk” groups.
There are obvious historical and cultural subdivisions between Gaelic song
and Scots/English song. The Gaelic-speaking peoples and their culture have
been under threat for almost 250 years, whereas the Lowland Scots have only
relatively recently felt the same way. The Lowland tradition has therefore not
altered significantly until quite recently and has been able to inherit a
mythical romantic past. So the present day Scots sing .in three languages —
Gaelic, Scots and English.
Gaelic Music and Song. Gaelic culture was suppressed after the 1745
rebellion and soon afterwards many of the Gaelic-speaking people were forced
into exile either in great lowland cities or abroad, especially in North
America. Exiled Gaels either developed a purely nostalgic music which
expressed a romantic longing for a return to a mythical heartland, or care-
X
fully preserved their traditional music and song. Those who remained in their
homelands, however, tended to have a more realistic perception of their
historical past and political present; in this century they have been able to
extend and develop their traditional music and song, using it as a powerful
vehicle for social and political expression.
In recent years there has been a sudden and vigorous rise of interest in
not only "pure" traditional music and song, but also its development into
"electronic folk" music. There are a number of such "folk groups" with a wide
musical^repertoire which mingles the old and the new. Such groups, like Runrig
and Caperdaillie, often make little concession to those in their audience who
speak no Gaelic, yet their popularity has spread rapidly outside the Gaelic-
speaking homelands to the rest of Scotland and beyond.
Lowland Music and Song. The roots of traditional song culture go back at
least four hundred years. Robert Burns and some other Scottish poets and
composers preserved and strengthened this tradition and created an extremely
fine art song form which has become the symbol of national song of Scotland.
But the later "development" of this tradition led to the creation of a popular
music-hall style of Scottish song marked by sentimentality and pseudo-
Scot tishness (associated primarily with entertainers like Harry Lauder). It
drew some inspiration from traditional song but basically aimed to feed a set
of cliche expectations about Scotland and the Scots. It is an interesting
social phenomenon but has little to do with authentic Scottish traditional
song.
197 -
The fundamental problems with this form of song are: 1) that it is usually
presented and performed in a "kilt-and-heather, haggis-and-whisky" manner,
giving a caricature of the mean, drunken, comical Scotsman which the Scots
detest (while obviously enjoying the performances); 2) that it is locked in a
never-never golden age, incapable of responding to the needs and problems of
modern life.
T raditional songs are usually divided into ballads and songs, although it
is not always easy to do so. The ballads are a set of very old sung stories in
which the plot is unfolded in a series of almost cinematic episodes, expressed
in a direct and powerful style. They have a wide range of subject matter, from
legendary to historical, romantic to tragic and are part of an international
body of such songs.
The songs are mainly shorter lyrical pieces, which tend to deal with love,
as well as life, work and character. They have survived and flourished because
of the ability of the tradition to meet changing times. Many of the songs
(especially the tunes) are to be found elsewhere in the British Isles, but
there are strictly local groups such as the "bothy balads" of the North-
East of Scotland. They were composed and sung during the heyday of non-
mechanized farming (1840-1914) and describe life on the farms. Although the
farm workers who composed them were eventually swept away by mechanization,
the style of song was taken over by the music-hall tradition for audiences of
country folk who had moved into towns; there it has developed and flourished.
New songs are being written every year, and thus exist alongside the old songs
which are also still being sung.
Dance. The combination of Scottish music and dance have always had a
perfect marriage. "Country", or "centre" (in French) dancing was performed by
all classes of Scottish society from time immemorial. To quote Morey McLaren
in his book "The Scots" (1951): "The traditional Scottish country dance is one
of the most truly popular of our pastimes. It seems to me that in its
passionate formality, in its blending of abandon and style, in its rhythm of
colour and pattern it expresses the Scottish spirit as almost nothing else
does. Were I to be asked to show Scotland to a foreigner for one evening I
would show him the Scottish dance. But how, alas! can it be shown in writing".
The nineteenth century saw the emergence of the artist as a solo dancer.
It was male-orientated with the titles mainly round the battle scene — Sword
Dance, for example (ill. 38). Most observers agree that it is a dance of
triumph in battle when the victor's sword is placed on top of that of the
defeated and the steps are executed over and round the crossed swords.
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Highland dancing grew in popularity as Highland Games Societies were
formed at the beginning of the nineteenth century, and it was quite a common
occurrence for an athlete to compete in the heavy events as well as taking
part in the dancing,. Records of the Ballater Highland Games of 1864 show that
the overall champion of the day was A.Grant who won the Heavy Stone, Heavy
Hammer, Long Race and Hurdle Race. A crowd of seven hundred also saw him come
first equal in dancing Highland reels.
The dance in Scotland today is still very popular. As with the country
dancing, Highland dancing has flourished abroad and one is only to attend
Highland Gatherings to hear the names and addresses of winners to determine
that. Australia and Canada are the leading countries and the teachers of such
dances are always on world trips passing on their skills. Over the past few
decades Highland dancing has been polished into the artistic and bonnie
spectacle one now sees on those dancing platforms.
(After Ian A. Olson. Scottish Contemporary Music and Song. Ibid.)
EDINBURGH AND GLASGOW
Edinburgh is one of the great European capitals. It has been the capital
of Scotland since 1437. Edinburgh grew in the Scottish manner — out of a
single street, a high and windy street on the crest of a ridge. Where most
cities seek shelter in a valley Old Edinburgh was open to the winds. For much
of its history, Edinburgh was a poor place, torn by civil and religious
strife. Such was old Edinburgh, the city of Mary Queen of Scots and John Knox.
But at the end of the eighteenth century the work began on the New Town, and
it was Edinburgh's lasting fortune that it should coincide with the great
period of Georgian architecture. During the latter half of the eighteenth
century and the first decade of the nineteenth, the city blossomed into one of
Europe's leading cultural centres. It was the home of Robert Burns and Walter
Scott; of the philosopher David Hume and the political economist Adam Smith;
of the painter Henry Raeburn and the engineer Thomas Telford.
The principal tourist attractions of the capital are Edinburgh Castle
(ill. 27), whose silhouette at sunset has provided the front cover for many a
Scottish calendar, and the "Royal Mile" — the historic route that links the
Castle with the Palace of Holyroodhouse, the Museum of Childhood, the Wax
Museum, Princes Street and the New Town.
Edinburgh Castle is one of the most famous sights in Europe. A natural
199 -
position of defence and a symbol of power, the volcanic rock on which the
Castle stands, first saw a defensive building erected in the eleventh century,
and it was probably defended as far back as the Iron Age. Its history has been
a chequered one: in 1174 the castle was handed over to Henry II as security
for the ransom of William the Lion. It was returned to the Scots in 1186, fell
again into the hands of the English and was retaken on a dark night in 1313.
All the buildings on its territory were destroyed except for St Margaret’s
Chapel, dating from about 1076 — the oldest building in Edinburgh. The drama
and changes of power continued until the Union of Crowns in 1707. The building
was renovated by the Stuart kings, giving it a more "modern” appearance. From
the castle battlements there are good views of the city and the Firth of Forth.
Among the outstanding points of interest on the tour of Edinburgh Castle are
5t Margaret's Chapel, the Scottish National War Memorial, Queen Mary's Rooms,
where Sarnes VI and I was born in 1566, and the Crown Room, which houses the
Honours of Scotland, including the sceptre, the sword of state and the crown.
The crown is made of Scottish gold, ornamented with Scottish pearls and
atones.
The High Street actually forms only a short stretch of the celebrated
Royal Mile, which runs from Castlehill to the gates of the Palace of Holyrood-
house. Compared with Princes Street, in the heart of commercial Edinburgh, the
Royal Mile is quiet. In High Street, dominating Parliament Square, is St Giles*
Cathedral. John Knox, the theologian and reformer, is buried in Parliament
Square, next to St Giles'. His own house is further down the High Street.
Behind St Giles' stands the Parliament House, home of Scotland's Supreme
Court. A little further down the High Street is the Wax Museum, featuring many
characters and scenes from Scottish history. Nearly opposite John Knox's house
is the Museum of Childhood, one of Britain's most appealing museums, with
children's toys, schoolbooks, accounts nursery life. South of the Royal Mile
there is the famous statue of Greyfriars Bobby,the Skye terrier which kept
ulmost continual watch over his master's grave for fourteen years between 1848
nnd 1862.
The Palace of Holyroodhouse is the Queen's official residence in Edinburgh,
lhe palace, associated with the tragic history of the Stuarts, stands at the
foot of the Canongate. It was begun as a palace in 1500 by James IV, but most
nf the present structure was built for Charles II. Many of the interiors were
nlso commissioned by Charles, including the extraordinary Royal Portrait
Gallery. Each one of the 110 Scottish kings and queens, depicted in "large
Royal postures", is the work of James de Witt. Mary Queen of Scots lived at
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the palace from 1561 to 1567, and it was here, in 1603, that her son, James VI
of Scotland, learnt that he had also become James I of England, monarch of two
kingdoms. A messenger rode the 400 miles from Richmond Palace, Surrey, to
Edinburgh in 62 hours.
Princes Street is one of the great thoroughfares of the world (ill. 26),
although individually its buildings have no particular architectural merit.
The "princes” after which it is named were the sons of George III. For many
visitors, “Princes Street is their first impression of Edinburgh, for the
draughty steps from Waverley Station mount up to its eastern end. The north
side of the street is a long array of shops, hotels and clubs; but it is the
sQuth side which gives Princes Street its particular character. Along the
whole, street, gardens fall steeply away into the canyon, while across the
valley is the panorama of the Old Town and the castle. The West Princes Street
Gardens contain the oldest Floral Clock in the world, built in 1903. It is
about 11 metres in diameter, and when the clock is filled with flowers —
about 25,000 of them — the hour hand weighs about 25 kg. and the minute hand
40 kg.
Another landmark is the Scott Monument (ill. 28), a 70 metre Gothic spire
whose architectural merits have been argued since its completion in 1844. Sir
Walter Scott was born and educated in Edinburgh and spent much of his career
there as a lawyer, publisher and author.
The National Gallery of Scotland, in Princes Street, opened in 1859,
contains works ranging from Renaissance to Cezanne, with many paintings by
Scottish artists. The Scottish National Portrait Gallery shares a building in
Queen Street with the National Museum of Antiquities. The gallery contains
Scottish portraits dating back from 1550 to the present day. The museum
depicts everyday life in Scotland from the Stone Age onwards, together with
relics of famous Scots, such as Robert Burns, Mary Queen of Scots and Bonnie
Prince Charlie. The Royal Scottish Museum, in Chambers Street, is the most
comprehensive museum in Britain under a single roof. It has four main depart-
ments: technology, geology, natural history, and art and archaeology. A gem of
imaginative nineteenth-century architecture, the museum’s exhibits range
widely from Egyptian antiquities to Victorian technical inventions and
twentieth-century space exploration equipment. The Scottish National Gallery
of Modern Art, built on the highest part of the Botanic Gardens, has a
panoramic view of the city, and shows paintings and sculpture of the twentieth
century.
For three weeks in late summer, Edinburgh hangs but flags, floodlights its
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gardens and ancient buildings, sends a hundred pipers skirling along Princes
Street each morning, and plays host to nearly 100,000 people from all over the
world. The first festival was held in 1947 and today Edinburgh has one of the
most comprehensive international arts festivals in the world. Opera, ballet,
concerts, theatre and films are on the official programme. On the unofficial,
but almost equally famous "Fringe”, young actors, folk singers and artists
fill every small hall and cellar club.
The Edinburgh military tattoo takes place every August and September, and
is known throughout the world. For 90 minutes on five or six nights a week,
600 people take part in the performance of military music and marching.
Soldiers from different countries march inside the castle. There is music from
Scottish pipers and other bands. Soldiers, seamen and airmen show their
different skills. On the final night of the display the sky is filled with the
bright colours of exploding fireworks.
Glasgow. Glasgow, the third most populous city in Britain, grew at a
phenomenal rate during the Industrial Revolution, and little remains of its
medieval glory as an ecclesiastical centre and seat of learning. Glasgow was
founded by St Mungo, who built his church there in AD 543.
Glasgow's commercial prosperity began in the seventeenth century, when its
merchants set out to dominate the trade of the western seas. New World produce
— tobacco, sugar and cotton — poured into the new Port Glasgow, 20 miles
down-river, and up the deepened, widened Clyde to the heart of the city. The
nearby Lanark coalfields provided power for Glasgow’s expansion in an era of
iron and steel, heavy engineering and shipbuilding. Glasgow used to be called
the "dear dirty city", as its leading role during the Industrial Revolution
caused a great deal of pollution. Today many of the shipyards have closed and
some traditional manufacturing industries have been replaced by the "high-
tech" electronics industries. Although the Clyde used to be a very dirty
river, it is now much cleaner. Recently, Scotland’s most famous fish, the
salmon, has been seen swimming once again in the heart of the city.
Glasgow has the only complete medieval cathedral on the Scottish mainland.
It dates from the twelfth century, and the spire and nave were added 200 years
later (ill. 30). Until the Reformation,, Glasgow Cathedral was a much-orna-
mented place of pilgrimage. The building is best viewed from the Necropolis, a
cemetery full of monuments to Glasgow merchants. Among them is the grave of
William Miller (1810-72), who wrote a famous poem for children "Wee Willie
Winkie", which everybody knows in Russia due to a superb translation by Samuel
Marshak.
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Once overlaid by 150 years of smoke, Glasgow's cream and red stone is now
largely clean again. The city is essentially Victorian, designed and built by
Glasgow men such as Alexander Thomson. His oddly successful mingling of Greek
and Egyptian styles is best seen in St Vincent Street Church and in the
terraces of Great Western Road. The Renaissance style was equally popular —
the City Chambers dominating George Square is a magnificent example (ill. 29).
The imposing building that takes up the whole of one side of the square is the
headquarters of Glasgow District Council. The City Chambers is a symbol of the
wealth and power Glasgow enjoyed during the Victorian era and it was opened by
Queen Victoria herself in 1888. Side by side with these, buildings there stand
"high-tech" buildings of today (ill. 31), which give some people the right to
call Glasgow "a glass-and-concrete phoenix from the ashes". No wonder that
Glasgow has been chosen as European City of Culture for 1990.
For an industrial city Glasgow is fortunate in the number of its imagina-
tively laid out public parks. Linn Park, the loveliest of them, lies on the
banks of the White Cart Water and has a nature trail and the Zoo. Cleopatra's
Needle in Glasgow Green park tyas not only the first official monument erected
in the city but was the first major monument in Britain to be erected to
Admiral Nelson. It was built in 1805 — fifteen years before the monument in
London's Trafalgar Square. The famous lake Loch Lomond (ill. 24), which is
only within 45 minutes drive from the city centre attracts thousands of
tourists every year.
Glasgow is a city of museums: there is the Art Gallery and Museum at
Kelvingrove, the Transport Museum, Burrell Collection, the Royal Highland
Fusiliers' Regimental Museum. Glasgow's domestic history is illustrated at the
People's Palace on Glasgow Green. The Mitchell Library has the world's best
collection of letters and works by Robert Burns. The work of Glaswegian
architect and interior designer, Charles Rennie Mackintosh, can be seen at the
Glasgow School of Art. The restored village of New Lanark, near Glasgow, is
one of Scotland's most outstanding examples of industrial archaeology
providing a unique insight into the lives of the woolen-mill workers during
the early nineteenth century.
Glasgow is well endowed academically, with three universities — Glasgow
University founded in 1451, Strathclyde University and Glasgow Caledonian
University.The University of Strathclyde began life in 1796 as Anderson's
Institution, later became famous as a Technical College and was elevated to
the status of University in 1964.
Entertainment is provide by the Citizens' Theatre and the King's Theatre,
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and the Theatre Royal, which is now the home of Scottish Opera. The City Hall
is the home of the Scottish National Orchestra.
Glasgow is a place of fierce loyalties — religious, civic and national —
and nowhere are these given greater expression than in the city’s passionate
devotion to soccer. Hampden Park, the biggest football stadium in Britain,
with a capacity of 135,000, is famous for international matches, when the roar
in support of the Scotland team can be heard a mile away. But the greatest
passions are aroused at a Rangers versus Celtic match among supporters of the
two Glasgow teams. Celtic supporters are predominantly Roman Catholic, while
those of Rangers are mainly Protestant.
The city’s language ranges from a splendid pure English to an impenetrable
accent, crackling with glottal stops and elided labials. Specimen of rich
native dialect: ”Whaur urry? Erry ur ower err wirra brar’’. (’’Where are they?
There they are over there with the brother”.). No strangers to poverty,
Glaswegians had a unique expression for borrowing — the "slate". If a
customer asked a shopkeeper to "mark me on a slate", he was saying two things:
firstly, "I’ve no money today", and secondly, "I'll pay you next week". The
slate was then hung in the shop or pub for all to see. As most people found
this experience humiliating, they usually decided to pay as soon as they
could. An even better known Glasgow phrase would be "The ba’s oan the slates",
coming from the playing of football by kids on the. streets; if the ball was
kicked so high that it went up on to a roof and was lost, the game could not
continue; the phrase means "It's all over, we can't make progress" and might
be used in many different kinds of situation.
GREAT SCOTS: AT HOME AND ABROAD
Scots have generally been credited with a practical and logical turn of
mind, and it is not surprising therefore that Scotland has produced a notable
number of scientists and inventors whose work has been of immediate practical
benefit to the world or has opened new areas of investigation for subsequent
development. Associated with the introduction of steam power, for example,
were James Watt (1736-1819), pioneer of’steam engine and one of the greatest
of British engineers. Robert Stevenson (1772-1850), grandfather of the
novelist Robert Louis Stevenson, planned and constructed over 20 lighthouses.
In the medical sciences the earliest Scot to achieve wide recognition was
John Hunter (1728-93), a noted physiologist. Later on Lister pioneered
antiseptics, James Simpson innovated chloroform for anaesthetics and in the
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twentieth century Fleming discovered penicillin. William Small was also a
Scottish medical graduate who had emigrated to America and who had become
Professor of- Natural Philosophy at William and Mary College at Williamsburg,
where one of his students was Thomas Jefferson.
Jefferson wrote in his autobiography that "Small probably fixed the
destinies of my life". He may have done more than that when one considers the
peculiar marks of scientific influence which are plain in the American
Constitution. As Woodrow Wilson pointed out, the Constitution was based on the
theory of political dynamics, "a copy of the Newtonian theory of the Universe"
a system of government in which the action and re-action are equal and
opposite and all bodies are nicely poised by the balance of forces acting on
them — the Executive, the Legislature and the Supreme Court. Small had taught
Jefferson Newtonian physics.
In the sixteenth century Scots landowners got royal licenses to raise
mercenary regiments for fighting on the Continent, and in the seventeenth this
was a boom industry. One Scot, George Learmonth, hired himself to the Poles in
1663, but they did not pay him properly, so he shifted to the Russians, and
married a princess. His great-grandson was an outstanding Russian poet Michael
Lermontov. Peter-the-Great‘s chief foreign crony was an Aberdonian, Patrick
Gordon; and a while later the Russian Navy was promoted by Samuel Greig, who
once sailed a fleet from the Baltic to the East Mediterranean, where he beat
the Turkish navy at Cheshme. The Russian general Barclay de Tolly, (Barclay of
Towie in Aberdeenshire), a Scottish soldier by origin, commanded the Czar’s
army against Napoleon, and the French Marshal MacDonald, who was the son of a
Jacobite exile commanded one part of Napoleon's army invading Russia.
The Scottish contribution is obvious practically in every sphere of man's
activity: William Paterson founded the Bank of England in 1664 and the Bank of
Scotland in 1665, Elgin governed India, architect Charles Cameron worked much
in Russia. Even the first man in the Moon, Neil Armstrong, is of Scottish
extraction. Among the world celebrities who had Scots mothers or remote
ancestresses are, for example, Charles de Gaulle, John D. Rockefeller, the
poet Robert Frost. Many U.S. Presidents also were of Scottish or Scots-Irish
origin.
ROBERT BURNS: HIS LIFE AND WORK
Robert was the eldest of seven children of William Burnes, a market-
gardener from Kincardineshire, and Agnes Brown, from the neighbouring parish
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of Kirkoswald. William Burnes (his children dropped the "e" from the name)
acquired 7 acres of land and with his own hands built on it the cottage of
whitewashed clay walls in 1757 (ill. 35). It was here in 1759 that his famous
son, Robert, was born and was to spend the first seven years of his life,
until the family moved to Mount Oliphant, a farm about two miles from Alloway.
The cottage was then rented by William Burnes to a succession of tenants
until, in 1781, he eventually sold it. The building was later turned into a
public house, cashing in on the poet's fame, and it was not till 1881, when it
was bought by the Alloway Burns Monument Trustees, that it ceased to be an
alehouse. This body over the years has restored it to its original condition,
filling it with Burns relics and with furnishings of the period. A large
museum has also been built in the grounds containing extensive and important
Burns relics. Among the many exhibits of outstanding interest is the poet's
family bible, containing on a fly-leaf the family history. Most of the entries
are in the poet's own hand. The museum also contains a vast collection of the
original manuscripts of many of his poems and letters, and also the first —
or Kilmarnock — edition of the poet's works. In the cottage itself can be
seen the bed in which Burns was bom and a variety of furniture used by either
the poet himself or his family.
Robert grew up to a life of toil, hardship and poverty. But Burnes saw to
it that his sons were well educated. Robert read all the books he could and
developed a remarkable command of literary English. The other great influence
on him was folk-song. His mother knew and sang many old songs, though she
could not read. In 1777 the family moved to Lochlea farm, near Tarbolton,
where William Burnes died, worn out early, in 1784. Robert and his brother
Gilbert rented the farm of Mossgiel, near Mauchline, and struggled on. Robert
became an enthusiastic Freemason.
He had already written many songs and in 1785 began writing satires and
"epistles" which, handed about in copies, won him a local celebrity. A love
affair with a Mauchline girl, Jean Armour, who later bore him twins, landed
him in trouble. Under threat of prosecution by her father, and hard pressed
for money, he gave up his share of Mossgiel to Gilbert and planned to emigrate
to Jamaica; he decided to print his poems in Kilmarnock to raise funds for the
voyage.
The Kilmarnock edition (1786) was enthusiastically received and praised in
the Edinburgh magazines. Burns gave up emigration, went to Edinburgh to
publish a second edition, and was lionised there. In 1787-8 he was briefly
entangled with an Edinburgh lady, Mrs MacLehose ("Clarinda"). But he married
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Dean Armour; it was a happy marriage and they had several children,, from the
eldest of whom his only surviving posterity is descended.
Burns wanted to give up farming, but his Edinburgh friends could find him
nothing better than a minor post in the Excise in Dumfriesshire, and he had to
take another farm there, Ellisland, in 1788. He proved a good officer, was
promoted twice and in 1791 gave up Ellisland and moved into Dumfries. He
published a revised third edition of his poems in Edinburgh (1793) and died in
Dumfries on 21st July, 1796, of heart disease induced by the rheumatic fever
he had suffered in his early years. He lived to be only 37.
Burns’s first love was song. He had a keen musical ear and a great feeling
for rhythm. His first poems were songs, the earliest written when he was 15,
and on his own evidence he never composed a song without having a tune in his
head. While in Edinburgh he met two music publishers, James Johnson and George
Thompson, to whose collections of Scots songs he was contributing right up to
his death; in this field his Dumfriesshire years were specially fruitful.
Burns was the first and greatest collector of folk-songs. He rescued some 360,
polishing old words or writing new ones. The second important part of his work
is the epistles and satires, their style modelled on that of two earlier Scots
poets, Allan Ramsay and Robert Fergusson. These show him as an acute observer
and critic of human conduct, with a warm heart, a strong sense of humour and a
hatred of hypocrisy. His philosophy of the brotherhood of man was partly
inspired by the ideals of Freemasonry. Some of this work is of universal
appeal; but much of it, to be really appreciated, needs some knowledge of
Burns’s eighteenth century world.
Thirdly there is Tam o’ Shanter. Burns wrote only one tale in verse. It is
a story of witchcraft with comic touches, based on folk-tales Burns heard in
his childhood and closely linked with Alloway landmarks still to be seen, the
ruined church (Kirk Alloway), the ancient bridge ’(Brig o’ Doon), and the
cairn. Lastly there are Burns's letters, notable for their style and polish,
of which over 700 survive.
In Scotland, Burns is more than a literary figure — a popular hero, whose
birthday is celebrated by Scots all over the world. He sprang from the country
people and their traditions and his undoubted genius owed nothing to fortune.
ON SCOTTISH TRADITIONS
The thistle is the national emblem of Scotland (ill. 36). This is how,
-------------- /x w io
according to a curious legend, 1 this plant came to be chosen as a badge,
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in preference to any other. Many years ago the vikings once landed somewhere
on the east coast of Scotland. The Scots assembled with their arms and took
their stations behind the River Tay. As they arrived late in the day, weary
and tired after a long march, they pitched their.camp and rested, not expect-
ing the enemy before the next day. The vikings, however, were near; noticing
that no guards were protecting the camp, they crossed the Tay, intending to
take the Scots by surprise. For this purpose they took off their shoes so as
to make the least possible noise. But one of them stepped on a thistle. The
sudden and sharp pain he felt caused him to shriek. The alarm was given in the
Scots’ camp. The vikings were put to fight, and as an acknowledgement for the
timely and unexpected help from the thistle, the Scots took it as their
national emblem-
The Scottish national costume (Highland dress) includes a kilt worn by
men (ill. 33). For day wear, the kilt is worn with a tweed jacket, plain long
socks, a beret and a leather sporran, that is, a pouch hanging from a narrow
belt round the hips. The Scottish beret — tam-o’-shanter — is a woollen cap
without a brim but with a pompon or a feather on top, traditionally worn
pulled down at one side. It got its name after Tam o' Shanter, the hero of
Burns's poem of that name.
The Clan. The Gaelic word "clan” means "children", and the central idea
of a clan is kinship. Nowadays it refers, as a rule, only to Highland families^
in Scotland. A clan is a family, and theoretically the chief is the father of
it, although not every clansman can be a direct descendant of the founder.
Many people in Scotland today, will be surprised to learn that those who
founded the present clans were not themselves always Highlanders, but included
Normans (Gordon, Fraser), Bretons (Stuart), Flemings (Murrey, Sutherland),
Irish (MacNeil), and Norsemen (MacLeod), Mac meaning "son of". Concerning that
early period of their settlement, which was between the eleventh and four-
teenth centuries, we must not be dogmatic on the subject of nationality; the
important point is that all these were "incomers".to the Highlands.
When the incomers acquired their land they virtually took over a good^many
people who were living on it, and who, perhaps, were already formed into a
family or clan unit. Gradually the old clan came to acknowledge the protection
of their new leader, and at last built up a nominal kinship with him. In
course of time intermarriage made it difficult to determine how far this
kinship was nominal and how far real.
Under the patriarchal system of clanship, which reached its peak in the
sixteenth century, order of precedence was strictly observed. First, after the
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chief himself, came members of his immediate family, his younger sons and
grandsons, and then the clansmen. All of them, whether connected by blood or
not, owned a common heritage of loyalty as clansmen. In return for the help
and support of his clansmen, the chief was their leader in war and their
arbiter in peace. Even in the early days the king was , in theory at least,
the "chief of chiefs”, and as the royal power spread through the Highlands the
chiefs were made responsible for the good conduct of their clansmen. Among the
most famous clans were: Campbell, Fraser, Munro, Cameron, Stewart, Murray,
MacDonald, Maclean and Mackenzie.
The great period of the clans declined by the beginning of the eighteenth
century and the failure of the Jacobite Risings in 1715 and 1745 completed the
destruction. But today clan societies flourish in Scotland and, perhaps more
’ bravely, elsewhere in the world. These societies are acquiring land and
property in their respective clan countries, financing magazines, establishing
museums to preserve the relics, founding educational trusts, and — perhaps
above all — keeping alive the family spirit.
The Tartan;. Tartan is and has for centuries been the distinguishing mark
of the Highlander. It has a long history. Evidence can be brought to show that
as long as the thirteenth century, and probably earlier, Highlanders wore
brightly coloured striped or checked tartan plaids, which they called
"Ьгеасап". There is some controversy about clan tartans as such. Traditiona-
lists state the Highlanders wore tartan as a badge so that they could recog-
nize each other and distinguish friend from foe in battle. Like many theories,
this looks well on paper, but in practice it seems to break down. Even though
the old tartans were simpler than the modern ones, they could not easily be
recognized at a distance.
On the other hand, various descriptions can be quoted to show that, in the
Highlands, the patterns of the tartans were considered important. A district
tartan is a very natural development in a country divided into small communi-
ties. By the sixteenth century the particular patterns of tartan worn in a
district were connected with the predominant local clan. But the study of the
portraits shows that there was no uniformity of tartan even in the- early
eighteenth century. Members of the same family are found wearing very
different tartan and, what is more surprising, many of the men are seen to
wear the kilt of one tartan and a jacket of another. The history of develop-
ment of tartan was sharply broken in 1747, when wearing of Highland dress was
forbidden by law after the failure of 1745.
In the early years of the nineteenth century efforts were made to collect
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authentic patterns of each clan tartan, but this does not seem to have been
very successful. The fashion for tartan was fostered by the amazing spectacle
of a kilted King George IV at holyrood in 1822, and demands for clan tartan
poured into the manufactures. The wave of enthusiasm for tartan outstripped
the traditional knowledge of the Highlanders, and it was at this time and in
response to popular demand that a great many of familiar present-day tartans
became associated with their respective clans. Some of the patterns had
previously been identified by numbers only, while some were invented on the
spot, as variations of the old traditional patterns.
The term "Highland dress" has not always meant the seme thing. In the
seventeenth century the kilt was not worn. Clansmen wrapped themselves in a
generous length of tartan cloth some sixteen feet wide. The upper portion
covered the wearer’s shoulders, and it was belted at the waist, the lower
portion hanging in rough folds to the knees. In the eighteenth century this
belted plaid was superseded. by the kilt. Modern Highland dress (ill. 32)
consists of a day-time kilt of heavy material, sometimes in a darker tartan,
worn with a tweed jacket, while for the evening finer material, possibly in a
brighter "dress" tartan, can be matched with a variety of accessories.
Food and Drink. What sort of food has Scotland to offer the stranger?
Scotland produces a number of dishes: Scots collops — a savoury dish popular-
ly known as "mince", small mutton pies which must be served piping hot and the
immortal haggis. And no country has a greater variety of puddings and pies
creams, jellies, and trifles.
The excellence of Scottish soups has been attributed to the early and long
connection between Scotland and France, but there are some genuine soups, such
as Barley Broth, Powsowdie or Sheep’s Head Broth, Hotch Potch or Harvest
Broth. Baud Bree (Hare Soup) is flavoured with toasted oatmeal and Cullen
Skink is made with a smoked haddock.
Plenty of ingenuity is shown, too, in the preparation of both oatmeal and
milk. Porridge, properly made with home-milled meal and fresh spring water
and served with thin cream or rich milk, is food for the gods. Lastly there is
the national oatcake, which is described as "a masterpiece" by the French
gastronomes.
As a nation the Scots are definitely better bakers than cooks. To beat the
best Edinburgh bakers one must go, it is said, all the way to Vienna. There is
an endless variety of bannocks and scones: soda scones, made with buttermilk,
girdle scones, potato scones, without which no Glasgow Sunday breakfast is
complete. Also the pancakes, the crumpets, the shortbread that melts in the
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mouth, buns of every size and shape! They are on offer in every bakery.
The Scottish housewife likes to buy her meat fresh and sees that she gets
it. She likes the meat off the bone and rolled, as in France, and the Scottish
?
butcher is an artist at his trade. Most of the cuts are different from England
and have different names. Sirloin, one would understand, but what is Nine
Holes? Steak is steak in any language, but what is Pope's eye?
And then the puddings! The black puddings, the white puddings, the mealy
puddings. And king of puddings, the haggis! I once asked a Scot: "What's in a
haggis?" His answer was: "I know. But I know no reason why you should. All you
need to know is that it should be served with mashed potatoes and bashed neeps
(turnips), and you must drink whisky with it. You will discover that the
oatmeal in the haggis absorbs the whisky, and so you can drink more of it.
What else do you need to know?" "A recipe of haggis", was my answer. "Well,
well, here you are", said my friend: 8. ounces of sheep's liver, 4 ounces of
beef suet (fat), salt and pepper, 2 onions, 1 cup of oatmeal. Boil the liver
and onions in water for 40 minutes. Drain, and keep the liquid. Mince the
liver finely, and chop the onions with the suet. Lightly toast the oatmeal.
Combine all the ingredients, and moisten the mixture with the liquid in which
the liver and onions were boiled. Turn into a sheep's stomach, cover with
grease-proof paper and steam for 2 hours.
> Although the Scots are not a nation of beer-drinkers in the sense that the
English are, some of the best beers in the world are brewed in the Lowlands of
Scotland. But however good Scots beer and ale are, it is universally known
that the glory of the country is whisky. Scotch whisky was a by-product of
traditional Scottish thrift. Frugal Scots farmers, rather than waste their
surplus-barley, mashed, fermented and distilled it, producing a drink at first
called uisge beatha, Gaelic for "water of life", and now simply called whisky.
No one knows when the Scots learnt the art of distilling, though it may have
been before they arrived from Ireland in the fifth century AD, for in Irish
legend St Patrick taught the art. The first mention in Scottish records of a
spirit distilled from grain does not occur before 1494.
Today there are two kinds of Scotch whisky — the original malt whisky,
made by the centuries-old pot-still process from barley that has been "malted"
or soaked and left to germinate; and grain whisky, made from maize as well as
malted and unmalted barley. Most of the well-known brands of Scotch whisky are
blends of many different grain and malt whiskies. The technique of blending
was pioneered in .Edinburgh in the 1860s, and a taste for the new, milder
blended whiskies quickly spread to England and then to the rest of the world.
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Barley is the raw material of the malt whisky distiller. The first process
in making whisky is malting — turning barley into malt. Malting begins when
the distiller takes delivery of the barley, usually in September or October,
soon after it has been harvested. The barley is in grain form, and must be
ripe and dry, otherwise it may turn mouldy and make properly controlled
malting impossible. The barley is cleaned, weighed and soaked for two or three
days in tanks of water. Then it is spread on the malting floor, where it
germinates for 8-12 days, secreting an enzyme which makes the starch in barley
soluble and prepares it turning into sugar. The barley is regularly turned
over to control its temperature and rate of germination. The warm, damp,
sweet-smelling barley is passed to the kiln for drying, which stops germina-
tion.. It is spread on a base of perforated iron and dried in the heat of a
peat fire. Distillery kilns have distinctive pagoda-shaped heads. An open
ventilator at the top draws hot air from the peat fire through the barley.
This gives it a smoky flavour which is passed on to the whisky. The barley has
now become malt — dry, crisp, peat-flavoured, different from from the
original barley in all but appearance. It is ready for the next stage in the
process — mashing. It is stored in bins and then it is weighed to ensure
that the right amount of malt is passed to the mill below, where it is ground.
The ground malt, called grist, is carried up to th₽ grist hopper and fed in
measured quantities into the mash tun. There the grist is mixed with hot water
and left to infuse. This extracts the sugar content from the malt. The sugary
water, called wort, is then drawn off through the bottom of the mash tun. This
process is repeated three times, and each time the water is at a different
temperature.
For centuries, Scotch whisky has been made from malted barley mixed with
yeast and water, then heated in pear-shaped containers called pot stills. The
early Highland farmers who distilled their own whisky heated their pot stills
in huge copper kettles over a peat fire. Smoke from the peat added to the
whisky's flavour. Big modern distillers use basically the same technique. The
vapour that rises in the still is condensed by cooling to make whisky. The
shape of the still affects the vapour and so helps to give the whisky its
taste. The most important single influence on the taste of Scotch whisky is
probably the Scottish water. This is why distilleries are situated in
narrow glens or in remote country near a tumbling stream.
The whisky comes colourless and fiery from the spirit receiver. In the
spirit vat it is diluted to about 110 degrees proof before being run into oak
casks to mature. Today, 100 degrees proof spirit by British standards is
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spirit with 57.1 per cent of alcohol by volume, and 42.9 per cent of water.
Scotch whisky cannot legally be sold for consumption until it has matured
in casks for at least three years. The time a whisky takes to mature depends
on the size of the casks used, the strength at which the spirit is stored and
the temperature and humidity of the warehouse. A good malt whisky may have
been left in the cask for 15 years, or even longer. Air enters the oak casks
and evaporation takes place. Eventually, the whisky loses its coarseness and
becomes smooth and mellow.
There are more than 100 distilleries in Scotland and the whisky made in
each has its own distinctive character. Some distilleries bottle part of their
spirit and sell it as a single whisky; but most whiskies go to a blender. As
many as 40 different single whiskies may be blended to make up the whisky that
is eventually sold. Sb specifically associated with Scotland has whisky be-
come that the mere adjective SCOTCH requires no noun to be supplied in order
that people should know what is meant.
Burns Night (25 January), the anniversary of the poet's birth, is
celebrated in every corner of Scotland, and indeed wherever a handful of Scots
is to be found. There are hundreds of Burns Clubs scattered throughout the
world, and they all endeavour to hold Burns Night celebrations to mark the
birth of Scotland's greatest poet.- The first club was founded at Greenock in
1802. The traditional menu at the suppers is cock-a-leekie soup (chicken
broth), boiled salt herring, haggis with bashed neeps (turnips), and champit
tatties (mashed potatoes) and dessert (see page 213). The arrival of the
haggis is usually heralded by the music of bagpipes. The haggis is carried
into the dining room behind a piper wearing traditional dress. He then reads a
poem written especially for the haggis! "The Immortal Memory" is toasted, and
the company stand in silent remembrance. Then follows dancing, pipe music, and
selections from Burns's lyrics, the celebration concluding with the poet's
famous Auld Lang Syne.
Loch Ness and the Monster. Whatever it is that stirs in Loch Ness, it is
no newcomer. An inscription on a fourteenth-century map of the loch tells
vaguely but chillingly of "waves without wind, fish without fins, islands that
float". "Monster" sightings are not limited to Loch Ness: Lochs Awe, Rannoch,
Lomond and Morar have all been said to contain specimens. The Loch Ness
Monster owes its great fame to the opening of a main road along the north
shore of the loch in 1933. Since then, distant views of "four shining black
humps", "brownish-grey humps" have kept visitors flocking to the loch. People
who have seen the phenomenon more closely say that it is "slug-like" or "eel-
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BRIDGETON BURNS CLUB
INSTITUTED IN 1870
(Number 49 on the Roll of the Burns Federation)
One Hundred and Twenty-Fifth
Anniversary Dinner
THE MARRIOTT HOTEL, GLASGOW
WEDNESDAY, 25th JANUARY 1995
Chairman: President GEORGE MOORE, Esq.
DENNER
Lentil and Tomato Broth
ООО.
The Haggis with a wee dram
Bashed Neeps an’ Champit Tatties
ООО
Aberdeen Angus Sirloin of Bordelaise
A Selection of Fresh Ayrshire Vegetables
ООО
Fresh Fruit Salad and Cream
ООО
A Tassie o’ Black Bean Bree
Ayrshire Cream
Shortbread
l SLATER, Esq.
J. P. S. McNEILL, Esq
j. Mclennan. Esq.
C. TRAINER, Esq.
OFFICE-BEARERS 1994-95
HON. PRESIDENT
Past President WALTER O. HIBBERD. Esq.
HON. VICE-PRESIDENTS
Past President WILLIAM A. ANDERSON, Esq.
Past President STUART M. WALLACE, Esq.
PRESIDENT:
GEORGE MOORE, ESQ.
VICE PRESIDENT:
J. P. S. MCNEILL. ESQ.
DIRECTORS:
R LEISHMAN, Esq.
A MEIGHAN, Esq.
W. S. WRIGHT. Esq.
W. TELFER. Esq
TREASURER:
Past President: A. S. WALKER. Esq.
SECRETARY:
T. BRYAN McKIRGAN, Esq
4 Balmoral Drive. Canibuslang, Glasgow G72 8BG Tel: Hoine/OITice 0141-641 1920 Fax: 0141-641 9800
W. THOMSON. Esq.
A. WILKIE, Esq.
W. HAMILTON. Esq.
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like", with a head resembling a seal's or a gigantic snail's, while the long
neck is embellished with a horse's mane. Its length has been estimated at
anything between 8 and 23 metres, and its skin texture is "warty" and "slimy".
Close observers, too, particularly Mr George Spicer and his wife who saw it
jerking across a lochside road in 1933, have declared it "fearful" (ill. 39).
It is not surprising that such waters, cupped in savage hills, should
produce legends. Loch Ness is part of the Great Glen, a geological fault that
slashes across Scotland like a sword-cut. The loch itself is 24 miles long,
about a mile broad and has an average depth of 400 feet. Loch Ness has one
direct outlet to the sea, the shallow River Ness, and it is fed by eight
rivers and innumerable streams, each of which pours the peaty soil of the
hills into the loch. Consequently, the water is dark. Divers working with
powerful arc lamps 15 metres below the surface have been unable to see for
more than 3 metres around them.
Over the past 40 years, sightings have been claimed by more than 1000
people. Most of the sightings were in bright sunlight conditions of flat calm,
and several of the witnesses were trained observers — soldiers, doctors,
seamen. Though many of the sightings were from a distance, witnesses have been
convinced they were looking at a large animal, most of whose body was hidden
beneath the water. '
If it exists, it is most unlikely that the Loch Ness monster is a single
animal. A prehistoric creature, living alone in Loch Ness, cut off from others
of its kind, would have to be millions of years old. For the species to
survive there must be quite a large colony. The colony theory is also
supported by nearly simultaneous sightings in different parts of the loch.
According to naturalists, the chances of the creature being a reptile are
remote. Though Loch Ness never freezes, its temperature never rises above 6°C
and this would be too cold for any known species. Also, reptiles breathe air,
and would have to surface more frequently than the .monster appears to. Though
most zoologists deny the possibility that a large and unknown animal might be
living in Loch Ness, it is remarkable that the mystery continues; and it is
perhaps more exciting than any final scientific solution.
WALES
Profile of Wales
Wales is wet, and to many its very name is synonymous with rainfall. It
cannot be denied that many aspects of the country's natural history — its
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fauna and flora — are the way they are because of this one major element.
The Welsh environment changes rapidly with altitude, and with large areas
of the country lying above 300 metres, the barren mountain slopes dominate in
north Wales and the landscape in mid and south Wales is a little bit softer.
The uplands, at first sight apparently free from man's interference, are still
wild, and pockets of relatively rare wild life still are to be found with the
aid of a little protection of man. Even in these uplands the vegetation is
probably far from natural — the vast moorlands are merely semi-natural
responses to interference from man. The original natural vegetation of Wales
was a mixed woodland, containing in particular the oak, of which few of the
original stands today.
In the lowland areas better climate and soils have produced a visibly
modified environment. Much of the agriculturally useful land has been utilised,
and of the remainder extractive industry has taken its toll, particularly in
south Wales. Any pockets remaining are of use neither to farmer nor
industrialist.
The climate of Wales is obtained by integrating all possible types of
weather experienced. The wetness and violence of Welsh weather is generally
born of the frequent clash between winds bringing moist masses of air across
the Atlantic. Fronts are formed as warmer air over-rides colder, or colder
undercuts warmer, and it is these fronts which provide much of the rainfall in
Wales. The general eastward movement of these fronts means that further
moisture is condensed out to produce more rain as the Welsh mountains are
reached and air is uplifted on a massive scale. Characteristically rain occurs
in two types — either in the form of showers of high intensity and short
duration affecting limited areas, or in the form of lower intensity, long
duration rainfall affecting wide areas. Roughly half the annual precipitation
falls between October and February but, perhaps more significantly, 14—20 per
cent falls in July and August..
Mean values of temperature for a given month frequently mask extremes of
temperature which have occurred, and provide only a very generalised notion of
actual conditions. A mean figure for January is +4°C, but, for example,* the
mean figure for January 1963 was -3°C. Whilst for most of Wales average July
or August maxima approach 20°C, the occurrence of a week of easterly winds can
make it 30°C.
Wales is a country of hills and mountains, the highest of which are in
Snowdonia in the north-west; the tallest peak is Snowdon (1,085 m.). Two-
thirds of the population lives in the southern valleys and the lower-lying
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coastal areas. The chief urban centres are Cardiff, Swansea, Newport and
Wrexham. Wales is a principality; Prince Charles, the heir to the throne, was
invested by the Queen with the title of Prince of Wales at Caernarfon Castle
in 1969, when he was 20.
Latest figures suggest that about twenty per cent of population speak
Welsh, a language' of Celtic origin. The Welsh name of the country is Cymru.
Welsh has equal validity with English in law courts; bilingual education in
schools is encouraged, and there has been an extended use of Welsh for
official purposes and in broadcasting.
For many centuries Wales was much overshadowed by other countries of Great
Britain and when you would ask a man in the street: "What does the word "Wales"
convey to you?", he might possibly reply: "The Prince of Wales, Lloyd George,
the Eisteddfod, Snowdon". There he might stick. Perhaps a more literate member
of the public might add: "St David, leeks, pictures of Caernarfon Castle in
railway carriages, mine disasters, and Cardiff". Someone might even recite
the old libel that has stuck so hard to Wales and Welsh:
Taffy was a Welshman,
Taffy was a thief.
We do not hear so much of the glory of being Welsh as we do of the glory
of Being Scottish or Irish. Зоек and Paddy (traditional nicknames of the
representatives of these two nationalities) are clear and definite characters,
but Taffy is more illusive. His silence is strange. No comic papers have made
him lovable, as they made Paddy lovable during centuries of Home Rule argument.
No music-hall has developed him as a type which common people can recognize at
sight as they have done to the Scot. Everyone laughs in a friendly way at the
parsimony of the Scot and belligerency of the Irish, but no joke has been made
about the Welsh. This is significant. The impression that the Welsh are
untruthful is definitely unkind. It must be admitted that a touch of the
sinister is imparted to the thousands of apparently English 3oneses and
Williamses when they suddenly speak a strange and difficult tongue.
Under pressure from an economically and culturally dominant neighbour, it
is predictable that a small nation should construct a set of "national"
characteristics as a means of securing its survival. The most obvious dis-
tinguishing feature of Wales which is a small part of Great Britain, is the
Welsh language.
No one can cross the borderline between ' England and Wales without
realizing that one is no longer in England. This is due not solely to the
question of the language, although Welsh is indeed a sufficient obstacle to
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most of those who desire to penetrate more deeply into the mysteries of the
Welsh character, but rather a profound difference in the way of leaving, in
the attitude towards life of this small, tenacious people.
for the people of Wales represent the remnants of those pugnacious Celtic
people who were subjected to centuries of Roman rule, underwent the invasions
of the Saxons who drove them to their mountain fastnesses, and endured the
phenomenal organizing efficiency of the Norman conquerors without ceding one
iota of their cultural independence.
And here is the secret of the essential difference of the Welsh. An old
Welsh proverb says, "The Celt always fights and always loses". Military and
politically this has been true of the Welsh, but during those centuries of
ceaseless strife the Welshman came to realize that there,was something he had
always been unconsciously struggling to preserve, an indefinable passion for
the music and poetry born of his lonely vigils in mountain and valley when he
held solitary converse with the infinite, and , in this last and greatest
battle, the Welshman has belied the proverb and emerged victorious. Thus we
have an explanation of the extraordinary tenacity with which this people has
clung to its traditions, its customs,, its language, and its own way of life.
HISTORY
i
The Iron Age. There were invasions of south-eastern Britain by Belgic
folk from the fifth century BC. The invaders were specialists in warfare, and
erected massive hill-forts on the slopes of the hills above the forest level.
They introduced forms of Celtic speech which are ancestral to modern Welsh. As
conquerors, they gradually imposed their language and culture on the people
who occupied the land before them. The earliest hill-forts were relatively
simple structures, each comprising a small homestead with one or more huts
defended by a single rampart and ditch. Thereafter, hill-forts assumed a
variety of forms involving cultural influences from various directions
at different times.
' Roman Occupation. After the initial military conquest, the Celtic peoples
appear to have settled down so much the same form of life that they were
accustomed to before the Romans came. In the extreme south-eastern parts of
the country, in what is now Gwent and South Glamorgan, the Romans adopted the
same plan of colonial settlement as is found elsewhere in Romanised areas. The
Celts in the smaller hill-forts were probably left unmolested, policed, no
doubt, from the numerous Roman forts scattered along the network of roads.
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Latin words entered the Celtic vocabulary, and Roman pottery passed between
civilians and soldiers; but, when the last Roman legions left Wales for good
in AD 383, life among the Celtic peoples continued much as before.
The Emergence of Wales. During the centuries which folowed, when Anglo-
Saxon rulers reigned in England and began to exert an increasing pressure on
the west, an independent Wales was born. It was against this Saxon menace that
the Celts of Wales became gradually aware of their national identity. This is
reflected in their very name Y Cymry (the Welsh), which literally means
"comrades" (in arms). The Saxons called them Wallas (the Welsh) — "the
strangers or unknown people". With the Saxon victory at Dyrham in Gloucester-
shire in 577, they were cut off from their fellow Celts in Cornwall and the
southr-west, and in 616 from their brother Celts in Cumbria, In the eighth
century, King Offa of Mercia established a compromise frontier with the Celts
of Wales. Wales emerged as an independent compact territorial unit, but became
divided very early into a number of independent kingdoms, which were often at
war with one another as well as with the Anglo-Saxons. Nevertheless, this was
one of the most important periods in Welsh history and can certainly be
considered a formative one in the life of the country. It was an age when the
missionary zeal of wandering monks and saints carried Christianity throughout
the land; an age when the Welsh language was beginning to assume its present
form, and when, out of the darkness of the times, a new pattern of rural
settlement emerged, ancestral to the scattered habitat we see today.
The Coming of Christianity. Christianity made several separate landfalls
in the British Isles. It is known to have been present during the period of
the Roman occupation and it was re-introduced into south-eastern England in
AD 597. The origins of Celtic Christianity, which dominated the Welsh scene,
can be found in the fusion resulting from the contacts in western Britain
between the Romano-British Christianity of the occupation period and the
incoming form of Christianity spreading from the south along the sea-routes.
The young Celtic Church in Wales evolved along lines similar to those
found in Ireland at a later date. There were three orders of holy men. First,
there were the bishops, then came the holy men in charge of the great monastic
houses where the monks were trained. Finally — and most numerous of all —
there were the pilgrims saints, who roamed over land and sea seeking some
lonely place in which to spend their lives in prayer and meditation, these
pilgrim saints wandered over the countryside and at the places, where they met
with some success in preaching, they would set up a small church, called "the
Ilan". The various "llannau" established in this way retained the name of
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their original founder's patron. If the site proved to be attractive, it would
become a place of pilgrimage. The church would ultimately be built of stone,
with houses and cottages grouped around it; thus a hamlet or village would
form, bearing the name of the saint associated with the original church. In
this way, the settlement pattern of Wales became dotted with such names as
Llanbadarn or Llanegwad. When, in later times, special facilities were
available locally, the village became a town, like Llangollen or Llandudno
(ill. 41). The contribution of the Celtic saints to the establishment of
sites in Wales is of great significance and cannot be overlooked by us today.
The Welsh Language. While the early phases of the spread of Christianity
in Wales were in progress, the Welsh language was beginning to assume a
definite form. A group of Celtic languages was spoken on the Continent in the
Iron Age by widely scattered Celtic tribes, some of whom invaded Britain,
bringing with them that variety of Celtic speech known as Britonnic. It is
only from the close of the sixth century onwards that Welsh, Cornish and
Breton can be referred to as separate languages. At this period and down to
the time of the earliest written records, the language is known as Primitive
Welsh. When written Welsh emerges in the eighth century, this is what Celtic
scholars call Old Welsh. This was followed in the second half of the twelfth
century by Middle Welsh which lasted into the fifteenth century. Thereafter,
we are dealing with Modern Welsh.
The spoken word has always played a significant part in Welsh life and
culture. The country, though poor in its material resources, is rich in its
non-material culture — literary, musical and religious — and its language
has been closely linked with these aspects of life. The Welsh language became
the very medium of life itself.
Anglo-Norman Conguest. From the fifth century AD until the coming of the
Normans, Wales was virtually an independent country. It had its own kings and
laws, church, agrarian economy, its own language and literature. Following the
Norman Conguest of England, William the Congueror planted lords along the
Welsh border and, within a few years, they began to penetrate Wales. The
Normans had in a surprisingly short time taken possession of much of eastern
and southern Wales. New Norman lordships set up in the conguered lands were
almost" like little kingdoms of their own, practically independent of the
English crowh. Immediately after the fighting ceased, the Normans erected
temporary castles•of earth and timber at strategic points, later replaced by
massive stone structures. To supply their needs, they created little walled
towns beneath their castles, peopled by Norman merchants and ex-servicemen who
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were given certain rights and privileges in trade and commerce. Thus urban
life entered Wales with a type of settlement entirely alien to the Welsh. The
Normans introduced a new agricultural economy —based on the manor. This type
of economic organisation, with open fields tilled each year in rotation,
demanded land with good soils and not too heavy rainfalls. These conditions
are found in eastern and southern Wales — precisely the areas into which the
Normans had so easily penetrated. The distribution of Norman manors in Wales
in the fourteenth century makes this matter perfectly clear.
Power of the Princes. The land of Prince Llewellyn the Great in the mid-
thirteenth century reveal clearly the fundamental contrast between Inner and
Outer Wales which the Norman penetration had brought about. Llewellyn ruled
over Inner Wales — the land that remained independent under Welsh rule in the
thirteenth century. The remainder of the country in the possession of the
Anglo-Normans formed Outer Wales. It is of great significance for the future
geography of Wales that this contrast remained basic and fundamental through-
out the later centuries.
The success of the Normans stirred some of the Welsh rulers to offer
stiffer resistance to the conquerors. Llewellyn the Great (1173-1240) set up a
strong native state governing all Inner Wales; and Llewellyn II (1245-
82) came near to setting up a strong state covering the greater part of Wales.
At the height of his power in 1267 he was actually recognised by Henry III as
Prince of Wales. But Llewellyn II found himself up against an exceedingly
able and powerful opponent in the person of Edward I, and during the uprising
in 1282 Llewellyn II was killed in the battle and a year later his brother
David was executed. With their deaths, the power of Wales passed away, but the
memory of their aims and ideals lived on to the future generation.
Prelude to Modern Wales. When Henry VIII became king of England in 1509,
Wales was inhabited by fewer than 250,000 people, most of whom were illiterate
and superstitious Catholic country folk with a low standard of material
culture. The overwhelming majority were Welsh-speaking, though English-
speaking communities did exist, particularly in the lowlands. Awareness of
their former independence, of the ling and bitter struggles against the
English, and of richness and distinctiveness of their cultural heritage
undoubtedly preserved amongst the Welsh a generalised and undeveloped sense of
natural identity, but purely local factors loomed far larger in their everyday
lives. Each locality had its own social and economic patterns, its own price
structure, weights, measures, agrarian laws, peasant architecture, history and
traditions, and often its own dialect.
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In the latter part of Henry's reign, however, two changes occurred which
were to have a major effect upon the life of Wales. The power of the papacy
over the Church was broken in Wales as it was in England; the monasteries were
dissolved and their lands confiscated; much of the remaining wealth of the
Church passed into the hands of the Crown, aristocracy and gentry, and a state
church was established. In 1588 the Bible was translated into Welsh — a
measure of crucial importance for the survival of the language because it made
Welsh the language of public worship.
The second major change of Henry's reign involved the constitutional,
administrative and legal unification of England and Wales. After experimenting
with a policy of naked repression, his government attempted a comprehensive
settlement of the Welsh problem, the basis of which was provided by the so-
called Acts of Union of 1536 and 1543. Shire government, more or less on the
English model, was extended to the rest of Wales, and it was stipulated that
all officials should be English-speaking. English common law was enforced
everywhere and Wales was divide into four judicial circuits.
Changes in Society. There was a substantial increase in the population of
Wales since the sixteenth century — from about 226,000 to 542,000 in 1801,
when the first census was taken. Inevitably the increasing pressure of
population on land caused striking changes in the pattern of settlement,
particularly as all the best land had already been colonised. The proportion
of men with little or no land was growing. People took by-employments and
became part-time miners, craftsmen, sailors and labourers. The lot of the
poorer classes became steadily worse during the late eighteenth and early
nineteenth centuries because a dramatic acceleration occurred in the rate of
population increase. Women and all but the tiniest children in labouring
families worked whenever possible, but even the men received pitifully low
wages. There were years when whole districts were on the brink of famine, and
conditions did not improve much until the end of the 1840s — the Hungry
Forties, as they were called.
Things were never to be quite as bad again. Many unemployed labourers left
the countryside and went to work in the slate industry of north Wales or in
the mines of south-east Wales. There was, too, a farming boom from the 1850s
until the late 1870s. Other factors made for an improvement in the lot of the
rural poor in the second half of the nineteenth century: the influx of. the
cheap, mass-produced consumer goods being manufactured by industrial Britain;
the spread of elementary education, the determination of elected county
councils to improve local conditions.
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The Expansion of Industry. During a long period of time Wales bore mainly
a rural aspect. The second half of the eighteenth century had, nevertheless,
witnessed a considerable increase in the scale and tempo of industrial
activity. The south Wales iron industry was characterised by rapid expansion,
so that by 1827.it was furnishing half of Britain's iron export. Much of the
steel was used in the production of tinplate and for many years south Wales
led the world in its production, but in 1890, when the Americans imposed the
prohibitive tariff on tinplate imports, the industry suffered a blow from
which it took a long time to recover. „
Side by side with these developments in the metallurgical industries there
occurred, in the second half of the nineteenth century, a spectacular develop-
ment of coal mining in south Wales. Overseas demand for Welsh coal became very
heavy and stimulated the large-scale exploitation of the coal resources of
south Wales. It was the age of steam —-of steam locomotives, of steamships,
of the use of steam engines in heavy industry — and the demand for coal
seemed to be endless.
Looked at in human terms, the cost of industrialisation was high. Children
often worked underground until the passing of the Mines Act in 1842, and long
after that date women’ continued to be employed illegally in the mines. In
metalworks and coalmines alike, men laboured without adequate recompense for
long hours under unhealthy conditions. Yet despite the dangers and the
ugliness of life in the industrial valleys, many thousands of Welshmen chose
to settle there, rejecting the hopeless poverty and inertia of the countryside
for the bustle, social cohesion and opportunities for advancement which
existed in the new industrial communities.
In industrial south Wales the last decades of the nineteenth century were
characterised, not only by the upsurge of industrial unrest, but by a con-
siderable advance in anglicization. In the first half of the century few
Englishmen and Irishmen had migrated to "the works", and the industrial
communities in Wales were thoroughly Welsh. When in 1871 a census was taken,
only 34 per cent of the inhabitants of Wales were English-speakers, but in the
following decades, with large-scale immigration from England, the linguistic
position changed radically. Other factors were, of course, involved in the
decline of Welsh in the years before 1914: the spread of a form of elementary
education in which, until 1888, Welsh had virtually no place; the snob value
of English, and the belief of many Welshmen that the knowledge and use of
English provided the most obvious way of securing better-paid jobs, for
example; but the migration of thousands of Welsh-speakers to England and of
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Englishmen to Wales was of prime importance. Today vigorous steps to halt the
decline in the language are taken; only about 20 per cent of the people living
in Wales speak Welsh.
Political Development. The nature of Welsh politics changed completely
during the course of the nineteenth century. At its outset Wales was regarded
as one of the most conservative parts of Britain, parliamentary representa-
tives being chosen for the most part by the leading country gentry. For a time
it seemed to many Welshmen that, being totally incapable of influencing the
process of legislation, and governed by men insensitive to their sufferings,
they could attain radical improvements of their social and economic conditions
only by taking direct action. After the passing of the Reform Act of 1867 the
second half of the century was notable for a striking advance in political
democracy, for, with the adoption of the secret ballot in 1872, the power of
the landlord and the industrial boss was greatly undermined. This was the
period when a comprehensive system of primary and secondary education was
established and the University of Wales founded, an age of wide-ranging social
reforms culminating in the National Insurance Act of 1911.
It was also an era of rapidly growing national consciousness, though far
from being one of political separatism. Pride in Welsh nationhood had never
been totally extinguished in the early modern period, despite the angliciza-
tion of the gentry. The publication in 1847 of the infamous blue books on
education in Wales really galvanised Welsh national consciousness. This report
made the question of Welsh national self-respect a blazing public issue and
sparked off long-lasting discussions concerning the social conditions of the
Welsh people.
Despite the bitter industrial unrest in the south Wales coalfield and the
slate quarries, around the turn of the century, the growth of socialism in
Wales was unspectacular, and until World War I the Liberal Party by offering
the prospect of further social reform was quite successful in winning the
votes. After the war, however, the Liberals surrendered control of the mining
valleys to Labour and it maintains its position in Wales up to the present
day. In 1925 Plaid Cymru, the Welsh Nationalist Party, was founded. For many
years though gaining the allegiance of the number of prominent intellectuals,
the party remained in the political doldrums.
Economic and Social Life. World War I was a period of heightened
economic activity for Wales. The products of heavy industry were needed to
sustain the war effort, and farmers were given every encouragement to expand
production. Shortly after the end of World War I, the bloom collapsed and a
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period of depression began. The industrial collapse was particularly marked in
south Wales because of its heavy dependence upon the coal, iron, steel and
tinplate industries, but it affected the whole country. Many farmers found
themselves in debt to the banks and held on to their farms only with great
difficulty. During the great depression the loss through migration averaged
about 25,000 people a year from Wales and in 1932 about one-tenth of the total
population was unemployed.
The years since 1945 have been the period of striking social and economic
change. One of the most important features of the post-war situation has been
the diversification of the Welsh economy, in particular the growth of tourism
and of manufacturing industries: electronics, aircraft, synthetic fibres. Even
so, Wales has had a slower rate of economic growth and a higher rate of
unemployment than most other regions of Britain since 1945. The pattern of
social life has changed greatly, too. Much may have been lost as the tradi-
tional ways of life gradually vanished, but there has been an amazing advance
in material prosperity. Thousands of modern houses have been erected, and life
for the most people has become more comfortable than ever before.
Despite the enormous advance in material comfort, many Welshmen view the
coming decades with mounting concern. Only one-fifth of the inhabitants of
Wales now speak Welsh and, although considerable resources are being thrown
into the struggle to preserve the language, the proportion of Welsh-speakers
continues to decline. In the face of pressures of anglicization, the continued
influx of English people into Wales and economic integration and inter-
dependence of Wales and England, it is bound to prove increasingly difficult
to maintain a distinct national identity. Recognising the growth of Welsh
national consciousness, the government, in 1964, for the first time appointed
a Secretary of State for Wales, and since that date the range of functions
performed by the Welsh Office has widened enormously. The Secretary of State
for Wales, who is a member of the Cabinet, has wide-ranging responsibilities
relating to the economy, education, welfare services and the provision of
amenities. The headquarters of the administration is the Welsh Office in
Cardiff, which also has an office in London. Local government is exercised
through a system of elected authorities similar to that in England, and legal
system is identical with the English one.
Wales is represented by 38 Members of Parliament. Following the 1992
general election, Wales has 27 Labour Members of Parliament, 6 Conservative,
4 Plaid Cymru (Welsh Nationalist) and 1 Liberal Democrat.
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EDUCATION
The Education Reform Act of 1988 included major and wide-ranging measures
affecting both schools and post-graduate education. The Act gave all secondary,
in addition to the larger primary schools, responsibility for managing the
greater part of their budgets including costs of staffing and the option, if
the parents so wish, to withdraw from local authority control and be directly
financed by central government. As a result of a rigorous examination of the
content of school work, a National Curriculum was proposed with core subjects
and foundation subjects. The core subjects were mathematics, English and
science with Welsh in Welsh-speaking areas; as well as foundation subjects of
history, geography, music, art, technology, physical education, a modern
foreign language and. Welsh in non-Welsh-speaking areas. The subjects have
attainment targets and assessments at the ages of 7, 11, 14 and 16. Religious
education, which had been made compulsory by the 1944 Education Act, remains a
requirement for all pupils although parents have the right to withdraw
children from religious education classes.
The GCE and CSE examinations have been replaced by the GCSE (General
Certificate in Secondary Education) with "criteria referenced testing", each
of the seven grades (A-G) representing not merely a numerical mark out of 100
but rather an indication of exactly what candidates are capable of doing. The
emphasis is made more on understanding, using knowledge and practical skills
such as designing and setting up experiments, making observations, recording
information and drawing conclusions.
Compulsory nursery, primary and secondary education is the order of the
day between the ages of five and sixteen. Responsibility for it lies with the
Secretary of State for Wales as do all non-university institutions of higher
and further education, the youth services and adult education. Schools and
other educational establishments, apart from universities, are inspected by
Her Majesty's Inspectors — fifty-four of them in Wales. The local education
authorities employ the teachers, provide and maintain the buildings, supply
equipment and materials, and award grants for further and higher education.
According to a recent survey of the maintained schools in Wales there were
58 nursery schools with 1,297 pupils, 1,753 primary schools with 245,300
pupils and 233 secondary schools with a population of 199,279 pupils. There
are 65 special schools catering for learning difficulties arising from
emotional or behavioural disorders as well as physical or mental handicaps.
There are independent schools, too, 67 of them with a total population of
11,703 pupils.
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In the field of higher education, apart from the University, Wales has its
Polytechnic at Treforest, now catering for a wide spectrum of applied discip-
lines, and six local authority institutions, such as the Gwent College of
Higher Education, the Welsh College of Music and Drama. These have some 12,500
full-time and 7,500 part-time students compared with 22,000 full-time students
in the University. All the Welsh Institutes and Colleges during the last few
years have dramatically expanded their provision for various spheres of higher
education; many of them have valuable and advantageous contacts in countries
overseas. They continue to attract a greater proportion of students from
within Wales than does the University.
The federal University of Wales was established in 1893. Today there are
six constituent colleges offering a breadth of academic disciplines, resources
and diversity; each has its own particular location, its own atmosphere and
cultural experience. There are eighteen different initial degrees, with a
variety of subject combinations, directed towards honours, lasting three years
normally. With the exception of such vocational courses as medicine, dentistry,
nursing and engineering, students pursue a broad first-year course followed by
a more specialized course in the second and third years. The language of the
University's courses, in the main, is English though some specific courses are
also offered to students who wish to study through the medium of Welsh —
a natural follow-up for those who have had their secondary education in Welsh.
For those who missed the opportunity earlier, there is the provision of
the Open University with its combination of correspondence courses, TV and
radio, audio and video cassettes and summer schools and study centres. It
currently has 4,600 students enrolled at its regional office in Cardiff,
opened in 1969. Already over three and a half thousand have graduated.
(After R.B. Jones. Education in a New Era. The New Wales.)
MEDIA
Network television has a strong cultural and economic presence in Wales.
The BBC, HTV (Wales) and S4C are based in Cardiff and have five major produc-
tion studios there. BBC Wales sees itself as having two functions: producing
programmes for Wales both in English and Welsh, and reflecting Wales on the
British networks (BBC 1 and BBC 2). It also specializes in drama and music.
The start of the Welsh-language fourth channel S4C in 1982 stimulated un-
precedented growth in all aspects of the industry. Thanks to S4C there are
more independent television producers in Cardiff than anywhere in Britain.
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Television in Wales has been defined as one of the key areas in the
struggle for national identity. As S4C is the only channel of broadcasting in
Welsh, there has been an obvious reluctance to criticise it, particularly in
its formative period. There are signs that the honey-moon period is coming to
an end and many Welsh speakers are beginning to express dissatisfaction with
what is being offered. Whilst some of their output, particularly in drama and
current affairs, is beginning to display some awareness of the importance of
addressing contemporary issues that relate specifically to Wales, the bulk of
their programmes, appear conservative and stereotyped. Too much of their drama
and features refer back to a Welsh mythical past or else provides soap opera
with a Welsh voice.The rest of the time is filled with sport, quiz shows and
light entertainment. The central concern of those who control S4C seems to be
more for how the language is spoken than for what is said. This would seem to
echo the BBC's concern for "correct English" which had the function of
excluding all but a small group of the Oxbridge-educated middle-class from
determining how and what is represented. Surely very few people in Wales would
want to see the same thing happen in S4C.
BBC Wales and HTV appear to have made the mistake of assuming that Wales
only exists through the Welsh language and having provided their quota of
Welsh language programmes for S4C, fail to deliver anything that addresses the
vast majority of the population. It is interesting that BBC Radio Wales
produces far more Welsh material than television does and has managed to find
and encourage good Welsh writers. There is a real danger that the constant
defining of Wales only through the Welsh language will produce a neglect and
alienation of the majority of Welsh people which could isolate the Welsh
language and its institutions.
In the radio sector of Wales there are three components. BBC Wales acts as
both a regional and local radio broadcasting authority, transmitting Radio
Wales in England and Radio Cymru in Welsh. Opinions on the success of the
Welsh-language service, Radio Cymru, vary considerably. It was launched in the
late 1970s, when it became responsible for all Welsh-language radio broad-
casting. Faced with a very limited budget and the need to cater for all
tastes, it has been quite successful, covering science, pop music, light
entertainment and comedy, as well as news, political debate and sport. The
Welsh Language Society, on the other hand, argues that much more should be
done by the BBC to attract the attention of young listeners.
Independent Local Radio (ILR) in Wales is going through a profitable
period. The profits of Marcher Sound, for example, Wales's newest commercial
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station, almost trebled in 1988. This is said to have been the highest growth
rate in profit in independent radio anywhere in Britain. Swansea Sound, the
oldest of the ILR stations, started broadcasting in 1974. Its listening
figures have dropped off somewhat since, but in October 1989 it was still
reported to be reaching 37 per cent of its potential audience of 470,000. Red
Dragon Radio was reaching 31 per cent of its larger potential audience of
710,000 at the same time.
There is a good level of activity in the realm of print journalism in
Wales, though the financial prosperity of the Welsh-language sector seems less
assured in this medium than in television. Various stands of the press in
Wales must be identified, including the national regional dailies sold in
Wales, the Welsh dailies, English-language and Welsh-language weekly news-
papers and the most recent development, Wales’ only Sunday paper, Wales on
Sunday. As it was estimated in 1986 around 600,000 British national newspapers
were read a day, 300,000 English-language newspapers from Wales, and a few
thousand Welsh-language papers and journals of all sorts.
In the south, the Western Mail is the leader, and for all that it periodi-
cally comes under attack in Welsh-language and Plaid Cymru circles for voicing
English concerns, it gives the most coherent impression of a Welsh cultural
and political unity of any paper produced in Wales. The Western Mail, the only
morning daily produced in Wales, • circulates primarily in industrial south
Wales and mid Wales. It gives the best coverage of Welsh affairs and it
also carries a small number of articles in Welsh. Four English-language
evening papers complete the daily scene: the South Wales Echo (Cardiff), the
South Wales Argus (Newport), the South Wales Evening Post (Swansea) and
Wrexham's Evening Leader. Once again, the concentration in the south is
notable. The three southern titles have a combined circulation of over
200,000, compared with the Wrexham's paper's 27-28,000.
Welsh news is not strikingly well covered in the English newspapers. In
the mid 1980s The Times, the Guardian and the Financial Times all withdrew
their Welsh correspondents from Wales.
Of the weekly newspapers sold in Wales, only a few are published in the
Welsh language. The monthly scene is quite different with the growth of
community newspapers in Welsh. These newspapers started in the mid 1970s with
the aim of increasing the number of people who regularly read Welsh, and thus
helping the survival of the language. The pioneers claim that these papers
have helped boost the proportion of Welsh-speakers who regularly read Welsh
from 10 or 20 per cent to around 90 per cent. These all-Welsh newspapers,
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which consist almost entirely of local news, are usually produced on a monthly
basis, and by teams of volunteers.
(After D. Skilton. More Words and Pictures in the Air. The New Wales.)
ART
Considering a small country, so full of natural beauty, the interested
observer has often posed the understandable question: surely the response to
all this wonderful subject matter must have resulted in the creation of a
national school of painting? The true and disappointing answer is, "No way".
This is a situation which takes some understanding. Naturally, such a pictu-
resque country has attracted professional landscapists for some centuries but,
sad to say, following the post-War development of modern art in Wales and the
growth of art education through the schools and art colleges, too many of the
young painters have turned their eyes outside Wales to London, Paris and New
York. Understandable yet sad, this desire to be modish has lead to the turning
of blind eyes to rich and natural sources of inspiration.
As we move forward in time, we have to face the fact that any search for a
truly original art of quality in Wales is fruitless before the eighteenth
century. The Welsh landscape affected many of the English painters and they
wrapped themselves up and moved into Wales for the drama of its landscape and
weather. If asked which landscape painters of distinction were drawn to Wales
during this period, the straight answer seems to be "all of them" — all the
acknowledged masters of the time, including David Cox, Thomas Rowlandson,
J.M.W. Turner, John Sell Cotman and Thomas Girtin. The 18-year-old Turner, for
instance, made a series of spirited drawings during a walking tour across
south Wales.
The best known native Welsh landscape painter of this period is Richard
Wilson. Born in 1713, he set up a studio as a portrait painter in London,
later making the fashionable and profitable move to Italy. After some seven
years he returned to London and painted views of England and Wales, all with
the required look of Italy.
The middle of the nineteenth century brought forth a sculptor — George
Gibson. He set up a studio in Rome and soon many important commissions started
coming his way, including a coloured statue of Queen Victoria for the grand
staircase of Buckingham Palace. Gibson made a popular hit with his life-sized
marble nude "The Tinted Venus", which is said to have caused a sensation when
exhibited at the London International Exhibition in 1862. Gibson was an
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excellent carver and craftsman. Unfortunately, by today the passage of time
has caused much of his work to remind us of the angels on tombs in Victorian
cemeteries.
from now on the story of art in Wales continues to be one of comings and
goings : the entry of artists from England and abroad, attracted by the
dramatic beauty of the country, and the exit of talented local artists, trying
to achieve success in more prosperous environments. By the mid-1890s when the
work of the Pre-Raphaelites was in evidence, the one Welsh painter to be noted
for his achievements, is Henry Mark Anthony. Through his friendship with Ford
Madox-Brown, Anthony was connected to the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. In
technique he acquired a breadth of handling which brought high praise from
friends in the Brotherhood who regarded him as "like Constable but better by
far".
Another noted Welsh artist of the turn of the century was Frank Brangwyn.
He was a lively and talented painter of large murals in rich colours. There
are typical examples of these in public buildings in London and America. His
designs for murals in the House of Lords, however, brought him much trouble.
Rejected after heated arguments, on the grounds of unsuitability, eventually
they found a permanent' home at the Guildhall in Swansea, which many Welshmen
consider a happier place for them. Brangwyn’s works always carry a powerful
sense of scale and the architectural strength in his design is enriched by the
vitality of his draughtsmanship.
We now come to a period of exciting change in the story of art in western
Europe. The loose term "modernism" might be used to cover what was happening
as the new century advanced. In Wales, increasing awareness of the new
influences was spread in several ways — by the growth of illustrated art
books, by enlightened art education, and especially by artists fired by the
new flames. In some instances the last two categories were occupied by the
same important figure — Ceri Richards.
Ceri Richards was born near Swansea in 19G3 and, from a generation of
brilliant students at Swansea School of Art, he became the finest artist. He
was linked with Henry Moore and Ben Nicholson, much influenced by Picasso and
Mattisse, and it could be said that both as a painter and teacher he did much
to spread the ideas of modernism in Wales and he certainly opened the eyes of
the Welshmen and gave them much through his art.
Augustus 3ohn was another Wales native, who never being directly influ-
enced by any of the "isms", brought mpch that was new to art in Wales. Born in
1878, he was trained at the Slade School in London, where he added to the
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tradition of fine drawing of the human figure. In the years before World
War I, he made a brilliant series of small landscape paintings, a direct
response to nature, vivid in colour and contrast. Later he developed into the
most brilliant painter of the age.
Another important figure in the art of Wales in this century was David
Jones. He was born in Kent, his father being a Welshman, and his nature,
interests and inspiration can hardly be summerized in a paragraph. He was
fascinated by the ancient myths and legends of Wales and had a great love for
sea and landscape. He had been profoundly moved by his experience as an
infantryman in France in World War I, which found reflection in his first book
in 1937. He was also that rare figure, scarcely to be found since William
Blake,, a creative artist gifted in both word and image. The first retro-
spective exhibition of the works of David Jones toured Wales before being
shown in Edinburgh and London and it opened the eyes of so many to the rich
heritage created by this gifted man and demonstrated the wonder and the
mystery of the art.
The list of important influences in the development of art in Wales in the
past three decades and the number of artists who have made a name is now so
long that we can but touch upon them. The name of John Kyffin Williams would
be the first to spring to many minds. Considered to be the ideal figure of the
native artist in Wales, living and working in his own country, and taking as
his subjects its dramatic mountain landscapes and his characterful fellow-
countrymen, he is held in high esteem and affection. Another acknowledged
painter of importance is Will Roberts. A powerful draughtsman, his work always
carries its own dignity: landscapes of mood, strong in design and rich in
expressive colour. Robert Hunter is a gifted painter with a strong sense of
design and colour, with the courage to experiment with both.
So, over the past forty years, the story of art in Wales is the recital of
steady, astonishingly varied and lively growth. Never before have there been
so many practising artists, designers and sculptors in Wales, so many
galleries, so much public interest, so much buying of works of art. This road
of progress is remarkable, but two questions are bound to arise: Why does
Wales still have no Welsh Museum of Modern Art? Why there is no City Art
Gallery in Cardiff? Hopefully, there will be positive answers to these
questions before this century comes to its end.
(After J. Petts. A Touch of Magic on the Road. The New Wales.)
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MUSIC
The Welsh always enjoyed a musical reputation, and Wales always was
regarded as "the land of song’’.- This notion, however, has little, if anything
to do with the actual composition of music by Welsh composers, and this
paradox has naturally exercised the minds of people, especially those whc have
fought to change such a situation. In 1971, William Mathias, one of the major
Welsh composers, wrote: "Perhaps the real problem lies in the fact that the
Welsh have somehow been persuaded into thinking that they are a musical
people. As a result they have the greatest difficult in taking music at all
seriously, preferring rather to place a high value on its social usefulness."
The oral declamatory tradition of the thirteenth century in time must have
developed into a form of singing, which possibly explains the marked prefe-
rence which the Welsh have always had for vocal musical expression. Though
evidence of the deliberate marriage of words and music in a secular sphere
does not seem to have survived in manuscript form from those faraway days,
such troubadour tradition would have been a natural development and part of a
general European culture.
Similarly, although there is abundant documentation of the activities of
the highly organized schools of Welsh harpists well into the sixteenth
century, only one major piece of such music survived. The enlightened aristo-
cratic patronage of poets and musicians in medieval Wales was accompanied by
the political and cultural developments when the Tudors assumed the English
throne, thereby shifting the focus of Welsh courtly life eastwards. The
"royal" Welsh harpist now became a common phenomenon at the court of the
English kings. The character of native Welsh music now became a dependent
imitation of English and continental models. The poetic tradition survived,
even if temporarily diluted, but the notion of a musical art disappeared
before it could flourish. Thus, Wales was deprived of the classical musical
tradition.
Those tricks of historical fate were one reason why there was no founda-
tion for professional music-making in the early twentieth century. There had
been several unsuccessful attempts to build a professional orchestra in Wales
before in 1983 the BBC Welsh Symphony Orchestra has had an official "home" in
Cardiff's St David Hall. It is increasingly recognized as an international
orchestra and also enjoys a reputation as the most televised in Britain.
The story of the Welsh National Opera is a similar one. The traditional
Welsh love for singing provided a natural background for the forming of a
national opera company. From its largely amateur origins in 1946, by the early
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1970s the Welsh National Opera had its own fully professional chorus and
orchestra which have proved themselves to be the backbone of the company.
Epoch-making productions of Benjamin Britten’s "Billy Budd" and Michael
Tippett’s "The Midsummer Marriage" in the mid 1970s drew national and inter-
national attention to the company.
The second Methodist revival of 1762 had used music as its medium and, by
early nineteenth century, choirs and singing-schools sprang up in many places.
After 1830s a further spur to musical activity came from Sunday School
Festival movements. Even in areas where Welsh is little spoken, people are
still fond of going Cymanfa-Ganu ("Singing Assembly") — a day-long festival
of hymns under a guest conductor. Such festivals do not date back much before
1875.-Welsh chapels were designed with choir galleries and huge organs so as
to facilitate choral practice, and mines and quarries encouraged their men to
gather together to sing in chorus. The numerous Eisteddfodau (Music Festivals)
held all over Wales gave a spur to intense musical activity. At the investi-
ture as Prince of Wales at Caernarfon Castle in 1911, Prince Edward learned
one phrase of Welsh, characteristic of the period: "Mor о Gan yw Cymru i Gyd"
(All Wales is a Sea of Song).
Every year all over Wales there are small local eisteddfodau — competi-
tions in music, literature and handicrafts. Winners of the local competitions
go to the larger, provincial eisteddfodau (Eisteddfod literally means "a
session"), and winners at provincial level try for the "National" — a week-
long annual event held in early August. Its centre is a huge pavilion for some
8,000 spectators, surrounded by a huge camp of tents. This is all moved every
year from town to town. Cultural competitions have been held for many cen-
turies, but the revival of the eisteddfod as a national event dates back to
1858.
Music of all types is an important element of the Welsh cultural scene and
events fill the year's calendar and range from the Welsh Proms and prestigious
"Cardiff Singer of the World" competition to the Llangollen International
Eisteddfod and vast pop concerts. The Welsh National Opera Company performs
throughout Wales and at the other end of the scale the annual Brecon Jazz
Festival which received the "Best Music Festival Award" in 1987 has been
acclaimed as one of Wales’s great musical successes.
One characteristic feature of Welshness surviving from this period is the
national anthem, which appears in many English songbooks as "Land of My
Fathers". It was written in the mid-nineteenth century by two workmen from
Pontypridd in Glamorgan:
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The Land of my Fathers so dear to my soul,
The land which the poet and minstrel extol.
Her valiant defenders, her patriots so brave,
For freedom their life-blood they gave.
It is indeed rare in this modern world to find a national anthem, that
stressed so much the artistic aspect of the country.
It is not only in the more highbrow areas of opera and choral singing that
the sons and daughters of the land of song have made an international impact.
Tom Dones and Shirley Bassey are the names that almost every age group in
countries all over the world would recognize, but many people are unaware of
the talented Welsh musicians who have shot to fame in the world of rock and
pop music. Swansea-born Terry Williams has put Wales on the map as drummer of
Dire Straits, one of the world's supergroups whose "Brothers in Arms" was a
major hit in more than twenty countries. Bonnie Tyler, the husky-voiced star
since topping the charts in 1976 with her first hit "Lost in France" managed
to stay in the limelight. Her first American hit was "It's a Heartache" and
her LP "Faster Than the Speed of Night" was a roaring success shooting
straight to the top of the British charts and going platinum in six other
countries. She has actually achieved something that no other Welsh vocalist
can boast — she reached Number One in the American Billboard top 100.
(After G. Lewis. Praise the Lord! We are a Musical Nation. The New Wales.)
LITERATURE
The literature of Wales in the past century or so, has differed in a
number of ways from that of England. Welsh books are never written by or for
aristocracy, and rarely for the middle classes; they are by working-class
amateurs and are usually appealing as widely as possible to many tastes among
a fairly small, limited public. There are many exceptions, but as a general
rule Welsh literature is strongly influenced by nonconformist religion, by
radical politics and, in the last 70 years, by Welsh nationalism. The most
important between-the-wprs Welsh writer is Saunders Lewis, a founder of the
nationalist party, Plaid Cymru. Writers in Wales are likely to be the sons of
farmers, miners or in a number of cases they are the sons of deacons and
ministers and Sunday-school teachers.
Another feature peculiar to Wales is that it has two languages and thus
two literatures. Since 1900 or so, English has been the language of the
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majority of the Welsh people, hence Wales is a province of the English-
speaking world, like Canada or Ireland. Anglo-Welsh literature has seen a rich
and productive period. The first Anglo-Welsh writer is considered to be the
novelist Caradoc Evans, who presented an often cruel, hostile picture of the
peasantry. A whole school of talented Anglo-Welsh writers appeared in the
1920s and 1930s. Richard Llewellyn in ”How Green Was My Valley” (1939) made a
mythical Glamorgan mining valley into a symbol of Wales the world over. Dylan
Thomas was to be even more famous, and his "Under Milk Wood", a poetic
evocation of a Welsh seaport, has become a classic. Works such as these have
built up a special image of Wales not only for the Welsh themselves — and
especially for the English-speaking majority — but for people everywhere.
While tensions exist between the fashionable and the homespun in the Welsh-
speaking culture, the same sort of tension can be seen in English literature
in Wales. By the 70s Wales became a much more anglicized land than it had been
in the 1920s, and what is left of its "Welshness" has been exploited already,
so that many Anglo-Welsh writers simply identify themselves with an "inter-
national" Anglo-American culture. At the other end of the spectrum, such
writers as R.S. Thomas or Emyr Humphreys take upon themselves the defence of
the Welsh language and nationhood, through the medium of English. All in all,
the situation in Welsh culture is not without its liveliness and excitement.
RELIGION AND SOCIETY
In the first centuries of their nationhood, the Welsh had been part of the
Christian movement, called "Celtic Christianity", but during the later Middle
Ages they belonged to Latin Christendom, and after the Reformation they became
part of the reformed Anglican Church. Dissent or nonconformity appeared in the
sixteenth century in England, but for some two centuries the vast majority of
the Welsh were indifferent to it and up to the second quarter of the nineteenth
century, nonconformity appeared to be hostile to the traditional music, poetry
r and dance of the Welsh.
3ohn Wesley is considered by many historians to be the most remarkable
Englishman of the eighteenth century and Methodism was an important force in
England. In Wales, however, it had a revolutionary effect and, although Welsh
Methodism owed a good deal to Wesley and was contemporary with him, it seems
to have been largely a native response to native needs. The revival had arisen
within the fold of the Anglican church, but after 1811 the Methodists became
nonconformists, and during the first half of the nineteenth century the great
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majority of the churchgoers in most parts of Wales deserted the Church for the
nonconformist sects. Eighteenth-century evangelism had left its mark very
strongly; chapels or meeting-houses, large and small, were opened in thousands
over the length and breadth of Wales. The chapels which today dominate the
landscape are true expressions of a folk art — a rare example of an untutored
peasantry building on a large scale.
Nonconformists were originally hostile to the world and its secular
culture, but by the middle of the nineteenth century, they turned to embrace
the world, its culture and politics. They were behind the drive for a Welsh
system of education, and the rise of Radicalism and Liberalism in politics.
Nonconformists put pressure on politicians and obtained the first modern
legislation dealing specially with Wales — among other things, the provision
of secondary schools, and the closing of pubs on Sundays. This Sunday Closing
Act has now been partially repealed, but every seven years the population
nolds a referendum to decide whether the pubs should open or close on Sundays.
When the bard-preacher became the characteristic figure of culture, the
ministers and deacons took over the secular leadership in society. By 1914 the
nonconformists achieved their greatest triumph in establishing the Church of
Wales, the ancient revenues of the Church going to educational institutions.
Church taxes are still paid to this day, but they go to the county councils,
being used for cultural or educational purposes.
Nonconformity provides an excellent example of how a movement of alien
origin can be grasped by a people and turned into something essentially its
own. In the last hundred years or so, Welshness has to many minds been equated
with the life of the chapel.
TOURIST WALES
Cardiff. Cardiff has been the official capital of Wales since 1955. There
has been a community here for hundreds of years, but it began to grow quickly
and to become prosperous during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
This was the period when the coal, iron and steel industries were developing
in south Wales, and Cardiff became a major industrial town and an important
port. However, when these industries began to decline, Cardiff suffered too.
Today the docks are much smaller, but the city is now expanding as a commer-
cial and administrative centre. It is an attractive and interesting place to
live in, with good communications, plenty of parks and a varied population
which includes nearly 10,000 university and college students.
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The spacious Civic Centre in Cathays Park contains the offices of civic
and national institutions. Cardiff Castle dates from 1093 and is built on the
site of a Roman fort, although a great part of it was built during the last
century.
Llandaff Cathedral is only 2 miles north-west of Cardiff. The first church,
built in the sixth century, was of wood, replaced in the twelfth century by
Norman stone. Extensively damaged during the Second World War, it was re-
constructed and re-opened in 1957 and the interior of the nave is dominated by
an aluminium sculpture by Epstein of Christ in Majesty.
On the banks of the river Taff, near the city centre, is the National
Stadium, the famous Rugby football ground. The city is the home of the
University College of Cardiff and of the National Museum of Wales, which
houses Welsh archaeological, art, industrial, zoological and other collections
The Welsh Folk Museum, featuring restored buildings and traditional craftc
of Wales, is at St Fagans, a village of thatched cottages on the western
outskirts of Cardiff.
Of 59 special attractions which are able to draw some 20,000 visitors per
year, no fewer than 18 were castles from Norman to Edwardian periods. Top of
the list, and drawing more than twice as many visitors as an average attrac-
tion, is Caernarfon Castle — not only a superb example of medieval military
architecture, but widely known because of its association with the investiture
of the Prince of Wales (ill. 42).
The entire defensive complex of Conwy Castle (ill. 43) is in a good state
of preservation. It is still possible to walk along the castle’s 3 metres
thick walls, which were built in the shape of a Welsh harp and are half a mile
in length, with eight great drum-towers and 21 semicircular towers at regular
intervals. The castle was begun in the thirteenth century for Edward I and,
like Caernarfon, was involved in the turbulent history of the Middle Ages and
the Civil War.
Harlech was built by Edward' I in 1283 on the site of an early Celtic
fortress (ill. 44). During the Wars of the Roses Harlech was the last North
Wales stronghold of the Lancastrians, and also the last castle held by* the
Royalists in the Civil War. Marvellous views of the Snowdon range can be seen
from Harlech.
A fairly recent tourist activity, pony trekking, in many respects reflects
its close association with the growth of a motorised urban population seeking
rural recreation. In Wales, where it began in 1955, it has expanded to become
one of the more important minor rural industries, lending a particular
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character to the Welsh holiday scene. Pony-trekking centres cluster in mid
Wales, with major concentrations around the Black Mountains.
Whereas part of the attraction of lowland countryside is its ability to
provide rural calm, the appeal of the mountains is the call of the wild. There
are three National Parks in Wales: The Pembrokeshire Coast, Brecon Beacons and
Snowdonia. The Pembrokeshire park is mostly lowland; the Brecon Beacons is
composed mainly of rolling hill country with a high point of 884 metres, while
the Snowdonia park is the most mountainous, with the Snowdon summit reaching
1,085 metres (ill. 40). All of them both attract thousands of tourists,
promote recreational pleasures and protect fine scenery.
Additionally five Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty were designated over
a period of thirty years, the main aim of which is to keep development
harmonious with the landscape. The 1970s saw the establishment of two long-
distance walking routes, the Pembrokeshire Coast Path and the Offa’s Dyke Path,
both 250 km. long. Demand has also grown for a network of way-marked footpaths
giving controlled access to the countryside. In the same spirit fourteen
heritage coasts were designated for the better conservation and management of
particular stretches of coastline.
A further source of tourist interest are the industrial remnants of past
centuries. Of particular interest for tourists are the narrow-gauge railway
lines which once served the old small-scale industries, for example, the
"Great Little Trains of Wales1*. There are thirteen lines of them serving
seasonal tourist traffic, but many years ago they were built for industrial
purposes. Whatever their origin, they now constitute one of the leading
special attractions (ill. 45, 46).
Craft industries too have proved an attraction to holiday visitors and
consequently many have undergone a revival in recent years. Some have grown
from being local suppliers of traditional souvenirs and expanded to meet
tourist demands. Visitors are intrigued to watch glass being blown or engraved
toy soldiers being cast, cheese or candles being made. Examples of the crafts
which have lately expanded are slate carving and love spoon cutting.
ON WELSH TRADITIONS
St David is the patron saint of Wales. He was a monk who lived on bread,
water, herbs and leeks and died on March 1, 589 AD. The leek became the
national emblem for Wales, and medieval soldiers used to wear leeks as they
rode to battle. Nowadays, the leek is worn on St David’s Day (March 1)—the
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Welsh national holiday and at international rugby matches. The daffodil is
also a Welsh national emblem.
The Welsh "national" costume seen on the dolls and postcards is largely a
myth created for tourism (ill. 47). Certainly, the seventeenth-century country
women wore long coloured skirts, a white apron and a tall black hat, but so
did English women at that time. In the nineteenth century, the idea of a
national costume was born and this pleased both tourists and locals, although
there is no evidence at all of a long-lost costume.
The Welsh Eisteddfodau. No country in the world has a greater love of
music and poetry than the people of Wales. Today, Eisteddfodau are held at
scores of places throughout Wales, particularly from May to early November.
The habit of holding similar events dates back to early history, and there are
records of competitions for Welsh poets and musicians in the twelfth century.
The Eisteddfod sprang from the National Assembly of Bards. It was held
occasionally up to 1819, but since then has become an annual event for the
encouragement of Welsh literature and music and the preservation of the Welsh
language and ancient national customs.
The Royal National Eisteddfod of Wales is held annually early in August,
its actual venue varying from year to year. It attracts Welsh people from all
over the world. The programme includes male and mixed choirs, brass-band
concerts, many children's events, drama, arts and crafts and, of course, the
ceremony of the Crowning of the Bard.
Next in importance is the great Llangollen International Music Eisteddfod,
held early in July and attended by competitors from many countries, all
wearing their picturesque and often colourful national costumes. It is an
event probably without parallel anywhere in the world. There are at least
twenty-five other major Eisteddfodau from May to November. In addition to the
Eisteddfodau, about thirty major Welsh Singing Festivals are held throughout
Wales during the same period of time.
Lovespoons. Lovespoons were given by suitors to their sweethearts in
Wales from the seventeenth to the early nineteenth century (ill. 48).л The
custom of giving lovespoons died out in the nineteenth century but they
continued to be carved especially in some country districts. Making lovespoons
became something of an art form and woodwork competitions and Eisteddfodau
often had examples of the genre.
In recent years, interest in lovespoons has reawakened and many people
seek them out as desirable keepsakes. Visitors to Wales, particularly from
overseas, wanting something uniquely Welsh to remind them of their visit,
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often choose a lovespoon. There is also a growing tendency for Welsh people
themselves to give lovespoons as gifts to commemorate special occasions —
a new baby, a birthday, an impending marriage, a retirement or to celebrate a
success of some kind. Lovespoons also make excellent Christmas presents. Today,
when most people have neither the time nor the inclination to carve their own
lovespoons, the accepted practice is to buy a ready-made example of the craft
or to commission one of the woodcarver specialists to make one.
Since pre-history, beautiful, hand-carved objects have had ceremonial,
romantic and religious significance: long incense and cosmetic spoons, for
example, have survived from Egyptian times. In the Middle Ages, a pair of
knives in a sheath was considered a worthy gift and it was common for a
bridegroom to present his bride with one: such sets were known as "wedding
knives".
The history of kitchen utensils and the spoon belongs to Western culture.
The history of the lovespoon belongs to Welsh romantic folklore.
From the mid-seventeenth century, lovespoons were carved from wood in
Wales and there is one dated 1677 in the collection at the Welsh Folk Museum
in Cardiff. It is amazing that it has survived because wooden objects are not
particularly durable. '
From the seventeenth century, the custom grew for a young man to give a
spoon to the lady who took his fancy. Thus, particularly attractive young
ladies might be given a number of spoons from aspiring suitors. It may be that
modern word, "spooning" indicating a closer development of a relationship, is
derived from this practice of giving a love token.
Early lovespoons were carved from sycamore which was readily available in
the low-lying country districts of Wales. The main tool used was a pocket
knife. Those who made such spoons were amateurs and it was a way of passing
the time on long winter evenings. Imagine a young man busily shaping a spoon
in a small room lit only by candlelight or the glow of a fire.
Numerous examples of lovespoons have been found throughout Wales but the
giving and receiving of a spoon did not develop into "a ritual of betrothal".
Indeed, there is strong evidence to suggest that giving a lovespoon expressed
a desire for a relationship and was not an affirmation that a relationship had
already begun.
Some young men did not have the time or the skill to carve their own
spoons and professional lovespoon carvers emerged. It was again, a question of
demand and supply. Spoons were bartered for or purchased from these skilled
craftsmen and a tradition of spoons made by the same wood worker grew in the
- 241
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It was no wonder then, that the spoon
became more decorative and elaborate.
A number of design factors should be mentioned in relation to spoon
carving including size, weight, colour and the nature of the completed
artefact. As far as size is concerned, the earliest spoons were little bigger
than the modern teaspoon, their use was limited, and larger spoons soon came
to be carved. This meant that the handles, in particular, could be more and
more elaborate. As they became more decorative, the spoons were displayed by
hanging them on the wall in the living room or parlour. The weight and type of
wood used for such a spoon depended on the setting in which it was to be
displayed. Softwoods were often preferred and the colour selected so that it
would look good against a wall.
A great deal of imagination was used in the creation of lovespoons. This
elaboration was gradual. Two or even three bowls were carved instead of one to
make it more interesting and attractive. Eventually, the bowl became less
important and attention turned first to the handle and then to embellishments
or additions to the handle. Sometimes the handle was enlarged or made rect-
angular in shape. At other times, filigree was added. The handle was pierced,
cutting designs in fretwork or carving in relief were devices to add interest
and meaning to the spoon. In this way? symbols were incorporated: hearts,
locks, keys, shields, anchors and wheels were favoured themes.
A heart or a series of hearts was the most popular expression of love used
on spoons. These might be single or entwined to suggest that the boy and his
girl would soon feel the same way about each other. As the spoons became more
decorative, their utilitarian use ceased altogether and they , were used more
for display. The heart was also an attractive and convenient device for
suspending the spoon on a wall. Indeed, most spoons have a device for hanging
them up, indicating that they were decorative rather than functional.
Anchors in particular were popular: the suitor has found a berth where he
wished to stay. Many lovespoons were the work of seafarers who whiled away the
tedium of a voyage by whittling. Besides anchors, ropes and cable designs
often appear, as do vessels, steering wheels and various other nautical
emblems.
Locks (keeping love or a lover safe), keys (unlocking love), miniature
cottages and houses are recurrent themes with associations of lovers making a
life together. The key may have a triple significance for it may indicate
unlocking the door to the heart, it may indicate maturity (reaching 21 and the
key to the door theme) or it may mean "let's live in marriage together".
- 242 -
Chain links look very difficult to carve and are another development of
the whittier’s art showing the woodworker’s skill. Suggestions are that the
links symbolically ’’link" the sweethearts together in love and possibly
matrimony.
It must be stressed that many assumptions have been made about the
meanings of the motifs which appear on lovespoons. Imagery is always difficult
to explain and certain motifs may have had more personal significance for the
donor than can be appreciated by the casual observer. Spoons were not mass-
produced but made by one individual for another and many relied on personal
nuances other than symbols to convey meaning.
Some spoons are dated. If the couple eventually marry, they then become
a keepsake of the suitor’s original interest. Other spoons are personalised
either by initials or by an emblem of the occupation or the interests of the
donor or donee. Often a carver wishes to incorporate a date, a monogram, a
motto, a name or a quotation into a carving. If he wants to. keep it a secret,
he may work the date or name into the design.
Nationalistic emblems such as a daffodil, a leek, the word Cymru or even
a dragon are sometimes used, but they are usually to be found on modern
spoons. Some spoons are intended to be in the nature of Valentines and to be
anonymous. It is difficult to understand, though, that someone who had spent
many hours creating such a gift would not want his work to be appreciated.
Others are decorated with dual initials, those of the suitor and his lady or
with a single initial when we are left to guess whether this represents the
donor or the donee. But we must try not to read too much into the minds of the
carvers rof earlier days. Whatever we think, we cannot help being amazed by
the consummate skill of these lovespoon craftsmen.
- 243 -
Further Reading
Edward Allhusen: John Constable (The Medici Society Ltd. 1976)
Maurice Ashley: The People of England (Weidenfeld and Nicolson 1982)
George Bellew: Britain’s Kings and Queens (Pitkin Pictorials 1974)
S.T. Bindoff: Tudor England (Penguin 1965)
Robin Birley: Hadrian's Wall. A Personal Guide (Roman Army Museum Publications,
Carvoran, Greenhead, Northumberland 1990)
Sidney Blackmore: Discovering English Literary Associations (Shire
Publications Ltd. 1973)
Alan Bold: Scottish Clans (Pitkin Pictorials 1973)
Derry Brabbs: English Country Pubs (Weidenfeld & Nicolson 1986)
Asa Briggs: A Social History of England (Weidenfeld & Nicolson 1983)
Britain and Its People (Foreign & Commonwealth Office 1992)
British Democracy in Action (Foreign & Commonwealth Office 1993)
The British Isles. A Symphony in Colour (Colour Library International 1980)
Ken Cargill: Scotland 2000 (BBC 1987)
J.A. Carruth: Robert Bums' Scotland (Jarrold Publishing, Norwich 1992)
Valerie Chancellor: Medieval and Tudor Britain (Penguin 1967)
Ethne Clarke & Clay Perry: English Country Gardens (Weidenfeld & Nicolson
Ltd. 1985)
David Cook: Castles of Wales and the Welsh Marches (Pitkin Pictorials 1984)
Alec Court: The Romantic Castles of Scotland (Oarcold Publishing 1992)
Peter Crawfocd: The Living Isles. A Natural History of Britain and Ireland
(BBC 1985)
Ralf Dahrendocf: On Britain (BBC 1983)
Focus on Britain (Foreign & Commonwealth Office 1993)
Bryan Frank: Discover Scotland (London and Edinburgh 1979)
William Gaunt: English Painting. A Concise History of English Painting (Thames
and Hudson 1983)
Great Events of the 20th Century (The Automobile Association 1989)
Dorothy George: England in Transition (Penguin 1962)
Christopher Harvie: Cultural Weapons. Scotland and Survival in a New Europe
(Polygon, Edinburgh 1992)
Christopher Harvie: Europe and the Scottish Nation (Scottish Centre for
Economic and Social Research 1991)
Karen Hewitt: Understanding Britain (Perspective Publications Limited, Oxford
& Moscow 1994)
Mark Girouard: Historic Houses of Britain (Peerage Books 1984)
- 244 -
G. Keelie: The Wee Glasgow Facts Book (Glasgow 1989)
T. Khimunina, N. Konon, I. Walshe: Customs, Traditions and Festivals of Great
Britain (Moscow 1984)
Elizabeth Laird: Faces of Britain, 1989
J.D. Mackie: A History of Scotland (Penguin 1984)
Arthur Marwick: British Society since 1945 (Penguin Books 1990)
Allan Massie: The Novel Today. A Critical Guide to the British Novel 1970-
1989 (Longman Group Ltd in association with The British Council 1990)
The Media in Britain (Foreign & Commonwealth Office 1994)
Frank Milner: The Pre-Raphaelites. Pre-Raphaelite Paintings and Drawings in
Merseyside Collections (National Museums & Galleries on Merseyside 1988)
Martin Montgomery, Helen Reid-Thomas and Richard Walker: Language and Social
Life (The British Council 1994)
K.O. Morgan (ed.): The Oxford Illustrated History of Britain (Oxford
University Press 1984)
A.L. Morton: A People’s History of England (Lawrence & Wishart 1984)
Michael Nation: A Dictionary of Modern Britain (Penguin English 1991)
Mario Papa, Giuliano lantorno: Famous British & American Songs and their
Cultural Background (Longman 1990)
Parliamentary Elections in Britain (Foreign & Commonwealth Office 1992)
A.J. Patrick: The Making of a Nation, 1603-1789 (Penguin 1982)
Benedict Read: Millais (The Medici Society 1993)
Jasper Ridley: The History of England (Routledge and Kegan Paul 1981)
Adrian Room: An A to Z of British Life. Dictionary of Britain. Oxford
University Press 1990
Susan Sheerin, Jonathan Seath, Gillian White: Spotlight on Britain (Oxford
University Press 1990)
Alan Sked and Chris Cook: Post-War Britain (Penguin 1984)
Lawrence Stone: The Family, Sex and Marriage in England 1500-1800 (Weidenfeld
& Nicolson 1977)
David Thomas: J.M.W. Turner (The Medici Society 1994)
David Thomson: England in the Twentieth Century (Penguin 1983)
Peter J. Westwood: The Deltiology of Robert Burns (Creedon Publications 1994)
Peter J. Westwood: Jean Armour. Mrs Robert Burns. An Illustrated Biography
(Creedon Publications 1996)
Gwynn Williams: When was Wales? (Penguin 1985)
1. Stonehenge, Wiltshire
2. Hadrian’s Wall
3. Windsor Cas: e. =e'<shire
4. Salisbury Cathedral, Wiltshire
5. The West front of York Minster
6. Canterbury Cathedral
7. Oxford, colleges of the University of Oxford
8. Oxford, Radcliffe Camera
’'Я
9. Cambridge, King’s College Chapel
10. Cambridge, Bridge of Sighs
11. Stratford-upon-Avon. Shakespeare’s Birthplace

12. Stratford-upon-Avon, Anne Hathaway’s Cottage. It. was from here
that Anne Hathaway was married to William Shakespeare
13. The Houses of Pao:a
and Westminster Bridge, London
background flanked by Government and Opposition benches
15. The House of Commons. The Speaker’s Chair and Table of House
are flanked by Government and Opposition benches

\ лг^' _	Ж
> V С >
^i-pu_3S;E«»
.'яИмШ!

16. London, No 10 Downing Street
17. London, Buckingham Palace
18. London, Aerial view of Tower Bridge and the City of London
19. London, Tower of London and Tower Bridge
20. London, Tower of London, Beefeaters
21. London, St.Paul’s Cathedral
22. A typical thatched cottage in the village of Sutton, Oxfordshire
23. An aerial view of the bungalow and :he lawn of Mr. & Mrs. Gillett in
Sutton, Oxfordshire
24. Scotland, Loch Lomond
25. Scotland, Ben Nevis, the h.chest mountain in the British Isles

26. Edinburgh, Princes Street
27. Edinburgh, Edinburgh Castle
28. Edinburgh, Sir Walter Scott Monument

30. Glasgow, Glasgow Cathedral
31. Glasgow, City Centre
32. A Pipe-Major of the Queen’s Own
Cameron Highlanders, wearing the Royal
Stuart Tartan
33. Modern Scots wearing the national cos-
tume
34. Robert Burns
35. Robert Burns’ Cottage, Alloway -- Birthplace of Scotland’s National
Bard
36. Scottish Thistle

4
37. Tossing the caber. This is a truly Scottish sport and is
an outstanding event at any Highland Gathering. The caber
is poised off the shoulder before being tossed forwards.
The heavy end strikes the ground and the lighter end
should fall directly away from and in line with the tosser
38. Scottish Highland Dancers
39. Loch Ness Monster Exposition Centre, Loch Ness
40. Wales, Snowdonia National Park
41. Wales. Llandudno Bay
42. Wales, Caernarfon Castle
43. Wales, Conwy Castle
44. Wales, Harlech Castle
45. Wales, Snowdon Mountain Railway Train
Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwll-llandysiliogogogoch
46. This station name, containing 58 letters, the longest station name in
Britain, is now the Railway Museum near Bangor, Wales
47. Welsh folk dancers in authentic national
costume
LOVE SPOONS
FROM WALES
Ibe custom of giving wooden articles as
gifts to bned onus was widespread fr>m the
Hlh century Such gdb «хае imide and
dv.cc.r.tmd by the donors and covered the
whole range of domestic woedw-arc, this
often included large items of furniture tor
the future home.
The custom of giving 1<»ч spoons
originated in Wales, the scmboljsm arising
fjom spoons of similar size lilting closely
logcthei as suggested io Trotter’s
‘Distressed Seamen," 170K, “They are
stowed spounways and so closely lacked in
one another’s wib that it is difficult to
mose?‘
Numerous examples of love spoons have
been found throughout the Principality but
ibejc is no doemnuntary evidence to
suggest hut the offer of a love spoon by a
',uib>j and its acceptance ot refusal by his
lover developed into a ritual <d belruihul or
rejection amongst the Welsh peasantry.
Indeed, there is evidence to suggest ’dial
love spoons were pari of the prelude to
courtship and were offered as a sign that a
liaison was desired, I bus, a toqiiede might
be given a spoon by a numbered would-be
sBUOfS.
I ovu spoons have not survived from
earlier than the Г/th ccnlur), and there is a
spoon dated 1667 in the collection at S{.
Fagan's Castle, Cardiif.
Wc do know; however, that wooden
spoons were made by the peasantry and that
spoon making wax a special pastime doling
the lung winter months even before 170').
48. Hand carved Love Spoon from Wales
- 293 -
CONTENTS
Russian Preface .......................................................... 3
English Preface ....................................................„....	5
Great Britain in Profile ................................................. 7
An Outline of British History ........................................... 13
Government and Politics ................................................. 50
Education................................................................ 60
Mass Media ......................................... -................... 66
The Press ........................................................... 66
Television and Radio ................................................ 71
The Welfare State ........................................................ 74	,
Social Security .........................’........................... 74
The National Health	Service ......................................... 76
The Social Services .................................................. 79	•
Religion ................................................'............... 60
An Outline of British Art .............................................   84
The Promotion of the Arts -............................................   98
Drama................................................................ 99
Music, Opera and Dance ............................................... 102
Films ................................................................ 103
Museums and Art Galleries ............................................ 104
London and Its Places of Interest ...........*.......................... 105
Houses of Parliament ................................................  10/
Westminster Abbey .................................................     1011
No. 10, Downing .Street .............................................. 109
Trafalgar Square ................................................... 109
National Gallery ................................................... 110
Buckingham Palace .................................................. 110
St Paul's Cathedral ................................................ 110
The British Museum.......................................... ....... 111
Tower of London .................................................... Ill
Piccadilly Circus .................................................. 117
The National Theatre ............................................... 11)
Madame Tu.ssaud's .................................................. 1|1
Hyde Park .......................................................   Ilr.
Leisure and Private Life ...J.;......................................... Ik.
Sport ............................................................... П/
Theatre and Cinema ................................................. I/O
-29Ь
Other Recreations .................................................... 121
Marriage, Home and Family ............................................ 124
On the English Character.................................................. 127
Character ...........................................................  129
Beliefs and Values ................................................... 131
Behaviour ............................................................ 134
Manners .............................................................. 136
Sense of Humour .....................................................•	138
Conversation ......................................................... 138
Obsessions ..........................................................  140
Leisure and Pleasure ................................................. 141
On British Traditions .................................................... 142
New Year Celebrations................................................. 142
The Night of Hogmanay ..............................................   143
St Valentine's Day ................................................... 144
Pancake Day .......................................................... 145
Easter ............................................................... 146
April Fool's Day ..................................................... 147
May Day ............................................................   147
Late Summer Bank Holiday ............................................. 149
Halloween ............................................................ 149
Guy Fawkes Night ..................................................... 150
Christmas ............................................................ 150
British Cuisine .........................................................  153
Food from Different Parts of Great Britain ........................... 155
ScoCland ............................................................. 156
Wales ................................................................ 156
England .............................................................. 158
Food for Festivals ................................................... 160
Sport and Active Recreation .............................................. 162
Scotland..........................................................  -..... 167
Scotland in Profile ...................................................... 167
History................................................................... 169
Education ..............................................................   179
Media ..................................................................   183
On Scottish Literature ................................................... 186
Art ..............,....................................................... 192
Music, Song and Dance .................................................... 194
- 295 -
Edinburgh and Glasgow ....................................................  198
Great Scots: at Home and Abroad ........................................... 203
Robert Burns: His Life and Work ........................................... 204
On Scottish Traditions .................................................... 206
The Clan .............................................................. 207
The Tartan ............................................................ 208
Food and Drink ......................................................   209
Scotch Whisky ......................................................... 210
Burns Night ........................................................... 212
Loch Ness and the Monster ............................................. 212
Wales...................................................................... 214
Profile of Wales .......................................................... 214
History ................................................................... 217
Education ...............................................................   225
Media ..................................................................... 226
Act ....................................................................... 229
Music ..................................................................... 232
Literature ................................................................ 214
Religion and Society ...................................................... 235
Tourist Wales ............................................................. 236
On Welsh Traditions .....................................................   238
Further Reading ..........................................................  2^3
"Hi»-
Ч‘ Не-
научное издание
ВЕЛИКОБРИТАНИЯ: история, культура, образ жийни
Лингвострановедческий очерк
Юрий. Николаевич Пинягин
Редактор Л.А.Богданова
Технический редактор Г.А.Ковальчук
Корректор В.В.Ширинкина
ИБ N 96
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