Consumer Behavior
Buying, Having, and Being
Fourteenth Edition

Michael R. Solomon
Saint Joseph’s University

Cristel Antonia Russell
Pepperdine University

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Library of Congress Control Number: 2023900941

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ISBN-10:
0-13-786509-0
ISBN-13:978-0-13-786509-3

To Gail, as always.

M.S.
To Michael, thank you for the honor and opportunity.

C.A.R.

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BRIEF CONTENTS
Section

1

Chapter 1
Chapter 2

Section

2

Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chapter 5

Section

3

Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8

Section

4

Foundations of Consumer Behavior

3

Buying, Having, and Being: An Introduction to Consumer Behavior
Consumer Ethics, the Marketplace, and the Planet 26

Making Sense of the World

4

59

Perceiving and Making Meaning 60
Learning, Remembering, and Knowing
Motivation 125

89

Buying and Having: Choosing and Using Products 153
Attitudes and How to Change Them 154
Deciding 193
Buying, Using, and Disposing 221

 eing: Using Products to Create and Communicate
B
Identity 251

Chapter 9 Identity and the Self 252
Chapter 10 Personality, Values, and Lifestyles 285
Chapter 11 Social and Cultural Identity 320

Section

5

Belonging

357

Chapter 12 How Groups Define Us 358
Chapter 13 Social Class and Status 395
Chapter 14 Culture 421
Appendix A: Data Cases 455
Appendix B: Careers in Consumer Research 468
Appendix C: Consumer Research Methods 471
Appendix D: Sources of Secondary Data 477
Glossary 481
Indexes 502

v

CONTENTS
Section 1 Foundations of
Consumer Behavior 3

1

Buying, Having, and Being:
An Introduction to Consumer
Behavior 4

Consumer Behavior: People in the Marketplace 5
What Is Consumer Behavior? 5
A Branded World 7
Understanding Consumers Is Good Business 8

Consumers, Society, and Technology: A Moving Target 9
Social Media: The Horizontal Revolution 9
Artificial Intelligence and The Metaverse 10
“Big Data” and Data Analytics 10
Welcome to the Metaverse! 11
Globalization of Brands and Cultural Practices 12
Proactive Consumers and User-Generated Content 12
Consumer Trends: Keeping Up with the Culture That Won’t
Stand Still 13

PESTLE: The Economic Environment 30
Disabled Consumers 30
Consumed Consumers 31

PESTLE: The Social Environment 32
PESTLE: The Technological Environment 34
Data Privacy 34
Data Accuracy 35
Identity Theft 36
Pushing the Envelope 37
Technology Addictions 37

PESTLE: The Legal Environment 40
Governmental Regulations and Agencies 40
Consumers Behaving Badly 41

PESTLE: The Natural Environment 44
The SHIFT: Changing Consumer Behavior for the Better 47
The “Tree-Huggers” 47
Chapter Summary 48 • Key Terms 49
Review 50 • Consumer Behavior Challenge 50
Case Study Face It – Facial Recognition Is Coming to a
Walgreens Near You 52
Notes 54

Consumption: From Problem to Solution? 15
What Do We Need—Really? 15
Toward Responsible Consumption and Responsible
Business 15

Multiple Perspectives on the Study of Consumer
Behavior 17
What Disciplines Study Consumer Behavior? 17
Where Do We Find Consumer Researchers? 20
The Philosophy of This Book 20
Chapter Summary 20 • Key Terms 21
Review 22 • Consumer Behavior Challenge 22
Case Study Alexa—What Is Consumer Behavior? 23
Notes 24

2

Consumer Ethics, the
Marketplace, and the
Planet 26

Section 2 Making Sense of
the World 59

3

Perceiving and Making
Meaning 60

Sensation 60
Sensory Marketing 62
Augmented and Virtual Reality: Welcome to the
Metaverse 68

The Stages of Perception 69
Stage 1: Exposure 70
Stage 2: Attention 73
Stage 3: Interpretation 76

What Is the “Right” Thing? 27

Semiotics: The Meaning of Meaning 79

PESTLE: The Political Environment 28

Who Owns Brand Meanings? 80

Consumer Activism 28
Corporate Activism 29
Slacktivism 30

vi

Marketers Position Brands 80
But Ultimately Brand Meanings Live in Consumers’
Minds 81

Contents

Chapter Summary 81 • Key Terms 82
Review 83 • Consumer Behavior Challenge 83
Case Study The Metaverse Is Marketing’s Brave
New World 84
Notes 85

4

Consumer Needs 129
Utilitarian and Hedonic Needs 129
How Can We Understand Needs? 130
How “Needy” Are You? Individual Differences in
Motivation 132

Setting and Reaching Goals 133

Learning, Remembering, and
Knowing 89

How Do We Learn? 89
Behavioral Learning Theories 90
Classical Conditioning 90
Marketing Applications of Classical Conditioning
Principles 92
Instrumental Conditioning 95
Marketing Applications of Instrumental Conditioning
Principles 97

Cognitive Learning Theory 98
Observational Learning 98
How Kids Develop Cognitive Skills 99
Marketing Applications of Cognitive Learning
Principles 101

Remembering 101
How Our Brains Encode Information 102
What Makes Us Forget? 104
What Helps Us To Remember? 105
How Do We Measure Consumers’ Memories for Marketing
Messages? 108
Problems with Memory Measures 109
Memory Lapses, Biases, and False Memories 109
Marketing Applications of Consumers’ Memories 109

How Do We Organize What We Know? 110
Levels of Knowledge 112
How Do We Put Products into Categories? 112
“If They Own This, They Must Own That”: Consumption
Constellations 113
Marketing Applications of Consumers’ Knowledge
Structures 114
Chapter Summary 116 • Key Terms 116
Review 117 • Consumer Behavior Challenge 118
Case Study Kidfluence and Kidfluencers – Marketing to
Children Responsibly 119
Notes 121

5

vii

Motivation 125

The Motivation Process: Why Ask Why? 126
Push or Pull? Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation 126
Motivational Drive 127
Self-Regulation 128

Goal Conflicts 133
Goal Framing Affects Goal Completion 135

Consumer Involvement 137
Types of Involvement 139
Chapter Summary 144 • Key Terms 144
Review 145 • Consumer Behavior Challenge 145
Case Study Game On! Using Gamification to Engage
with Consumers 146
Notes 148

Section 3 Buying and Having:
Choosing and Using Products 153

6

Attitudes and How to Change
Them 154

The Power of Attitudes 155
Attitudes (Generally) Guide our Behavior 155
Attitudes, Fast and Slow: Cognitive and Affective
Components 156
“I Know It”: Cognitive Focus 157
“I Feel It”: Affective Focus 159
Oops! Attitudes Aren’t as Simple as We Thought 160

How Do We Form Attitudes? 162
Commitment 162
The Consistency Principle 163
Balance Theory 164

Persuasion: How Do Marketers Change Attitudes? 165
Sell the Steak or the Sizzle?: The Elaboration Likelihood
Model 166
Persuasion Knowledge: Talking Back to Marketers 168

Crafting Persuasive Communications Strategies 169
Decisions, Decisions: Tactical Communications
Options 170
The Source 171
The Message 175
The Medium 181
Chapter Summary 182 • Key Terms 183
Review 184 • Consumer Behavior Challenge 184
Case Study Anti-Smoking Advertising—Can You Be
Scared into Quitting? 187
Notes 188

viii

Contents

7

Deciding 193

Fast or Slow Thinking? 194
Rational (Slow) Decision Making 195

Section 4 Being: Using Products
to Create and Communicate
Identity 251

Steps in the Rational Decision-Making Process 195

Fast Thinking and Rules of Thumb 204
Behavioral Biases 204
Heuristics and Mental Accounting: Take the Shortcut 205

The Unseen Power of Context Effects: Framing, Priming,
and Nudging 206
Framing 207
Priming 207
Nudging 209

Online Decision Making 210
Search Engine Optimization 210
The Power of Customer Reviews 211
Cybermediaries 212
Chapter Summary 213 • Key Terms 214
Review 214 • Consumer Behavior Challenge 214
Case Study P&G and the Moments of Truth – Just How
Many Moments Are There? 217
Notes 218

8

Buying, Using, and
Disposing 221

The Shopping Experience 222
Shop ’Til You Drop? 222
In-Store Decision Making 227
Are You Satisfied? 229

E-Commerce and the Digital World 230
From Bricks to Clicks 231
Shopping Apps and In-Store Tech 231
Digital Currencies 232
Online Commerce: Raising the Bar 233
Liquid Consumption 233

New Ways to Have and Use: Ownership and the Sharing
Economy 235
The Thrill of Thrifting 236

The Climate Crisis 236
Product Disposal 236
Recycling and the Underground Economy 237

The Dark Side of Buying and Using 239
Addictive and Compulsive Behavior 239
Chapter Summary 241 • Key Terms 242
Review 242 • Consumer Behavior Challenge 243
Case Study RH — Revolutionizing Physical Retailing 245
Notes 246

9

Identity and the Self 252

The Self 252
The Self-Concept and Self-Esteem 253
The Self and Others 253
The Malleable Self 255

We Consume to Express Our Identities 258
The Extended Self 258

New Ways to Express Identity 260
Compensatory Consumption 260
Anti-Consumption as Self-Defining 260
Embodied Cognition 261
Our Digital Selves 261

Gender and Consumer Behavior 263
Gender Socialization and Gender Roles 263
Gender Differences in Consumer Behavior 263
Toward Greater Gender Fluidity 265
The Quest for Gender Justice and Equality 266

The Body 267
Ideals of Beauty and Stereotypes 267
Body Positivity: Enter the Fatshionistas 271
Body Decoration and Mutilation 272
The Mechanized Body 274
The Quantified Self 275
Chapter Summary 276 • Key Terms 276
Review 277 • Consumer Behavior Challenge 277
Case Study Retailer Torrid: Empowering Women of
all Sizes 279
Notes 280

10

Personality, Values, and
Lifestyles 285

Personality 285
How Can We Measure Personality? 286
Trait Theory 289

Values 292
Belief Systems 292
Values Related to Things 293
Values Related to Money 295
Values Related to Time 295
How Can We Understand Values? 297
The Means–End Chain Model 297
Syndicated Surveys 298

Contents

Lifestyles and Consumer Identity 298
From What to Why: Psychographics 301

The Roles Brands Play in Our Lives 305
The Brand Personality 305
How Do We Get to “Know” a Brand? 306
The Meaning Transfer Model 307
Brand Resonance 307
Archetypes (Again) 307
Spokescharacters 308
Congruence between Consumer and Brand 310
Lifestyle Brands and Lifestyle Brand Constellations 310
Selling Authenticity 312
Brand Storytelling 312
Chapter Summary 313 • Key Terms 314
Review 314 • Consumer Behavior Challenge 315
Case Study Beyoncé’s Beyhive—Honeybees and Killer
Bees in Love with their Queen 315
Notes 317

Chapter Summary 344 • Key Terms 345
Review 346 • Consumer Behavior Challenge 346
Case Study Hyundai’s OKAY Campaign: Driving Toward
Diverse Markets 350
Notes 351

Section 5 Belonging 357

12

How Groups Define Us 358

Sources of Group Influences 359
Reference Groups 359
Social Norms: How Groups Change Our Behavior 361
Differences in Susceptibility to Influence 364

Word of Mouth 364

11

Social and Cultural
Identity 320

The Dynamics of Social Identity 321
Facets of Social and Cultural Identity 321
The Dynamics of Identity 321
Salient Identity Cues 322
Threats to Social Identity 322
Intersectionality 324

The Family 324
The Meaning of Family 324
Going Nuclear? The Structure of Households Evolves 324
The Family Life Cycle 326
Parenting and Consumer Behavior 327

Age and Generations 329
Teenagers 329
“Tweens” 330
Consumers Aging Gracefully: Retirement and
Beyond 331
Age Cohorts 332

Ethnic and Racial Identities 336
Ethnic and Racial Identity 336
Ethnic and Racial Diversity in the U.S. 337
Showing Respect: Ethnic and Racial Symbols 339

Religious and Political Identity 340
Religion and Consumption 340
Marketing to Muslims 341
Political Identity 341

Community (Geographic and Place-Based
Subcultures) 342
Geodiversity 342

Viral Marketing and Buzz Building 365
Negative WOM 365
Buzz Gone Bad 367
Information Flows in Social Networks: Who Knows
Whom? 367
Who Influences Us: Opinion Leaders and Social Media
Influencers 370

Who Influences Us: Collective Decision Making 375
The Collective Decision Making Process 375
The Intimate Corporation: Collective Decision Making in
Households 376
Collective Decision Making in Organizations 378

Who Influences Us: Consumer Communities 380
Consumer Collectives 380
A Culture of Participation 380
Brand Communities 381
Support Groups 383
Gaming Communities 384
Chapter Summary 384 • Key Terms 385
Review 386 • Consumer Behavior Challenge 387
Case Study Lush is Trying to Find an Authentic Voice
Online 389
Notes 390

13

Social Class and Status 395

What Is Social Class? 395
Social Class Provides a Set of Resources 396
Social Distinction, Taste, and Habitus 398
Online Capital 398

ix

x

Contents

“Is That a Yoga Mat?” Taste Cultures and Codes 399
How Do We Measure Social Class? 400

Social Class Structures 401
Social Stratification 401
Social Mobility 402
Some Key Factors That Influence Consumer Behavior within
and across Social Classes 404

Social Status and Consumption 406
To Whom Do We Compare Ourselves? 406
Status Symbols 407
The Meaning of “Luxury” 410

The Diffusion of Innovations 437
How Do We Decide to Adopt an Innovation? 437
What Determines Whether an Innovation Will Diffuse? 440
The Diffusion of Consumption Practices 441
The Fashion System 442
Consumers as Sources of Innovations 444
Chapter Summary 445 • Key Terms 445
Review 446 • Consumer Behavior Challenge 446
Case Study Twist, Lick, and Dunk! Does It Make Oreos
Taste Better? 448
Notes 450

Social Inequality, Poverty, and Social Justice 411
The Bottom of the Pyramid: Low-Income Consumers 411
The Role of Consumption in Social Justice: Walk the
Walk 412
Social Responsibility 413
Chapter Summary 413 • Key Terms 414
Review 414 • Consumer Behavior Challenge 415
Case Study Are Dollar Stores Really Cheaper? 416
Notes 417

14

Culture 421

Appendices

A

Consumption Rituals 428
Rituals and Community 428
Ritual Artifacts and Scripts 429

Products Are Vessels of Cultural Meanings 434
Sacred and Profane Products 434
Global Consumer Culture 436

455

Case 1: Analyzing the Athletic Shoe Market 455
Case 2: Evolving Trends in Fitness and French Fries 458
Case 3: Cats, Kibble, and Commercials 460
Case 4: Going Global with Juice 464

Careers in Consumer

B Research

Cultural Systems 421
Dimensions of Culture 423
How We Learn about Our Culture 423
Cultural Meaning Creation and Movement 425
Myths 426

Data Cases

468

C

Consumer Research
Methods 471

D

Sources of Secondary Data

Glossary 481
Indexes 502

477

PREFACE
Professors often refer to the Consumer Behavior: Buying, Having, and Being textbook as “a classic.”
But even classics can benefit from a good overhaul! The 14th edition of this textbook did not just get a paint job and new window coverings; it got a major upgrade,
from top to bottom, from front to end. Virtually every chapter has been reworked to
its core: stretched, twisted, flexed, and altogether pepped up.
How and where did this classic textbook get this infusion of new energy? A new
coauthor.
Welcome to the Solomon and Russell edition.
Cristel Russell is an award-winning consumer researcher. With over 80 peerreviewed publications—including many in the most prestigious journals, such as the
Journal of Consumer Research—and 250 presentations at both academic and practitioners’ conferences, Cristel knows how to conduct and explain research. She loves
to approach questions from multiple perspectives and approaches, and she conducts
all kinds of consumer research studies, from experiments to surveys to qualitative
interviews. Cristel also knows how to vet good research: She serves as associate
editor and is on the boards of several of the field’s premier journals. She is also an
experienced teacher of this topic, having taught consumer behavior courses on four
continents and across a variety of class sizes, modalities, and programs.
The Solomon-Russell collaboration is harmonious: The soul is intact, and you will
find the same conversational tone and humor that earned Michael Solomon’s book so
many accolades. But the body is strengthened and revitalized: Cristel kickstarted a thorough revision from every angle and every direction. As a result, the content is a crisp,
fresh, and organized structure of the latest, hottest, but also most complex facets of
consumer behavior. We did not shy away from any of the important sociocultural issues
that have shaped the consumers’ world over the past few years. We also continue the
book’s long tradition of embracing multiple perspectives and approaches, which have
also been central to both Michael’s and Cristel’s own academic research portfolios.
The five key elements (Figure FM.1) that make this book different from other
consumer behavior texts, as well as different from the previous edition of this textbook are: flow, focus, intentionality, freshness, and attention to practice.

What’s New and Notable in This Edition
1. The textbook has a new flow. As you’ll see in Figure 1.1, the textbook still
contains 14 chapters, but the flow of chapters is different. Section 1 centers
students on the core perspectives and issues that inform consumer behavior.
Chapter 1 sets the intention for the textbook and the course, and Chapter 2
orients the reader to all the ethical facets and issues that shape our consumption environment. Section 2 includes three chapters on sensing and knowing.
Section 3 tackles the processes of persuasion, decision making, choosing, and
using. Section 4 addresses being through the many facets of personality and
identity. Finally, Section 5 taps into belonging by discussing the social, class,
and cultural elements that shape consumer behavior.
2. The book is unapologetically consumption focused. This edition is not about
what marketers can or may do to consumers; it is squarely about consumers.

xi

xii

Preface

Flow

Attention to
Practice

Focus

CONSUMER
BEHAVIOR

Freshness

Intentionality

Figure FM.1 Five Elements

Of course, we recognize the many managerial implications of consumer behavior (if you don’t have customers, you don’t have a business!), but the focus of
every chapter is on understanding consumers and how these actions affect them.
3. Throughout the book, you will notice an intentional focus on the crucial
issues that affect us today: climate change and its implications in terms of
consumption choices and societal concerns such as diversity, social justice, etc.
We hope you will also note our determination to ramp up our focus upon
inclusion and representation. We teach the stuff: It’s easy to fall back on
examples that are most familiar to us. But it’s undeniably true that many of our
students over the years primarily see people in marketing communications who
don’t look like them. We thoroughly scrubbed the entire textbook, case selection, and examples, as well as visuals, to ensure diversity and broader representation that more realistically reflects today’s complex cultural environment.
4. Freshness: Out with the old, in with the new. The new authorship collaboration was the perfect opportunity for a major cleanup to incorporate fresh ideas.
While we continue to pay homage to the classic studies that continue to inform
our understanding of consumers today, we made a dedicated, exhaustive effort
to update every chapter. The result is easy to see. The majority of references
in each chapter are from the past five years. There is a slew of new easy-toprocess tables and figures to organize the content in visually accessible ways.
Even the appendices have gotten a full revamp. As has always been the case
with this textbook, topics and examples are chosen carefully so as to engage
the “typical” student who regards anything that happened before, say, 2021, as
ancient history.

Preface

xiii

5. Continued attention to practice. We are both published academic researchers. But
we also know academics must talk the talk of practitioners. As regular contributors
to Forbes (Michael) and Psychology Today (Cristel) and because of our work with a
multitude of real marketers, we are always attuned to what’s happening in consumers’ worlds. We explain to thousands of readers why and how changes in technology or sociopolitical events affect consumers’ behavior. This attention to practice
is also reflected in the book’s integration of industry data. Thus, you’ll find a large
number of studies that companies and survey firms have conducted to support the
academic data. This edition also includes updated end-of-section assignments with
data provided by GfK, one of the world’s largest marketing research firms. These
allow students to “get their hands dirty” by actually working with real information
that they can manipulate and use to do a deep dive into real-world problems.
The book marries a strong theoretical and empirical foundation with the
practical applications of these insights to the everyday practice of marketing.
Thoughtful discussion and application questions at the end of each chapter also
encourage students to integrate what they have learned with what is going on
around them in the real world.
6. More visuals, organizing frameworks, and synthesis tables. Across the book,
you will see many new figures to provide visual roadmaps for the reader. You
will also see added tables that offer lots of information but in a more efficient
and effective fashion.
7. Every chapter features new call-out “Buying, Having, Being” boxes to illustrate the content with current issues that affect consumer well-being, business
practice, or the world as we know it.

Chapter-by-Chapter Updates
Chapter 1 Buying, ­Having,
and Being: An Introduction
to Consumer Behavior

The chapter sets the tone for the book with a new vignette related to the textbook cover, a
renewed focus on consumers and the types of research methods and approaches that inform
our understanding of consumer behavior, as well as a new table illustrating research questions about the metaverse from these different perspectives.
Notable new key terms: artificial intelligence (AI), brand, consumer centricity, consumption,
content points, cultural distinctiveness, horizontal revolution, identity, metaverse, paradigms,
transmedia storytelling

Chapter 2 Consumer
­Ethics, the Marketplace,
and the Planet

The chapter was entirely reorganized around the elements of the PESTLE framework.
A new table was introduced to present the elements of PESTLE. Six new call-out boxes
were created to set the tone of the book: Topics of those boxes range from hunger among
college students to the growing use of facial recognition in business practice as well as
ethical concerns, like greenwashing and wokewashing.
Notable new key terms: algorithm bias, artificial intelligence, brand purpose, cancel ­culture, circular economy, conscious consumerism, consumer activism, corporate
­sociopolitical activism (CSA), corporate social irresponsibility (CSI), data breach, data
privacy, eco-wakening, fast fashion, financial literacy, food insecurity, genetic data, infodemic, prosocial behaviors, social justice, wokewashing

Chapter 3 Perceiving and
Making Meaning

The chapter was updated to incorporate all the latest insights about visual perception and
semiotics, along with new illustrations and a synthesis table. In addition, a new section
about consumers’ active role in shaping brand perceptions and meanings was included.
Notable new key terms: brand antifragility, contamination, contestations, cross-modal
effect, hedonic escalation, inference, materiality, metacognitive inference, multiscreening,
pre-attentive processing, psychological ownership, relational processing

xiv

Preface

Chapter 4 Learning,
Remembering, and
Knowing

The chapter’s new title reflects the addition of a new objective and section on knowledge.
This section gathers some of the content previously dispersed in other sections (like semantic
network) and incorporates new content related to knowledge and expertise. We streamlined
the content of some formerly dense sections (e.g., memory) and included more recent studies in the context of social media, gaming, and advergaming studies. We incorporated more
examples from social media, digital media, and new forms of marketing communications
(product placements, sponsorships, etc.) in both text and visuals and relied more heavily on
illustrative examples from public health campaigns. Finally, we integrated mindfulness into
this chapter. The figures in the chapter are new and updated.
Notable new key terms: advertising weariness, category exemplars, consumption constellations
elaboration, evaluative conditioning, expertise, false memory, hybrid products, knowledge,
knowledge structure, memory efficacy, memory markers, memory preservation, mindfulness,
motivated forgetting, nodes, product placement, semantic network, sonic branding, stimulus
generalization, theory of mind, willfully ignorant memory

Chapter 5 Motivation

The chapter was reorganized around a new model linking motivation to goals and accompanied by a new figure (5.1). We’ve added new coverage of motivation as intrinsic or
extrinsic and goal setting to the chapter. We also updated Maslow’s pyramid to reflect
the latest version with six levels, including self-transcendence. Affect-related content was
removed and relocated to later chapters.
Notable new key terms: achievement motivation, autonomy, biohacking, body positive,
competence, conscientiousness, external incentives, extrinsic motivation, frame, grit,
implemental mindset, intrinsic motivation, metamotivation, mere urgency effect, mortality
salience, nonconscious goals, outcome-oriented mindset, prevention vs. promotion motivation, quantified self movement, self-determination theory, self-regulation, terror management theory

Chapter 6 Attitudes and
How to Change Them

The chapter about attitude/persuasion received a major overhaul. It’s now organized around
a new figure (6.1), which connects persuasion processes to attitude and in turn to behavior.
A new section on crafting persuasive strategies involves decisions about the source, the
message, and the medium. Updated sections on the structure of attitudes include discussions of ambivalence and implicit versus explicit attitudes. We also updated persuasion
models to include new sections on narrative persuasion and persuasion knowledge. We
revised and updated the ELM figure and created a new table summarizing emotional and
rational appeals in advertising. Ten new boxes were added to reflect current debates about
persuasion, such as the narrative power of online reviews or the “fear of God” effect.
Notable new key terms: advertainment, affect, ambivalence, central vs. peripheral route,
counterargument, covert advertising, disclosures, emotions, explicit vs. implicit attitudes, fast vs. slow persuasion, halo effect, mental imagery, mood congruency, narrative
­persuasion, narrative transportation, narrativity, neuromarketing, persuasion knowledge
model, social desirability bias, sponsored content, supportive arguments, two-sided messages, valence

Chapter 7 Deciding

The chapter was reorganized to begin with a discussion of fast and slow thinking. This new
coverage of two systems that underpin how consumers make decisions (slow and fast) also
includes an entirely new set of research on system 1 and system 2. A new table provides a
simple review of decision-making heuristics.
Notable new key terms: behavioral biases, binary bias, choice overload, digital selling
assistants, drunk shopping, fast thinking, homo economicus, homo ludens, maximization,
opportunity costs, paradox of choice, slow thinking, standard economic model, temporal
framing, utility

Preface

Chapter 8 Buying, Using,
and Disposing

xv

This chapter on owning, using, and disposing includes new coverage of the virtualization
of our lives and the impact of the sharing economy on owning. In recognition of some of
the consumption-related issues the world faces, the chapter also addresses how the climate change crisis makes us think differently about buying, using, and disposing, and it
addresses the dark side of buying and using in a thorough and up-to-date review of maladaptive consumer behaviors.
Notable new key terms: Bitcoin, blockchain, cart abandonment rate, contamination,
customer journey methodology, dark design, hedonic vs. utilitarian, hoarding, identity
negotiation, liquid consumption, mental computation strategies, moral disgust, NFTs (nonfungible tokens), recommerce, secondary market, squander sequence, thrifting, unboxing

Chapter 9 Identity and
the Self

Chapter 9 begins the new section on being. We crafted an entirely revamped chapter to
discuss identity and the self in all of its complexities. The chapter is organized around the
self-concept, consumption as an expression of our identity, gender identity, and our bodies
as an important component of our identities. Figure 9.1 has a new look with levels of the
extended self represented as four layers around the individual in the innermost circle.
Notable new key terms: anti-consumption, bigorexia, FOMO (fear of missing out), genetic
data, independent vs. interdependent self, LGBTQ+, patriarchal masculinity, role identities, self-concept clarity, self-construal, self-enhancement, self-image-consistent product
perceptions

Chapter 10 Personality,
Values, and Lifestyles

Chapter 10 discusses personality, values, and lifestyles, and now also includes coverage of
brands. The personality section is wholly revamped with a briefer section on psychiatric perspectives and deeper insights into trait theory, including a new table with a description of the
Big Five Inventory of personality dimensions and consumer behavior examples. The values
section is organized around three themes of things, time, and money as represented in a new
figure (10.2). The branding section includes a new discussion of brand narratives.
Notable new key terms: agreeableness, authenticity, backstory, brand narrative, Big Five
Inventory, cultivation theory, deceleration, dichotomous thinking, entity vs. incremental theorists, extroversion, fresh start mindset, identity-based motivation, JOMO (Joy
of ­Missing Out), lifestyle brand, meaning transfer process, need for touch, neuroticism,
openness to experience, psychological time, religiosity, saving orientation, self-congruity,
spending orientation, timestyle, trait reactance

Chapter 11 Social and
­Cultural Identity

This whole new chapter delves into social identity. As a counterpart to Chapter 9, this
chapter addresses the larger social and cultural environments that affect our identity. The
chapter is organized per a new figure with six key facets of identity that shape who we are
and how we express ourselves with the consumption choices we make: our family, our age
groups and generations, our race/ethnicity, our religion and politics, and where we live.
Notable new key terms: affiliation, age cohort, autonomy, baby boomer, boomerang
kids, consumer identity renaissance, consumption practices, cosmopolitanism, cultural
­distinctiveness, cultural mindsets, diversity seeking, emotion profile, ethnic identification, extended family, family identity, family life cycle (FLC), household, identity
­mindsets, identity synergy, ingroup bias, life course model, material parenting, mature
market, normative respectability, nuclear family, political orientation, PRIZM, racial
stigma, respectability, social identity, social identity priming, social identity threat, subculture, tweens, urban identification

xvi

Preface

Chapter 12 How Groups
Define Us

This chapter on social influences and collectives has been entirely restructured and
revamped. The first part of the chapter focuses on reference groups and now incorporates
the role of social norms and the latest research on associative and dissociative groups
and norms. A new section on collective influences picks up on decision making from
­Chapter 9 to tackle the roles and processes within collectives, such as a family (the section on family was updated and expanded) and an organization (the section on B2B was
updated and streamlined). Also, the latest research on consumer collectives is synthesized
and organized in a new section.
Notable new key terms: activism, associative vs. dissociative norms, associative vs. dissociative reference group, consensus language, consumer collectives, counterspace, customer relationship management (CRM), influencer marketing, mere virtual p­ resence,
movements, negativity spiral, paradoxical social dynamics, perceived typicality, social
default, social empowerment, social media firestorms, susceptibility to personal influence, ties, user-generated social media, virtual support communities, word of mouse

Chapter 13 Social Class
and Status

Chapter 13 on social class and status is completely new and restructured. The first part of
the chapter offers a completely overhauled perspective on taste, social class, and social
class structures in accordance with sociological perspectives. We provide a new figure
(13.1) to explain social class as a set of resources. The next part of the chapter tackles more
psychological research on social status and ways in which consumers signal their status.
Finally, we include a discussion of social justice efforts to combat inequality.
Notable new key terms: aspirational class, class consciousness, digital divide, d­ ownward vs.
upward comparison, downward vs. upward mobility, embodied cultural capital, ­economic
capital, evolutionary perspective, health disparities, hedonic treadmill, maturity, optimal
distinctiveness theory, power distance belief, proxies, purpose-driven consumers, reverse
signaling, social change, social distinction, social status, socioeconomic status, status pivoting, status seeking, status threat, subjective socioeconomic status, symbolic capital, taste
regime, virtue signaling

Chapter 14 Culture

Chapter 14 has been updated, both in terms of academic literature and in terms of organizing figures and streamlining (e.g., the section on fashion was trimmed to the most essential
elements). New sections on myth, new boxes (including one on the tightness–looseness
of social norms), and a broader section on cultural meaning are included in the chapter.
In this section, the cultural meaning transfer model is updated to account for the feedback
loop (Figure 14.1). The final section on diffusion features a new organizing figure (14.4),
which illustrates the ingredients for a successful innovation. The chapter concludes with an
acknowledgement of the increasingly active role of consumers (co-creation, crowdsourcing) in consumption as well as product development.
New key terms: acculturation, adoption rates, country-of-origin (COO), crowdsourcing,
cultural appropriation, enculturation, ethnocentrism, extraordinary beliefs, individualism, indulgence vs. restraint, long-term orientation, masculinity, power distance, practice
­diffusion, practices, tightness–looseness (strength of social norms), uncertainty avoidance,
value co-creation, wisdom of crowds

Appendix A: Data Cases
Appendix B: Careers in
Consumer Research
Appendix C: Consumer
Research Methods
Appendix D: Sources of
Secondary Data

Appendices have been updated and expanded: Appendix A contains three updated data
cases. Appendix B now has a list of typical job descriptions to help students evaluate different career options. Appendix C is a more detailed primer on all the different research
methods for studying consumers. Appendix D was ­completely revamped and recognized
with an enhanced list of secondary data sources.

Preface

Solving Learning and Teaching Challenges
The book continues to offer a wide variety of teaching aids that help students to
understand the chapter contents—and also to appreciate how these issues relate to
decisions both marketers and consumers make in the real world. These special features include new boxes we call “Buying, Having, and Being” that offer vivid reallife examples of chapter content. The cases at the end of chapters feature well-known
brands and companies, such as Amazon, Hyundai, and even the singer Beyoncé;
they give students an opportunity to see key consumer behavior concepts at work in
real-life settings. End-of-chapter sections we call “Discuss and Apply” provide many
provocative questions and project ideas to further engage your class. We also provide
updated data exercises in Appendix A, in partnership with the global research firm
GfK, that encourage your students to “get their hands dirty” by working with real
consumer data to make course concepts come alive.

Developing Employability Skills
This book will help your students to better understand how consumers decide among
product options, and in particular, they will appreciate the many subtle forces at
work on each of us as decision makers. But in the process, they will also become
better marketers because they will see the “big picture” of how a consumer scenario
relates to larger forces in our lives—and also how their actions as marketers have the
potential either to improve lives or, in situations where marketing decisions or executions go bad, to diminish quality of life.
We also provide updated Career Appendices that elaborate on the types of jobs
available to consumer behavior specialists and how they can play this role in different ways within an organization. Also, we encourage you to check out the resources
in the MyLab course that reinforce the book’s content—especially the mini-­
simulations that give students opportunities to practice decision making and see the
outcome of their decisions in real-life scenarios.

MyLab Marketing for Consumer
Behavior 14e
MyLab Marketing lets instructors create a course that best fits the unique needs of
their students and their curriculum. Each MyLab course has a foundation of interactive course-specific content—created by authors who are experts in their field—that
can be tailored and assigned as needed. Digital tools activate learning, to more fully
engage student learners and help them prepare for class. Videos and podcasts, interactive images and figures, Dynamic Study Modules, Mini-Simulations, cases, short
quizzes and more enhance students’ understanding of core topics as they progress
through the course. MyLab Marketing also provides data that allows instructors to
see how their students are doing in the course, as they go, so they can decide what to
teach and how best to teach it.

xvii

xviii

Preface

For this Fourteenth Edition, MyLab Marketing includes:

•
•
•
•
•

•
•
•

An enhanced, dynamic eTextbook that features interactive photos and
figures, short focus questions, and current event features.
New and updated Video Assignments and Podcast Assignments help
students connect key course concepts to real-world events.
Mini-Simulations and Team Mini-Simulations put students in the role
of professional marketers and give them the opportunity to apply course
concepts and develop decision-making skills through real-world business
challenges.
New and updated Student Edition Case Study Assignments include
auto-graded multiple-choice assessments for each of the end of chapter
Case Studies included in the 14th Edition.
Additional Case Study Library assignments are included at the end of
select chapters, including both text and video cases that challenge students
to apply critical thinking to current business examples.

New and updated Warm Ups, Study Plan questions, and Chapter Quizzes
check students’ understanding of key chapter concepts.
Updated Dynamic Study Modules use the latest developments in cognitive
science to help students study by adapting to their performance in real time.
New and updated Marketing Metrics Assignments are auto-graded, algorithmic
assignments that let students practice their analytic skills and improve their
understanding of the quantitative aspects of marketing.
Visit www.pearson.com/mylab/marketing to learn more about MyLab Marketing

Preface

Instructor Teaching Resources
This edition’s program comes with the following teaching resources.
Supplements available
to instructors at
https://www.pearson.com/

Features of the Supplement

Instructor’s Manual

•
•
•
•
•

Test Bank

4,000 multiple-choice, true/false, short-answer, and graphing questions with these annotations:

Chapter-by-chapter summaries
Examples and activities not in the main book
Teaching outlines
Teaching tips
Solutions to all questions and problems in the book

• Difficulty level (1 for straight recall, 2 for some analysis,
3 for complex analysis)
• Type (multiple-choice, true/false, short-answer, essay)
• Topic (the term or concept the question supports)
• Learning outcome
• AACSB learning standard (written and oral
communication; ethical understanding and reasoning;
analytical thinking; integration of real-world business
experiences; interpersonal relations and teamwork;
diverse and multicultural work; reflective thinking;
application of knowledge)
Computerized TestGen

TestGen allows instructors to:
•
•
•
•

PowerPoints

Customize, save, and generate classroom tests.
Edit, add, or delete questions from the Test Item Files.
Analyze test results.
Organize a database of tests and student results.

Slides include all the graphs, tables, and equations in the
textbook.
PowerPoints meet accessibility standards for students with
disabilities. Features include, but are not limited to:
• Keyboard and Screen Reader access
• Alternative text for images
• High color contrast between background and foreground
colors

Acknowledgements
Thanks for the tremendous support we received from our Pearson team, including (in
alphabetical order) Nayke Heine, Yasmita Hota, and Lynn Huddon, as well as production team members Meghan DeMaio and Carie Keller. George Allen at Asbury
University and Deirdre Guion Peoples wrote some amazing new cases, and Meghan
Pierce at La Salle University made thoughtful updates to the Data Case Assignments
in Appendix A. A special thanks to Matthew Farmer at Utah Valley University, who
helped us identify and synthesize the current research literature.
Michael R. Solomon
Cristel Antonia Russell

xix

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Michael R. Solomon

xx

Michael R. Solomon, PhD, is the Dirk Warren ’50 Sesquicentennial Chair and Professor of Marketing in the Haub School of Business at Saint Joseph’s University in
Philadelphia. Before joining the Saint Joseph’s faculty in the fall of 2006, he was
the Human Sciences Professor of Consumer Behavior at Auburn University. Prior
to that, he was chair of the Department of Marketing in the School of Business at
Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey. Professor Solomon began his
academic career in the Graduate School of Business Administration at New York
University (NYU), where he also served as Associate Director of NYU’s Institute of
Retail Management. He earned his BA degrees in psychology and sociology magna
cum laude at Brandeis University and a PhD in social psychology at the University
of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. In 1996 he was awarded the Fulbright/FLAD Chair
in Market Globalization by the U.S. Fulbright Commission and the Government
of Portugal, and he served as Distinguished Lecturer in Marketing at the Technical
­University of Lisbon. He held an appointment as Professor of Consumer Behaviour
at the University of Manchester (United Kingdom) from 2007 to 2013.
Professor Solomon’s primary research interests include consumer behavior and
lifestyle issues; branding strategy; the symbolic aspects of products; the psychology
of fashion, decoration, and image; services marketing; marketing in virtual worlds;
and the development of visually oriented online research methodologies. He has
published numerous articles on these and related topics in academic journals, and he
has delivered invited lectures on these subjects in Europe, Australia, Asia, and Latin
America. His research has been funded by the American Academy of ­Advertising,
the American Marketing Association, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the
­International Council of Shopping Centers, and the U.S. Department of Commerce.
He currently sits on the editorial or advisory boards of the Journal of Consumer
Behaviour, Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, Critical Studies in Fashion
and Beauty, and Journal for Advancement of Marketing Education, and he served an
­ cience.
elected six-year term on the Board of Governors of the Academy of Marketing S
In a 2022 ranking of contributions of top scientists in Business and M
­ anagement since
2014 by Research.com, he is #466 in the U.S. and #1,032 in the world.
Professor Solomon is a frequent contributor to mass media. His feature articles
have appeared in such magazines as Psychology Today, Gentleman’s Quarterly, and
Savvy. He has been quoted in numerous national magazines and newspapers, including Advertising Age, Adweek, Allure, Elle, Glamour, Mademoiselle, Mirabella,
Newsweek, the New York Times, Self, Time, USA Today, and the Wall Street Journal.
He frequently appears on television and speaks on radio to comment on consumer
behavior issues, including appearances on The Today Show, Good Morning America,
Inside Edition, Newsweek on Air, the Entrepreneur Sales and Marketing Show,
CNBC, Channel One, the Wall Street Journal Radio Network, the WOR Radio Network, and National Public Radio. He consults to numerous companies on consumer
behavior and marketing strategy issues, and he often speaks to business groups
throughout the United States and overseas. He recently directed Nielsen’s revamp
of its global brands model that assesses clients’ brand equity around the world. In
addition to this text, Professor Solomon is coauthor of the widely used textbook
Marketing: Real People, Real Choices. His recent trade book, The New Chameleons:
How to Engage with Consumers Who Defy Categorization, won the NYC Big Book
Award for Marketing/Sales in 2022. He lives in Philadelphia with his wife Gail.

About the Authors

Cristel Antonia Russell, PhD, is Professor of Marketing at Pepperdine Graziadio
Business School at Pepperdine University in Malibu, CA. She was previously professor at American University in Washington, DC, at the University of Auckland in
New Zealand, and at San Diego State University in California. She has also held
visiting positions at universities including Université de Lyon, Paris Sorbonne, and
Paris Dauphine, and she is currently affiliate faculty at Audencia Business School
in Nantes, France. She has taught Consumer Behavior around the globe, from HEC
Paris to Hong Kong University of Science and Technology.
Cristel grew up in Europe, born to a Spanish father and a French mother. She
completed her undergraduate international business degree at ESSCA, a French
business school where the final year consisted of a study abroad, which she completed at Southern Illinois University, where she also completed an MBA. Cristel
went on to the University of Arizona in Tucson to complete a PhD in marketing.
Cristel is an experienced consumer researcher. As of 2023, she has published
over 80 articles in academic journals from premier business outlets, such as the Journal of Consumer Research and the Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science
(JAMS), as well as interdisciplinary health and policy journals, such as Addiction and
Psychological Services. Her journal articles are widely cited, and she ranks amongst
the world’s most prolific consumer researchers.
Cristel’s research spans many facets of consumer behavior and draws on multiple
methodological approaches. She uses experiments with eye-tracking and biometric
measures to study the psychological processes of attention, memory, and persuasion
in the context of advertising messages and those embedded in entertainment, such as
product placements. She researches the social influences of celebrities and of traditional and social media on young audiences with a variety of approaches, including
field studies and large national surveys. She uses in-depth interviews and other qualitative techniques to explain, among many things, how consumers engage with brands,
how they relate to new technologies, or why they rewatch movies or reread books.
Cristel’s research on the influence of marketing on youth has received funding
from the United States’ National Institutes of Health and France’s Institut National
du Cancer. She also collaborates with military research institutes to study problematic consumption amongst soldiers and veterans. Her interdisciplinary research with
a focus on implementable policy solutions earned her a Marie Curie Fellowship from
the European Union for a project on media literacy for at-risk youth.
Cristel serves on many scientific and journal boards. She is currently Area Editor for the Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science (JAMS) and Senior Associate Editor for the Journal of Advertising, and she is on the editorial review board
of the Journal of Consumer Research. She also chairs the social sciences panel of
Belgium’s research foundation (the FWO). After 10 years as the executive secretary
of the Consumer Culture Theory Consortium, she was elected to its board.
Cristel’s research is often featured in prominent media outlets, such as the Wall
Street Journal and The Atlantic, and she has an active blog on Psychology Today
called The Savvy Consumer.
In addition to her professor “day job,” Cristel is a passionate fitness instructor, teaching a variety of group fitness classes from strength training to step, aerobics, and cardio
kickboxing and . . . you might have guessed . . . yoga. In fact, in addition to presenting
research at academic conferences, she also serves as their wellness coordinator. So now
you know why there are a lot of references to health and wellness in this 14th edition!

Cristel A. Russell

xxi

Section

1

Foundations of Consumer
Behavior
This introductory section provides an overview of the field of consumer behavior (CB). In Chapter 1,
we look at how consumers influence the market and at how marketers influence us. We describe
the discipline of consumer behavior and some of the different approaches to understanding
what makes consumers tick. In Chapter 2, we look at the broad issue of well-being and both
the positive and negative ways the products we use affect us, and we discuss the many ethical,
social, and cultural issues that marketers must confront.

Chapters Ahead
Chapter 1

Chapter 2

Buying, Having, and Being:
An Introduction to Consumer
Behavior

Consumer Ethics, the
Marketplace, and the Planet

3

1

Buying, Having, and
Being: An Introduction to
Consumer Behavior

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES When you finish reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1-1 Summarize how the consumption of goods,
services, experiences, and ideas is a major part of
our lives.
1-2 Identify and discuss the technological and
sociocultural trends that require constant
monitoring to understand consumer behavior.

1-3 Explain how consumption both contributes to the
world’s problems and provides solutions.
1-4 Describe the many disciplines and perspectives
that inform our understanding of consumer
behavior.

“D

Source: Fizkes/Shutterstock

4

ownward dog? Why in the world would I ever want to
do something stupid like that?” Gail is thumbing through
some Instagram posts on her smartphone as she waits
for her accounting professor to show up to class. Her roommates have
been on this yoga kick for months now, and they don’t show any signs of
stopping. They keep telling her it’s great for stress reduction—especially
with midterms coming up. Gail’s been meaning to do something about
that (other than “stress eating” which she’s very good at). But it’s been
hard to motivate herself to try a class. She’s basically an introvert, and
she doesn’t relish the idea of other people watching her while she
struggles into awkward body poses. But on the other hand, yoga seems
to be what anyone who’s anyone is taking up and Gail doesn’t want
to seem “uncool” to her friends and classmates. And you get to wear
some fashionable athleisure outfits (preferably not produced with child
labor!). That settles it—Gail resolves to make time before her awesome
consumer behavior class to stop by Lululemon and check out those
leggings everyone is buying. If she’s going to make a spectacle of herself contorting on
the floor, at least she’ll do it in style. Still, she draws the line at the salamba shirshasana,
or yoga headstand. A fashionista has her limits, after all.

Chapter 1 • Buying, Having, and Being: An Introduction to Consumer Behavior

OBJECTIVE 1-1
Summarize how
the consumption
of goods, services,
experiences, and
ideas is a major
part of our lives.

Consumer Behavior:
People in the Marketplace

This book is about people like Gail—and you. It concerns
the products and services we buy and use and the ways these
fit into our lives. This introductory chapter describes some
important aspects of the field of consumer behavior and
some reasons why it’s essential to understand how people interact with the marketing
system. For now, though, let’s return to one “typical” consumer: Gail, the business
major. The preceding vignette allows us to highlight some aspects of consumer
behavior that we will cover in the rest of the book.
Gail is a consumer like the rest of us. The information around her, both in the real
world and online, contributes to her perceptions of the world. The sensory inputs from
looking, hearing, smelling, and maybe touching help her make sense of what’s going
on around her. As intriguing as that yoga class seemed, she must reconcile her needs
for interaction and belongingness with her introvert self. These feelings and thoughts
will ultimately guide her decisions and behaviors. Some of her decisions will be well
thought out, while others may be more impulsive and even self-destructive.
Her identity, both self (who she is as a person) and social (the groups that help
to define her), is a collection of her motivations, life circumstances, and choices. Of
course, Gail’s sociocultural environment has a huge impact—the priorities of the
society in which she lives, her ethnicity, her self-definition in terms of gender, her online
activities, and other factors help to drive what is important to her. Not surprisingly,
many of these factors relate directly to Gail’s knowledge of brands and which ones
“speak” to her. Our allegiances to sneakers, musicians, and even soft drinks help us
define our place in modern society, and these choices also help each of us to form
bonds with others who share similar preferences. So, it’s on to downward dog after all.

What Is Consumer Behavior?
The field of consumer behavior covers a lot of ground: It
is the study of the processes involved when individuals or
groups select, purchase, use, or dispose of products, services,
ideas, or experiences to satisfy needs and desires and to define
and express their identities. Consumers take many forms,
ranging from a 10-year-old child who begs their parent for a
smartphone to an executive in a large corporation who helps
to decide on a multimillion-dollar computer system. The
items we consume include anything from canned peas to a
massage, democracy, Juicy jeans, a virtual reality experience,
K-pop music, or a celebrity like Taylor Swift. The needs and
desires we satisfy range from hunger and thirst to love, status,
and even spiritual fulfillment.
Our consumption choices, the brands we use, the
activities in which we engage, and the groups to which we
belong are all expressions of our unique identity. Also, as
we’ll see throughout this text, people get passionate about
a broad range of products. Whether it’s vintage Air Jordans,
that perfect yoga mat, or the latest computer tablet, there’s no
shortage of brand fans who will do whatever it takes to find
and buy what they crave.

The expanded view of consumer behavior embraces much more
than the study of what and why we buy; it also focuses on how
consumers use products and services. In this case, a hotel in
Dubai promotes responsible behavior.
Source: Courtesy of Marco Polo Hotel/Dubai; Brandcom Agency.

5

6

Section 1

• Foundations of Consumer Behavior

Consumption Is a Process
Consumer behavior is dynamic: It is an ongoing process that extends much beyond
the moment a consumer hands over money or a credit card and in turn receives
some good or service. Consumption refers to all facets of the consumer behavior
process, which include how we observe and make sense of the world around us, how
we choose and purchase things, and how we communicate our identity and sense of
self in society. Figure 1.1 illustrates all the facets of consumer behavior that we will
address in this book.

What Does It Mean to Consume?
People buy products not for what they do, but for what they mean.1 This principle,
one of the most fundamental premises of the modern field of consumer behavior,
does not imply that a product’s basic function is unimportant but rather that the roles
products (and services) play in our lives extend well beyond the tasks they perform.
All things being equal, we choose the brand that has an image (or even a personality!)
consistent with our underlying needs and desires and aligned with our identity. The
deeper meanings of consumption may help it to stand out from other similar goods
and services.
Our consumption choices help us define our identity. Identity is a multilayered
concept that involves our personal self and our social self. As we will see, many factors
like our age, gender, and ethnic and racial background affect our sense of self. Where
we live, how we grew up, and what social media we use all shape our individual
identities. Plus, the way we feel about ourselves, the things we value, the things we
like to do in our spare time—all these factors help to determine which products will
push our buttons and even those that will make us feel better.
SECTIONS

CHAPTERS
1 Buying, Having, and Being: An Introduction

1

Foundations of
Consumer Behavior

2

Making Sense
of the World

3

Buying and Having:
Choosing and
Using Products

6 Attitudes and How to Change Them

4

Being: Using Products
to Create and
Communicate Identity

9 Identity and the Self

5

to Consumer Behavior
2 Consumer Ethics, the Marketplace, and the Planet

3 Perceiving and Making Meaning
4 Learning, Remembering, and Knowing
5 Motivation

7 Deciding
8 Buying, Using, and Disposing

10 Personality, Values, and Lifestyles
11 Social and Cultural Identity
12 How Groups Define Us

Belonging

Figure 1.1 The Plan of the Book

13 Social Class and Status
14 Culture

Chapter 1 • Buying, Having, and Being: An Introduction to Consumer Behavior

7

A Branded World
Every day Gail encounters information about many
competing products and services. Some of these don’t capture
her attention at all, whereas others are just a turnoff because
they don’t relate to “looks,” people, or ideas with which she
identifies. But others are very important to her because they
help her to express a part of who she is—a sociable college
student, responsible steward of the environment, fashionista,
or whatever else matters to her.
A brand enables consumers to identify a particular
company, product, or individual. It uses identifying markers
to tell potential buyers not only what it does but also what
it means and perhaps even the cultural values it stands for.2
For example, Nike makes shoes and other athletic equipment,
People often purchase a product because they like its image or
but the brand’s role in our culture goes much farther than
because they feel its “personality” somehow corresponds to their
that. The famous “swoosh” logo is everywhere, and legions
own. Conversely, they may avoid a brand that clashes with their
identity or beliefs. For example, many Nike supporters decided
of “sneakerheads” pay impressive sums to collect vintage
to boycott the brand after the Kaepernick incident, while other
Nike shoes. The Nike brand also links to controversial social
consumers deliberately switched to Nike to show their support.
issues, such as child labor (the company’s supply chain has
Source: Eric Risberg/AP Images
reportedly used child labor in the past) and the Black Lives
Matter movement (the company took an early and vocal stand
on behalf of the former quarterback Colin Kaepernick, who
was fired for showing his support for the cause on the football field).3
Whether it’s the Super Bowl, Christmas shopping, national health care, newspaper
recycling, CBD oil, body piercing, vaping, tweeting, or online video games, marketers
play a significant role in our view of the world and how we live in it. And we
increasingly live in a branded world, where advertisers promote events and places of
all kinds.
This cultural impact is hard to overlook, although many people do not seem
to realize how much marketers influence their preferences for movie and musical
heroes; the latest fashions in clothing, food, and decorating
choices; and even the physical features that they find
attractive or ugly in people. For example, consider the
product icons that companies use to create an identity for
their products. Many imaginary creatures and personalities,
from the Pillsbury Doughboy to the Jolly Green Giant, at
one time or another were central figures in popular culture.
In fact, it is likely that more consumers could recognize
such characters than could identify past presidents,
business leaders, or artists. Although these figures never
really existed, many of us feel as if we “know” them,
and they certainly are effective spokescharacters for the
products they represent.
In addition to visual cues like the famous Nike
Swoosh, the taste, texture, or smell of an item influences
Consumers form strong loyalties with their favorite brands or
our evaluations of it. Similarly, a good website helps
stores. If necessary, many are willing to camp out for a new
people to feel, taste, and smell with their eyes. We may
product introduction, much like they would for scarce tickets at a
be swayed by the shape and color of a package on the
big concert.
store shelf, as well as by more subtle factors, such as the
Source: Jeffrey Blackler/Alamy Stock Photo.

8

Section 1

• Foundations of Consumer Behavior

symbolism in a brand name, the imagery an ad uses, or even in the choice of a
cover model for a magazine. These judgments are affected by—and often reflect—
how a society feels people should define themselves at that point in time. Many
product meanings lurk below the surface of packaging and advertising; we’ll
discuss some of the methods marketers and social scientists use to discover or
apply these meanings.
Like Gail, we shape our opinions and desires based on a mix of voices from around
the world, which is becoming a much smaller place because of rapid advancements
in communications and transportation systems. In today’s global culture, consumers
often prize products and services that “transport” them to different places and allow
them to experience the diversity of other cultures—even if only to watch others brush
their teeth on YouTube.

Understanding Consumers Is Good Business
The bottom line for managers, advertisers, and other marketing professionals:
Understanding consumer behavior is good business. The basic marketing concept that
you (hopefully) remember from your basic marketing class states that organizations
exist to satisfy needs. Marketers can satisfy these needs only to the extent that they
understand the people or organizations that will use the products and services they
sell. Voila! That’s why we study consumer behavior.
Successful companies understand that needs are a moving target. No
organization—no matter how renowned for its marketing prowess—can afford to
rest on its laurels. Everyone needs to keep innovating to stay ahead of changing
customers and the marketplace. BMW is a great example. No one (not even rivals
like Audi or Mercedes-Benz) would argue that the German automaker knows how
to make a good car (although they may not agree with the company’s claim to be
“the ultimate driving machine”). Still, BMW’s engineers and designers know they
must understand how drivers’ needs will change in the future—even those loyal
owners who love the cars they own today. The company is highly sensitive to such
key trends as:

•
•
•

BMW anticipates changes in consumer behavior as it develops
electric car models like the i8 that satisfy dual desires for style and
environmental responsibility.
Source: Ritu Manoj Jethani/Shutterstock

A desire for environmentally friendly products
Increasingly congested roadways and the movement by
some cities, such as London and New York, to impose
fees on vehicles in central areas
New business models that encourage consumers to rent
products only while they need them rather than buying
them outright

BMW’s response: The company committed more than
$1 billion to develop electric BMWi models, such as its new
i3 commuter car and i8 sports car. These futuristic-looking
vehicles are largely made from lightweight carbon fiber to
maximize the distance they can go between battery charges,
and 25 percent of the interior plastic comes from recycled
or renewable raw materials. In addition, BMW partnered
with the Daimler AG group (Mercedes, etc.) to offer the
Share Now carsharing service that boasts over four million
members worldwide.4
That’s forward thinking.

Chapter 1 • Buying, Having, and Being: An Introduction to Consumer Behavior

OBJECTIVE 1-2
Identify and discuss
the technological
and sociocultural
trends that require
constant monitoring
to understand
consumer behavior.

Consumers, Society, and
Technology: A Moving Target

Today many of us take for granted things that our
grandparents only dreamed about. We instantly access
people, places, and products with the click of a link. Many
consumers travel to remote countries in a day rather than the
weeks or months our ancestors needed if they ever left their
places of birth at all.
Most of us now live in urban centers that bustle with people from many countries
and that offer exotic foods from around the world. The United Nations defines a
megacity as a metropolitan area with a total population of more than 10 million
people. By 2011, there were already 20 such areas in the world. Researchers estimate
that by 2030 three out of five people will live in cities.5
This concentration in urban centers, combined with population growth in
developing countries and increasing demands for modernization by billions of people
in booming economies such as China, India, and Brazil, is both a blessing and a
curse. Quality of life for many everyday citizens is better than even that of the elite
who lived several centuries ago (even kings bathed only once a month). On the other
hand, millions live in squalor, children around the world go to bed hungry, and we
all feel the effects unbridled growth contribute to pollution of our air, soil, and water.
As we’ll see later in the text, all these issues relate directly to our understanding of
consumer behavior—and to the impact companies and customers have on our future
and the world that we will leave to our children.

Social Media: The Horizontal Revolution
Word of mouth has always been a major force, but the explosion of social media takes
“word of mouse” to a whole new level because it has created a horizontal revolution:
Communications no longer just flow top-down from companies and established media
to passive recipients (consumers). Today, they also flow across regular users (hence
the word horizontal above, in case you were wondering).
Social media refers to the online means of communication, conveyance,
collaboration, and cultivation among interconnected and interdependent networks of
people, communities, and organizations enhanced by technological capabilities and
mobility. Every day the influence of social media expands as more people join online
communities. These include platforms like TikTok, Snapchat, Instagram, Facebook
(for older folks?), and LinkedIn (for professional networking). The odds are good
(really good) that you use one or more of these platforms on a regular basis. After all,
about 81 percent of the total population of the U.S. (about 270 million of us) currently
are active on social media.6 OK, you have our permission to take a 30-second break
so you can check your social for updates . . .
It’s fair to say that 24/7 access to smartphones and other social media devices
has kindled a fascination among many of us with documenting exactly what we’re
doing and sharing the exciting news with others. A meal in a nice restaurant doesn’t
get touched until the diner posts a photo of it on Instagram. We may not learn that
the person we’re dating has broken up with us until we see they have changed their
relationship status on Facebook. Today some of us wear tiny cameras that allow us to
create a lifelog of every event we experience throughout the day.7
There’s little doubt that the digital revolution is one of the most significant
influences on consumer behavior, and the impact of the internet will continue to

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Section 1 • Foundations of Consumer Behavior

expand as more and more people around the world log in. Many of us are avid surfers,
and it’s hard to imagine a time when texting, tweeting, TikToking, or pinning favorite
items on Pinterest weren’t a regular part of daily life.

Artificial Intelligence and The Metaverse
But our lives are about to change even more: We’re entering
a new era of the Internet of Things (IoT). This term refers
to the growing network of interconnected devices embedded
in objects that speak to one another. Analysts estimate that
there are 14.4 billion connected devices out there now,
with 27 billion expected by 2025.8 You can see the impact
of the IoT all around you, from the advent of autonomous
vehicles (self-driving cars) to the “smart home” products
that can automatically adjust your thermostat, control your
windows, and even turn on your oven before you get home.9
Automation creates new ways for consumers to live their
lives, from how they connect with other people to how they
express themselves and expand their minds.10
We are also witnessing a revolution in M2M (machineBe on the lookout for service robots that perform many functions
to-machine communication) that will profoundly change
humans normally carry out—such as waiting on customers.
our lives. Self-driving cars are just the tip of the iceberg.11
Source: Pack-Shot/Shutterstock
Artificial intelligence (AI) applications that get better over
time via machine learning already interact with us in the form of voice recognition
software in digital assistants like Siri and Alexa; in systems that process insurance
Buying, Having, Being
claims, trade stocks, and diagnose exotic illnesses; as well as in marketing applications
that help advertisers to improve the precision of their ad placements, help businesses
The Digital Native
increase the speed with which they can deliver goods to their customers, and even
If you’re a typical student, you
help salespeople to predict which responses to consumers’ queries are more likely to
probably can’t recall a time when
result in a purchase.12
the internet was just a static, oneway platform that transmitted text
and a few sketchy images. And
believe it or not, in the last century,
even that crude technique didn’t
exist. You may have read about this
in a history class: People actually
handwrote letters to each other
and waited for printed magazines
to arrive in their mailboxes to learn
about current events! The term
digital native originated in a 2001
article to explain a new type of
student who was starting to turn
up on campus. These people grew
up “wired” in a highly networked,
always-on world where digital
technology had always existed.13
Fast forward to today, where
87 percent of American teens own
an iPhone and non-school related
screen time jumped from 3.8 hours
per day before the pandemic to
7.7 hours today.
Are you a digital native?

“Big Data” and Data Analytics
Walmart stores massive amounts of information on the 100 million people who visit
its stores each week, and the company uses these data to fine-tune its offerings. For
example, when the company analyzed how shoppers’ buying patterns react when
forecasters predict a major hurricane, it discovered that people do a lot more than
simply stock up on flashlights. Sales of strawberry Pop-Tarts increased by about
700 percent, and the top-selling product of all was . . . beer. Based on these insights,
Walmart loads its trucks with toaster pastries and six-packs to stock local stores when
a big storm is approaching.14
At this very moment (and every moment thereafter until we croak), we are all
generating massive amounts of information that hold tremendous value for marketers.
You may not see it, but we are practically buried by data that come from many
sources—sensors that collect climate information, the comments you and your friends
make on your favorite social media sites, the credit card transactions we authorize, and
even the GPS signals in our smartphones that let organizations know where most of
us are pretty much anytime day or night. This incredible amount of information has
created a new field that causes tremendous excitement among marketing analysts (and
other math geeks). The collection and analysis of extremely large datasets is called Big
Data, and you’ll be hearing a lot more about it in the next few years. Hint: If you have
aptitude or interest in quantitative topics, this will be a desirable career path for you.

Chapter 1 • Buying, Having, and Being: An Introduction to Consumer Behavior

11

In addition to the huge volume of information marketers now must play with, its
velocity (speed) also enables companies to make decisions in real time that used to take
months or years. For example, one group of researchers used the GPS phone signals
that were coming from Macy’s parking lots on Black Friday to estimate whether the
department store was going to meet or exceed its sales projections for the biggest
shopping day of the year—before the stores even reported their sales. This kind of
intelligence allows financial analysts and marketing managers to move quickly as they
buy and sell stocks or make merchandising decisions.
It’s safe to say this data explosion is profoundly changing the way we think about
consumer behavior. Companies, nonprofits, political parties, and even governments sift
through massive quantities of information that enable them to make precise predictions
about what products we will buy, what charities we will donate to, what candidates we
will vote for, and what levers they need to push to make this even more likely to happen.
Walmart alone collects more than 2.5 petabytes of data every hour from its customer
transactions (the equivalent of about 20 million filing cabinets’ worth of text).15

Welcome to the Metaverse!
It’s hard to ignore all the talk about the Metaverse over the past few years—especially
since Facebook rebranded itself as Meta, and CEO Mark Zuckerberg announced the
company’s goal to “help bring the metaverse to life.”
There’s been a lot of hype, but what exactly is the metaverse? Most definitions
center on these elements:16

•
•
•

•

It exists in the physical world, but it also involves immersive environments, often
(but not always) using virtual- or augmented-reality technology. Inhabitants of a
“virtual world” often create a unique identity in the form of an avatar, and this
character may not be at all like the person’s IRL (in-real-life) identity.
It’s “always on” and operates in real time.
It’s built on a virtual economy—most likely based upon cryptocurrency and digital goods and assets, including nonfungible tokens (NFTs), which are digital
assets with unique identification codes and metadata that distinguish them from
one another. Unlike cryptocurrencies (fungible tokens), each NFT is completely
unique and only one person can own it. This makes these assets very attractive to
people who buy and sell artwork, sports memorabilia, and other physical objects
that otherwise have the potential to be duplicated.17
It allows people to possess virtual identities that don’t necessarily correspond to
who they are IRL. They can interact with peers, create content, and at times build
their own (virtual) worlds.

To pay homage to its founder’s 200th
birthday, Louis Vuitton released a
mobile game on the Roblox platform.
It follows a game character through
six worlds as it collects 200 candles.
Of course, you start by adorning your
character in Louis Vuitton threads. To
add to the excitement, the designers
placed 30 NFTs created by the artist
Beeple for players to find.18 If you
think that name is weird, for what
it’s worth, Mike Winkelmann (the
artist’s real name) earned notoriety
(and perhaps envy) when he sold an
NFT of a JPG file composed of 5,000
individual images for the highest price
recorded—$69.3 million (yes, million).
That’s more than masterpieces by
many famous artists.19
Source: Supamotion/Shutterstock

12

Section 1 • Foundations of Consumer Behavior

Globalization of Brands and Cultural Practices
We live in a hyperconnected and increasingly global world: Especially as the pandemic
subsided, many of us compensated by traveling even more than before. Worldwide
destinations welcomed about 117 million visitors in 2022, up from a paltry 41 million
the year before when most of us stayed home.20
More people than ever before are leaving the familiarity of their home culture to
live, even if for a short period, in a different cultural environment. In this world of
increasing global mobility, two countervailing forces drive consumer behavior: The
desire to belong and the drive for cultural distinctiveness, or the feeling of being
different and separated from the surrounding cultural environment.21 On the one end,
consumers have a natural in-group bias: They prefer culturally related brands that
meet their desire to connect with “home” and their home culture. But on the other
end, consumers can feel a sense of cultural distinctiveness that drives them to seek
out brands that represent other cultural groups.
Global brands that are sold across many countries and cultures benefit from little
variation across countries because economies of scale make it cheaper and easier to use
the same message in multiple markets. Some large corporations, such as Coca-Cola,
have successfully crafted a single, international global image for their flagship brands.
Still, even the soft-drink giant must make minor modifications to the way it presents
itself in each culture. Although Coke commercials are largely standardized, the company
permits local agencies to edit them so they highlight close-ups of local faces.22

Proactive Consumers and User-Generated Content
Probably the biggest phenomenon of the 20th century is the degree to which consumers
want organizations to market with them rather than market to them. Today many of
us want to be a lot more proactive—instead of sitting idly in front of the TV waiting
for marketers to tell them what they want, a lot of people are creating their own ads
and submitting new product ideas, reviews, and other suggestions to the companies
that matter to them.

UGC Rules!
This helps to explain the explosion of user-generated content (UGC), where everyone
can voice their opinions about products, brands, and companies on blogs, podcasts,
and social networking sites such as Facebook and Twitter. We can even film our own
commercials that thousands view on sites like YouTube. This important trend helps to
define the era of Web 2.0: The rebirth of the internet from its original roots as a form
of one-way transmission from producers to consumers to a social, interactive medium.
What drives this desire by everyday consumers to be directors, writers, and actors
(even in bad TikTok videos)? Obviously, technology is one reason—today we have
the tools to easily create videos, photos, and sound clips that look “professional.” But
another important factor speaks to the gap between the content that customers want to
see from organizations and the content that they’re getting. A recent survey found that
while almost all marketers (92 percent) believe the content they create resonates with
their customers, half of consumers believe that most companies do not create content
that resonates with them. While marketers believe their content is about twice as
authentic as user-generated content, consumers overwhelmingly believe the opposite.23

Consumer Creation in the Transmedia Environment
Another important development in the consumer ecosystem is the shift from traditional
media to the more integrated system called transmedia. Transmedia refers to the web

Chapter 1 • Buying, Having, and Being: An Introduction to Consumer Behavior

of media from traditional media platforms, like magazines and
television, to more novel and emergent ones, like digital media,
videogames, and the metaverse.
Transmedia challenges traditional views of popular
culture—the music, movies, sports, books, celebrities, and
other forms of entertainment that the mass market produces and
consumes—because we can access these forms of entertainment
in so many ways and in so many forms.
Marketing messages are communicated synchronously
through transmedia in the form of transmedia storytelling,
which refers to telling a story across multiple platforms and
formats. In turn, consumers access brand and marketing messages
synchronously across transmedia, and this variety of contact
points allows them to engage with content in a such a variety of
ways that it amounts to a make-your-own-journey.24

Consumer Trends: Keeping Up with the
Culture That Won’t Stand Still
Understanding consumer behavior means staying on top of
consumer trends. This term does not just refer to specific brands
or styles that may be in vogue today but also to underlying values
that drive consumers toward certain products and services and
away from others. As we’ll see, these values evolve over time. For
example, some analysts argue that our focus on acquiring physical
objects is shifting toward the consumption of experiences instead.
This consumer trend is consistent with research that shows
experiential purchases provide greater happiness and satisfaction
The Matrix was the first transmedia brand, with the
because they allow us to connect with others in an increasingly
simultaneous release of the film, a game, and a website.
impersonal society.
Source: © Warner Bros./Courtesy Everett Collection
Why is it so important to understand consumer trends? Very
simply, a brand that aligns with a dominant value stands a much
better chance of success. Because companies often need substantial lead time to
launch a new product or reposition an existing one, it’s crucial to track not just where
consumers are but where they’re going. That way you can be there to greet them when
they arrive.
Consumer trend forecasting is big business, and many organizations devote huge
resources to monitoring the “bleeding edge” of consumer behavior. Companies like
Mintel, Euromonitor, and GfK publish consumer trend reports that alert clients to what
the companies view as basic changes in customers’ priorities.
It can seem at times that there are as many consumer trends as there are trend
watchers, and sometimes their predictions create a bit of a self-fulfilling prophecy.
For example, Pantone publishes an influential color forecasting report that many
manufacturers use to guide their choices of future color palettes for cars, clothing,
house paints, and other products. Since so many companies heed these predictions,
perhaps it’s not too surprising to find the very hues Pantone predicted on store shelves
(Very Peri, a shade of blue with red and violet undertones, was the Color of the Year
for 2022).
It’s an amazing time to study consumer behavior. In so many ways, our basic
assumptions about how companies and people relate to one another are being disrupted.
Throughout this text, we’re going to learn about the “bleeding edge” of consumer
behavior; the many ways that these relationships change on an almost daily basis.

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Section 1 • Foundations of Consumer Behavior

These are some of the important consumer trends that we believe will impact marketing
strategies in the near future:

•
•

•
•
•

•
•
•
•
•

Sharing economy: A continued blurring of the boundary between producers and
consumers, as everyday people take on the roles of hoteliers, taxi drivers, and even
advertising agencies. We will see a de-emphasis on the value of owning products
such as automobiles and power tools as opposed to leasing them on an as-needed
basis.
Authenticity and personalization: An aversion to corporate “hype,” as consumers
place a premium on knowing the lineage of the companies they patronize.
Consumers also will demand more individualized experiences rather than buying
mass-market products and services. There will be an increase in “artisanal”
products and continuing growth of the “maker movement,” augmented by wider
availability of 3D-printing technologies. Shoppers are willing to pay more for an
item when they know exactly where it comes from, and they are assured that “real
people” have thoughtfully selected the things from which they choose.
Blurring of gender identity and gender roles: The continuing movement away from
“gender binarism” as gender identity becomes more fluid and more people do not
identify themselves as male or female.
Diversity and multiculturalism: Racial and ethnic divisions will blur as people
are exposed to other groups both in person (e.g., at the workplace) and online.
Intermarriage rates continue to accelerate; a growing number of countries
(including the United States) no longer adhere to strict categories when they ask
citizens to identify racial and ethnic identity.25
Social shopping: The traditional lone decision maker will become harder to find,
as ready access to product reviews and others’ immediate feedback on potential
purchases turns many buying situations into committee decisions. Large numbers
of people already say they almost always consult online reviews before they buy
something new. We will see continued growth of video as the go-to medium for
posting and sharing.
Income inequality: The gap between rich and poor will continue to grow in the
United States, which will exacerbate pressure toward a dual society of haves (in
gated communities) and have-nots.
Healthy and ethical living: A continued focus on wellness, physical fitness, and
environmental sustainability. This priority is likely to divide along social class
lines, as growing economic inequality makes it difficult for less affluent consumers
to afford healthy and sustainable products.
Simplification: A movement away from hyperchoice and toward decluttering one’s
life and possessions. There will be more priority on experiences rather than acquiring things.
Interconnection and the Internet of Things: The rapid growth of AI will facilitate
the popularity of products such as wearable computers that monitor physical
activity and offer many other functions. We will see growth in the consumer trend
of smart homes.
Anonymity: Data hacking, cyberbullying, and advertising tracking will fuel
a desire for “the right to be forgotten.” Consumers will flock to platforms like
Snapchat that don’t retain posts or that allow users to create alternative identities.
There will be greater emphasis on regulating online businesses as public utilities
and on forcing advertisers to reveal when they have paid for online advertising.
Consumer trends are a moving target. Keep ahead to keep up!

Chapter 1 • Buying, Having, and Being: An Introduction to Consumer Behavior

OBJECTIVE 1-3
Explain how
consumption both
contributes to the
world’s problems
and provides
solutions.

Consumption: From Problem
to Solution?

As we’ll see in the next chapter, a number of critics argue that
consumption is the source of many of the world’s problems:
Growing mental and physical health problems, climate
change, addiction, and other issues that threaten our quality
of life as individuals and as a society. They claim that modern marketing practices make
these problems worse because they create unhealthy needs that people then try to satisfy.

What Do We Need—Really?
One large survey explored some profound questions: How can we predict whether
someone will be happy? How does that feeling relate to living a meaningful life?
The researchers concluded that happiness is linked to satisfying wants and needs,
whereas meaningfulness relates to activities that express oneself and impact others in
a positive way. Not surprisingly, people whose needs were satisfied were happier, but
the findings went beyond that connection:

•
•
•
•

Happiness was linked to being a taker rather than a giver, whereas meaningfulness
went with being a giver rather than a taker.
Happy people are more likely to think in the present rather than dwelling on the
past or contemplating the future.
Respondents who reported higher levels of worry, stress, and anxiety were less
happy but had more meaningful lives. They spend a lot of time thinking about past
struggles and imagining what will happen in the future. They are likely to agree
that taking care of children and buying gifts for others reflect who they are.
The researchers concluded that “happiness without meaning characterizes a
relatively shallow, self-absorbed or even selfish life, in which things go well, needs
and desires are easily satisfied, and difficult or taxing entanglements are avoided.”26

The distinction between a “happy” and a “meaningful” life brings up an important
question: What is the difference between needing something and wanting it? The
answer to this deceptively simple question explains a lot of consumer behavior!
A need is something a person must have to live or to achieve a goal. A want is a
specific manifestation of a need that personal and cultural factors determine. For
example, hunger is a basic need that all of us must satisfy; a lack of food creates a
tension state that a person is motivated to reduce. But the way they choose to do that
can take a lot of forms: One person’s “dream meal” might include a cheeseburger,
fries, and double-fudge Oreo cookies, whereas another might go for sushi followed
by vegan and gluten-free chocolate cake balls.

Toward Responsible Consumption and
Responsible Business
No doubt there’s some truth to these criticisms of consumption’s effects on society.
But it’s just as easy to argue that consumption can also be the source of solutions
to a better world. A greener planet will require that consumers make better, more
environmentally sound choices. Solving the housing crisis will likely involve creative
solutions to home ownership and a greater variety of housing options.

15

16

Section 1 • Foundations of Consumer Behavior

Patagonia has long been recognized for
its’ responsible marketing practices. In
one well-known campaign, the company
actually urged customers to purchase
used garments rather than buying a new
one – even if it’s made by them.
Source: © 2011 Patagonia, Inc

Chapter 1 • Buying, Having, and Being: An Introduction to Consumer Behavior

For businesses also, responsible marketing is about merging consumer
centricity, a focus on meeting consumers’ needs, with making a positive impact on
our communities—both in the small sense (local communities) and in the broad sense
(our planet).
OBJECTIVE 1-4
Describe how many
disciplines and
perspectives inform
our understanding
of consumer
behavior.

Multiple Perspectives on the
Study of Consumer Behavior

By now it should be clear that the field of consumer behavior
encompasses many things, from the simple purchase of a
carton of milk to the selection of a complex, networked
computer system; from the decision to donate money
to a charity to devious plans to rip off a company. And it should be evident that
the environment in which consumers live is everchanging. There’s an awful lot
to understand, and many ways to go about it. Given the complexity of consumer
behavior and the many forms and facets of consumption, it is clear we need multiple
perspectives to fully understand it (or at least, to come close!).

What Disciplines Study Consumer Behavior?
Many different perspectives shape the field of consumer research. Indeed, it
is hard to think of a field that is more interdisciplinary. You can find people with
training in a wide range of disciplines—from neuroscience to anthropology—doing
consumer research. Universities, manufacturers, museums, advertising agencies, and
governments employ consumer researchers. Consumer researchers have formed many
academic groups, such as the Association for Consumer Research, the Society for
Consumer Psychology, and the Consumer Culture Theory movement.
To gain an idea of the diversity of interests of people who do consumer research,
consider the list of professional associations that sponsor the field’s major journal, the
Journal of Consumer Research: The American Association of Family and Consumer
Sciences, the American Statistical Association, the Association for Consumer Research,
the Society for Consumer Psychology, the International Communication Association,
the American Sociological Association, the Institute of Management Sciences, the
American Anthropological Association, the American Marketing Association, the
Society for Personality and Social Psychology, the American Association for Public
Opinion Research, and the American Economic Association. That’s a mixed bag to
be sure.
Clearly there are a lot of researchers from diverse backgrounds who are into the
study of consumer behavior. So, which is the “correct” discipline to explore these
issues? You might remember a children’s story about the blind men and the elephant.
The gist of the story is that each man touched a different part of the animal and, as
a result, the descriptions each man gave of the elephant were quite different. This
analogy applies to consumer research as well. Depending on the training and interests
of the researchers studying it, they will approach the same consumer phenomenon
in different ways and at different levels. Table 1.1 illustrates how we can approach a
complex and emerging topic such as the metaverse from a range of perspectives. We’ll
take a closer look at some of the diverse methods researchers use to study consumer
behavior in Appendix C.

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18

Section 1 • Foundations of Consumer Behavior

TABLE 1.1    Interdisciplinary

Research Issues in Consumer Behavior

Disciplinary Focus

Metaverse Potential Research Issues

Cognitive
psychology
(perception, learning,
and memory
processes)

How do consumers process brands they encounter in the metaverse? How do they
recognize and interpret the brand based upon the modality (audio or visual) that
carries the information? What makes a brand impression in the metaverse more
likely to stick over time?

Clinical psychology

How do metaverse experiences affect consumers’ mental health? For example, does
constant exposure to photos of “perfect” people diminish a viewer’s self-esteem?

Behavioral
economics

Do consumers respond to monetary incentives and spend their money differently in a
virtual world than in the physical world?

Social psychology

Are consumers more likely to follow others’ brand recommendations when they
occur in a virtual world instead of the physical world?

Sociology

How do avatar brand communities form and develop inside the metaverse?

Semiotics & literary
criticism

How does the metaverse environment shape the meanings of the brands that
consumers encounter in that space?

Computer Science

How would consumers interact with computer interfaces that allow them to control
applications with their eyes?

Anthropology

How do people observe cultural myths and rituals while in avatar form in the
metaverse?

Figure 1.2 provides a glimpse of some of the core disciplines that inform our
understanding of consumer behavior. Disciplines listed in the top half of the figure
represent a focus on the individual consumer (micro issues), and those in the lower half
of the figure are more interested in the collective activities that occur among larger groups
of people (macro issues).

A Micro Focus
On the micro side, we find researchers who understand the
brain and its inherent processes. Researchers identify how
we process information or how messages of different types
change our opinions and behaviors. Foundations for these
perspectives come from the following disciplines:

•
•
Marketing ethnographers spend time with real consumers to
inform their clients about what people need or want based upon
observations in natural settings.
Source: Master1305/Shutterstock.

•

Cognitive psychology: This discipline focuses on the
study of internal mental processes—that is, what happens inside your brain, including perception, memory,
attention, language, problem-solving, and learning.27
Neuroscience: This discipline focuses more deeply
inside the brain and nervous system. Neuroscientists
use tools like brain scanning, which measures neural
activity, and physiological tracking, which measures eye
movement.28
Judgment and decision making (JDM): As its name
signals, this discipline studies all the complexities of
human judgments and decisions.29

Chapter 1 • Buying, Having, and Being: An Introduction to Consumer Behavior

Cognitive Psychology

Neuroscience

Judgment and Decision-Making

Behavioral Economics

Social Psychology

Buying, Having, and Being
SECTION 1

SECTION 2

SECTION 3

SECTION 4

SECTION 5

Foundations of
Consumer Behavior

Making Sense
of the World

Buying and Having: Choosing
and Using Products

Being: Using Products
to Create and
Communicate Identity

Belonging

History

Semiotics, Literary Theory

Computer Science

Sociology

Figure 1.2 The Core Disciplines That Inform Research on Consumer Behavior

•
•

Behavioral economics: A branch of economics that extends from classical and
neoclassical economics and integrates insights from psychology.30
Social psychology: This branch of psychology focuses (not surprisingly!) on the
social factors that affect individual or group behavior.31

A Macro Focus
On the macro side, we find researchers who regard consumption from a social and
cultural point of view, drawing on sociology and anthropology. Researchers embrace
a variety of topics that range from how the media shapes our conceptions of our
bodies or how disadvantaged people cope with poverty to how Harley-Davidson riders
participate in an active community of bike lovers.32

•
•

Sociology: This discipline focuses on the study of group behavior, including the
structures and institutions that govern human behavior.33
Anthropology: This discipline comparatively examines culture, society, and
human difference from the perspective of the individual embedded in a collective.34

A Diverse Focus
A wide array of other disciplines also inform consumer research, such as:

•
•
•

Semiotics and literary criticism: The humanities can provide rich insights into
the meanings inherent in text. Semiotics, the study of meanings and symbols, and
literary criticism, the systematic and organized analysis and evaluation of texts,
offer tools to deconstruct and extract the meanings inside ads, social media posts,
and even entire marketing campaigns.35
Computer science: The increasing role of technology in our lives brings the
need to integrate knowledge from computer science, the study of computers and
computational systems, to understand consumer behavior.36
History: The discipline of history studies the past and critically examines these
source materials to assess consumption trends over time and the factors that shape
them.37 For instance, consumer researchers critically analyze historical records
to understand how markets change and how cultural trends and practices evolve
over time.

19

Anthropology

20

Section 1 • Foundations of Consumer Behavior

Where Do We Find Consumer Researchers?
Where do we find consumer researchers? Just about anywhere we find consumers.
Consumer researchers work for manufacturers, retailers, marketing research firms,
governments, and nonprofit organizations—and of course colleges and universities.
You’ll find them in laboratories, running sophisticated experiments that involve
advanced neural imaging machinery, or in malls, interviewing shoppers. They may
conduct focus groups or run large-scale polling operations. For example, when an
advertising agency began to work on a new campaign for retailer JCPenney, it sent
staffers to hang out with more than 50 women for several days. They wanted to
really understand the respondents’ lives, so they helped them to clean their houses,
carpool, cook dinner, and shop. As one of the account executives observed, “If
you want to understand how a lion hunts, you don’t go to the zoo—you go to the
jungle.”38

The Philosophy of This Book
This textbook embraces the multidisciplinary nature of the study of consumer behavior.
Understanding complex real-world consumption phenomena requires a plurality of
methods and theoretical approaches.39
So, in each chapter, we weave in insights from multiple paradigms, which
refer to ways of thinking about and studying a phenomenon. For instance, when
explaining the processes of attitude change (Chapter 6), we review classic
persuasion models from social psychology but also incorporate the sociocultural
and narrative (storytelling) processes at play. When we cover the role of social class
in consumption (Chapter 13), we review the “pure” sociological perspective on class,
which adopts a societal lens and analyzes the symbolic systems that shape class and
status groups but also weaves in developments from social psychology on status
signaling, which takes a psychological approach to how individuals process and
respond to status cues.
Multiple flavors? Yes, and you’ll taste them all in this course!

CHAPTER SUMMARY
Now that you have finished reading this chapter, you should
be able to:
1. Summarize how the consumption of goods, services, experiences, and ideas is a major part of
our lives.
Consumer behavior is the study of the processes involved
when individuals or groups select, purchase, use, or
dispose of products, services, ideas, or experiences to
satisfy needs and desires and to define and express their
identities. The items we consume include anything from
canned peas to a massage, democracy, Juicy jeans, a virtual
reality experience, K-pop music, or a celebrity like Taylor
Swift. The needs and desires we satisfy range from hunger
and thirst to love, status, and even spiritual fulfillment.

Consumption refers to all facets of the consumer behavior
process, which includes how we observe and make sense
of the world around us, how we choose and purchase
things, and how we use consumption to communicate our
identity and our sense of self in society.
One of the fundamental premises of the modern
field of consumer behavior is that people buy
products not for what they do but for what they mean.
This principle does not imply that a product’s basic
function is unimportant but rather that the roles
products (and services) play in our lives extend well
beyond the tasks they perform. Our consumption
choices help us define our identity. Identity is a
multilayered concept that involves our personal self
and our social self.

Chapter 1 • Buying, Having, and Being: An Introduction to Consumer Behavior

2. Identify and discuss the technological and sociocultural trends that require constant monitoring
to understand consumer behavior.
There’s little doubt that the digital revolution is
one of the most significant influences on consumer
behavior, and the impact of the internet will continue
to expand as more and more people around the world
log in. Communications no longer just flow top-down
from companies and established media to passive
recipients (consumers). Today, they also flow across
regular users. Social media refers to the online means
of communication, conveyance, collaboration, and
cultivation among interconnected and interdependent
networks of people, communities, and organizations
enhanced by technological capabilities and mobility.
Every day the influence of social media expands
as more people join online communities. As part
of our online activity, we are all generating massive
amounts of information that hold tremendous value
for marketers, especially as our devices increasingly
connect to one another as part of the Internet of
Things (IoT). The collection and analysis of extremely
large datasets is called Big Data. This data explosion
is profoundly changing the way we think about
consumer behavior. Companies, nonprofits, political
parties, and even governments sift through massive
quantities of information that enable them to make
precise predictions about what products we will buy,
what charities we will donate to, what candidates we
will vote for, and what levers they need to push to
make this even more likely to happen. The metaverse
describes an environment we will very possibly inhabit
in the near future, where activities in the physical and
digital worlds are integrated into an immersive user
experience. Increasingly the content we encounter is

from brands that have become a part of global culture.
Understanding consumer behavior means staying
on top of consumer trends. Important trends include
the sharing economy, diversity and multiculturalism,
authenticity, and sustainability.
3. Explain how consumption both contributes to
the world’s problems and provides solutions.
Many critics argue that consumption is the source of
many of the world’s problems: Growing mental and
physical health problems, climate change, addiction, and
other issues that threaten our quality of life as individuals and as a society. They claim that modern marketing
practices make these problems worse because they create unhealthy needs that people then try to satisfy. It’s
just as easy to argue that consumption can also be the
source of solutions to a better world. A greener planet
will require that consumers make better, more environmentally sound choices. Solving the housing crisis will
likely involve creative solutions to home ownership and
a greater variety of housing options.
For businesses also, responsible marketing is about
merging consumer centricity, a focus on meeting consumers’ needs, with making a positive impact on our
communities—both in the small sense (local communities) and in the broad sense (our planet).
4. Describe how many disciplines and perspectives
inform our understanding of consumer behavior.
Many different perspectives shape the field of
consumer research. You can find people with training
in a wide range of disciplines—from neuroscience to
anthropology—doing consumer research. Universities,
manufacturers, museums, advertising agencies, and
governments employ consumer researchers.

KEY TERMS
Artificial intelligence (AI), 10
Autonomous vehicles, 10
Big Data, 10
Brand, 7
Consumer behavior, 5
Consumer centricity, 17
Consumer trends, 13
Consumption, 6
Contact points, 13
Cultural distinctiveness, 12
Digital native, 10

21

Horizontal revolution, 9
Identity, 6
In-group bias, 12
Internet of Things, (IoT), 10
Lifelog, 9
M2M (machine-to-machine
communication), 10
Machine learning, 10
Megacity, 9
Metaverse, 11
Need, 15

Nonfungible tokens (NFTs), 11
Paradigms, 20
Popular culture, 13
Responsible marketing, 17
Social media, 9
Transmedia, 12
Transmedia storytelling, 13
User-generated content (UGC), 12
Want, 15
Web 2.0, 12

22

Section 1 • Foundations of Consumer Behavior

REVIEW
1-1 Provide a definition of consumer behavior.
1-2 What is Big Data?
1-3 What is popular culture, and how does this concept
relate to marketing and consumer behavior?

1-5 This chapter states “people often buy products not for
what they do but for what they mean.” Explain the
meaning of this statement and provide an example.

1-4 Name two different disciplines that study consumer
behavior. How would their approaches to the same
issue differ?

CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CHALLENGE
DISCUSS

1-6 As consumers increasingly interact with one another
in digital form, what are the ramifications for realworld human relationships?
1-7 What aspects of consumer behavior would interest
a financial planner? A university administrator?
A graphic arts designer? A social worker in a
government agency? A nursing instructor?
1-8 Critics of targeted marketing strategies argue that
this practice is discriminatory and unfair, especially
if such a strategy encourages a group of people to buy
a product that may be injurious to them or that they
cannot afford. For example, community leaders in
largely minority neighborhoods have staged protests
against billboards promoting beer or cigarettes in
these areas. However, the Association of National
Advertisers argues that banning targeted marketing
constitutes censorship and thus is a violation of the
First Amendment. What are your views regarding this
issue?
1-9 The chapter discussed a study that compared and
contrasted people who lead “happy” lives versus
those who lead “meaningful” lives. How does this
distinction relate to the way you decide to spend your
time and money? How does it relate to consumer
behavior more generally?40
1-10 A book bemoans the new wave of consumergenerated content, labeling it “the cult of the amateur.”
It compares the social networking phenomenon
to the old story about the monkeys: If you put an
infinite number of monkeys in a room with an
infinite number of typewriters, eventually they will
(by hitting keys randomly) reproduce all the major

works of literature. In other words, most of the usergenerated content is at about the same level, and the
future of professionally produced, quality work is in
doubt.41 Do you agree or disagree with this assertion?
1-11 A few years ago, a publicity campaign for a late-night
cartoon show backfired when it aroused fears of a
terrorist attack and temporarily shut down the city of
Boston. The effort consisted of one-foot-tall blinking
electronic signs with hanging wires and batteries that
marketers used to promote the Cartoon Network TV
show Aqua Teen Hunger Force (a surreal series about a
talking milkshake, a box of fries, and a meatball). The
signs were placed on bridges and in other high-profile
spots in several U.S. cities. Most depicted a boxy,
cartoon character giving passersby the finger. The
bomb squads and other police personnel required to
investigate the mysterious boxes cost the city of Boston
more than $500,000—and a lot of frayed nerves.42 Is
there a line between attention-getting publicity stunts
and activities that should be illegal or forbidden?
1-12 List the three stages in the consumption process.
Describe the issues that you considered in each
of these stages when you made a recent important
purchase.
1-13 This chapter states that people play different roles
and that their consumption behaviors may differ
depending on the particular role they are playing.
State whether you agree or disagree with this
statement, giving examples from your personal life.
Try to construct a “stage set” for a role you play,
specifying the props, costumes, and script that you
use to play a role (e.g., job interviewee, conscientious
student, party animal).

Chapter 1 • Buying, Having, and Being: An Introduction to Consumer Behavior

23

APPLY

1-14 Talk to car owners and probe to see what (if any)
relationships they have with their vehicles. Do these
feelings correspond to the types of consumer/product
attachments we discussed in this chapter? How are
these relationships acted on? (Hint: See whether
any of the respondents give their cars a nickname or
whether they “decorate” them with personal items.)
To give you some additional insight, check out a
YouTube video titled I Love My Car! that originally
aired on the TV show My Strange Addiction.
1-15 The specific way we choose to satisfy a need depends
on our unique history, learning experiences, and
cultural environment. For example, two classmates

CASE STUDY

may feel their stomachs rumble during a lunchtime
lecture. If neither person has eaten since the night
before, the strength of their needs (hunger) would
be about the same. However, the ways each person
goes about satisfying this need might be quite
different. Conduct this exercise with classmates: “As
you probably know, a prisoner who is sentenced to
die traditionally gets to choose their ‘last meal.’ If
you had to do this (let’s hope not), describe your
last meal in detail.” Compare the responses you
get, especially among people from different ethnic
or cultural backgrounds. What similarities and
differences emerge?

Alexa—What Is Consumer Behavior?

Amazon’s Echo is the market leader in smart speakers, with
a nearly 72 percent market share.43 Powered by the Alexa
digital assistant software, customers use the Echo to listen
to music, as an alarm clock, as a tool for getting answers
to questions, and even as a source of jokes to brighten their
day. Alexa and competitive products are also becoming a
major factor in consumer decision making that may radically
change the relationship between brands and their customers.
First released to the general public in 2015, the Echo is
a small desktop speaker that users place in their bedroom,
living room, or kitchen—sometimes all three. Users interact
with it by calling out “Alexa” followed by a question or
command. Through its basic functionality, the unit responds
to commands to play music, report the weather, or to read
your appointments for the day.44 A wider array of capabilities
is provided through the installation of “skills”—third party
apps that use Alexa to accomplish tasks. Amazon says there
are more than 30,000 of these and that four out of five
registered customers have used at least one.45 Need to find
a breed of dog that behaves in apartments? Purina can help
with their Ask Purina skill. Tide Stain Remover will help
you remove that spot on your favorite shirt. And you can just
shout out to Campbell’s Kitchen skill and a helpful assistant
will read you a recipe while you cook!46
While it operates primarily on the Amazon Echo,
Alexa can run on a variety of devices, including in
selected automobiles. Alexa fits into a broader category of
technology known as AI (artificial intelligence) assistants.
This category includes tools such as Apple’s Siri, Microsoft
Cortana, and Google Assistant, the latter of which is
available on 400 million devices.47 In one way, Alexa and
her humanoid friends simply provide another way to access

the internet—by voice instead of keystrokes. However, the
embedded AI capabilities combined with the human touch of
voice command / voice response are significant differences
that are changing the game for brand marketing—and not
necessarily in positive ways.
AI assistants offer consumers savings in time by
automatically ordering routine items and by evaluating the
many options for nonroutine purchases, making logical choices
based on algorithms or customer-defined criteria. For example,
shopping for shoes can be fun, but choosing the perfect electric
toothbrush can be painful. The AI assistant can do the heavy
lifting for you, sorting through reviews and ratings and picking
out the toothbrush that best fits your needs at a price you can
afford. Through its understanding of your needs, its access to
the full spectrum of product options, and its algorithms, your
trusty AI assistant provides the trifecta of shopping pleasure:
convenience, lower costs, and risk reduction.
The rise of AI assistants as a dominant channel has
important implications for brand management. We often buy
the same brand repeatedly to lower the risk of a bad decision.
If consumers start to trust Alexa with product choices, brands
lose an important benefit. Loyalty can be very fleeting and
more dependent upon being in sync with the algorithms
of the AI assistant than with the positioning in the mind
of the customer. Brand loyalty–building activities, such as
understanding/filling needs, assuring quality, and focusing on
customer interests, may be better performed by AI.
Customer satisfaction becomes a more sophisticated
proposition in a world dominated by AI assistants. Much of
marketing research is focused on understanding the levels
and dimensions of satisfaction; what if AI platforms could do
a better job of assessing—and projecting—satisfaction than

24

Section 1 • Foundations of Consumer Behavior

the consumers themselves? Smart assistants could be able
to anticipate, for example, how much room in a car an auto
shopper would sacrifice for improved fuel efficiency.
In the age of AI, promotion will likely be directed more
to “push” activities (focused on the distribution channel) than
“pull” activities (focused on the consumer). This is not so
different from convincing retailers to put products on their
shelves. Except now that “shelf” is digitally embedded in the
algorithm of an AI assistant. In this environment, the power
of the AI assistants increases significantly, most notably for
Amazon, which now has a long list of its own “private label”
brands.48 This could also radically change the amount of
promotion devoted to advertising, particularly of the imageoriented variety. Alexa may not care whether she purchases
the same shampoo as all the cool AI assistants buy.
The personal touch that the ability to interact with a
human and humanlike voice provides is another important
aspect of the use of AI assistants. The movie Her explored
the connection that could exist with a computer-generated
voice-only being.49 Although that was a fictional account,
research has found that that some AI assistant users are passionate about their devices, with over 30 percent reporting
that Alexa or Google Assistant is “like a friend to me.”50
Could that feeling affect your trust in the recommendations
of the AI assistant?

So, does Alexa know consumer behavior, and, even more
important, will she and her AI friends drive it? AI assistants
are still in an early stage of adoption. Although hundreds of
millions of consumers could use AI via Google, only one in
five U.S. consumers has access to a smart speaker and just
over 2 percent make a purchase daily. The majority of Alexa
users have never used any of the 30,000 skills available.51
As use of AI assistants grows, the “Age of Alexa” will likely
involve hits and misses for brand marketers who must determine the optimal strategy for taking advantage of this new
technology.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

CS 1-1 Choose two of your favorite brands and devise an
idea for an Alexa “skill” that consumers could find
useful. How would these skills help sell more of the
brands’ products and/or increase customer loyalty?
CS 1-2 How can brands remain relevant in the Age of Alexa?
What strategies should brand managers employ to
continue to influence consumer purchase decisions
if consumers become more reliant on AI assistants?
CS 1-3 What kinds of products or brands will most likely
be either negatively or positively affected by an
increased use of AI assistants? Explain your answer.

NOTES
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.com/terms/b/brand.asp, accessed August 6, 2022.
3. Julie Creswell, Kevin Draper, and Sapna Maheshwari, “Nike Nearly Dropped
Colin Kaepernick before Embracing Him,” New York Times, March 26, 2018,
https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/26/sports/nike-colin-kaepernick.html,
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4. “Car2go and DriveNow Join Forces for New Car-Sharing Firm,” AirQualityNews,
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5. “Megacities,” http://webs.schule.at/website/megacities/megacities_index_
en.htm.
6. “US Social Media Statistics 2022,” The Global Statistics, https://www
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7. Bianca Bosker, “Nice to Meet You. I’ve Already Taken Your Picture,”
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12. Erik Brynjolfsson and Andrew McAfee, “The Business of Artificial
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Chapter 1 • Buying, Having, and Being: An Introduction to Consumer Behavior

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35.
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38.
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25

Giana M. Eckhardt, Sean Sands, and Avi Shankar, “How Brands Craft National
Identity,” Journal of Consumer Research 48, no. 4 (2021): 586–609.
S. Umit Kucuk, “A Semiotic Analysis of Consumer-Generated
Antibranding,” Marketing Theory 15, no. 2 (2015): 243–64, https://doi
.org/10.1177/1470593114540677.
Rhonda Hadi and Ana Valenzuela, “Good Vibrations: Consumer Responses to
Technology-Mediated Haptic Feedback,” Journal of Consumer Research 47,
no. 2 (2020): 256–71, https://doi.org/10.1093/jcr/ucz039.
Terrence Witkowski (2018), A History of American Consumption Threads of
Meaning, Gender, and Resistance, Routledge; Mikkel Nøjgaard (2022), “The
Value-Translation Model of Consumer Activism: How Consumer Watchdog
Organizations Change Markets,” Journal of Consumer Research, ucac025,
https://doi.org/10.1093/jcr/ucac025.
Suzanne Vranica, “Ad Houses Will Need to Be More Nimble, Clients Are
Demanding More and Better Use of Consumer Data, Web,” Wall Street
Journal, January 2, 2008: B3.
Hans Baumgartner, Simon J. Blanchard, and David Sprott, “The Critical
Role of Methodological Pluralism for Policy-Relevant Empirical Marketing
Research,” Journal of Public Policy & Marketing 41, no. 3 (2022): 203–05.
Roy F. Baumeister, Kathleen D. Vohs, Jennifer L. Aaker, and Emily N.
Garbinsky, “Some Key Differences between a Happy Life and a Meaningful
Life,” Journal of Positive Psychology 8 (2013): 505–16.
Andrew Keen, The Cult of the Amateur: How Today’s Internet Is Killing Our
Culture (New York: Currency, 2007).
“Boston Officials Livid Over Ad Stunt,” New York Times, February 1, 2007,
www.newyorktimes.com.
Greg Sterling, “Survey: Amazon Echo Owners Spend $400 per Year More Than
Prime Subscribers on Amazon,” Marketing Land, January 3, 2018, https://
marketingland.com/survey-amazon-echo-owners-spend-400-per-year-primesubscribers-amazon-231351.
David Nield, “20 Helpful Amazon Echo Voice Commands for You to Try,”
Popular Science, April 4, 2017, https://www.popsci.com/20-amazon-echovoice-commands/.
Daisuke Wakabayashi and Nick Wingfield, “Alexa, We’re Still Trying to Figure
Out What to Do with You,” New York Times, January 15, 2018, https://www
.nytimes.com/2018/01/15/technology/virtual-assistants-alexa.html.
“Alexa Marketing Stack,” Alexa, https://try.alexa.com/marketing-stack/; Ricki
Harris, “Alexa Wants to Talk to Your Kids,” Wired, December 16, 2017, https://
www.wired.com/story/future-amazon-alexa-advertising-2018/.
Niraj Dawar, “Marketing in the Age of Alexa,” Harvard Business Review, May
2018, https://hbr.org/2018/05/marketing-in-the-age-of-alexa.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Tara Johnson, “Amazon’s Private Label Brands | The Complete List,” CPC
Strategy, July 5, 2017, https://tinuiti.com/blog/amazon/amazons-privatelabel-brands/.

2

Consumer Ethics, the
Marketplace, and the Planet

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES When you finish reading this chapter, you should be able to:
2-1 Define business ethics and identify the elements
that comprise the PESTLE framework.

2-5 Describe the technological changes that are
creating new challenges for consumer protection.

2-2 Summarize how the political environment affects
consumer decision making.

2-6 Explain how the legal environment influences
consumer behavior.

2-3 Discuss how the economic landscape affects
consumers’ access to the marketplace.

2-7 Describe how consumer behavior directly impacts
the environment.

2-4 Explain the ways marketers respond to social
issues to shape consumer behavior.

I

Source: Ground Picture/Shutterstock.

26

f there’s one silver lining from the pandemic for Abriella, it’s learning
how much more comfortable it feels to wear “soft” clothing made for
lounging around the house. But she managed to wear out her sweats
during the lockdown, so it’s time to splurge on a new, comfy sweatshirt.
Abriella’s also a new convert to online shopping, so she starts to surf
the web for options. Oops, a Google search for “women’s sweatshirts”
yields about 2.6 million links, so that strategy isn’t going to work too
well. During a Zoom call, her colleague Jayden mentions that Patagonia
is doing some amazing things to “give back” to the planet. Jayden can’t
stop talking about the company’s self-imposed Earth tax it calls 1% for
the Planet. This money provides support to environmental nonprofits
that work to improve our air, land, and water. And, Patagonia even
encourages less consumption by selling used items in its WornWear
­p rogram. 1 This ­initiative really resonates with Abriella because she believes that
every c
­ onsumer’s choices have ramifications for the rest of us. She happily places an
online order for a Women’s Re-Tool Snap-T® Pullover (at about 12 the price of a new
­garment). She’s actually looking forward to her next Zoom call with Jayden (unlike
most ­videochats!) to let him know that she’s doing her part to save the planet—and
still stay comfortable.

Chapter 2 • Consumer Ethics, the Marketplace, and the Planet

OBJECTIVE 2-1
Define business
ethics and identify
the elements that
comprise the
PESTLE framework.

27

What Is the “Right” Thing?

Regardless of whether they do it intentionally, some marketers do violate their bonds of trust with consumers. In some
cases, these actions are illegal, as when a manufacturer deliberately mislabels the contents of a package. Or a retailer may
adopt a “bait-and-switch” selling strategy that lures consumers into the store when it
offers inexpensive products with the sole intent to get them to switch to higher-priced
goods.
In other cases, marketing practices have detrimental effects on society even
though they are not explicitly illegal. Some companies erect billboards advertising
alcohol and tobacco products in low-income neighborhoods; others sponsor commercials that objectify women as they pander to male viewers.
Business ethics are rules of conduct that guide actions in the marketplace; these
are the standards against which most people in a culture judge what is right and what is
wrong, good or bad. These universal values include honesty, trustworthiness, fairness,
respect, justice, integrity, concern for others, accountability, and loyalty.
Companies that score high in customer satisfaction often
benefit from a big competitive advantage—especially when so
many firms skimp on the attention they pay to customers. A
five-year study of customer satisfaction in the Canadian banking industry provides typical results: Banks that provided better
service commanded a larger “share of wallet” than did others
(i.e., their customers entrusted them with a larger proportion of
their money).2
It’s hard to divorce consumer behavior from most of what
goes on around us. The consumption choices we make are central to many of the big issues we read about and debate every
day. These range from human rights and humane working conditions to the safety of what we eat, the future of our environment,
and our relationships with governments, corporations, and other
organizations.
But consumer behavior can also be the solution to many of
Consumers increasingly are concerned about the impact of
the crises we face. This chapter is organized around the widely
marketing activities on important issues like social justice.
used PESTLE framework (see Table 2.1). We’ll consider the
Source: Janine Wiedel Photolibrary/Alamy Stock Photo.

TABLE 2.1    The

Factors
explored:

PESTLE Framework

P

E

S

T

L

E

Political

Economic

Social

Technological

Legal

Environmental

Consumer
activism and
slacktivism

Market access
and literacy

Social justice and
cancel culture

Data privacy

Governmental
regulations and
agencies

Conscious
consumerism

Culture jamming

Human trafficking and “red
markets”

Social marketing

Corporate sociopolitical activism

Transformative consumer
research

Data accuracy and
algorithm bias
Data security
Social media
addiction
Cyberbullying

Corrective
advertising
Consumer
theft and
counterfeiting

Brand purpose
Circular economy
and fast fashion
Green marketing
Prosocial
behavior

28

Section 1 • Foundations of Consumer Behavior

crucial relationships between consumer behavior and the complex world in which we
live by examining Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Legal, and Environmental
issues.3 We’ll also consider the repercussions of consumers’ choices on businesses.
OBJECTIVE 2-2
Summarize how
the political
environment affects
consumer decision
making.

PESTLE: The Political

Environment

In the politically charged environment we inhabit, consumers make choices based on their beliefs and values—and they
vote with their wallets. Through their brand and product choices, consumers make
statements to companies about the types of products they want and how, when, and
where (or even if) they want to learn about those products. A growing number of
consumers wants to know more about the companies they buy from—are the c­ ontents
accurately labelled? Does the manufacturer treat its workers
humanely? Will the product damage the environment?
In one typical study, the researchers gave subjects a description of a coffee company that either used or did not use fair trade
principles to buy its beans. They found that participants were
willing to pay an additional $1.40 for a pound of coffee if it was
ethically sourced and were negative about the company if it did
not adhere to these principles. The study obtained similar results
for shirts that were made with organic cotton.4 What is especially
encouraging is that younger consumers express this preference
even more strongly: About three-quarters of them feel this way,
and 81 percent of them expect their favorite companies to declare
publicly what they are doing to make the world a better place.5
Note: Every budding consumer researcher needs to remember the
maxim “The road to hell is paved with good intentions.” In other
words, when study respondents say they would do something
under certain conditions, that’s not a guarantee that they’ll follow
through. But, it’s a start.

Consumer Activism

Movies and ads that lampoon advertising messages, are
examples of culture jamming, which is a strategy to disrupt efforts by the corporate world to dominate our cultural
landscape. The movement believes that culture jamming will
change the way information flows; the way institutions wield
power; the way TV stations are run; and the way the food,
fashion, automobile, sports, music, and culture industries set
their agendas.7
Source: Everett Collection, Inc./Alamy Stock Photo.

Consumer activism, where consumers band together to attack
what they view as unsafe or otherwise harmful, is not new. In
the U.S., the publication of books such as Rachel Carson’s Silent
Spring (1962), which attacked the irresponsible use of pesticides,
and Ralph Nader’s Unsafe at Any Speed (1965), which exposed
safety defects in General Motors’ Corvair automobile, have
encouraged activists to work for change.
Many people have a vigorous interest in consumer-related
issues, ranging from environmental concerns—such as global
warming and climate change, toxic waste, and so on—to addiction or excessive violence and sex on television and in the ­lyrics
of popular rock and rap songs. These concerns remain today
as movements like Black Lives Matter and NinetyToZero (an
organization of top executives and academics founded in 2021
to reduce the 90 percent racial wealth gap between white and
black Americans) heighten consumers’ awareness of inequities
in our society.6

Chapter 2 • Consumer Ethics, the Marketplace, and the Planet

29

Consumers get creative when they
want to vent their feelings about companies they don’t like.
Source: Michael Matthews/Alamy Stock Photo.

Corporate Activism
In the “old days” of marketing (like a decade ago), it was quite rare for a company
to get out front on an inflammatory issue, for fear this would turn off a lot of loyal
customers. For every activist marketer like Ben & Jerry’s or Patagonia, there were
thousands of companies that worked really hard to stay out of the conversation.
Fast forward to today: The explosion of social activism we’ve encountered both in
the U.S.A. and in many other parts of the world over the past few years has encouraged
some companies to engage in corporate sociopolitical activism (CSA), where they
deliberately take a stand on a controversial issue. This reversal comes at a time when
many company stakeholders, including customers, expect companies to take stands on
sociopolitical issues, like LGBTQIA2S + rights, voting rights, or R
­ ussia’s invasion
of Ukraine in 2022.8 Delta Airlines cut ties with the National Rifle Association after a
deadly school shooting. Nike stood alongside football player Colin Kaepernick when
he took a knee during the national anthem in protest of police brutality and in support
of Black Lives Matter.
The organization Chief Executives for Corporate Purpose (CECP), which monitors these activities, reported that during the peak of the pandemic in 2020, funding
from companies “investing in society” increased by 41 percent. And ironically (despite
the evident lack of trust in marketers), business is now the most trusted institution in
America, as customers increasingly look to the private sector to help with deep-seated social issues.9
But does social activism impact the (financial)
bottom line? When Nike took a public stand on NFL
players’ rights to kneel during the national anthem,
some analysts predicted that more conservative customers would abandon the company in droves amid
calls for a boycott—but as it turns out, Nike’s revenues actually increased by 10 percent for the year!
As a business professor commented, “The demo
that is willing to spend $200 on Nike sneakers is not
the demo that’s going to boycott them because of
Kaepernick.”10
Nonetheless, the jury is still out on how consumers will treat companies that take a controversial
stand on a social issue. A recent analysis of the stock
market performance of companies that engaged in
CSA found that this type of activity is a double-edged
Nike took a very controversial stand to support Colin K
­ aepernick’s efforts
sword.11 Investors tended to react negatively to CSA
for racial justice.
efforts that deviate from the value of key stakeholders
Source: © Richard B. Levine/Alamy Stock Photo.

30

Section 1 • Foundations of Consumer Behavior

but positively to those efforts that align with them. So, it looks like one unintended
consequence of CSA may be that it also contributes to the polarization in our society
by turning people on and off to a cause depending upon their prior political beliefs.

Slacktivism
When an organization wants to encourage people to contribute to its cause in some
way, it seems like a good idea to provide an initial token display of support, such as a
T-shirt people can wear, a petition they can sign, or a Facebook group they can join.
Makes sense, right? Not necessarily. Some critics are worried about the phenomenon they term slacktivism: small and relatively meaningless expressions of support
for important causes, such as liking a charity on Facebook rather than making a donation or volunteering. One study found that if the initial display is visible to others,
this public behavior can actually reduce the likelihood that the person will contribute
beyond that. Under some circumstances, the need to make a positive impression on
others is satisfied by the public display, so the person exhibits slacktivism and doesn’t
bother to do anything else to support the cause.12

OBJECTIVE 2-3
Discuss how
the economic
landscape affects
consumers’ access
to the marketplace.

PESTLE: The Economic
Environment

Many of us take for granted that we are free to shop anywhere we want or that we can easily learn about our purchase
options—everything we need is just a click of a mouse away,
right? In reality, however, large numbers of people can’t make this claim. For
one reason or another, their market access (i.e., their ability to find and purchase goods and services) is limited because of physical, mental, economic, or
social barriers.
A well-functioning, equitable society requires that everyone has equal access to
products, services, and information in the marketplace. Yet we frequently see cases
where individuals or groups face either perceived or real barriers to certain market
offerings. The lack of access has many detrimental psychological consequences for
those who experience it. A study found that people who are repeatedly denied access
to a market offering (securing a mortgage or a rental lease agreement) feel more
powerless and, as a result, are more likely to disengage from the market and to choose
harmful market options (e.g., high-interest-rate loans).13 Thus, market access denial is
a vicious cycle, and strategies are required to break this harmful pattern.

Disabled Consumers

As the number of people using
wheelchairs increases, the market
for ­adaptive clothing that provides
a broader range of apparel options
grows as well.

Source: Photo courtesy of Smart Adaptive Clothing.

The World Health Organization estimates that more than 10 million adult Americans live with a disability, and it puts the number of disabled people globally at
over one billion! These numbers continue to grow as populations age and we see
a surge in chronic health conditions.14
About 11 million American adults have a condition that makes it difficult for them
to leave home to shop, so they rely almost exclusively on catalogs and the internet to
purchase products. The many people who have limited mobility may also be unable to
gain easy access to entertainment venues, educational institutions, and other locations.
In addition, bodily limitations or disfigurements may result in real or imagined stigmatization, so self-concept and interpersonal relationships may prove challenging.15

Chapter 2 • Consumer Ethics, the Marketplace, and the Planet

31

People with disabilities in the U.S. alone control approximately $645 billion
in disposable income (yes, billion). 16 However, most companies pay remarkably little attention to the unique needs of this vast group. People who rely on
wheelchairs for mobility often encounter barriers when they try to enter stores,
move around the aisles, or enter dressing rooms that are too narrow to accommodate a chair. Others have mental illnesses, such as excessive anxiety in public
places. These issues touch many of us; for example, 15 ­percent of Vietnam and
1991 Gulf War veterans have been diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD), and 20 percent of veterans who served in Afghanistan and Iraq have
received care at a Veterans Affairs (VA) facility for the disorder since their return
home. Large numbers of children also encounter difficulties with market access,
whether offline or online.

Consumed Consumers
Consumed consumers are people who are used or exploited, willingly or not, for
commercial gain in the marketplace. Here are some examples:

Buying, Having, Being

•

Hungry College Students

•
•

Human trafficking and forced labor – The U.S. government estimates that
25 ­million people are subjected to human trafficking and forced labor. These illegal
activities that use people against their will generate about $150 billion annually.17
Organ, blood, and hair donors – There is a lively global red market for body
parts—by one estimate, the annual value of organ trafficking globally ranges from
$840 million to upward of $1.7 billion.18
Babies for sale – Several thousand surrogate mothers have been paid to be medically impregnated and carry babies to term for infertile couples. A fertile woman
between the ages of 18 and 25 can “donate” one egg every three months and rake
in $7,000 each time. Over eight years, that’s 32 eggs for a total of $224,000.19
In one case in Germany, police arrested a couple when they tried to auction their
eight-month-old son on eBay. The parents claimed that the offer, which read
“Baby—collection only. Offer my nearly new baby for sale because it cries too
much. Male, 70 cm long,” was just a joke.20

Food Deserts

Is the classmate who sits next to
you going hungry? Very possibly.
Believe it or not, 38 percent of college students in the U.S. identify as
food insecure, and fully 56 percent
of first-generation students have
this problem. Minority students are
especially hard hit: Black students
are twice as likely to be food insecure.24 These students lack access
to a steady supply of healthy food
(and that doesn’t count all the “junk
food” some students Hoover up to
counter those late-night munchies).
More than 700 colleges in the U.S.
run food pantries for food insecure
students. And it gets worse:
14 percent of students at four-year
colleges are homeless!25

No, it has more to do with sandwiches than with sand: The Department of Agriculture defines a food desert as a census tract where 33 percent of the population or
500 ­people, whichever is less, live more than a mile from a grocery store in an urban area or more than 10 miles away in a rural
area. Limited access to healthy choices can lead to poor diets
and higher levels of obesity and other diet-related disease, but
healthy food options in these communities are hard to find or
are unaffordable. Researchers estimate that in the United States
about 23.5 million people live in food deserts.21
Times were tough for a lot of people before the pandemic hit—44 percent of Americans reported that they live
paycheck to paycheck. But the virus made things even worse,
so now that number has risen to 63 percent. For some, this
means making a difficult choice. The organization Feeding
America reports that 31 percent of us must choose between
paying for food versus education.22 Many people experience
food insecurity, where they have limited access to a healthy
Food insecurity is a problem for many college students.
diet on a daily basis.23
Source: Derek Davis/Portland Press Herald/Getty Images.

32

Section 1 • Foundations of Consumer Behavior

Literacy

Buying, Having, Being
Consumer Researchers
Who Talk the Talk AND
Walk the Walk
Is it enough to document a consumer issue, or should researchers try to improve the problem as
well? Some consumer researchers
are organizing not only to study
but also to rectify what they see
as pressing social problems in
the marketplace. This perspective is called participatory action
research (PAR), or ­transformative
consumer research (TCR). It
promotes research projects that
include the goal of helping people
or bringing about social change.
Scientists who subscribe to this
perspective view consumers as
collaborators who work with them
to realize change rather than as a
“phenomenon” on which to conduct
research. Adherents of TCR work
with at-risk populations—such as
children, the disadvantaged, or the
disabled—or address such topics
as materialism, consumption of dangerous products, and compulsive
consumption.31
As the emerging TCR perspective shows, the field of consumer
behavior can help to improve
our lives as consumers. Social
­marketing strategies use the
techniques that marketers normally
employ to sell beer or detergent
instead to encourage positive
behaviors, such as increased literacy, and to discourage negative
activities, such as drunk driving.32
Many researchers help to evaluate
or create public policies to ensure
that products are labeled accurately, to certify that people can
comprehend important information
in advertising messages, or to prevent children from being exploited
by program-length toy commercials that masquerade as television
shows.

The Latin phrase caveat emptor (“let the buyer beware”) implies that it’s the consumer’s responsibility to decide whether marketing messages are accurate. But that’s a tall
order, especially in today’s complicated media environment. Media literacy describes
the extent to which a consumer can critically evaluate the messages they receive from
the web, TV, and every other communications source that tries to persuade us.26 It’s
our job to critically evaluate this information—but not everyone has the skills to do
that. This task is even more difficult in the age of Google, where many of us assume
that whatever comes up in a Google search or on Wikipedia is completely true and
accurate. (Hint: Not by a long shot.)
And that’s also true for financial literacy: the degree to which a person understands key financial concepts and possesses the ability and confidence to manage
personal finances through appropriate short-term decision making and sound longrange financial planning, while staying mindful of life events and changing economic
conditions.27 That’s a big challenge for many of us, and the pandemic’s disruptive
effect on the economy hasn’t made the task any easier.
Unfortunately, some of us have an even bigger problem with written information
about what we buy: We can’t read it in the first place. The U.S. Department of Education estimates that about one in seven U.S. adults is functionally illiterate.28 This
term describes a person whose reading skills are not adequate to carry out everyday
tasks, such as reading the newspaper or the instructions on a pill bottle. Almost half of
the United States population read below a sixth-grade level. This limitation impedes
market access for a couple of reasons: First, illiterate or “low-literate” consumers
are at a disadvantage because they encounter difficulty in learning about the best
purchase options. Second, they may experience feelings of shame or embarrassment
that make them avoid market situations where they will be forced to reveal their illiteracy.29 For example, some of these people (whom researchers term social isolates)
may cope with the stigma of illiteracy by choosing not to eat at a restaurant with an
unfamiliar menu or by not purchasing a product with a label they can’t fully read.
Low-literate consumers rely heavily on visual cues, including brand logos and
store layouts, to navigate retail settings, but they often make mistakes when they select
similarly packaged products (for example, brand line extensions). They also encounter
problems with numeracy (understanding numbers); many low-literate people have difficulty knowing, for example, whether they have enough money to purchase the items
in their cart, and unethical merchants may cheat them out of the correct amount of
change. Not surprisingly, these challenges create an emotional burden for low-literate
consumers, who experience stress, anxiety, fear, shame, and other negative emotions
before, during, and after they shop.30

OBJECTIVE 2-4
Explain the ways
marketers respond
to social issues to
shape consumer
behavior.

PESTLE: The Social
Environment

The 2020s have seen a proliferation of social causes that
affect the marketplace in fundamental ways. In response
to social justice movements, such as Black Lives Matter,
companies are taking a close look at what their brands and marketing communications look like. In 2020, the Uncle Ben’s and Aunt Jemima brands, whose
imagery was rooted in racial stereotypes of black people, retired their long-time

Chapter 2 • Consumer Ethics, the Marketplace, and the Planet

33

mascots and changed their names to Ben’s Original and Pearl
Milling Company (the name of the company that first produced
the pancake mix).33 Cancel culture refers to the phenomenon of
the public calling out companies for missteps and recommending that consumers boycott the guilty brands.
It’s clear that many consumers today are especially interested in
choosing brands that support causes they find personally relevant.
These causes include medical cures and disease prevention, social
change, faith-based initiatives, and animal and child welfare.34 A
brand’s philanthropic activities can influence shopper behavior and
ultimately purchase decisions.
Consumer research convincingly shows that, when all other
things are equal, people are likely to choose a brand that gives
back to the community. Cause marketing is a popular strategy
that aligns a company or brand with a cause to generate business and societal benefits. Indeed, one survey reported that three
out of five consumers bought a product or service in the previous year because of its association with a cause. An executive
observed, “As a whole, Americans do have a heightened sensitivity to how they can help make a difference.”35
Many firms today try to integrate corporate social responsibility (CSR) into their business models. CSR describes processes that
encourage the organization to make a positive impact on the various
stakeholders in its community, including consumers, employees,
The negative racial stereotype of Uncle Ben was recently
and the environment.
retired as the brand was renamed Ben’s Original.
When a company does a good thing (even when that good thing
Source: Rosamar/Shuterstock.
is unrelated to their core business), their reputation improves, their
consumers’ goodwill also increases, and in turn so do consumers’
evaluations of the company’s product through what researchers have
called a benevolent halo effect.36 But beware: This effect vanishes
when consumers sense that good behavior is motivated by self-interest rather than a genuine desire to give back.
That’s why it’s really crucial to demonstrate good faith.
Researchers have found that consumers especially appreciate
companies’ CSR efforts in response to natural disasters (like
avalanches or hurricanes), which are less controllable than
human-caused calamities. This consumer appreciation is even
greater when companies make in-kind donations, like food or
clothing, rather than monetary ones.37 In-kind donations show
that companies genuinely care and are not just trying to benefit
from the cause.
The shoe company TOMS is well-known for its promise to
New research shows that consumers also increasingly hold
give a child in need a pair of shoes for every pair it sells.
Source: Ccpixx photography/Shutterstock.
companies accountable for their corporate social irresponsibility (CSI).38 Analyzing over 1,000 CSI events reported in 77
leading media outlets in the United States, Mexico, the United Kingdom, Germany, and France over a seven-year period, researchers found clear evidence
that the damage, in terms of how much a company’s shares dropped in the U.S.
stock market, was especially high when a CSI event is widely covered in the news
media. Some factors further accentuated the damage, like when an irresponsible
event happened domestically but was caused by a foreign brand.

34

Section 1 • Foundations of Consumer Behavior

OBJECTIVE 2-5
Describe the
technological
changes that
are creating
new challenges
for consumer
protection.

PEST LE: The Technological
Environment
New technologies disrupt our lives—for better and for
worse. We seem to live on Zoom and social media platforms
like TikTok. When we contact a company with a question or
a problem, it’s quite possible we’ll deal with a non-human
on the other end. Virtual reality and other elements of “the
Metaverse” (see Ch. 1) transform our very definition of reality.
As humans and robots start to coexist (Saudi Arabia actually
granted citizenship to a robot named Sophia a few years ago),
some people eagerly look forward to a better world made easier
by automation, while others bemoan what we’re giving up (like
our privacy) as tech solutions continue to evolve.39

Data Privacy
Do you love the convenience of clicking a link and instantly
accessing a website to shop for the merch you love? How about
when you “mysteriously” get a pop-up ad on your phone soon
thereafter for the exact same item? It’s timely, relevant . . . and
perhaps a bit disturbing. We love our technology (when it
Saudi Arabia awarded citizenship to Sophia, a (Japanese-made)
works!), but many of us are leery about data privacy; that is,
robot.
Source: Anton Gvozdikov/Shutterstock.
we’re wary of opening the door to our private lives so that big
tech companies can enter at will.
One of the biggest ethical issues many marketers face today relates to how much
they can—or should—know about their customers. Virtually anyone who surfs the
internet or who carries a cell phone (especially a smartphone with GPS capability)
shares reams of personal information with all sorts of companies (whether they know
it or not). The pandemic gave companies even greater access to online data because
so much more of our activities shifted to the online world: work, school, socialization,
conferences, workshops, church. From Zoom recordings to Slack chats to studentteacher interactions, data about these daily activities and communications are up for
grabs, unless consumers are careful.40 These connections may come back to bite
marketers—in one recent survey, more than half of respondents said they found personalized ads to be “creepy.” 41
Governments are trying to come to the rescue and implement data protection
policies. For instance, the European Union instituted the General Data Protection
Regulation, which requires websites to provide visible notice regarding private information they collect through cookies and to give consumers the choice to disagree to
such tracking. While these policies are good in theory, there always seem to be ways
to bypass regulations as these notices often have very little visibility. Indeed, a recent
study that analyzed 360 randomly selected websites found that over a third of them
do not even have a cookie notice—even though they use cookies—and that those
websites that do have notices do not display them clearly or visibly enough to make
a difference.42 So these notice requirements may not be enough to give consumers a
sense of power over their personal data.
In fairness, most platforms disclose most or all of what they intend to do with
your data, but how many of us actually read “the fine print” that’s often conveniently
tucked away in an obscure section of the user agreement? We can run, but it’s getting
harder and harder to hide: A professor demonstrated just how easy it is to find people

Chapter 2 • Consumer Ethics, the Marketplace, and the Planet

online if you know what you’re doing. In one study, he showed that it was possible to
deduce portions of a person’s Social Security number from nothing but a photograph
posted online.43
A recent study of how consumers view technology revealed the paradox that
technology is empowering but also creates vulnerabilities.44 In that study, consumers
created collages to represent how they live with technology. The collages revealed that
technology has permeated all facets of consumer journeys and created both dreams
and nightmares in that realm. On the one hand, consumers love the convenience of
tech tools like geo-localization, and they appreciate customized promotional offers
delivered directly to their phones at exactly the right time. On the other hand, once
consumers realize that this enchanting world is only possible because of deceptive
and invasive practices that create material and psychological dependence, they begin
to view this empowerment as a latent vulnerability.45
Recently, researchers conducted a comprehensive review on how consumers try
to reduce this vulnerability.46 Not surprisingly, they find that consumers care a great
deal about online privacy, but perhaps more surprisingly, the review also shows that
consumers take many actions to protect it: They may remove or mask their digital
footprints, or take steps to prevent access to their social media profiles. Yet, individual
actions alone are not sufficient, and more coordinated policy interventions are necessary to regulate how firms collect private online data and what they do with it.

Data Accuracy
Especially in the wake of the tumultuous 2020 presidential election and the pandemic,
the failure of social media platforms, including Facebook and Twitter, to police “fake
news” content prompted many to reconsider how “free” information should be. The
internet’s reach makes it incredibly easy to spread rumors, false “facts,” and even
conspiracy theories:

•

Microsoft founder Bill Gates is using the COVID-19 vaccine to implant microchips in everyone so he can track their movements.

35

Buying, Having, Being
Your Face Here
Other technologies also threaten our
privacy even while they make marketing efforts more efficient. Facebook introduced a “Tag Suggestions”
feature that uses facial recognition
to identify a user’s friends in photos
they upload and automatically suggests nametags for them. Other programs, like Picasa, also incorporate
facial recognition technology. This
handy little tool removes the need to
keep typing the same friends’ names
into photo albums.
But is there a dark side to this
capability? Because facial recognition analyzes and stores people’s
unique facial measurements, it may
come with some serious privacy
risks. For example, in the near
future, it will be possible for marketers to identify people as they
walk down the street—and link
their faces to relevant information,
such as credit scores and medical
records. Some firms already offer
smart billboards that detect the
gender and age of a passerby and
show that person relevant ad messages. For now, these boards don’t
analyze emotions or other personal
characteristics, but what if they
could detect a feeling like sadness
and offer the person a message
about antidepressants?47 What is
the tradeoff between meeting needs
quickly versus sharing your most
intimate information with marketers?

A collage that a research participant
made shows how pervasive technology
is in a customer journey: notifications,
phone calls, and promotions popping
up at any time of the day can turn what
otherwise would seem dreamy into a
nightmare.48
Source: CélineDel Bucchia et.al (2021),
“Empowerment as Latent Vulnerability in TechnoMediated Consumption Journeys,” Journal of
Business Research, 124 (January), 629–651.

36

Section 1 • Foundations of Consumer Behavior

•
•

Democrats and Hollywood celebrities are ritually sacrificing children (as
“exposed” by the shadowy QAnon movement).49
Advertisers embed “hidden” messages in ads to manipulate people into buying
things (more on this in the next chapter!).

Although these allegations and many others have virtually ZERO evidence to support them, the theories persist. Indeed, in 2021 Amazon was forced to remove a slew
of QAnon merchandise promoting the movement from its Marketplace.
So, how do we know what’s “true” anymore? This is a huge problem: in fact,
when it comes to medical issues, the World Health Organization now calls this glut of
false information an infodemic that causes confusion and unhealthy risk-taking.50 The
issue is more complicated than it seems because a message may contain a mixture of
accurate and erroneous information that makes it difficult to separate fact from fiction.
That means we’re all obligated to do our homework by referring to multiple sources
and perhaps verifying a story on websites like FactCheck.org and Snopes.com.
Even so, because it’s so easy to post “fake news” and make it look credible,
perhaps we need to take almost everything we read with a grain of salt. This issue
underscores a huge problem that marketers face today: trust. The avalanche of false
information “poisons the well” for the large majority of organizations that try to
be accurate. According to one survey, only 3 percent of consumers consider salespeople to be trustworthy, while another found that only 4 percent of them trust ads.51
Table 2.2 summarizes the different forms that “misinformation” may take.

Identity Theft
Identity theft occurs when someone steals your personal information and uses it
without your permission. They may charge items on a credit card or perhaps access
medical services via your health benefits. Identity theft is the most common consumer
complaint, according to the Federal Trade Commission. In many cases, criminals
TABLE 2.2     Poisoning

the Well: Types of Misinformation

Satire or Parody

Misleading Content

Imposter Content

Fabricated Content

No intention to cause
harm but has
potential to fool

Misleading use of
information to frame an
issue or individual

When genuine sources
are impersonated

New content is 100%
false, designed to
device and do harm

False Connection

False Context

Manipulated Content

When headlines, visuals
or captions don’t
support the content

When genuine content
is shared with false
contextual information

When genuine
information or imagery is
manipulated to deceive

Claire Wardle, “Fake News. It’s Complicated,” First Draft, February 16, 2017, https://firstdraftnews.org/articles/fake-news-complicated/, accessed February 21, 2022.

Chapter 2 • Consumer Ethics, the Marketplace, and the Planet

get access to sensitive information in data breaches, where they
hack into an organization’s computers. There have been more
than 12,000 of these digital invasions since 2005, including highprofile ones at major companies such as Equifax, Yahoo!, Target,
Sony Pictures, and even NASA. In 2020 alone, consumers around
the world lost about $56 billion to scammers.52 And, as any victim
knows, the financial aspects are not the only pain points because
cancelling credit cards or otherwise correcting the situation can
result in huge hassles.53
Identity thieves get more sophisticated every day. They
used to be content with stealing wallets and “dumpster diving” to obtain account numbers. Today, we increasingly fall
prey to high-tech phishing scams in which people receive
Identity theft is a huge problem for consumers today.
fraudulent emails that ask them to supply account informaSource: Brian A Jackson/Shutterstock.
tion. In addition, millions of computers are hijacked without
any trace by botnets, or a set of computers penetrated by malicious software
known as malware that allows an external agent to control their actions.
Locational privacy is a related issue. Every one of us who walks around with
a phone transmits their approximate location, and those of us with GPS-enabled
phones leave nothing to chance. In addition, many cars now have GPS devices that
can share their location with a centralized service. We can purchase GPS trackers
to “chip” our kids, aged relatives, or wayward pets. Some insurance companies
offer steep discounts to drivers who use GPS tracking technology. The companies
provide a small tracker in the car that reports driving habits and, in some cases, even
whether the driver is cruising through unsafe neighborhoods. Other services allow
anxious parents to track a teenager’s driving and provide a “report card” on use of
the family car.54

Pushing the Envelope
Artificial intelligence is also creating new opportunities and challenges for consumers and consumer protection. This term describes computer systems like ChatGPT that
are able to perform tasks that normally require human intelligence, such as visual perception, speech recognition, decision making, language translation and perhaps term
paper writing by students. While AI may be more effective at augmenting rather than
replacing humans in sales transactions or customer service interfaces, the automation
of tasks and exchanges based on consumer data also opens up new issues related to
privacy, bias, and ethics.55
It turns out that even “impartial” computers can make inaccurate decisions if
the input they receive is flawed in some way. Analysts call this algorithm bias. For
example, facial recognition programs are best at detecting white faces, and AI-based
conversational chatbots can introduce a racist or sexist conversation in the system if
they mimic “natural” dialogues people have in the physical world.56
Genetic data is the latest frontier in private data potentially mineable for marketing purposes. Fuelled by advances in molecular genetics (and heavy direct-toconsumer marketing!), the genetic testing industry has exploded. As of 2020, more
than 30 million people have taken a personalized DNA test. These massive privately
owned genetic databases prompt researchers and firms alike to question whether
and how such data should be used to gain insights into consumers and consumer
behavior.57 Are there inherited personality traits that make us more or less likely
to buy stuff?

37

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Section 1 • Foundations of Consumer Behavior

Technology Addictions
Though we usually equate substance abuse with addiction to alcohol, drugs, or nicotine, it seems we can become dependent on almost anything—there is even a Chapstick Addicts support group with 250 active members!58 Consumer addiction is a
physiological or psychological dependency on products or services. Many companies
profit from selling addictive products or from selling solutions for kicking a bad
habit.59 Online gambling is the latest frontier and the most controversial one: Not
only is the currency consumers use to gamble intangible (you cannot touch it), but the
gambling options come so fast that gamblers quickly lose control.60
A Chinese man got so upset about the amount of time his adult son spent
playing video games that he took a novel approach: He hired “digital hit men”
in the form of other gamers to kill off all of his son’s characters in the games.61
How is that for “tough love”? Psychologists compare social media addiction to
chemical dependency, to the point of inducing symptoms of withdrawal when users
are deprived of their fix. As one noted, “Everyone is a potential addict—they’re
just waiting for their drug of choice to come along, whether heroin, running, junk
food, or social media.”62 In 2018, the World Health Organization classified “gaming
­disorder” as an official disease.63
Entrepreneurs are looking at novel ways to “detox” smartphone users. One
designer created a series of “substitute phones” that help people put down the real
thing.64 They allow people to mimic real actions—like swiping, zooming, and
scrolling—to wean users from smartphones. Maybe more of us need this kind of
“intervention”—a Gallup survey reported that 41 percent of American smartphone
owners check their phone every few minutes.
Another survey found that 71 percent of Americans aged 18 and over sleep with
their phones.65 Oops, time for a fix? Indeed, a survey reported one in three smartphone
owners would rather give up sex than their phones!66 And, as many of us realize, this
fixation grows by the “enablers” around us as they exhibit the same behavior. Indeed,
one study documented that college students are much more likely to pull out their
phones when someone with whom they were sitting has just done so.67
Other problems arise when people become overly involved in playing online
games or posting on social network sites:

•

•
•

In the United Kingdom, a 33-year-old widowed mother let her two dogs starve
to death and neglected her three kids after becoming hooked on the online game
Small World. A judge banned her from going on the internet. The woman slept only
two hours a night as she played the virtual reality game (in which dwarves and
giants battle to conquer the world) almost nonstop for six months. Her ­children—
aged 9, 10, and 13—had no hot food and “drank” cold baked beans from tins.
When the family’s two dogs died from neglect, she left their bodies rotting in the
dining room for two months.68
A U.S. woman pled guilty to a charge of second-degree murder in the death of her
three-month-old son. The 22-year-old mother lost her temper when her child began
crying while she was playing FarmVille on Facebook; she shook the baby until he died.
Cyberbullying refers to the “willful and repeated harm inf licted through
the use of computer, cell phones, and other electronic devices.”69 One study
reported that one in five middle school students in the United States were
subject to cyberbullying. As one seventh-grade girl observed, “It’s easier
to fight online, because you feel more brave and in control. On Facebook,
you can be as mean as you want.”70 The pandemic forced us to spend even
more time online, and not surprisingly this transformation just accelerated

Chapter 2 • Consumer Ethics, the Marketplace, and the Planet

A government website focuses on the problem of cyberbullying.
Source: StopBullying.gov, U.S. Department of Health & Human Services.

the frequency of these attacks. One large survey reported that almost 1 2 of
U.S. internet users experienced some kind of online harassment since 2020,
while over 20 percent of children have been bullied online.71 The problem has
gotten so bad that the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services even
has a website to combat it: stopbullying.gov.72

A French organization combats the
sexual abuse of children by online
predators.
Source: Courtesy of Innocence en Danger.

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Section 1 • Foundations of Consumer Behavior

OBJECTIVE 2-6
Explain how the
legal environment
influences
consumer behavior.

PESTLE: The Legal
Environment

Concern for the welfare of consumers has been an issue since at least
the beginning of the 20th century.After Upton S
­ inclair’s 1906 book
The ­Jungle exposed the awful conditions in the Chicago ­meatpacking industry, Congress
was prompted to pass important pieces of legislation—the Pure Food and Drug Act in
1906 and the Federal Meat Inspection Act a year later—to protect consumers. In recent
years, we’ve seen the U.S. government pump over $1 trillion into aid for individuals and
­businesses who were impacted by COVID.73
More than a century later, activists continue to voice concerns about a range of
issues, such as child labor, exploitative advertising, and genetically engineered food.74
President John F. Kennedy issued the “Declaration of Consumer Rights” in 1962.
These include the right to safety, the right to be informed, the right to redress, and the
right to choice. The 1960s and 1970s were a time of consumer activism as consumers
began to organize to demand better-quality products (and to boycott companies that
did not provide them).

Governmental Regulations and Agencies
Partly due to consumers’ efforts, the U.S. government established many federal agencies to oversee consumer-related activities. These include the Department of Agriculture, the Federal Trade Commission, the Food and Drug Administration, the Securities
and Exchange Commission, and the EPA. A summary of some important consumer
legislation enacted since that time appears in Table 2.3. You can find other information
about consumer-related issues at consumerreports.org and cpsc.gov (the Consumer
Product Safety Commission).
Table 2.4 lists major U.S. regulatory agencies and what they do. One of the most
important ones for consumers is the Food and Drug Administration (FDA); it polices
advertising claims as well as the contents of edible products and pharmaceuticals. For
example, as part of an FDA crackdown on consumer drug advertising, Bayer HealthCare Pharmaceuticals launched a $20 million corrective advertising campaign for
Yaz, the most popular birth control pill in the United States. This term means that the
company must inform consumers that previous messages were wrong or misleading.
The TV commercials, which ran during prime-time shows such as Grey’s Anatomy
and on cable networks, warned that nobody should take Yaz hoping that it will also
cure pimples or premenstrual syndrome. Bayer was required to run these ads to correct
previous messages after regulators decided the earlier ads overstated the drug’s ability
to improve women’s moods and clear up acne.75
Advertisers, retailers, and manufacturers typically try to police themselves to
ensure that their messages and products are not harmful or inaccurate. In addition to
good intentions, they have a practical reason to do so: They don’t want governments
to do it for them. Indeed, sometimes these efforts even seem to go a bit over the top.
Consider, for example, a ruling by the National Advertising Division (NAD) of the
Council of Better Business Bureaus, which is one of these industry watchdogs. Acting
on a complaint by rival Kimberly-Clark, P&G must add little flecks of cartoon toilet
paper to the backsides of its Charmin cartoon bears in future ads for its toilet paper.
Although P&G supported its claim that Charmin leaves “fewer pieces behind” than
the Cottonelle brand (and showed the results of its test on the brand’s website), the
NAD decided that the test “did not accurately reflect the results consumers normally
see and experience.”76

Chapter 2 • Consumer Ethics, the Marketplace, and the Planet

The popular contraceptive drug Yaz was required to run corrective advertising to address exaggerated or inaccurate claims.
Source: Correctiveadvertising.blogspot.com/2009/11/.

Consumers Behaving Badly
A few years ago, a crowd assembled for a big holiday sale at a Walmart store in New
York. When the doors opened, the crowd trampled a temporary worker to death as
people rushed to grab discounted merchandise off the store shelves. A lawsuit filed
on behalf of the man’s survivors claimed that in addition to providing inadequate
security, the retailer “engaged in specific marketing and advertising techniques to specifically attract a large crowd and create an environment of frenzy and mayhem.”78 In
subsequent years, there have been additional incidents of trampling and even gunfire,
as people frantically jockey for position to scoop up the big sales. Just how far will
consumers go to secure a bargain?
Despite the best efforts of researchers, government regulators, and concerned
industry people, sometimes we are our own worst enemies. We think of individuals
as rational decision makers, who calmly do their best to obtain products and services
that will maximize the health and well-being of themselves, their families, and their
society. In reality, however, consumers’ desires, choices, and actions often result in
negative consequences to individuals and the society in which they live.
Some of these actions are relatively benign, but others have more onerous consequences. Harmful consumer behaviors, such as excessive drinking or cigarette
smoking, stem from social pressures. The cultural value many of us place on money
encourages activities such as shoplifting and insurance fraud. Exposure to unattainable

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Section 1 • Foundations of Consumer Behavior

TABLE 2.3    Sample

of Federal Legislation to Enhance Consumers’ Welfare

Year

Act

Purpose

1953

Flammable Fabrics Act

Prohibits the transportation of flammable fabrics across state lines.

1958

National Traffic and Safety Act

Creates safety standards for cars and tires.

1958

Automobile Information Disclosure Act

Requires automobile manufacturers to post suggested retail prices on new cars.

1966

Fair Packaging and Labeling Act

Regulates packaging and labeling of consumer products. (Manufacturers must provide information about package contents and origin.)

1966

Child Protection Act

Prohibits sale of dangerous toys and other items.

1967

Federal Cigarette Labeling and Advertising Act

Requires cigarette packages to carry a warning label from the Surgeon General.

1968

Truth-in-Lending Act

Requires lenders to divulge the true costs of a credit transaction.

1969

National Environmental Policy Act

Established a national environmental policy and created the Council on Environmental
Quality to monitor the effects of products on the environment.

1972

Consumer Products Safety Act

Established the Consumer Product Safety Commission to identify unsafe products,
establish safety standards, recall defective products, and ban dangerous products.

1975

Consumer Goods Pricing Act

Bans the use of price maintenance agreements among manufacturers and resellers.

1975

Magnuson-Moss Warranty-Improvement Act

Creates disclosure standards for consumer product warranties and allows the Federal
Trade Commission to set policy regarding unfair or deceptive practices.

1990

The Nutrition Labeling and Education Act

Reaffirms the legal basis for the Food and Drug Administration’s new rules on food
labeling and established a timetable for the implementation of those rules.

1998

Internet Tax Freedom Act

Established a moratorium on special taxation of the internet, including taxation of
access fees paid to America Online and other internet service providers.

2010

Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer
Protection Act

Prompted by the recession that began in 2008, intends to promote the financial
stability of the United States by improving accountability and transparency in the
financial system, to end “too big to fail,” to protect the American taxpayer by ending
bailouts, and to protect consumers from abusive financial services practices.

2016

Consumer Review Fairness Act of 2016

Passed in response to a number of incidents where companies tried to stifle negative
online user reviews by including a “gag clause” in a contract that threatens legal action
or monetary damages when customers say bad things about the company. The bill
allows the FCC and individual states to take action against companies that try this tactic.

2021

Consumer Protection and Recovery Act

This legislation authorizes the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) to expand its protection of consumers from fraud in the marketplace by empowering the Federal Trade
Commission to seek legal and monetary relief for victims.77

ideals of beauty and success creates dissatisfaction with our bodies or our achievements. We will touch on many of these issues later in this text, but for now, let’s review
some dimensions of the “dark side” of consumer behavior.

Consumer Theft and Fraud
Who among us has never received an email offering us fabulous riches if we help
to recover a lost fortune from a Nigerian bank account? Of course, the only money
changing hands will be yours, if you fall for the pitch from a so-called advance-fee
fraud artist. These con artists have successfully scammed many victims out of hundreds of millions of dollars. However, a small but intrepid group of “counterscammers” sometimes give these crooks a taste of their own medicine by pretending to fall
for a scam and humiliating the perpetrator. One common strategy is to trick the con
artist into posing for pictures while holding a self-mocking sign and then posting these
photos on internet sites. Both online and offline, fraud is rampant.

Chapter 2 • Consumer Ethics, the Marketplace, and the Planet

TABLE 2.4    U.S.

43

Regulatory Agencies and Responsibilities

Regulatory agency

Responsibilities

Consumer Product Safety
Commission (CPSC)

Protects the public from potentially hazardous products. Through regulation and testing programs, the CPSC helps
firms make sure their products won’t harm customers.

Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA)

Develops and enforces regulations aimed at protecting the environment. Such regulations have a major impact on the
materials and processes that manufacturers use in their products and thus on the ability of companies to develop products.

Federal Communications
Commission (FCC)

Regulates telephone, radio, and television. FCC regulations directly affect the marketing activities of companies in the communications industries, and they have an indirect effect on all firms that use broadcast media for marketing communications.

Federal Trade Commission (FTC)

Enforces laws against deceptive advertising and product labeling regulations. Marketers must constantly keep abreast
of changes in FTC regulations to avoid costly fines.

Food and Drug Administration (FDA)

Enforces laws and regulations on foods, drugs, cosmetics, and veterinary products. Marketers of pharmaceuticals, over-thecounter medicines, and a variety of other products must get FDA approval before they can introduce products to the market.

Interstate Commerce
Commission (ICC)

Regulates interstate bus, truck, rail, and water operations. The ability of a firm to efficiently move products to its customers depends on ICC policies and regulation.

Stealing from stores is the most common scam. Someone commits a retail theft
every five seconds. Shrinkage is the industry term for inventory and cash losses from
shoplifting and employee theft. This is a massive problem for businesses that gets
passed on to consumers in the form of higher prices (about 40 percent of the losses
can be attributed to employees rather than shoppers). Indeed, shoplifting is the fastestgrowing crime in the United States. The National Retail Federation (NRF) states that
loss of inventory related to theft, shoplifting, error, or fraud reduces retailers’ bottom
line by $46.8 billion—or about 1.33 percent of sales.79 The most frequently stolen
products are tobacco products, athletic shoes, logo and brand-name apparel, designer
jeans, and undergarments.
And what about shoppers who commit fraud when they abuse stores’ exchange
and return policies? Some big companies, such as Guess, Staples, and Sports Authority, use new software that lets them monitor a shopper’s track record of bringing items
back. They are trying to crack down on serial wardrobers who buy an outfit, wear it
once, and return it; customers who change price tags on items, then return one item
for the higher amount; and shoppers who use fake or old receipts when they return a
product. Retail analysts estimate that about $2 billion of merchandise that shoppers
return after the holiday season alone is for fraudulent reasons.80

Unauthorized Knock-Offs
“Hey buddy, wanna buy a Rolex?” Counterfeiting, where companies or individuals
sell fake versions of real products to customers (who may or may not be aware of the
switch), is the largest criminal enterprise in the world. Analysts estimate that sales
of knockoffs run between $1.7 trillion and $4.5 trillion a year—more than revenues
linked to either human trafficking or drugs.81
Many of us think of counterfeiters as people who sell faux designer handbags or
watches on the street, but in fact the problem is much more widespread—and often
deadly. About 200,000 people in China die per year because they ingest fake pharmaceuticals.82 Researchers have found one good route to potentially discourage purchases
of counterfeit products: Generate a feeling of what they term moral disgust.83 In an
experiment, researchers found that participants who were told that the luxury pen they

44

Section 1 • Foundations of Consumer Behavior

were given to use in a writing task was counterfeit then used more disgust-related words
in the writing task. In a second experiment, participants who were informed that their
computer mouse was a counterfeit performed worse in a game of virtual table tennis!

OBJECTIVE 2-7
Describe how
consumer behavior
directly impacts the
environment.

PESTL E: The Natural
Environment

Almost everyone today is concerned about saving our planet.
Worries about climate change, entire species going extinct,
widespread exposure to carcinogens and harmful bacteria, and many other life-anddeath issues are front and center. The consumer’s focus on personal health is merging
with a growing interest in global health. Some analysts call this new perspective that
encourages us to make positive decisions throughout the buying process conscious
consumerism. Examples of these choices might include buying used clothing, choosing natural toiletries, or eating Fairtrade chocolate.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency defines sustainability as being
“based on a simple principle: Everything that we need for our survival and wellbeing depends, either directly or indirectly, on our natural environment. Sustainability
creates and maintains the conditions under which humans and nature can exist in
productive harmony, that permit fulfilling the social, economic and other requirements
of present and future generations.”84
Momentum has been building for some time around the need to
claim a brand ­purpose—a reason to exist beyond making money—
and sustainability efforts are fulfilling that need for many businesses.
The World Wildlife Federation describes this growth in awareness as
eco-wakening—it’s happening among consumers in both developed
and emerging economies.85 In one survey that was conducted in the
middle of the pandemic, 66 percent of all respondents, and 75 percent
of millennial respondents, said they consider sustainability when they
decide what to buy. 86 And this focus pays off for companies that listen: Unilever’s portfolio of 18 “sustainable living” brands is growing
50 percent faster than its other brands.87
A sustainable business model is not just about “do-gooder”
efforts that reduce a company’s carbon footprint or the amount of
plastic that goes into landfills. Indeed, about 6 out of every 10 companies that convert to a sustainable business model report that they
have profited financially as well.88 For example, Ørsted is a Danish
electricity company that completely transformed its core business
from being a coal-intensive energy producer to a focus on renewable energy sources. By divesting from fossil fuels and investing in
offshore wind power, Ørsted reduced carbon emissions by 83 percent
and still managed to boost profits.89
While some individual companies like Ørsted, Patagonia, and
Native deodorant make heroic efforts toward sustainability, will this
be enough to save us from environmental disasters down the road?
Every action helps, but most likely we need to revisit the fundamental
ways we use—and get rid of—natural resources. For example, apparel
Environmental activist Greta Thunberg’s passion has fueled
businesses (and fashionistas) have been seduced by the allure of fast
a global movement in which consumers are urging governfashion—inexpensive garments that are manufactured and replaced
ments and corporations to address the climate change crisis.
Source: SOPA Images Limited/Alamy Stock Photo.
quickly to keep up with fast-changing trends to feed the ever-changing

Chapter 2 • Consumer Ethics, the Marketplace, and the Planet

tastes of shoppers at stores like H&M and Zara. The problem: These
here-today, in-the-landfill-tomorrow garments require vast amounts of
water—roughly 3,000 liters to make just one cotton shirt. The dyeing
process releases toxic chemicals into what’s left of our water supply.90
And because these items aren’t made to last, they quickly degrade and
have to be replaced with the next fast fashion goodie.
One promising economic model is the circular economy (CE).91
Instead of the linear economy, which is on continual expansion through
stimulation of mass production, mass consumption, and rapid disposal,
the CE model proposes that sustainable growth can happen only through
ongoing reutilization of resources and materials with the ultimate goal
of generating zero waste. Circularity is “restorative and regenerative by
design.” The circular economy model makes it easier for consumers to
understand how to behave sustainability because sustainability becomes
more concrete.92
But we have a long way to go! According to the Circularity Gap
Report presented at the World Economic Forum, the world is only 8.6
percent “circular,” which means that 91.4 percent of resources used
for consumption are being squandered.93
Sometimes the “solution” is part of the problem! For example,
although we may benefit from drinking water instead of sugary beverages, by one estimate the energy (and subsequent climate change) used
to produce the plastic bottles they come in is equivalent to filling them
one-quarter full with oil. In addition, the bottles may be transported
thousands of miles on gas-guzzling cargo ships, and then the discarded
bottles can take thousands of years to decompose.94 And to add insult

Raw Materials

Native deodorant is a popular choice for some
­consumers because of its focus on sustainability.
Source: Emma’sPhotos/Shutterstock.

Design

Recycling

Production,
Remanufacturing
Circular Economy

Distribution
Residual Waste

Collection

Figure 2.1 The Circular Economy

Source: Sensvector/Shutterstock and Nikolae/Shutterstock.

Consumption, use,
reuse, repair

45

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Section 1 • Foundations of Consumer Behavior

to injury, recently it has been discovered that the “pure” water
itself may contain microbits of plastic from the bottle.
Sustainability is a tough goal, but many organizations
work hard to get as close to it as they can—and consumers
around the world increasingly take notice. Many of us are
much more mindful of these issues when we shop and when
we make decisions about the foods we eat, the clothes we
wear, the buildings in which we live and work, and the cars
we drive. Green marketing describes a strategy that involves
the development and promotion of environmentally friendly
products and a focus on this attribute when the manufacturer
communicates with customers. One barrier to increased
acceptance: Many consumers believe that sustainable products are of inferior quality—but recent research evidence
Airinum is one company that is tapping into a desire for functional
debunks this myth.95
yet stylish protective wear as concerns grow about the effects of air
pollution on consumers’ health.
Reusable grocery bags are growing in popularity as
Source: Photo by Alexander Bello for Airinum www.airinum.com. Copyright Airinum AB.
a simple environmental and socially conscious choice to
reduce our reliance on disposable plastic bags. And it works!
A study focused on what happens when shoppers are encouraged to bring your own
bags (BYOB) showed that it can change their shopping behaviors.96 Analyzing loyalty card scanner data from a grocery store in California, the researchers found that
shoppers who brought their own bag were more likely to buy environmentally friendly
organic foods. Interestingly, they also found that those shoppers were more likely to
Remember the good old “Good Housekeeping Seal of Approval?” For a mere
$495, a company can submit a product
for testing, and it receives the Seal if it
does what it claims.97 Wouldn’t it be
nice to have a similar setup to validate
a product’s claim to be environmentally
friendly? When companies encourage consumers to choose sustainable
products, it can be a tough slog to show
them which brands comply with environmental regulations and earth-friendly
processes. So, why not “certify” these
products and allow them to display a
label that shows they are one of the
“good guys”? In fact, that’s happening
in spades, but ironically some wellmeaning consumers might encounter
“sticker shock” when they try to choose
acceptable products. It’s not so easy
as just looking to see whether or not a
familiar certification is on a package:
There are 455 eco-label systems worldwide!98 And some big manufacturers
and retailers even offer their own labels,
such as SC Johnson’s Greenlist and
Eco-Scale by the Whole Foods grocery
chain.99 Perhaps down the road the system to identify the polluters will simplify
as competing certification systems consolidate. But for now, happy hunting!
Source: Omelchenko/Shutterstock.

Chapter 2 • Consumer Ethics, the Marketplace, and the Planet

stick indulgent foods in those bags, perhaps a sign that we tend to reward ourselves
for our own good behavior!
In the end, and despite all the social, cultural and environmental changes our
world faces, consumers’ prosocial behaviors may be the answer. 100 This term
describes actions that benefit others and the world around us, including charitable
giving and other donation behaviors (such as blood or organ donation), volunteering,
ethical purchasing, and consumer activism.

The SHIFT: Changing Consumer Behavior for the Better
The SHIFT framework sums up the actions marketers need to take in order to promote
prosocial behavior by identifying five key drivers:101
1.
2.
3.
4.

Social Influence – Use social pressure and norms to encourage behavior.
Habits – Encourage formation of prosocial habits.
Individual Self – Appeal to identity, self-interest, and personality traits.
Feelings and Cognition – Employ different frames and emotional appeals in the
appropriate situations and contexts.
5. Tangibility – Make clear what the prosocial behavior accomplishes (e.g., who
benefits, self-efficacy).
We can see Driver #1 (Social Influence) in action in a study that involved more than
2,000 hotel guests. When guests made a specific commitment at check-in to hang their
towels for reuse to reduce laundry waste (and received a lapel pin to symbolize their
commitment), the number of towels guests actually hung increased by more than 40
percent. The researchers estimated the savings at one hotel at over $50,000 and nearly
700,000 gallons of water.102

The “Tree-Huggers”
As we saw in Chapter 1, it is typical to find that a relatively small number of consumers account for a large amount of the action with regard to a certain consumption

The Chipotle food chain caters to the growing priority consumers place upon ethicallygrown food.
Source: Used with Permission from Chipotle.

47

Buying, Having, Being
Wokewashing?
Talk about poisoning the well:
Greenwashing occurs when
companies make false or exaggerated claims about how environmentally friendly their products
are. Wokewashing is the same
thing: companies making false or
inauthentic claims to be “woke.”103
Think about the old story of the
“boy who cried wolf ”: Consumers simply don’t believe most of
the green claims companies make
about their brands. Almost onefourth of U.S. consumers say they
have “no way of knowing” whether
a product is green or actually does
what it claims. Their skepticism is
probably justified: According to one
report, more than 95 percent of
consumer companies that market
as “green” make misleading or inaccurate claims. Another survey found
that the number of products that
claim to be green has increased
by 73 percent since 2009—but of
the products investigated, almost
one-third had fake labels, and
70 ­percent made green claims
­without offering any proof to back
them up.104 One survey reported
that 71 percent of respondents
say they will stop buying a product
if they feel they’ve been misled
about its environmental impact,
and 37 percent are so angry about
greenwashing that they believe
this justifies a complete boycott of
everything the company makes.105
Greenwashing has impacted
many well-known companies. For
example, Walmart agreed to pay
$1 million to settle claims that allege
the nation’s largest retailer sold plastic products it misleadingly labeled
“biodegradable” or “compostable” in
violation of California law.106

48

Section 1 • Foundations of Consumer Behavior

activity or purchase. This certainly is true when we look at people who walk the
walk, in addition to talking the talk, about modifying their behaviors to help the
environment.
Marketers point to a segment of consumers who are especially likely to choose
sustainable products and services: the Lifestyles of Health and Sustainability segment,
or LOHAS. These so-called “Lohasians” (others refer to this segment as cultural
­creatives) represent a great market for products such as organic foods, energy-­
efficient appliances, and hybrid cars, as well as alternative medicine, yoga lessons,
and ­ecotourism. One organization that tracks this group estimates that they make up
one in four adult Americans and spend about $290 billion per year on sustainable
products and services.107

CHAPTER SUMMARY
Now that you have finished reading this chapter, you should
be able to:

3. Discuss how the economic landscape affects
consumers’ access to the marketplace.

1. Define business ethics and identify the elements
that comprise the PESTLE framework.

Our relationships with companies and other organizations are complex, and many issues that impact quality
of life relate directly to marketing practices. In addition to changes in income due to unforeseen events like
the pandemic, market access can be a problem because
many people are unable to navigate the marketplace as a
result of disabilities, illiteracy, or other conditions.

Business ethics are rules of conduct that guide actions in
the marketplace; these are the standards against which
most people in a culture judge what is right and what is
wrong, good or bad. Marketers must confront many ethical
issues, especially ones that relate to how much they make
consumers “want” things they don’t need or are not good
for them. It is both ethically and financially smart to maximize customer satisfaction. In some cases, external bodies
such as the government or industry associations regulate
businesses to ensure that their products and advertising are
safe, clear, and accurate. Consumer behavior researchers
may play a role in this process and those who do transformative consumer research (TCR) may even work to bring
about social change. Companies also play a significant
role in addressing social conditions through their corporate
social responsibility (CSR) practices and social marketing
campaigns that promote positive behaviors.
2. Summarize how the political environment affects
consumer decision making.
In the politically charged environment we inhabit,
consumers make choices based on their beliefs and
­values—and they vote with their wallets. Through their
brand and product choices, consumers make statements to companies about the types of products they
want and how, when, and where (or even if) they want
to learn about those products. The explosion of social
activism we’ve encountered both in the U.S. and in
many other parts of the world over the past few years
has encouraged some companies to take a stand on
controversial issues.

4. Explain the ways marketers respond to social
issues to shape consumer behavior.
The 2020s have seen a proliferation of social causes that
affect the marketplace in fundamental ways. In response
to social justice movements, companies are taking a close
look at what their brands and marketing communications
look like. Cause marketing is a popular strategy that aligns
a company or brand with a cause to generate business
and societal benefits. Many firms today try to integrate
corporate social responsibility (CSR) into their business
models; this encourages an organization to make a positive impact on the various stakeholders in its community,
including consumers, employees, and the environment.
5. Describe the technological changes that are creating new challenges for consumer protection.
Many of us are leery about opening the door to our private lives so that big tech companies can enter at will.
One of the biggest ethical issues many marketers face
today relates to how much they can—or should—know
about their customers, including even their genetic data.
New technologies also make it fairly easy to disseminate
content that may or may not be “real” or accurate. Artificial intelligence creates new opportunities and challenges
for consumers and consumer protection, but the automation of tasks and exchanges based on consumer data also

Chapter 2 • Consumer Ethics, the Marketplace, and the Planet

opens up new issues related to privacy, bias, and ethics.
Other tech-related challenges include addiction to social
media, identity theft, and cyberbullying.
6. Explain how the legal environment influences
consumer behavior.
Concern for the welfare of consumers has been an issue
since at least the beginning of the 20th century. Today,
activists continue to voice concerns about a range of issues
such as child labor, exploitative advertising, and genetically engineered food. Partly due to consumers’ efforts,
the U.S. government established many federal agencies
to oversee consumer-related activities. These include the
Department of Agriculture, the Federal Trade Commission, the Food and Drug Administration, the Securities
and Exchange Commission, and the EPA. Consumers
also are at fault for engaging in illegal or borderline activities, such as shoplifting, vandalism, and counterfeiting.
7. Describe how consumer behavior directly
impacts the environment.
Worries about climate change, entire species going
extinct, widespread exposure to carcinogens and

harmful bacteria, and many other life-and-death
issues are front and center. The circular economy
model proposes that sustainable growth can happen
only through ongoing reutilization of resources and
materials with the ultimate goal of generating zero
waste. A green marketing strategy involves the development and promotion of environmentally friendly
products and a focus on this attribute when the manufacturer communicates with customers. Momentum
has been building for some time around the need to
claim a brand purpose—a reason to exist beyond
making money—and sustainability efforts are fulfilling that need for many businesses.
This “eco-wakening” is happening among many consumers in both developed and emerging economies.
The SHIFT framework sums up the actions marketers
need to take in order to promote prosocial behavior by
identifying five key drivers, such as social influence
and tangibility. The LOHAS (Lifestyles of Health and
Sustainability) market segment is growing in size and
influence as consumers become more sensitized to a
brand’s impact on the environment.

KEY TERMS
Adaptive clothing, 30
Algorithm bias, 37
Artificial intelligence, 37
Benevolent halo effect, 33
Botnets, 37
Brand purpose, 44
Bring your own bags (BYOB), 46
Business ethics, 27
Cancel culture, 33
Cause marketing, 33
Circular economy, 45
Conscious consumerism, 44
Consumed consumers, 31
Consumer activism, 28
Consumer addiction, 38
Corporate social irresponsibility
(CSI), 33
Corporate social responsibility
(CSR), 33
Corporate sociopolitical activism
(CSA), 29

Corrective advertising, 40
Counterfeiting, 43
Culture jamming, 28
Cyberbullying, 38
Data breaches, 37
Data privacy, 34
Eco-wakening, 44
Fast fashion, 44
Financial literacy, 32
Food desert, 31
Food insecurity, 31
Functionally illiterate, 32
General Data Protection
Regulation, 34
Genetic data, 37
Green marketing, 46
Greenwashing, 47
Identity theft, 36
Infodemic, 36
Latent vulnerability, 35

49

Locational privacy, 37
LOHAS, 48
Market access, 30
Media literacy, 32
Moral disgust, 43
PESTLE framework, 27
Phishing, 37
Prosocial behaviors, 47
Red market, 31
Serial wardrobers, 43
Shrinkage, 43
Slacktivism, 30
Social justice, 32
Social marketing, 32
Social media addiction, 38
Sustainability, 44
Transformative consumer
research (TCR), 32
Wokewashing, 47

50

Section 1 • Foundations of Consumer Behavior

REVIEW
2-1 What are business ethics, and why is this an important topic?
2-2 Give two examples of important legislation that
affects U.S. consumers.
2-3 What is a circular economy?
2-4 What is eco-wakening, and what are the likely consequences for consumer behavior?
2-5 Define social marketing, and give an example of this
technique.

2-6 What is the primary difference between transformative consumer research and other kinds of consumer
research?
2-7 Why is market access an important aspect of consumer well-being? What are some important reasons why consumers can experience limited market
access?
2-8 What is greenwashing, and why is it a problem for
marketers?

CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CHALLENGE
DISCUSS

2-1 In today’s wired world, consumers can run, but we
can’t hide: If someone wants to know where we are
or where we’ve been, the data are there for the asking. As with web tracking, there is value here: We
can easily identify by looking at hundreds or even
thousands of reviews the best sushi place within a
block of our current location, or perhaps get a heads
up on that policeman with the radar gun who is hiding behind that billboard up the highway. However,
this is a mixed blessing if this information gets into
the wrong hands. Consumers need to make tough
tradeoffs between convenience and constant surveillance. The chapter notes that marketing has a huge
credibility problem today; most consumers simply
don’t trust what marketers say or do. What steps can
a marketer take to restore this trust?
2-2 Internet addiction has been a big headache in South
Korea for several years, where 90 percent of homes
connect to cheap, high-speed broadband. Many
young Koreans’ social lives revolve around the “PC
bang,” dimly lit internet parlors that sit on practically every street corner. A government study estimates that up to 30 percent of South Koreans younger
than 18 are at risk of internet addiction. Many already
exhibit signs of actual addiction, including an inability to stop themselves from using computers, rising
levels of tolerance that drive them to seek ever-­longer
sessions online, and withdrawal symptoms such as
anger and craving when they can’t log on. Some
users have literally dropped dead from exhaustion
after playing online games for days on end.108 How
big a problem is internet addiction here in the United
States? Should parents and educators actively police
how much time kids spend online, or if they do so are

they preventing young people from interacting with
their peers in the ways they want?
2-3 Should scientists who study consumer behavior
remain impartial, or is it appropriate for them to
become involved in the topics they research, like
those who adhere to the transformative consumer
research perspective?
2-4 Today many consumers pursue a “decluttering lifestyle.” Should marketers encourage this trend toward
simplicity even though it stresses buying less stuff
that marketers sell? What marketing opportunities do
you foresee if this trend spreads?
2-5 Because of higher competition and market saturation,
marketers in industrialized countries try to develop
third-world markets. Asian consumers alone spend
$90 billion a year on cigarettes, and U.S. tobacco
manufacturers push relentlessly into these markets.
We find cigarette advertising, which often depicts
glamorous Western models and settings, just about
everywhere—on billboards, buses, storefronts, and
clothing—and tobacco companies sponsor many
major sports and cultural events. Some companies
even hand out cigarettes and gifts in amusement
areas, often to preteens. Should governments allow
these practices, even if the products may be harmful to their citizens or divert money that poor people
should spend on essentials? If you were a trade or
health official in a third-world country, what guidelines, if any, might you suggest to regulate the import
of luxury goods from advanced economies?
2-6 A case involving the Wendy’s fast-food chain made
national headlines when a woman claimed she found
a finger in her bowl of chili. The restaurants became

Chapter 2 • Consumer Ethics, the Marketplace, and the Planet

the butt of jokes (some said they served nail clippers
with their food instead of forks), and sales dropped
dramatically at the company’s franchises. This forced
layoffs and reduced hours for many employees—
until the woman was arrested for fraud.109 Consumers commonly file lawsuits against companies to
claim damages if a product or service didn’t work
as expected. In some cases, the defendant just settles
the suit to make it go away because it costs more to
mount a defense than to just pay damages. Are there
too many frivolous lawsuits? Does our justice system
adequately meet the needs of both consumers and
companies in how it awards damages?
2-7 Nonprofit organizations routinely rely on generous
corporate donations, and it’s common to name facilities after benefactors. The Nationwide Children’s
Hospital in Ohio is no exception; its name recognizes the insurance company’s $50 million donation.
Now the hospital has added the Abercrombie & Fitch
Emergency Department and Trauma Center and there
is also the Limited Too & Justice Main Lobby. The
Campaign for a Commercial-Free Childhood opposes
this partnership. The group’s director commented,
“Abercrombie & Fitch is really among the worst of
corporate predators. A company with such cynical
disregard for children’s well-being shouldn’t be able
to claim the mantle of healing . . . . And, personally, I
find it very concerning that they named their hospital
after an insurance company.”110 What do you think?
Is this over the line, or does it matter where the money
comes from as long as the end result is beneficial?
2-8 From time to time, advertisers use dark humor to
get their messages across, as when a lonely calorie, repairman, or robot considers suicide. Or an ad
may imply that shoppers are “mentally ill” if they
pay retail prices. Are these appeals a legitimate
way to communicate a message; if so, under what
circumstances?
2-9 The chapter discusses the positive and negative
potential effects of corporate sociopolitical activism
(CSA). What’s your feeling—should a company link
itself to a social cause, or should it remain neutral?
2-10 Fifty-four million dollars for a pair of missing pants?
A judge in Washington, D.C., made headlines when
he filed a $54 million lawsuit against his neighborhood dry cleaner because it lost a pair of his pinstriped suit pants. He claimed that a local consumer
protection law entitled him to thousands of dollars for
each day over nearly four years in which signs at the
shop promised “same day service” and “satisfaction
guaranteed.” The suit dragged on for several months,

51

but at the end of the day, the plaintiff went home with
empty pockets.111 And some people claim we have
too many lawsuits in this country! Should our legal
system allow for lawsuits that encourage consumers
to sue companies over complaints like this?
2-11 A woman in New Zealand apparently died from
drinking too much Coca-Cola. Her family said she
drank about 2.2 gallons of the beverage every day for
years. Prior to her death, she had several rotten teeth
removed, and she gave birth to a baby who was born
without any tooth enamel. The 31-year-old mother of
eight died following a cardiac arrhythmia after consuming more than two pounds of sugar and 970 mg
of caffeine a day. Coca-Cola noted that the coroner’s
report, while singling out its product as a probable
cause of death, stated that the company “cannot be
held responsible for the health of consumers who
drink unhealthy quantities of the product.”112 What’s
your take on this—should companies be held liable if
their customers misuse what they sell?
2-12 A hot-button topic right now involves efforts to curb
child obesity by encouraging advertisers to limit
the messages they send to kids about foods that are
high in sodium, saturated fat, and added sugars.
Under new federal rules, even the scoreboards in
high school gyms will have to advertise only healthy
foods. Several large cities, including New York City
and Philadelphia, have tried to prevent the sale of
large sizes of sugary drinks to fight obesity. Public
health advocates hail these attempts, whereas others
argue that they would transform the United States
into a “Nanny State” that imposes on our freedom
to choose to consume whatever we like. Should city,
state, and federal governments dictate what (legal)
products people should consume, even when the
population’s health is at stake?113
2-13 Companies and organizations in the United States
spend billions of dollars to acquire and manage consumer data, such as credit information and transaction histories. Well-off consumers obviously hold
great appeal to marketers because they have greater
buying potential. Today companies have the ability to
offer a more attractive deal to higher-value customers
to win their business. The flip side of this process
is that they can potentially discriminate against lowincome people who won’t qualify for lower prices.
And in most cases, companies don’t permit consumers to access their database to learn what they
know about them.114 Is it fair to stratify consumers
in this way so that some get access to more attractive
options than others?

52

Section 1 • Foundations of Consumer Behavior

APPLY

2-14 Will consumers trade lower prices for less privacy?
Car owners now can let insurance companies monitor
their driving, using a new technology, in exchange for
lower rates. Customers who sign up for Progressive’s
TripSense program get a device the size of a Tic Tac
box to plug into their cars. The device tracks speed
and how many miles are driven at what times of day.
Every few months, customers unplug the device from
the car, plug it into a computer, download the data, and
send the data to the company. Depending on results,
discounts will range from 5 to 25 percent. In Great
Britain, a major insurer is testing a program called Pay
as You Drive. Volunteers in the program get a device
the size of a large smartphone installed in their cars.
The gadget uses global positioning satellite technology
to track where the car goes, constantly sending information back to the insurance company. Cars that spend
more time in safer areas will qualify for bigger discounts.115 Of course, the potential downside to these
efforts is that the insurance companies may be able to
collect data on where you have driven, how long you
stayed in one location, and so on. Conduct a poll of
10 drivers of various ages in which you describe these
programs and ask respondents if they would participate to receive a discount on their insurance premiums.
What reasons do they give—pro and con?

CASE STUDY

2-15 Many college students “share” music by downloading clips. Interview at least five people who
have downloaded at least one song or movie without paying for it. Do they feel they are stealing?
What explanations do they offer for this behavior?
Try to identify any common themes as a result of
these interviews. If you were devising an ad campaign to discourage free downloading, how might
you use what you have learned to craft a convincing message?
2-16 If you’re not happy with a product or service, is it
worthwhile to complain? In one study, business
majors wrote complaint letters to companies. When
the firm sent a free sample in response, this action
significantly improved how the students felt about
it. This didn’t happen, however, when they only
received a letter of ­apology—but no swag. Even
worse, students who got no response reported an
even more negative image than before. This shows
that any kind of response is better than none.116
Interview people you know who have had negative
experiences with stores or manufacturers. What
action (if any) did they take, and what happened?
Are they more or less likely to patronize the
offending company as a result?

Face It – Facial Recognition Is Coming
to a Walgreens Near You

If you are like millions of other smartphone users, you regularly open your phone by simply looking at it. The same software that saves you seconds typing in your passcode is now
being used to make marketing more personalized through
innovative applications of this advanced technology, known
as facial recognition. One of the companies that employs
this technology is Walgreens, the second largest pharmacy
retailer in the U.S.117
Facial recognition uses cameras and software to map a
person’s face and compare it with information in a database
that uses sophisticated algorithms. Many uses of this technology are similar to the smartphone application, in which a user
is authenticated for purposes of access to a computer system
or a building. A more sophisticated level of the technology,
facial analysis, seeks to draw conclusions about gender, age,
race, and even emotions.118
Much of the conversation about facial recognition
has focused on its use in law enforcement, with concerns

about the level of identification accuracy, particularly with
the faces of women and people of color. Early versions of
the technology had high error rates and even after significant improvement, a 2019 study showed that some software incorrectly identified African American and Asian
people 10 to 100 times more often than white men. This
inaccuracy has been attributed to the process of “training” the early versions of the algorithms using images of
celebrities that were more often white and male.119 Facial
recognition companies are working to improve accuracy,
but some major companies, like Microsoft, Amazon, and
IBM, have chosen either to pause or end the distribution
of facial recognition technology to law enforcement while
these problems are addressed.120
Facial recognition technologies provide innovative
marketing uses, many focused on the shopper experience
in brick-and-mortar stores. At Walgreens, cooler doors are
now full-size screens that display photos of the products

Chapter 2 • Consumer Ethics, the Marketplace, and the Planet

inside. Hidden cameras can determine your age, gender, and
the products you’re looking at—along with your emotional
response to what you’re seeing. Based on that information,
the display changes to a personalized offer the system’s algorithm believes you will like. The system also considers information like time of day. Close to dinner time? How about a
DiGiorno pizza to go with your six pack of Miller Coors?121
Other retailers have found new uses of the technology.
A furniture chain changed the age of its floor staff after its
software determined that customers coming into the store
were younger than expected.122 Mastercard uses faces to
speed the payment process with its “smile to pay” system.123
Sophisticated facial analysis can detect shoppers’ feelings
about products or displays. And when a VIP enters a store,
facial recognition can alert staff, allowing them to greet the
customer by name and to recommend products based on the
buyer’s purchase history.124
Advertising can also be enhanced by facial analysis.
Rather than relying on expressed opinions in focus groups,
advertisers can get unbiased and unreserved emotional reactions to proposed ads in a noninvasive manner.125 In addition
to in-store ads like those at Walgreens, companies are experimenting with interactive outdoor billboards. At London’s
famed Piccadilly Circus, a giant billboard changes content
based on the gender, age, and even the emotions of those
passing by.126 Billboard provider Quividi says its technology can determine gender with 90 percent precision and age
within a five-year bracket and can notice emotional responses
within five categories from “very happy to very unhappy.”
One company has installed interactive tablets in rideshare
vehicles to deliver ads dynamically based on facial analysis
coupled with location data.127
Some consumers are concerned about the growing use
of this technology. One study found that only 32 percent of
consumers were comfortable with the use of facial recognition by private companies, and 54 percent did not agree with
its use for gauging response to ad displays.128 While many
of the applications do not identify a person by name, there is
the opportunity to misuse the data gathered. Questions have
also been raised about the fundamental idea that emotions
can be accurately assessed through facial expressions. A 2019
review of the scientific literature found no reliable evidence
for that link.129
There is currently no federal regulation that limits companies’ use of facial recognition, but three states—Illinois,
Texas, and Washington—have passed bills regarding this,
and other states are considering doing so.130 The Illinois
law requires written consent for a company to “collect, capture, purchase, receive, disclose, or disseminate biometric

53

information” and gives a victim a right to collect damages
from the offending party, up to $5,000 per incident. The
Texas law does not allow citizens to take action, but the government can impose a penalty of up to $25,000 for each violation.131 Washington state does not explicitly include facial
recognition in its law regarding notice and consent for use
of biometric data, but class action lawsuits are testing the
limits of the regulations.132 Several lawsuits have resulted
in sizable settlements from major companies charged with
violating these state laws, including $92 million by TikTok
and $650 million by Facebook (now Meta), with a key issue
being the use of biometric data without users’ consent.133
Most consumers have become accustomed to a high level
of recognition in the online world, where our navigation from
website to website is tracked through small data files known
as “cookies.” Our movement around the internet and the info
we enter allows marketers to offer specific products and promotional messaging they believe will be appealing. Facial
recognition and analysis are moving the cookie concept to
the physical world, using observed information to customize offers and messages.134 The big difference is that online,
users are often asked to consent to the use of cookies; an
equivalent permission system does not exist in most public
spaces, but users of the technology can at least inform consumers of the use of that technology, giving them the option
not to enter a store, for example.135
The creators of facial recognition technology are racing
to improve its accuracy and to expand its use. In 2021, the
market size for this technology was over $5 billion, and it’s
expected to grow to $12.67 billion by 2028.136 Consumers
and legislators will determine whether that growth is realized
as they decide whether the gains in convenience, personalized
service, and messaging are worth the potential loss of privacy.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

CS 2-1 Compare the use of facial recognition in marketing
with other tools of one-to-one marketing, like online
cookies or databases that contain detailed personal
information gleaned from a variety of sources. How
is facial recognition the same or different?
CS 2-2 Some retailers use facial recognition to alert staff to
the arrival of known shoplifters. What are the pros
and cons of this application of the technology?
CS 2-3 What steps could companies take to use facial recognition technology ethically? In your answer, consider
options for informed consent in various contexts:
retail stores, outdoor billboards, and tablets in rideshare vehicles.

54

Section 1 • Foundations of Consumer Behavior

NOTES
1. https://wornwear.patagonia.com/, accessed February 21, 2022.
2. Bruce Cooil, Timothy L. Keiningham, Lerzan Aksoy, and Michael Hsu, “A
Longitudinal Analysis of Customer Satisfaction and Share of Wallet: Investigating the Moderating Effect of Customer Characteristics,” Journal of Marketing 71 (January 2007): 67–83. For a study that looks at consumer variables
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(2021): 108–10.

Chapter 2 • Consumer Ethics, the Marketplace, and the Planet

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55

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February 25, 2022.

56

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York Times, November 18, 2007, https://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/18/
technology/18rehab.html.

109. “Woman in Wendy’s Finger Case Is Arrested,” New York Times, April 22, 2005,
www.newyorktimes.com.
110. Natalie Zmuda, “Children’s Hospital in Hot Water Over Corporate
Sponsorships, Critics Dismayed by Association with Racy Retailer
Abercrombie & Fitch,” Ad Age, March 12, 2008, https://adage
.com/article/news/children-s-hospital-hot-water-corporate-sponsorships/125672.
111. Ariel Sabar, “In Case of Missing Trousers, Aggrieved Party Loses Again,”
New York Times, June 26, 2007, https://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/26/
us/26trousers.html.
112. Matt Cantor, “Woman Dies after Downing 2 Gallons of Coca-Cola Daily,” USA
Today, February 12, 2013, www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/02/12/
coca-cola-soda-death/1912491/?morestories=obnetwork.
113. “Michelle Obama Announces New Rules for Advertising Junk Food at Schools,”
New York Daily News, February 25, 2014, www.nydailynews.com/news/
politics/michelle-obama-announces-new-rules-advertising-junk-food-schools-­
article-1.1701140; www.nannystate.com/; Janet Adamy, “Tough New Rules Proposed on Food Advertising for Kids,” Wall Street Journal, April 29, 2011, https://
www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704330404576291091782255946.
114. Natasha Singer, “A Vault for Taking Charge of Your Online Life,” New York
Times, December 8, 2012, www.newyorktimes.com/2012/12/09/business/
company-envisions-vaults-for-personal-ddata.html.
115. Kevin Maney, “Drivers Let Big Brother in to Get a Break,” Ethics (August 9,
2004): 1B.
116. Gary L. Clark, Peter F. Kaminski, and David R. Rink, “Consumer Complaints:
Advice on How Companies Should Respond Based on an Empirical Study,”
Journal of Services Marketing 6 (Winter 1992): 41–50.
117. Adam J. Fein, “The Top 15 U.S. Pharmacies of 2021: Market Shares and
Revenues at the Biggest Companies,” Drugchannels.net, accessed July 8,
2022, https://www.drugchannels.net/2022/03/the-top-15-us-pharmacies-of2021-market.html.
118. Parmy Olson, “The Quiet Growth of Race-Detection Software Sparks Concerns over Bias,” Wall Street Journal (Eastern Ed.), August 14, 2020, https://
www.wsj.com/articles/the-quiet-growth-of-race-detection-software-sparksconcerns-over-bias-11597378154.
119. Lauren Debter, “Retailers Quietly Deploying Controversial Technology to
Combat Crime Spree,” Forbes, January 31, 2022, https://www.forbes.com/
sites/laurendebter/2022/01/31/retailers-quietly-deploying-controversial-­
technology-to-combat-crime-spree/?sh=138c52417689.
120. Harold Li, “Facial Recognition Isn’t Ready for the Mainstream,” Forbes,
November 5, 2020, https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbestechcouncil/2020/11/05/were-ready-for-mainstream-facial-recognition-but-is-it-readyfor-us/?sh=6587a84822f2.
121. Katharine Schwab, “It’s Not Just Google or Facebook: The Freezer Aisle
Is Ad Targeting You Now,” Fast Company, February 6, 2019, https://
www.fastcompany.com/90302382/its-not-just-google-or-facebookthe-freezer-aisle-is-ad-targeting-you-too.
122. Parmy Olson, “The Quiet Growth of Race-Detection Software Sparks Concerns over Bias,” Wall Street Journal (Eastern Ed.), August 14, 2020, https://
www.wsj.com/articles/the-quiet-growth-of-race-detection-software-sparksconcerns-over-bias-11597378154.
123. Rahul Verma, “Mastercard’s Newly Launched Face Recognition Payment
System Is Already Raising Accuracy Concerns,” Business Insider India, May
27, 2022, https://www.businessinsider.in/tech/news/mastercard-launchesnew-face-recognition-payment-system-now-accuracy-raises-concerns/articleshow/91831651.cms.
124. “How Facial Recognition Will Change Smart Retail,” FaceMe (blog),
CyberLink, March 25, 2021, https://www.cyberlink.com/faceme/insights/
articles/363/reimagine-retail-with-facial-recognition.
125. David Wood, “Facial Recognition Advertising: The Future Is Here,” Alfi,
July 22, 2021, https://www.getalfi.com/advertising/facial-recognitionadvertising-future-is-here/.
126. PA, “The Piccadilly Circus Lights Will Show Adverts Based on Nearby Cars
and People,” Jersey Evening Post, March 31, 2022, https://www.jerseyeveningpost.com/uncategorised/2022/03/31/the-piccadilly-circus-lights-will-showadverts-based-on-nearby-cars-and-people/.
127. David Wood, “Facial Recognition Advertising: The Future Is Here,” Alfi,
July 22, 2021, https://www.getalfi.com/advertising/facial-recognitionadvertising-future-is-here/.
128. Jenny Chang, “30 Facial Recognition Statistics You Must Learn: 2022 Market Share & Data Analysis,” Financesonline.com, April 12, 2021, https://
financesonline.com/facial-recognition-statistics/.
129. Kate Crawford, “Artificial Intelligence Is Misreading Human Emotion,”
Atlantic Monthly, April 27, 2021, https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/
archive/2021/04/artificial-intelligence-misreading-human-emotion/
618696/.

Chapter 2 • Consumer Ethics, the Marketplace, and the Planet

130. Esther Fung, “Shopping Centers Exploring Facial Recognition in Brave New
World of Retail,” Wall Street Journal (Eastern Ed.), July 2, 2019, https://www
.wsj.com/articles/shopping-centers-exploring-facial-recognition-in-brave-newworld-of-retail-11562068802.
131. “StackPath,” Womblebonddickinson.com, accessed July 11,
2022, https://www.womblebonddickinson.com/us/insights/alerts/
facial-recognition-new-trend-state-regulation.
132. Hunton Andrews Kurth LLP, “Washington Becomes Third State to
Enact Biometric Privacy Law,” Privacy & Information Security Law
Blog, June 1, 2017, https://www.huntonprivacyblog.com/2017/06/01/
washington-becomes-third-state-enact-biometric-privacy-law/.
133. Anni Burchfiel, “TikTok Data Privacy Settlement: What Happened?,” TokenEx,
accessed July 11, 2022, https://www.tokenex.com/blog/ab-tiktok-data-privacysettlement-what-happened; Lauren Silva, “Texas Sues Meta, Seeks Billions in

57

Damages Over Alleged Illegally Obtained Facebook Biometrics,” Top Class
Actions, February 16, 2022, https://topclassactions.com/lawsuit-settlements/­
lawsuit-news/facebook-class-action-lawsuit-and-settlement-news/texas-sues-metaseeks-billions-in-damages-over-alleged-illegally-obtained-­facebook-biometrics/.
134. Parmy Olson, “The Quiet Growth of Race-Detection Software Sparks Concerns over Bias,” Wall Street Journal (Eastern Ed.), August 14, 2020, https://
www.wsj.com/articles/the-quiet-growth-of-race-detection-software-sparksconcerns-over-bias-11597378154.
135. Suzanne Taylor, “The Two Faces of Facial Recognition,” Forbes, February 7, 2020, https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbestechcouncil/2020/02/07/
the-two-faces-of-facial-recognition/?sh=62cf92c7558d.
136. Help Net Security, “Facial Recognition Market to Reach $12.67 Billion by
2028,” Help Net Security, March 10, 2022, https://www.helpnetsecurity
.com/2022/03/10/facial-recognition-market-2028/.

Section

2

Making Sense
of the World
In this section, we focus on the internal dynamics of consumers. Each of us is to some degree
“self-contained” in how we receive information about the outside world. We are constantly
confronted by advertising messages, products, and other people—not to mention our own
thoughts about ourselves—that affect how we make sense of the world and, of course, what
and how we choose to buy. Each chapter in this section looks at an aspect of consumers that
may be “invisible” to others but is important to our understanding of how they make choices.
Chapter 3 describes the process of perception, or the way we absorb and interpret information
from the outside world to give meanings to products, brands, and other people. Chapter 4
focuses on how we store this information and how it contributes to our existing knowledge about
and understanding of the world. Chapter 5 looks at motivation—why we do what we do—and
how our needs and goals drive us.

Chapters Ahead
Chapter 3

Chapter 4

Perceiving and
Making Meaning

Learning, Remembering,
and Knowing

Chapter 5

Motivation

59

3

Perceiving and
Making Meaning

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES When you finish reading this chapter, you should be able to:
3-1 Explain how consumer behavior is often shaped
by sensory appeals that are often unnoticed.
3-2 Outline the three-stage process of perception that
translates raw stimuli into meaning.

3-3 Discuss how the field of semiotics helps us
understand how consumers create meaning out
of symbols.
3-4 Describe how consumers play an active role in
shaping brand meanings.

T

he European vacation has been wonderful, and this stop in Lisbon is no
exception. Still, after two weeks of eating his way through some of the continent’s
finest pastry shops and restaurants, Jamal’s getting a bit of a craving for his
family’s favorite snack—a good old American box of Oreos and an ice-cold carton of milk.
Unbeknownst to his partner, Badr, he had stashed away some cookies “just in case”;
this was the time to break them out.
Now all he needs is the milk. On an impulse, Jamal decides to surprise Badr with
a mid-afternoon treat. He sneaks out of the hotel room while she’s napping and finds
the nearest grosa. When he heads to the store’s small refrigerated section, though, he’s
puzzled—no milk here. Undaunted, Jamal asks the clerk, “Leite, por favor?” The clerk
quickly smiles and points to a rack in the middle of the store piled with little white square
boxes. No, that can’t be right—Jamal resolves to work on his Portuguese. He repeats
the question, and again he gets the same answer.
Finally, he investigates, and sure enough, he sees that the labels say they contain
something called Ultra High Temperature (UHT) milk. Nasty! Who in the world would
drink milk out of a little box that’s been sitting on a warm shelf for who knows how long?
Jamal dejectedly returns to the hotel, his snack-time fantasies crumbling like so many
stale cookies.

Source: LensKiss/Shutterstock.

60

OBJECTIVE 3-1
Explain how
consumer behavior
is often shaped by
sensory appeals
that are often
unnoticed.

Sensation

Products and commercial messages often appeal to our
senses, but because of the profusion of these messages, we
don’t notice most of them.
Although it’s news to Jamal, many people in the world
do drink milk out of a box every day. UHT, pasteurized milk
that has been heated until the bacteria that cause it to spoil are destroyed, can last for

Chapter 3 • Perceiving and Making Meaning

5 to 6 months without refrigeration if unopened. The milk tastes slightly sweeter than
fresh milk, but otherwise it’s basically the same.
Shelf-stable milk is particularly popular in Europe, where there is less refrigerator
space in homes and stores tend to carry less inventory than in the United States. Seven
out of 10 Europeans drink it routinely. Manufacturers keep trying to crack the U.S.
market as well, though analysts doubt their prospects. To begin with, milk consumption in the United States is declining steadily as teenagers choose soft drinks instead,
even though the Milk Industry Foundation pumped $44 million into an advertising
campaign to promote milk drinking (“Got Milk?”).
Beyond that, it’s hard to convince Americans to drink milk out of a box. In focus
groups, U.S. consumers say they have trouble believing the milk is not spoiled or
unsafe. In addition, they consider the square, quart-sized boxes more suitable for dry
food. Nonetheless, many schools and fast-food chains do buy UHT milk because
of its long shelf life.1 Although Americans may not think twice about drinking a
McDonald’s McFlurry made with shelf-stable milk, it’s still going to be a long, uphill
battle to change their minds about the proper partner for a bagful of Oreos.
Whether we experience the taste of Oreos, the sight of a Chloé perfume ad, or the sound
of Dua Lipa’s voice on her latest single, we live in a world overflowing with sensations.
Wherever we turn, a symphony of colors, sounds, and odors bombards us. Some of the
“notes” in this symphony occur naturally, such as the loud barking of a dog, the shades of the
evening sky, or the heady smell of a rose bush. Others come from people: The person who
plops down next to you in class might wear swirling tattoos, bright pink pants, and exude
such an inebriating sweet smell of body lotion that you have a hard time concentrating.
Marketers certainly contribute to this commotion. Consumers are never far from
pop-up ads, product packages, sponsored posts on their social media feed, commercials in the middle of their music playlist, and billboards along the freeways or in
the metro—all clamoring for our attention. Even movie theatres are getting into the
act; some are installing moving seats, scent machines, and compressed air blasts to
simulate the feeling of bullets flying by.2
Especially after the COVID lockdowns, artistic venues, museums, and theatres all
are trying to craft ever more sense-stimulating experiences to attract audiences. For
instance, the Tate Museum in London developed the Tate Sensorium: Sensory designers worked alongside exhibit curators to create a multisensory augmentation of the
museum’s artwork in which new technologies emotionally stimulate its visitors via all
five senses—patrons could taste, smell, and touch the art in addition to looking at it.3
Sometimes we go out of our way to experience “unusual” sensations: feeling
a thrill from bungee jumping, playing virtual reality games, or going to theme
parks such as Universal Studios, which (at least until COVID shut it down) offered
“Fear Factor Live” attractions where vacationers could swallow gross things or
perform stomach-churning stunts.4
However, only a select few try to cram down as many peanut butter and banana
sandwiches, Moon Pies, or cheesesteaks as (in)humanly possible in events sponsored by
Major League Eating/Federation of Competitive Eating (MLE/FCE). Other sensationseekers happily blast teeth-rattling Meek Mill cuts from their booming car speakers.
Each of us copes with this sensory bombardment by paying attention to some
stimuli and tuning out others. And the messages to which we do pay attention often
wind up affecting us differently from what the sponsors intended; we each put our
personal “spin” on things as we assign meanings consistent with our own unique
experiences, biases, and desires. This chapter focuses on the process of how we absorb
sensations and then use these to interpret the surrounding world.
Sensation refers to the biochemical signals that our senses send to our brain for
processing.5 Our sensory receptors (eyes, ears, nose, mouth, fingers, and skin) capture

61

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Section 2 • Making Sense of the World

basic stimuli such as light, color, sound, odor, and texture and send those responses
to the brain. Perception is the process by which people select, organize, and interpret
these sensations. The study of perception, then, focuses on what we add to these raw
sensations to give them meaning.
Our brains receive external stimuli, or sensory inputs, on several channels. We
may see a billboard, hear a jingle, feel the softness of a cashmere sweater, taste a new
flavor of ice cream, or smell the interior of a new car. These inputs are the raw data
that begin the perceptual process. Sensory data from the external environment (e.g.,
hearing a tune on the radio) can generate internal sensory experiences; a song might
trigger a consumer’s memory of the first ride they took in their first car, the touch of
the wheel in their excited hands.
Marketers’ messages are more effective when they appeal to several senses. For
example, in a recent study, one group read ad copy for potato chips that only mentioned
the taste, whereas another group’s ad copy emphasized the product’s smell and texture
in addition to its taste. The participants in the second group came away thinking the
chips would taste better than did those whose ad message focused only on taste.6
Each product’s unique sensory qualities help it to stand out from the competition,
especially if the brand creates a unique association with the sensation. The OwensCorning Fiberglass Corporation was the first company to trademark a color when it
used bright pink for its insulation material; it adopted the Pink Panther as its spokescharacter.7 Harley-Davidson tried (unsuccessfully) to trademark the distinctive sound
a “hog” makes when it revs up. The numerous legal battles that companies wage to
protect their brand’s sensory qualities demonstrate how important these characteristics
can be in the battle for consumers’ loyalties.

Sensory Marketing
When guests at Omni luxury hotels enter the lobby, the signature scent of lemongrass
and green tea hits them. The signature scent of lemongrass and green tea hits them as
they enter the lobby. In their rooms, they find eucalyptus bath salts and Sensation Bars,
which are minibars stocked with unique items, such as mojito-flavored jellybeans and
miniature Zen gardens.
Welcome to the new era of sensory marketing, where companies think carefully
about the impact of sensations on our product experiences. From hotels to carmakers to brewers, companies recognize that our senses help us decide which products
appeal to us—and which ones stand out from a host of similar offerings in the marketplace. In this section, we’ll take a closer look at how some smart marketers use our
sensory systems to create a competitive advantage.

Vision
Sure, Apple’s products usually work well—but that’s not why many people buy them.
Sleek styling and simple, compact features telegraph an aura of modernity, sophistication, and just plain “cool.” Marketers rely heavily on visual elements in advertising,
store design, and packaging. Given that we increasingly interact with the world in digital
spaces, visual perception is even more crucial to websites, app designers, e-commerce
platforms, and online advertisers. All five main elements of visual perception are
essential to marketers: illuminance, shape, surface color, materiality, and location.8

•
•

Illuminance refers to the amount of light we perceive on an object. For instance,
brighter lighting tends to make people more alert, which in turn encourages
healthier food choices.9
Shape is the perceived space occupied by an object in the perceptual field as
comprised by the outer boundaries of that object.

Chapter 3 • Perceiving and Making Meaning

•
•
•

63

Surface color affects how people perceive an object. Consumers perceive a product to be larger when it is presented in a highly saturated color that captures their
attention to a greater extent than a paler hue. As a result, they’re even willing to
pay more for the saturated version even though both sizes are in fact the same.10
Materiality refers to the visual texture and reactance of the exterior surface of
an object.
Location is the positioning, orientation, spacing, and movement of an object in
relation to other objects within an area.

Colors may even influence our emotions more directly. Evidence suggests that some colors (particularly red) create feelings of arousal and stimulate appetite, and others (such as blue)
create more relaxing feelings. American Express launched its
Blue card after its research found that people describe the color
as “providing a sense of limitlessness and peace.”11 Advertisements of products presented against a backdrop of blue are better liked than the same ads shown against a red background, and
cross-cultural research indicates a consistent preference for blue
whether people live in Canada or Hong Kong.12
People who complete tasks when the words or images appear
on red backgrounds perform better when they must remember
details; however, they excel at tasks requiring an imaginative
response when the words or images are displayed on blue backgrounds. Olympic athletes who wear red uniforms are more likely
to defeat competitors in blue uniforms, and men rate women who
wear red as more attractive than those who wear blue.
In one study, interior designers created bars decorated primarily in red, yellow, or blue and invited people to choose one
to hang out in. More people chose the yellow and red rooms,
and these guests were more social and active—and ate more. In
contrast, partygoers in the blue room stayed longer.13 Perhaps
the moral is: Get your prof to give you multiple-choice exams
on red paper, essays on blue paper, and then celebrate afterward
in a yellow room!
Some reactions to color come from learned associations (which we’ll tackle in the next chapter). In Western countries, black is the color of mourning, whereas in some Eastern
countries, notably Japan, white plays this role.
We now know that perceptions of a color depend on both its
physical wavelength and how the mind responds to that stimulus. Yellow is in the middle of wavelengths the human eye can
detect, so it is the brightest and attracts attention. The Yellow
Pages originally were colored yellow to heighten the attention
level of bored telephone operators.15 Indeed, colors evoke such
strong emotional reactions that some people who want to break
their smartphone addictions turn their phone screens to grayscale to make them less stimulating.16
Of course, fashion trends strongly influence our color preferences, so it’s no surprise that we tend to encounter a “hot” color
on clothing and in home designs in one season that another color
replaces the next season (as when the fashionistas proclaim,

We associate the color black with power. Teams in a variety
of sports who wear black uniforms consistently rank near the
top of their leagues in penalties during the season.14
Source: Paolo Bona/Shutterstock.

The choice of a color palette is a key issue in package
design. Companies used to arrive at these choices casually.
For example, EasyJet paints its jets orange to project a fun,
playful image. As Table 3.1 shows, these decisions help to
“color” our expectations of what’s inside the package.17
Source: Senohrabek/Shutterstock.

64

Section 2 • Making Sense of the World

TABLE 3.1    Marketing

Applications of Colors

Color

Associations

Marketing Applications

Yellow

Optimistic and youthful

Used to grab window shoppers’ attention

Red

Energy

Often seen in clearance sales

Blue

Trust and security

Banks

Green

Wealth

Used to create relaxation in stores

Orange

Aggressive

Call to action: subscribe, buy or sell

Black

Powerful and sleek

Luxury products

Purple

Soothing

Beauty or anti-aging products

Source: Data from Leo Widrich, “Why Is Facebook Blue? The Science Behind Colors in Marketing,” Fast Company
(May 6, 2013).

“Brown is the new black!” or fans of the TV series counter with, “No, Orange Is the
New Black”).
These styles do not happen by accident; most people don’t know (but now you do)
that a handful of firms produce color forecasts that manufacturers and retailers buy
so they can be sure they stock up on the next hot hue. For example, Pantone, Inc. (one of
these color arbiters) identified Viva Magenta as the Color of the Year for 2023. Reflecting the world’s steady recovery from the Pandemic, the company lyrically describes the
color as “... a shade rooted in nature descending from the red family and expressive of a
new signal of strength. Viva Magenta is brave and fearless, and a pulsating color whose
exuberance promotes a joyous and optimistic celebration, writing a new narrative.”18
In addition to color, other dimensions of visual aesthetics affect the inferences consumers make about a product. Recent research found evidence of an aesthetic bias:
Product designs that are deemed more attractive lead us to think the product will also be
more useful.19 In fact, a product design can be so attractive that we mistake its appearance
as a signal that the product has better functionality, even when no such information about
functionality is available! The conclusion: It is easier than ever to cheaply produce products that look aesthetically pleasing but have poor functionality. Fast fashion, anyone?

Dollars and Scents
Odors stir emotions or create a calming feeling. They invoke memories or relieve
stress. In one study for instance, researchers experimentally associated a specific scent
to either pens or facial tissues and found that the scent association made it easier for
people who took part in the experiment to remember features of the product as much
as two weeks later.20 As scientists continue to discover the powerful effects of smell on
behavior, marketers come up with ingenious ways to leverage these connections. This
form of sensory marketing takes interesting turns as manufacturers find new ways to
put scents into products, including men’s suits, lingerie, detergents, and aircraft cabins.
And this just in: Burger King in Japan sells a “Flame Grilled” fragrance to customers
who want to smell like a Whopper.21
One study found that consumers who viewed ads for either flowers or chocolate
and who also were exposed to flowery or chocolaty odors spent more time processing
the product information and were more likely to try different alternatives within each
product category.22 Another reported that subjects showed higher recall of a test
brand’s attributes if it was embedded with a scent—and this effect persisted as long as
two weeks after the experiment.23 Retailers like Hugo Boss often pump a “signature”

Chapter 3 • Perceiving and Making Meaning

scent into their stores. One study reported that “warm scents,” such as vanilla or
cinnamon, as opposed to “cool scents,” such as peppermint, enhance shoppers’ purchases of premium brands.24
Some of our responses to scents result from early associations that call up good
or bad feelings, and that explains why businesses explore connections among smell,
memory, and mood.25 Researchers for Folgers found that for many people the smell of
coffee summons up childhood memories of their mothers cooking breakfast, so the
aroma reminds them of home. The company turned this insight into a commercial in
which a young man in an army uniform arrives home early one morning. He goes to
the kitchen, opens a Folgers’ package, and the aroma wafts upstairs. His mother opens
her eyes, smiles, and exclaims, “He’s home!”26

Sound
Music and other sounds affect people’s feelings and behaviors. Researchers are finding, for example, that (as we all probably knew already) when people drink beer and
listen to music that’s consistent with that brand’s identity, they enjoy the beverage
more.27 Apple Music and the speaker manufacturer Sonos conducted a study of 30,000
music listeners (note: consider the source here!) and found that music made household chores and other activities more enjoyable. When people listened to music, they
literally moved closer to one another. Couples spent 37 percent more “awake time” in
bed. And respondents were 18 percent more likely to say the words, “I love you.”28
Pitch. Music can intensify emotional reactions to commercials, or slow or speed shop-

pers’ pace inside stores. Now, new research shows that certain perceptual characteristics of music, like pitch, can even cue morality and thus make us behave better. For
instance, a recent study found that hearing high-pitched music, compared to lowerpitched music, led people to be more disciplined in their choices and ultimately make
healthier choices, such as selecting lower calorie foods or engaging in health-boosting
activities.29 Apparently high-pitched music is one way to make people behave better!
Pitch also helps consumers make inferences about the size of a product: Lower
pitch in voice or music leads consumers to make a larger product size.30 This pitchsize effect occurs because we tend to visualize what we hear: It’s a cross-modal
effect where two different sensory systems influence one another, so when we hear
low-pitched sound or music, we tend to visualize a larger object because large objects
in real life do tend to produce lower-pitched sounds.
In a series of studies, researchers had people listen to radio commercials with
either high- or low-pitched voices advertising a sandwich, and people who heard the
low-pitched voice imagined the sandwich to be larger. They also did the same study
with a laptop and found, again, that the laptop producing a sound clip at a lower pitch
was perceived as being physically larger. So, when it comes to size, pitch does matter!
Sound Symbolism. Some marketers who come up with brand names pay attention

to sound symbolism, or the process by which the way a word sounds influences
our assumptions about what it describes and attributes, such as size. For example,
consumers are more likely to recognize brand names that begin with a hard consonant,
like a K (Kellogg’s) or P (Pepsi). We also tend to associate certain vowel and consonant
sounds (or phonemes) with perceptions of large and small size. Mental rehearsal of
prices containing numbers with small phonemes results in overestimation of price
discounts, whereas mental rehearsal of prices containing numbers with large phonemes
results in underestimation.31 One study even found that the sound symbolism in a
stock’s ticker symbol helped to predict the company’s performance during its first
year of trading.32

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Section 2 • Making Sense of the World

Touch
Pretend for a moment that you are shopping online for a sweater. You navigate to
www.landsend.com, scroll through the cardigans, and pause at one that appeals to you.
You click the sweater for more information. A larger photo appears, and the caption
reads: “Imagine holding this sweater, feeling the soft, 100% cotton in your hands.”
What if you did as instructed? Would your perception of the sweater be any different
than if you had not imagined feeling it?
We tend to want to touch objects, although typing or using a mouse are skills we
have to learn. The proliferation of touchscreens on computers, ATM machines, digital
cameras, GPS devices, and e-readers is an outgrowth of the natural user interface
philosophy of computer design. This approach incorporates habitual human movements that we don’t have to learn. Sony decided to offer
touchscreens on its e-readers after its engineers repeatedly observed people in focus groups automatically swipe
the screen of its older, nontouch models. Touchscreens
also appear on exercise machines, in hospitals, at airport
check-in terminals, and on Virgin America airplanes.33
It seems that encouraging shoppers to touch a product encourages them to imagine they own it, and researchers know that people value things more highly if they
own them: This is known as the endowment effect. One
set of researchers reported that when participants simply
touched an item (an inexpensive coffee mug) for 30 seconds, they had a greater level of attachment to the product;
this connection, in turn, boosted what they were willing
to pay for it.34 Indeed, the power of touch even translates
Consumers who participate in the creation of a product may
to online shopping, where touchscreens create a stronger
experience a feeling of psychological ownership – even if a few parts
feeling of psychological ownership compared to prodare left over when they’re done!
Source: Tirachard Kumtanom/Shutterstock.
ucts consumers explore using a touchpad or a mouse.35
Some anthropologists view our experience of touch
much like a primal language, one we learn well before writing and speech. Indeed, researchers are starting to identify the important role the haptic (touch) sense plays in consumer
behavior. Haptic senses appear to moderate the relationship between product experience
and judgment confidence. This confirms the commonsense notion that we’re surer about
what we perceive when we can touch it (a major problem for those who sell products
online). Individuals who score high on a “need for touch” (NFT) scale are especially
sensitive to the haptic dimension. These people respond positively to such statements as:

•
•
•

When walking through stores, I can’t help touching all kinds of products.
Touching products can be fun.
I feel more comfortable purchasing a product after physically examining it.36

Sensations that reach the skin, whether from a luxurious massage or the bite of
a winter wind, stimulate or relax us. Researchers even have shown that touch can
influence sales interactions. In one study, diners whom waitstaff touched gave bigger tips, and the same researchers reported that food demonstrators in a supermarket
who lightly touched customers had better luck in getting shoppers to try a new snack
product and to redeem coupons for the brand.37 On the other hand, an accidental touch
from a stranger (especially a male) leads to more negative evaluations of products a
shopper encounters in a store.38
The COVID-19 pandemic made consumers especially leery to touch products
in stores and even more leery to touch or be touched by other people. In general,

Chapter 3 • Perceiving and Making Meaning

researchers have found that people like a product less and are less likely to buy it
if another person has touched it earlier. Many studies have found evidence of this
contamination effect: Consumers are less likely to want a T-shirt left on the return
rack in a waiting room than the exact same T-shirt on the normal shopping rack.
This contamination effect is stronger if the contaminator is in physical proximity.39
And contamination even happens when the only thing left is evidence of prior touch,
such as when shelf displays are messy and disorganized.40 No wonder so many stores
have sales attendants constantly reorganizing shelves ­during shopping hours!
Some Japanese companies take the importance of touch a step farther via their
practice of Kansei engineering, a philosophy that translates customers’ feelings
into design elements. The designers of the Mazda Miata embraced a ­Japanese
archery concept called Jinba Ittai. This phrase describes the experience of a
mounted soldier as they become one with their mount—the horse learns to adjust
his gait to enable the rider/soldier to release an arrow, so that even a slight shift in
weight will cause the horse to react. Both horse and rider are united in one shared
experience.43 That’s the feeling the designers hoped to create for buyers of the
Japanese sportscar. FYI: After extensive research, they discovered that making the
stick shift exactly 9.5 centimeters long conveys the optimal feeling of sportiness
and control.44
The classic, contoured
Coca-Cola bottle also attests
to the power of touch. The
bottle was designed approximately 90 years ago to satisfy
the request of a U.S. bottler
for a soft-drink container that
people could identify even in
the dark.

Taste
Our taste receptors obviously
contribute to our experience
of many products. So-called
“flavor houses” develop new
concoctions to please the
changing palates of consumers. Scientists are right behind
them as they build new devices
to test these flavors. Alpha
M.O.S. sells a sophisticated
electronic tongue for tasting,
and the company is working
on what its executives call an
electronic mouth, complete
with artificial saliva, to chew
food and to dissect its flavor.
Coca-Cola and PepsiCo use
the tongue to test the quality
of corn syrups, and BristolMyers Squibb and Roche use
the device to formulate medicines that don’t taste bitter.45

During the COVID-19 pandemic, consumers were either
not allowed or not willing to touch products. Indeed,
surveys show that the majority of consumers prefer to
shop at stores that offer contact-free payment options.41
But how can you tell whether an avocado is ripe enough
without touching it? Many grocery stores started putting
ripeness labels on their fruits and other food items
to help consumers know the ripeness without having to
touch.
Source: Patti McConville/Alamy Stock Photo.

67

Buying, Having, Being
Haptically Attuned – and in
Touch
Recent research found that consumers are more responsive to
marketing messages when the
devices that deliver those messages to them also provide haptic
feedback.42 To study this process,
the researchers developed a mobile
app through which they could control how people received messages
from them. Throughout the day,
the participants would receive a
message every hour giving them
a random message encouraging
them to exercise, eat healthier, etc.
The next day, participants whose
messages were accompanied by
a vibration reported moving more,
eating healthier, etc. The researchers concluded that haptic vibrations
or motions made the devices feel
more personal and the interactions
with them more intentional, so consumers were more likely to comply
with the recommendations. Vibrating messages can make us more
compliant (or at least wake us up)!

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Section 2 • Making Sense of the World

Obviously, taste is a huge driver behind the $46 billion Americans spend on food and beverages in a year.46 Every day, legions
of “foodies” embark on a quest for new flavors and dining experiences. A growing recognition that eating is a more complicated
multisensory experience than just stuffing some Oreos down your
throat is launching a new field of study called gastrophysics. This
focus on the science of eating considers how physics, chemistry,
and, yes, perception influence how we experience what we put in
our mouths.
For example, scientists report that while tomato juice is not
a terribly popular beverage (at least without a vodka accompaniment), it accounts for over 25 percent of the drinks passengers
order on airplanes. The reason? All foods are a combination of five
basic tastes: sweetness, sourness, bitterness, saltiness, and umami
Taste gives us important feedback about food products.
(a savory taste). Umami is a meaty or brothy sensation we get in
Source: OBEYphoto/Shutterstock.
diverse foods such as mushrooms, tomatoes, and even breast milk.
It turns out that exposure to high levels of noise dulls our ability to
taste sweet things, so people instead prefer to ingest a dose of umami when they
fly.47 All our senses interact with one another to influence taste: People think that
potato chips with a louder crunch taste better, and they don’t like food that’s served
on red plates.
Just as we can habituate to visual stimuli, we can get used to taste. But researchers
have found evidence of the opposite effect: that each additional bite of food can
be increasingly pleasurable.48 They call this hedonic escalation and find that this
escalation is especially likely when a food is made of a complex combination of
Buying, Having, Being
flavors and when we are motivated to identify more of those flavors in each bite.
Foods that mix salty, sweet, and fatty flavors provide the opportunity for each taste
Don’t Stand for This!
or sip to trigger a new sensation, so we continue to enjoy and always seek more (think
Beyond the traditional five sensory
salty caramels . . . yum!).
systems (visual, olfactory, haptic,
auditory, and gustatory), some
researchers argue for a “sixth
sensory system.” They’re referring to the vestibular system,
which is responsible for balance
and posture.49 A series of studies in which participants were told
to take different postures, such as
sitting versus standing, showed that
standing (versus sitting) postures
induce greater physical stress on
the legs, feet, and back. This extra
stress decreased sensory sensitivity, which dulls our senses so that
we cannot taste our food as well.
Pleasant-tasting food and drinks
tasted worse and participants
ate and drank less of them when
they were standing than when they
were sitting. So if you’re planning to
eat something that tastes good, sit
down! Restaurants and food trucks
should provide adequate seating if
they want their food to taste better
to customers.

Augmented and Virtual Reality:
Welcome to the Metaverse
The sensations we receive from the physical world can be overwhelming, but are
you ready to deal with digital sensations as well? Augmented reality (AR) refers to
media that superimpose one or more digital layers of data, images, or video over a
physical object. AR has moved far beyond the early days, when moviegoers slipped
on clumsy three-dimensional (3D) glasses to watch a movie. Today, AR has invaded
many spheres from gaming to shopping. Even advertising messages can be augmented
to generate more immersive, interactive, lifelike environments. Research shows
that augmented reality ads generate greater physiological arousal, more powerful
emotional responses, and ultimately greater willingness to pay for whatever is being
advertised.50
AR can be used in retail settings to facilitate product evaluation prior to purchase
and to test its impact on sales. Recent research found that shoppers who are unfamiliar with a product and who experience it via AR buy more, presumably because AR
reduces uncertainty and increases confidence in purchasing the product, as it makes
us more likely to try riskier options.51 The future of AR shopping remains to be seen,
but it is clear that it can provide an engaging alternative for consumers who want to
try products such as makeup or furniture virtually before they commit. Who needs
to schlep a heavy couch to four different positions in a room when you can see what
it will look like in each place on your screen?

Chapter 3 • Perceiving and Making Meaning

69

AR can be used in retail settings to
facilitate product evaluation prior to
purchase and to test its impact on
sales. Recent research found that
shoppers who are unfamiliar with a
product and who experience it via AR
are more likely to buy it. Presumably,
AR reduces uncertainty and increases
confidence in purchasing the product
as it makes us more likely to try riskier
options.

Source: Tan, Yong-Chin, Sandeep R. Chandukala,
and Srinivas K. Reddy (2022), “Augmented Reality
in Retail and Its Impact on Sales,” Journal of
­Marketing, 86(1), 48–66.

AR apps open new worlds of information (and marketing communications). Do you want to test drive a Range Rover SUV using
your smartphone?53 Would you like to read the bio of the singer you
see on a CD cover? Who painted that cool mural in your local bar?
How much did that house you were looking at eventually sell for? Just
point your smartphone at each and the information will be superimposed on your screen. AR is about to be big business: Analysts project
that revenue from AR apps will hit $26 billion by 2025.54
The imminent explosion of virtual reality (VR) technology in
the consumer market is also driving the integration between physical
sensations and digital information. Unlike AR that delivers a combination of both sensory experiences, VR provides a totally immersive experience that transports the user into an entirely separate 3D
environment. Facebook purchased the Oculus VR company in 2014,
and this was just the first step in what promises to be an avalanche
of commercially available VR technology from major companies,
including Samsung, Sony, and Google. Worldwide revenues from
VR applications are projected to exceed $12 billion by 2024.55
OBJECTIVE 3-2
Outline the threestage process
of perception
that translates
raw stimuli into
meaning.

The Stages of
Perception

At least within the next few years, you’ll probably live in
AR through your smartphone or tablet. Apps like Google
Goggles (for Android phones) and Layar (for Android and
Apple devices) impose a layer of words and pictures on
whatever you see in your phone’s viewer. Microsoft’s
HoloLens technology blends holograms with what you
see in your physical space so that you can manipulate
digital images—for example, a user who wants to
assemble a piece of furniture or fix a broken sink can
actually “see” where each part connects to the next
through the goggles.52

Source: Rommel Canlas/123RF.
Like computers, we undergo stages of information processing in which we input and
store stimuli. Unlike computers, though, we do not passively
process whatever information happens to be present. In the
first place, we notice only a small number of the stimuli in our environment, simply
because there are so many different ones out there vying for our attention. Of those
we do notice, we attend to an even smaller number—and we might not process the
stimuli that do enter consciousness objectively. Everyone interprets the meaning of a
stimulus in a manner consistent with their own unique biases, needs, and experiences.
As Figure 3.1 shows, these three stages of exposure, attention, and interpretation
make up the process of perception.

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Section 2 • Making Sense of the World

Figure 3.1 An Overview of the
Perceptual Process
Source: Inna Kharlamova/Shutterstock.

SENSORY STIMULI
Sights

Sounds

Eyes

Ears

Smells

Tastes

Textures

Mouth

Skin

SENSORY RECEPTORS
Nose

EXPOSURE

ATTENTION

INTERPRETATION

Stage 1: Exposure
Exposure occurs when a stimulus comes within the range of someone’s sensory
receptors. Consumers concentrate on some stimuli, are unaware of others, and even
go out of their way to ignore some messages. We notice stimuli that come within range
for even a short time—if we so choose. However, getting a message noticed in such a
short time (or even in a longer one) is no mean feat.

Sensory Thresholds
Before we consider what people may choose not to perceive, let’s consider what they
are capable of perceiving. By this we mean that stimuli may be above or below a
person’s sensory threshold, which is the point at which it is strong enough to make
a conscious impact in their awareness.
If you have ever blown a dog whistle and watched your pooch respond to a sound
you cannot hear, you won’t be surprised to learn that there are some stimuli that people
simply can’t perceive. Some of us pick up sensory information that others, whose
sensory channels have diminished because of disability or age, cannot. The science of
psychophysics focuses on how people integrate the physical environment into their
personal, subjective worlds.
It sounds like a great name for a rock band, but the absolute threshold refers to
the minimum amount of stimulation a person can detect on a given sensory channel.
The sound a dog whistle emits is at too high a frequency for human ears to pick up,
so this stimulus is beyond our auditory absolute threshold. The absolute threshold is
an important consideration when we design marketing stimuli. A highway billboard
might have the most entertaining copy ever written, but this genius is wasted if the
print is too small for passing motorists to see it. In contrast, the differential threshold
refers to the ability of a sensory system to detect changes in or differences between
two stimuli. The minimum difference we can detect between two stimuli is the just
noticeable difference (j.n.d.).
The dual issues of if and when consumers will notice a difference between two
stimuli is relevant to many marketing situations. Sometimes a marketer may want to

Chapter 3 • Perceiving and Making Meaning

ensure that consumers notice a change, such as when a retailer offers merchandise at
a discount. In other situations, the marketer may want to downplay the fact that it has
made a change, such as when a store raises a price, or a manufacturer reduces the size
of a package. When a brand tries to modernize its logo, it must walk a fine line because
consumers tend to get tired of old-fashioned designs, but they still want to be able to
identify the familiar product. Figure 3.2 shows the evolution of the (mythical) Betty
Crocker character over time.
A consumer’s ability to detect a difference between two stimuli is relative. A whispered conversation that might be unintelligible on a noisy street can suddenly become
public and embarrassingly loud in a quiet library. It is the relative difference between
the decibel level of the conversation and its surroundings, rather than the absolute
loudness of the conversation itself, that determines whether the stimulus will register.
In the 19th century, a psychophysicist named Ernst Weber found that the amount
of change required for the perceiver to notice a change systematically relates to the
intensity of the original stimulus. The stronger the initial stimulus, the greater a change
must be for us to notice it. This relationship is Weber’s Law.
Consider how Weber’s Law works for a product when it goes on sale. If a retailer
believes that a markdown should be at least 20 percent for the reduction to make an
impact on shoppers, it should cut the price on a pair of socks that retails for $10 to $8
(a $2 discount) for shoppers to realize a difference. However, a sports coat that sells
for $100 would not benefit from a $2 discount; the retailer would have to mark it down
$20 to achieve the same impact.
As the cost of raw materials skyrockets because of shortages caused by natural
disasters such as the pandemic, some companies try to camouflage price increases as
they shrink the size of packages instead of charging more. Sometimes marketers use
code words to announce a change: They may label the smaller packages as “green”
because there is less plastic or cardboard in a smaller box, more “portable” when
Figure 3.2 Betty Crocker
Evolves Over Time

Source: Retro AdArchives/Alamy Stock Photo.

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they squeeze products into little carry bags, or “healthier” because smaller amounts
translate into fewer calories. For example, Kraft brought out “Fresh Stacks” packages for its Nabisco Premium saltines and Honey Maid graham crackers. Each holds
about 15 percent fewer crackers than the standard boxes for the same price. But Kraft
notes that because the new packages include more sleeves of crackers, they are more
portable—and the company notes that as an added benefit the smaller boxes supply
crackers that will be fresher when you get around to eating them.
A packaging expert noted that, typically, when the economy
recovers, companies respond with a new “jumbo-size” product that
is usually even more expensive per ounce. Then the process begins
again: “It’s a continuous cycle, where at some point the smallest
package offered becomes so small that perhaps they’re phased out
and replaced by the medium-size package, which has been shrunk
down.”56 There’s even a term to describe this: shrinkflation.57

The Myth of Subliminal Perception

A lot of consumers (and marketing students) believe that
logos containing “hidden” messages like this one are
subliminal. Indeed, you have to look closely to see that
the letters B and R for Baskin Robbins are surrounding the
numbers 31—the number of flavors
the ice cream chain sells. But if you can see it or hear it
(even with some effort), it’s NOT subliminal!
Source: Jatuporn Chainiramitkul/Shutterstock.

The 1950s and 1960s were the heyday of the widespread
belief that marketers were inserting subtle messages into
movies and TV shows. This idea was later debunked, but a
lot of people nonetheless continue to believe that subliminal
persuasion is common.
Source: Walter Daran/ The Chronicle Collection/Getty Images.

Most marketers want to create messages above consumers’ thresholds so people will notice them. Ironically, a good number of consumers instead believe that marketers design many advertising
messages so they will be perceived unconsciously, or below the
threshold of recognition. Another word for threshold is limen, and
we term stimuli that fall below the limen subliminal. Subliminal
perception refers to a stimulus below the level of the consumer’s
awareness.
This topic has captivated the public for more than 50 years,
even though there is virtually no proof that this process has any
effect on consumer behavior. A survey of U.S. consumers found
that almost two-thirds believe in the existence of subliminal advertising, and more than one-half are convinced that this technique
can get them to buy things they do not really want.58 ABC rejected
a Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC) commercial that invited viewers
to slowly replay the ad to find a secret message, citing the network’s long-standing policy against subliminal advertising. KFC
argued that the ad wasn’t subliminal at all because the company
told viewers about the message and how to find it. The network
wasn’t convinced.59
Like the KFC ad, most examples of subliminal advertising that
people “discover” are not subliminal at all—on the contrary, the
images are quite apparent. Remember, if you can see it or hear it,
it’s not subliminal; the stimulus is above the level of conscious
awareness. Nonetheless, the continuing controversy about subliminal persuasion has been important in shaping the public’s beliefs
about advertisers’ and marketers’ abilities to manipulate consumers
against their will.
A kerfuffle generated by a McDonald’s Happy Meal toy illustrates that we tend to see or hear what we are looking for: When
the company released a toy Minion (from the popular Despicable
Me movie series), some outraged parents stated it was sending a
“subliminal message” to their children. They claimed that it spoke
gibberish that sounded a lot like “what the” and a word that rhymes
with duck. McDonald’s response: “Minions speak ‘Minionese’
which is a random combination of many languages and nonsense

Chapter 3 • Perceiving and Making Meaning

words and sounds . . . . Any perceived similarities to words used within the English
language is purely coincidental.”60

The Truth: Pre-Attentive Processing
Whereas subliminal advertising is largely a myth, there is plenty of scientific evidence
for the process called pre-attentive processing: We are able to process information
and develop positive brand responses even when we are not directly or deliberately
paying attention to a brand message. Researchers found that visuals or emotionally
strong words that are on the periphery of what we’re actually looking at can make
us think about them, even when we’re not aware that we saw them.61 This type of
unconscious processing explains why many advertisers are placing ads next to content
in print media or in our social media feeds.

Stage 2: Attention
As you sit in a lecture, you might find your mind wandering (yes, even you!). One
minute you are concentrating on the professor’s words, and the next you catch yourself
daydreaming about the upcoming weekend (and sneaking the obligatory peek at your
Instagram page). Suddenly, you tune back in as you hear your name being spoken.
Fortunately, it’s a false alarm—the professor has called on another “victim” who has
the same first name. But she’s got your attention now.
Attention refers to the extent to which processing activity is devoted to a particular stimulus. As you know from sitting through both interesting and “less interesting” lectures, this allocation can vary depending on both the characteristics of the
stimulus (i.e., the lecture itself) and the recipient (i.e., your mental state at the time).
Although we live in an “information society,” we can have too much of a good
thing. Consumers often experience sensory overload; we are exposed to far more
information than we can process. In our society, much of this bombardment comes
from commercial sources, and the competition for our attention steadily increases.
Here’s a fact: American adults spend almost half of every day interacting with
media.62 Indeed, they devote 44 percent of the total minutes available in a day to
watching screens. As you might guess, media usage spiked even higher during the
pandemic lockdown years.63 The average adult is exposed to about 3,500 pieces of
advertising information every single day—up from about 560 per day 30 years ago.
That means the fight for your attention—or what some marketers refer to as an eyeball
economy—gets tougher every day.
In fact, recent research shows that the mere presence of one’s phone near us
results in brain drain: a deficit of cognitive resources.64 Even when we can resist
the temptation to check our phones, keeping these devices nearby, even silent and
no vibrations, reduces available cognitive capacity. Turns out your phone eats up an
increasingly large portion of your brain power, even when it is set to silent or even
turned off! So don’t just put down your phone, put it away!

Multitasking
Pedtextrian. Text-walker. Wexting. Whatever you call it, walking while texting is
becoming a public health problem. Due to a spike in pedestrian deaths, Honolulu
became the first city to outlaw this practice.65 Paying attention to where you’re going
seems so . . . 2008.
Today we consume three times as much information each day as people did in
1960. We constantly shift attention: Computer users at work change windows or check
email or other programs nearly 37 times an hour. Computer users visit an average of
40 websites a day.66

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Getting the attention of young people in particular is a challenge—as your
professor probably knows! A large proportion of teens report that they engage in
multitasking, where they process information from more than one medium at a time
as they alternate among their cell phones, TVs, and laptops.
What impact does all this multitasking have on consumers’ ability to absorb,
retain, and understand information? One possible consequence: These bursts of stimulation provoke the body to secrete the hormone dopamine, which is addictive. When
we go without these squirts, we feel bored. Some scientists warn that our cravings for
more stimulation distract us from more prolonged thought processes and reduce our
ability to concentrate (don’t text and drive!). Researchers find that heavy multitaskers
have more trouble focusing, and they experience more stress. One study found that
people who are interrupted by email report significantly more stress than those who
are allowed to focus on a task.67
Multiscreening, using another media screen while watching television, is a very
common form of multitasking. The research firm Deloitte reports that 90 percent of
television viewers today multitask while they watch TV.68 Researchers who synthesized all research testing the effect of multiscreening concluded that multiscreening
has dramatic effects on advertising effectiveness: It reduces our attention to ads but
also makes us counterargue them less, which, as we will see in Chapter 8, can actually
make the ads more persuasive.

Distractions!
We are often exposed to ads while doing something else, like reading a blog or
watching a game (or maybe sitting in class?). How do these diversions influence
the way the ad affects us? Recent research finds that when a background ad distracts
us, we tend to infer that the advertised product is interesting. This is because when
an ad distracts us from another activity, we infer that the advertised brand must be
interesting (otherwise why would it have distracted our attention?). Evidence of this
metacognitive inference came from a study in which participants browsed the internet
while listening to background music and were later asked if they wanted to view the
official Instagram account for a brand that was advertised between songs.69

Rich Media
Marketers constantly search for ways to break through the clutter and grab people’s attention. Some tactics are straightforward, such as when manufacturers try to get their brands
shelved at eye level in a store and toward the center of a
display because they know that is where shoppers are most
likely to look.70
In the online world, advertisers keep innovating
ways to get visitors to watch their messages. One of
the most popular today is rich media—the use of animated GIF files or video clips to grab viewers’ attention.
LowerMyBills.com is notorious for its endless loops
of silhouetted dancers and surprised office workers,
whereas other ads spring into action when you move
the cursor over them. AG Jeans, for example, allows
you to build an outfit on your phone. Other rich media
are online versions of familiar TV commercials that sit
frozen on the website until you click them. Teaser ads,
much like those you see on TV that give you a taste of
the story but make you return later for the rest, also turn
Burger King uses rich media to get consumers’ attention.
up on websites.71
Source: S3studio/Getty Images.

Chapter 3 • Perceiving and Making Meaning

75

Because the brain’s capacity to process information is
limited, consumers are selective about what they pay attention to. The process of perceptual selection means that
people attend to only a small portion of the stimuli to which
they are exposed. Consumers pick and choose among stimuli
to avoid being overwhelmed. But how do we choose? Both
personal and stimulus factors help to decide.

Getting Attention
Marketers work hard to test and create messages and packages that will have a better chance to cut through the clutter.
For example, when researchers used infrared eye-tracking
equipment to measure what ads consumers look at, they
found that visually complex ads are more likely to capture
attention.72
In general, we are more likely to notice stimuli that differ
from others around them (remember Weber’s Law). A message creates contrast in several ways:

•
•
•

•

Is this dress white and gold, or blue and black? Many people
engaged in a fierce online debate about the answer. Which colors
do you see? Hint: The company that made the dress describes it
on its website as “Royal Blue.”
Source: Amina Khan/National Science Foundation.

Size – The size of the stimulus itself in contrast to that of the competition helps
to determine whether it will command attention. Readership of a magazine ad
increases in proportion to the size of the ad.73
Color – As we’ve seen, color is a powerful way to draw attention to a product or to
give it a distinct identity. Black & Decker developed a line of tools it called DeWalt
to target the residential construction industry. The company colored the new line yellow instead of black; this made the equipment stand out against other “dull” tools.74
Position – Not surprisingly, we stand a better chance of noticing stimuli that are
in places where we’re more likely to look. That’s why the competition is so heated
among suppliers to have their products displayed in stores at eye level. In magazines, ads that are placed toward the front of the issue, preferably on the right-hand
side, also win out in the race for readers’ attention. (Hint: The next time you read
a magazine, notice which pages you’re more likely to spend time looking at.)75
A study that tracked consumers’ eye movements as they scanned telephone
directories also illustrated the importance of message position. Consumers scanned
listings in alphabetical order, and they noticed 93 percent of quarter-page display
ads but only 26 percent of plain listings. Their eyes were drawn to color ads first,
and these were viewed longer than black-and-white ones. In addition, subjects
spent 54 percent more time viewing ads for businesses they ended up choosing,
which illustrates the influence of attention on subsequent product choice.76
Another study reported that advertisers can increase brand recall and choice if they
change the location of brand logos and product depictions across ad exposures.77
And products that are located in the center of a person’s field of vision are more
likely to receive attention.78
Position also is important in online advertising. Sophisticated eye-tracking
studies clearly show that most search engine users view only a limited number
of search results. When the typical shopper looks at a search page, their eye travels across the top of the search result, returns to the left of the screen, and then
travels down to the last item shown on the screen without scrolling.
Novelty – Stimuli that appear in unexpected ways or places tend to grab our
attention. Packages that “stand out” visually on store shelves have an advantage,
especially when the consumer doesn’t have a strong preference for brands in the
category and they need to make rapid decisions.79 One solution is to put ads in

Buying, Having, Being
Mind If I Interrupt?
One study indicates that novelty
in the form of interruptions actually intensifies our experiences.
According to this research, people
actually enjoy TV shows more
when commercials interrupt them.
A group of undergraduates watched
an episode of an old sitcom (Taxi)
with which they were unfamiliar. Half
viewed the original broadcast, which
included ads for a jeweler, a lawyer,
and other businesses; the other half
saw the show with all commercials
deleted. Students who saw the original gave it higher evaluations. The
researchers found a similar pattern
when they interrupted people who
were getting a massage. In contrast,
subjects reported that the irritating
sound of a vacuum cleaner was
even worse when they got a break
from listening to it and then had
to hear it resume! The researchers
interpret these results as the outcome of adaptation: We experience
events more intensely at first but
then get used to them. When we
experience an interruption and then
start over, we revert to the original
intensity level.80

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unconventional places, where there will be less competition for attention. These
places include the backs of shopping carts, walls of tunnels, floors of sports
stadiums, and, yes, even public restrooms.81 An outdoor advertising agency in
London constructs huge ads in deserts and farm fields adjacent to airports so
that passengers who look out the window can’t help but pay attention. It prints
the digital ads on pieces of PVC mesh that sit on frames a few inches above the
ground.82

Losing Attention
As riveting as a sight or sound may be, over time we may no longer notice it nearly
as much as when we were first exposed to it. Why is this? One factor is adaptation,
which is the degree to which consumers continue to notice a stimulus over time. The
process of adaptation occurs when we no longer pay attention to a stimulus because it
is so familiar. A consumer can “habituate” and require increasingly stronger “doses”
of a stimulus to notice it. A commuter who is en route to work might read a billboard
message when the board is first installed, but after a few days, it simply becomes part
of the passing scenery. Several factors can lead to adaptation:

Buying, Having, Being
Pay Attention to That
Warning!
A recent study used eye tracking
and functional magnetic resonance
imaging (fMRI) to assess how much
people paid attention to and comply with security warnings—the
kind that pop up on our electronic
devices to warn us about privacy
permission.83 The researchers
tracked participants’ responses over
the course of a five-day workweek
and used these advanced techniques to provide neural insights
into the process of habitation. Their
studies provide clear evidence that
the more people are exposed to a
warning, the less they pay attention
to it and the less they comply with it.
In other words, they habituate to the
warnings. However, the researchers
also found that simply changing the
appearance of the warning reduced
habituation: A design that changes
often works better than a static
design. So if you want your message to continue to be effective, it’s
important to keep varying it.

•
•
•
•

Intensity – Less-intense stimuli (e.g., soft sounds or dim colors) habituate because
they have less sensory impact.
Discrimination – Simple stimuli habituate because they do not require attention
to detail.
Exposure – Frequently encountered stimuli habituate as the rate of exposure
increases.
Relevance – Stimuli that are irrelevant or unimportant habituate because they fail
to attract attention.

Stage 3: Interpretation
Now that a person has noticed a stimulus and allocated cognitive resources to pay
attention to it, the final stage of interpretation kicks in. This is a crucial step, where
the perceiver decides what this stimulus means. All of a marketer’s efforts to construct
and deliver a message that will break through the clutter and focus the customer’s
attention will be for nothing if the receiver misunderstands (or can’t understand) the
intended message.
The meaning we assign to a stimulus depends on the schema, or set of beliefs,
to which we assign it. This in turn leads us to compare the stimulus to other similar
ones we encountered in the past. As a result, interpretation is very much based on
our subjective experiences, our cultural background, our personal sensitivities, our
expectations, etc.
Two people can see or hear the same event, but their interpretation of it can be as
different as night and day, depending on what they had expected the stimulus to be.
In one study, children aged three to five who ate McDonald’s French fries served in
a McDonald’s bag overwhelmingly thought they tasted better than those who ate the
same fries out of a plain white bag. Even carrots tasted better when they came out of
a McDonald’s bag—more than half the kids preferred them to the same carrots served
in a plain package! Ronald would be proud.84
Another experiment demonstrated how our assumptions influence our experiences; in this case, the study altered beer drinkers’ taste preferences simply by telling

Chapter 3 • Perceiving and Making Meaning

them different stories about a specific brew’s ingredients. The researcher offered bar
patrons free beer if they would participate in a taste test (guess what: few refused the
offer). Participants tasted two beers each, one a regular draft of Budweiser or Samuel
Adams and the other the same beer with a few drops of balsamic vinegar added.
Although most beer aficionados would guess that vinegar makes the drink taste bad,
in fact, 60 percent of the respondents who did not know which beer contained the
vinegar preferred the doctored version to the regular one! But when tasters knew in
advance which beer had vinegar in it before they took a swig, only one-third preferred
that version.85
The location of a product’s image on a package also influences the way our
brains make sense of it. For example, due to what we have learned about the law of
gravity (heavy objects sink and light objects float), we assume that products that
are lower down in a frame weigh more than products that appear higher in a frame.
In addition, objects on the right of a frame appear heavier than products that appear
on the left of a frame. This interpretation results from our intuition about levers: We
know that the farther away an object is from a lever’s fulcrum, the more difficult it
is to raise the item. Because we read from left to right, the left naturally becomes
the visual fulcrum and thus we perceive objects on the right as heavier. Manufacturers should bear these package schematics in mind because they may influence our
feelings about the contents in a package for better or worse. Think, for example,
about a diet food marketer who wants shoppers to regard menu items as lighter in
calorie count.86
Identifying and evoking the correct schema is crucial to many marketing decisions,
because this determines what criteria consumers will use to evaluate the product, package, or message. Extra Strength Maalox Whip Antacid flopped even though a spray
can is an effective way to deliver the product. To consumers, aerosol whips mean
dessert toppings, not medication.88 When a college cafeteria gave menu items descriptive labels so that diners had more information about each option and could more
easily categorize it (e.g., Traditional Cajun Red Beans with Rice versus Red Beans
with Rice, Satin Chocolate Pudding versus Chocolate Pudding), sales increased by
more than 25 percent.89
As we’ll see in Chapter 10, products often assume a “brand personality”
because we tend to assign them common human traits, such as sophistication or
sexiness. In other words, we anthropomorphize objects when we think of them
in human terms, and this thought process may encourage us to evaluate products
using schemas we apply to classify other people.
A recent study illustrates how this works: Subjects saw an advertisement with
a picture of a car that had been modified to make it appear as though it was either
“smiling” or “frowning.” In some cases, the text of the ad was written in first
person, to activate a human schema, whereas others saw the same ad written
inthird person. When the human schema was active, those who saw the “smiling”
car rated it more favorably than when they saw a “­frowning” car.90
One factor that determines how we will interpret a stimulus is relational
processing; this happens when we process a stimulus in relation to the relationships
it has with other events, sensations, or images in memory. When RJR Nabisco introduced a version of Teddy Grahams (a children’s product) for adults, it used understated packaging colors to reinforce the idea that the new product was for grown-ups.
But sales were disappointing. Nabisco changed the box to bright yellow to convey the
idea that this was a fun snack, and buyers’ more positive association between a bright
primary color and taste prompted adults to start buying the cookies.91

77

Buying, Having, Being
Leave Something to the
Imagination?
Sometimes not seeing makes things
more exciting, because we have
to search for the missing pieces
in order to decide what the object
means. Recent research found that
when consumers can see only a
portion of an aesthetic product, their
reaction to the product depends
on their curiosity to see the item
completed and the inferences they
make about what the full item would
actually look like.87
Greater curiosity results in more
positive reactions to the partially
concealed product. But there were
some limits to this effect: first, you
must reveal at least half of the product so people can get a sense of
what they’re looking at. Second,
it works only when the product is
attractive enough to make people
curious about what the full item
would look like. This is a very clever
technique: A subtle shift in how
much of a product is visible in an
ad or product listing can affect consumers’ preferences. Concealing
some (but not most) of a product’s
appearance piques our curiosity and
makes the process of interpretation
more enjoyable.

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Section 2 • Making Sense of the World

The stimuli we perceive often are ambiguous. It’s up to
us to determine the meaning based on our past experiences,
expectations, and needs. A classic experiment demonstrated
the process of “seeing what you want to see”: Princeton and
Dartmouth students separately viewed a movie of a particularly rough football game between the two rival schools.
Although everyone was exposed to the same stimulus, the
degree to which students saw infractions and the blame they
assigned for those they did see depended on which college
they attended.92
As these results show, we tend to project our own desires
or assumptions onto products and advertisements. This interpretation process can backfire for marketers. Planters LifeWe recognize patterns of stimuli, such as familiar words. In this
Savers Company found this out when it introduced Planters
Austrian ad, consumers will tend to see the word “kitchen” even
Fresh Roast, a vacuum-packed peanuts package. The idea
though the letters are scrambled.
was to capitalize on consumers’ growing love affair with
Source: Demner, Merlicek & Bergmann Werbegesellschaft mbH.
fresh-roast coffee by emphasizing the freshness of the nuts
in the same way. A great idea—until irate supermarket managers began calling to ask who was going to pay to clean the peanut gook out of their
stores’ coffee-grinding machines.93

Interpretational Biases: The Eye of the Beholder
Our brains tend to relate incoming sensations to others already in memory, based on
some fundamental organizational principles. These principles derive from Gestalt
psychology, a school of thought based upon the notion that people interpret meaning
from the totality of a set of stimuli rather than from any individual stimulus. The
German word Gestalt roughly means whole, pattern, or configuration, and we
summarize this term as “the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.” A piecemeal
perspective that analyzes each component of the stimulus separately can’t capture the
total effect. The Gestalt perspective provides several principles that relate to the way
our brains organize stimuli:

•

•
•

The closure principle states that people tend to perceive an incomplete picture
as complete. That is, we tend to fill in the blanks based on our prior experience.
This principle explains why most of us have no trouble reading a neon sign even if
several of its letters are burned out. The principle of closure is also at work when
we hear only part of a jingle or theme. Marketing strategies that use the closure
principle encourage audience participation, which increases the chance that people
will attend to the message.
The similarity principle tells us that consumers tend to group together objects that
share similar physical characteristics. Green Giant relied on this principle when
the company redesigned the packaging for its line of frozen vegetables. It created
a “sea of green” look to unify all its different offerings.
The figure-ground principle states that one part of a stimulus will dominate (the
figure), and other parts recede into the background (the ground). This concept is
easy to understand if you think literally of a photograph with a clear and sharply
focused object (the figure) in the center. The figure is dominant, and the eye goes
straight to it. The parts of the configuration a person will perceive as figure or
ground can vary depending on the individual consumer, as well as other factors.
Similarly, marketing messages that use the figure-ground principle can make a
stimulus the focal point of the message or merely the context that surrounds the
focus.

Chapter 3 • Perceiving and Making Meaning

•

79

Joint vs. separate presentation refers to whether products are presented as a group or independently of one
another.94 Presenting products together makes it easier for
consumers to create a mental image of what a consumption episode with the products together would look like.
Especially when the jointly presented products are complementary (cheese and crackers; an outdoor table and an
umbrella), it is easier for consumers to form a cohesive
picture of what the consumption episode would look like.

OBJECTIVE 3-3
Discuss how
the field of
semiotics helps us
understand how
consumers create
meaning out of
symbols.

Semiotics: The
Meaning of
Meaning

Many company logos use the figure-ground principle. Do you see
the arrow embedded inside the FedEx logo?
Source: Harry Thomas Flower/Shutterstock.

As we’ve seen, when we try to
“make sense” of a marketing stimulus, we interpret it considering our prior associations. Much of the meaning we take away influences what
we make of the symbolism we perceive. After all, on the surface, many marketing
images have virtually no literal connection to actual products. What does a cowboy
have to do with a bit of tobacco rolled into a paper tube? How can a celebrity such as
basketball player LeBron James or singer Rihanna enhance the image of a soft drink
or a fast-food restaurant?
The field of semiotics can help us understand how consumers interpret the
meanings of symbols. This discipline studies the correspondence between signs and
symbols, and their roles in how we assign meanings.95 Semiotics is a key link to
decoding consumer behavior, because consumers use products to express their social
and cultural identities.
From a semiotic perspective, every marketing message has three basic components: an object, a sign (or symbol), and an interpretant. The object is the product
that is the focus of the message (e.g., an Apple laptop). The sign is the sensory image
that represents the intended meanings of the object (e.g., the partially bitten apple). The
interpretant is the meaning we derive from the sign (e.g., cool, creative). Figure 3.3
diagrams this relationship. Note that this meaning depends a lot upon a person’s prior
knowledge and experiences. For example, not all consumers associate the Apple logo
with the story of Adam and Eve and taking a bite from the apple of knowledge (at the
expense of innocence).
According to semiotician Charles Sanders Peirce, signs relate to objects in one of
three ways: They can resemble objects, connect to them, or tie to them conventionally. An
icon is a sign that resembles the product in some way (e.g., the Ford Mustang has a galloping horse on the hood). An index is a sign that connects to a product because they share
some property (e.g., the pine tree on some of Procter & Gamble’s Spic and Span cleanser
products conveys the shared property of fresh scent). A symbol is a sign that relates to
a product by either conventional or agreed-on associations (e.g., the Rock of Gibraltar
that is part of Prudential’s logo provides the conventional association with stability and
strength that it carries [or hopes to carry] over to the company’s approach to insurance).96
A lot of time, thought, and money go into creating brand names and logos that
clearly communicate a product’s image (even when a name like Exxon is generated
by a computer!). Starbucks removed the words Starbucks Coffee as it introduced a
new logo that features only the famous mermaid character. The CEO explained this
change means the company is thinking “beyond coffee.”97

80

Section 2 • Making Sense of the World

OBJECT (BRAND):
Nike Classic Cortez

Buying, Having, Being
What Does Your Emoji Say
about You?
The small digital icons we call emojis
allow the sender to express feelings
using a semiotic shorthand. Because
they are visual, they allow us to
communicate with those who don’t
speak our language. Many of us use
Bitmoji or Snapchat software to craft
our own versions. By one estimate,
we send over six billion every day!
Remember, these symbols are interpreted in the minds of the beholder.
So sometimes the message gets
interpreted in unanticipated ways.
Emojis are so prominent
and easy to use that marketing
researchers are even using them
in their questionnaires instead of
traditional words that describe an
emotion.98

INTERPRETANT (MEANING):
Chicano Streetwear,
resilience

SIGN:
Swoosh

Figure 3.3 Semiotic Relationships

Source: Sean Saldana, “An oral history of the Nike Cortez, 50 years after its release”.

Source: M_Videous/Shutterstock.

Marketers are getting in on the
act as well. There is even an emoji
for “safe sex”—a tiny condom that
the manufacturer Durex launched.
A campaign to persuade the organization that sets standards for emojis
has prompted more than 210 million
mentions on Twitter. Coca-Cola,
PepsiCo, Anheuser-Busch InBev,
Starbucks, Disney, and more than a
dozen other companies have each
paid Twitter more than $1 million
for designs combined with various kinds of ads. During a recent
Super Bowl, people who used the
hashtag #PepsiHalftime got a reply
that included a soda can emoji with
musical notes floating out from it.
Domino’s Pizza lets people order a
pie by tweeting a pizza slice emoji.
IHOP Restaurants even redesigned
its logo in the emoji style. But
you can take it too far: Chevrolet
confused many people when the
company sent out a news release
written entirely in emojis.99

Semiotics helps us to understand relations among a product like Nike footwear, unique
elements or signs like the Nike swoosh, and abstract meanings like “resilience.”
Source: Albo/Shutterstock.

OBJECTIVE 3-4
Describe how
consumers play
an active role in
shaping brand
meanings.

Who Owns Brand Meanings?

So, we know that we often interpret a product stimulus considering what we’ve learned about a product category and
the characteristics of existing brands. Brand managers work
hard to shape consumers’ perceptions of their brand by carefully selecting a brand’s functional attributes (e.g., its features, its price, and so on)
and by carefully selecting the symbolic associations they would like consumers to
make (the images and words used in their ads, the design of the brand’s website, etc.).

Marketers Position Brands
When a marketer understands how consumers think about a set of competing brands,
it can use these insights to develop a positioning strategy, which is a fundamental
component of a company’s marketing efforts as it uses elements of the marketing mix

Chapter 3 • Perceiving and Making Meaning

81

(i.e., product design, price, distribution, and marketing communications) to influence
consumers’ interpretation of its meaning in the marketplace relative to its competitors.
For example, although consumers’ preferences for the taste of one product over another
are important, this functional attribute is only one component of product evaluation.
Marketers can use many dimensions to carve out a brand’s position in the marketplace. These include:100

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Lifestyle. Hairbrella designed a whole line of hair protection products, from sleep
caps to rain hats.
Price leadership. L’Oréal sells its Noisôme brand face cream in upscale beauty
shops, whereas its Plenitude brand is available for one-sixth the price in discount
stores—even though both are based on the same chemical formula.101
Attributes. Bounty paper towels are “the quicker picker-upper.”
Product class. The Tesla is an all-electric car.
Competitors. NJM Insurance is the “no jingles or mascots” company.
Occasions. Wrigley’s gum is an alternative at times when smoking is not permitted.
Users. Levi’s Dockers target men in their 20s to 40s.
Quality. At Ford, “Quality is job 1.”
Country of origin. Jeep, Coca-Cola, and Levi’s are American brands.

But Ultimately Brand Meanings Live in
Consumers’ Minds
We’ll look more closely at issues such as brand image in later chapters, but for now it’s
important to keep in mind that customers are not just buying a product or service; they
are buying a story. And this meaning-making may have more to do with what consumers
do with the brand than what a brand communicates by its color, packaging, or styling.
Indeed, to quote Intuit’s co-founder Scott Cook: “A brand is no longer what we (the companies) tell the consumer it is. It is what consumers tell each other it is.” The meaning of
brands lives in consumers’ minds. It is reflected in what they do and say about the brand.
And consumers are increasingly comfortable with owning the brand: They use
brands to communicate their personal identity or to connect with other kindred spirits
to share their love (or hate) for what marketers sell.102 Social media make it all the
easier for consumers to express what they think about the brand, whether good or bad,
and these consumer-generated messages about the brand are even more powerful and
influential than the ones marketers are sending.103
A recent comprehensive review of consumer research on branding concludes
that consumers’ constant contestations of brand meanings—where they question and
modify what the product or service symbolizes—are a source of strength and even of
antifragility, the ability to grow when faced with stressors.104 Consumers’ active role
in shaping brand meanings keeps brands alive and dynamic.

CHAPTER SUMMARY
Now that you have finished reading this chapter, you should
be able to:
1. Explain how consumer behavior is often shaped
by sensory appeals that are often unnoticed.
Marketing stimuli have important sensory qualities.
We rely on colors, odors, sounds, tastes, and even

the “feel” of products when we evaluate them. Not
all sensations successfully make their way through
the perceptual process. Many stimuli compete for our
attention, and we don’t notice or accurately interpret
most of them.

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Section 2 • Making Sense of the World

2. Outline the three-stage process of perception
that translates raw stimuli into meaning.
Perception is the process by which physical sensations,
such as sights, sounds, and smells, are selected, organized, and interpreted. The eventual interpretation of a
stimulus allows it to be assigned meaning. A perceptual
map is a widely used marketing tool that evaluates the
relative standing of competing brands along relevant
dimensions.
Although evidence that subliminal persuasion is
effective is virtually nonexistent, many consumers continue to believe that advertisers use this technique. Some
of the factors that determine which stimuli (above the
threshold level) do get perceived include the amount
of exposure to the stimulus, how much attention it
generates, and how it is interpreted. In an increasingly
crowded stimulus environment, advertising clutter
occurs when too many marketing-related messages
compete for attention.
We don’t attend to a stimulus in isolation. We classify and organize it according to principles of perceptual organization. A Gestalt, or overall pattern, guides
these principles. Specific grouping principles include
closure, similarity, and figure-ground relationships. The
final step in the process of perception is interpretation.
Symbols help us make sense of the world by providing

us with an interpretation of a stimulus that others often
share. The degree to which the symbolism is consistent
with our previous experience affects the meaning we
assign to related objects.
3. Discuss how the field of semiotics helps us
understand how consumers create meaning out
of symbols.
A semiotic analysis involves the correspondence
between stimuli and the meaning of signs. The intended
meaning may be literal (e.g., an icon such as a street sign
with a picture of children playing). Or it may be indexical if it relies on shared characteristics (e.g., the red in a
stop sign means danger). Meaning also can be conveyed
by a symbol in which an image is given meaning by
convention or by agreement of members of a society
(e.g., stop signs are octagonal, whereas yield signs are
triangular).
4. Describe how consumers play an active role in
shaping brand meanings.
Marketers try to communicate meanings about their
brands by positioning their products or services with
cues that they hope consumers will interpret in the
intended manner. But ultimately meanings reside in
consumers’ minds, so brand meanings take a life of their
own in the market.

KEY TERMS
Absolute threshold, 70
Adaptation, 76
Aesthetic bias, 64
Antifragility, 81
Attention, 73
Augmented reality (AR), 68
Brain drain, 73
Closure principle, 78
Color forecasts, 64
Color palette, 63
Contamination effect, 67
Contestations, 81
Contrast, 75
cross-modal effect, 65
Differential threshold, 70
Emojis, 80
Endowment effect, 66
Exposure, 70
Eyeball economy, 73
Figure-ground principle, 78
Gastrophysics, 68

Gestalt, 78
Haptic, 66
Hedonic escalation, 68
Illuminance, 62
Index, 79
Inferences, 77
Interpretant, 79
Just noticeable difference (j.n.d), 70
Kansei engineering, 67
Location, 63
Materiality, 63
Metacognitive inference, 74
Multiscreening, 74
Multitasking, 74
Natural user interface, 66
Need for touch (NFT), 66
Object, 79
Perception, 62
Perceptual selection, 75
Pitch-size effect, 65
Positioning strategy, 80

Pre-attentive processing, 73
Psychological ownership, 66
Psychophysics, 70
Relational processing, 77
Rich media, 74
Schema, 76
Semiotics, 79
Sensation, 61
Sensory marketing, 62
Sensory overload, 73
Sensory threshold, 70
Shape, 62
Shrinkflation, 72
Sign, 79
Similarity principle, 78
Sound symbolism, 65
Subliminal perception, 72
Surface color, 63
Symbol, 79
Vestibular system, 68
Weber’s Law, 71

Chapter 3 • Perceiving and Making Meaning

83

REVIEW
3-1 How does the sense of touch influence consumers’
reactions to products?

3-7 List the three semiotic components of a marketing
message, giving an example of each.

3-2 Identify and describe the three stages of perception.

3-4 Does subliminal perception work? Why or why not?

3-8 What do we mean by the concept of augmented reality? Give an example that is not discussed in the
chapter. How does this concept differ from virtual
reality?

3-5 Describe two factors that can lead to stimulus
adaptation.

3-9 What is a positioning strategy? What are some ways
marketers can position their products?

3-6 “The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.”
Explain this statement.

3-10 “Brand meanings live in the minds of consumers.”
Explain this statement.

3-3 What is the difference between an absolute threshold
and a differential threshold?

CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CHALLENGE
DISCUSS

3-11 The slogan for the movie Godzilla was “Size does
matter.” Should this be the slogan for the United
States as well? Many marketers seem to believe so.
The average serving size for a fountain drink has gone
from 12 ounces to 20 ounces. An industry consultant
explains that the 32-ounce Big Gulp is so popular
because “people like something large in their hands.
The larger the better.” Some cities (most notably New
York) have tried to ban sales of sugary drinks greater
than 24 ounces but so far unsuccessfully.105 Hardee’s
Monster Burger, complete with two beef patties and
five pieces of bacon, weighs in at 63 grams of fat and
more than 1,000 calories. The standard for TV sets
used to be 19 inches; now it’s 32 inches and growing.
Hulking sport utility vehicles (SUVs) have replaced
tiny sports cars as the status vehicle of the new millennium. What’s up with our fascination with bigness? Is

this a uniquely U.S. preference? Do you believe that
“bigger is better”? Is this a sound marketing strategy?
3-12 Augmented reality applications may reach the level
of sophistication where we observe almost everything
through the screen of our smartphones to receive an
“enhanced” experience. Do you view this as a positive development or a problem?
3-13 The chapter notes that marketers may elect to shrink
the amount of product it sells and maintain the same
price rather than raise the price. Is this ethical?
3-14 Define a schema and provide an example of how this
concept is relevant to marketing.
3-15 Many studies have shown that our sensory detection
abilities decline as we grow older. Discuss the implications of the absolute threshold for marketers who
want to appeal to the older consumer.

APPLY

3-16 Interview three to five friends about their perceptions
of energy drinks. Construct a perceptual map for each
set of products. Based on your map of energy drinks,
do you see any areas that are not adequately served
by current offerings?
3-17 Using magazines archived in the library (or available
online), track the packaging of a specific brand over
time. Find an example of gradual changes in package
design that may have been below the j.n.d.
3-18 Visit a set of websites for one type of product (e.g.,
personal computers, perfumes, laundry detergents,
or athletic shoes) and analyze the colors and other
design principles they employ. Which sites “work”

and which don’t? Why? Look through a current magazine and select one ad that captures your attention
over the others. Explain why this ad attracts you.
3-19 Find ads that use the techniques of contrast and
novelty. Give your opinion of the effectiveness of
each ad and whether the technique is likely to be
appropriate for the consumers the ad targets.
3-20 Assume that you are a consultant for a marketer
who wants to design a package for a new premium
chocolate bar targeted to an affluent market. What
recommendations would you provide in terms of such
package elements as color, symbolism, and graphic
design? Give the reasons for your suggestions.

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Section 2 • Making Sense of the World

DIGGING IN WITH DATA

See “Data Case 1: Analyzing the Athletic Shoe Market” in Appendix A for an opportunity to work with real consumer
data and apply this chapter’s concepts to real world problems.

CASE STUDY

The Metaverse Is Marketing’s Brave New World

Neal Stephenson’s 1992 dystopian novel Snow Crash
envisioned a place where people use virtual reality (VR)
headsets to interact in an online world, a place he called the
metaverse.106 With advancements in computing, artificial
intelligence, and VR headset technology, this science fiction
realm is becoming a reality (at least a virtual one) and some
adventurous marketers are finding ways to advertise, sell, and
build their brands in this new virtual world.
The metaverse refers to virtual worlds that allow users
to play games and participate in events using a digital persona known as an avatar.107 In its current manifestation, the
metaverse is not a single connected/interoperable universe
but rather several separate entities, each with its own set of
rules for access, membership, and monetization.108 Consulting firm McKinsey & Company predicts that the metaverse
will encompass five categories of daily activities: gaming,
fitness, socializing, remote learning, and commerce.109 It is
that last category that has motivated an array of companies
to stake a claim in the metaverse, including Nike, Wendy’s,
Ferrari, Forever 21, Vans, Gucci, and Chipotle.110
Chipotle is a good example of a company that participates in the metaverse in creative ways that mimic its IRL
(in real life) marketing.111 The fast food company bought real
estate on metaverse gaming platform Roblox and opened a
virtual restaurant designed to look like its location in Denver.
Gamers on Roblox who successfully rolled a virtual burrito
earned “Burrito Bucks” redeemable for real food at an IRL
Chipotle.112 That and another game attracted six million
unique users—many who signed up for Chipotle’s rewards
program.113 “This is a place we want to play,” said Chris
Brandt, chief marketing officer at Chipotle. This promotion
and this initiative that we have with Roblox . . . really blur
that line between the real world and the metaverse.”114
The merging of these two worlds (virtual and physical) is a major goal of metaverse marketing, but some
revenue opportunities are created exclusively within the
metaverse. Many of these come in the form of nonfungible
tokens (NFTs) that certify the ownership of digital art using
blockchain technology.115 Concert tickets have been sold
for events held in the metaverse with artists Alicia Keys,
Travis Scott, Future, and others performing as avatars of
themselves for adoring avatar fans who (via VR) can jump

onto the stage to dance with the band.116 These artists are
also happy to sell you concert “merch,” including clothing
for your avatar.117
NFT fashion is a major category in metaverse
marketing with retailers like Gap, which offered virtual
hoodies for your avatar at a price of $2 to $11.118 One of the
metaverse platforms, Decentraland, sponsored a Metaverse
Fashion Week, a four-day event covered by Vogue
magazine that featured brands such as Tommy Hilfiger,
Perry Ellis, Dolce & Gabbana, and Estée Lauder.119 Gucci
has jumped into this new world with Gucci Town, a virtual
concept store on the Roblox platform. 120 The company
recently hit a metaverse milestone when it sold a digital
version of a Gucci purse for more than it would sell for in
real life!121
The metaverse offers many advertising opportunities,
both for products sold in the metaverse and their IRL
counterparts. Virtual billboards can be constantly changing
and highly personalized, and they could allow virtual
customers to “enter” the billboard and find themselves in a
virtual store where they can try on clothing featured in the
ad.122 Less direct promotion is available through product
placement in VR games or other virtual entertainment. The
immersive experiences these platforms enable provide an
exciting new medium for brand storytelling, and ad agencies,
including MediaHub, Media.Monks, and Droga5, have set up
shop in the metaverse to assist.123
These brand stories are frequently told by influencers,
and a whole crop of virtual ones are ready to go to work
in the metaverse. Brands including Calvin Klein, Balmain,
and Samsung have partnered with existing computer-generated (CG) digital influencers and Prada has created its
own CG influencer named Candy. You may have heard
of Lil Miquela, a CG influencer with 3 million Instagram
followers.124 She welcomes you to her new metaverse
space, Villa M, stating, “It’s a place to learn, grow, and connect together on a deeper level. Can’t wait for everyone to
meet me there!”
What will consumer behavior be like in the metaverse?
The perceptual process (see Figure 3.1) is still at play, but
some sensory stimuli—like smells, tastes, and textures—
are no longer available, while others—like sights and

Chapter 3 • Perceiving and Making Meaning

sounds—are on virtual steroids, with new tools for getting
and holding attention. Evaluating product quality (one factor
in assessing the value of a brand) becomes more challenging
for products that do not exist in the physical world.125 The
anonymity the metaverse allows could facilitate the creation
of different consumer personas that may be more or less likely
to engage in status signaling (discussed in Chapter 13) or
other purchase behaviors that occur in the physical world.126
There is also the possibility that some consumers will prefer
the virtual world to the physical one, with implications not
only for social interaction in society but for engagement with
brands’ physical products.127
The future for metaverse marketing looks promising
with McKinsey & Company predicting global spending in
the metaverse could reach as high as $5 trillion by 2030.128
But experts in this new field caution that brands will have
to adapt to market successfully in this new virtual world.
“Just because you are an iconic brand in the physical world,
doesn’t mean it transfers over into the metaverse,” says Akash
Nigam, CEO and founder of avatar agency Genies. “Someone needs to reinvent your brand with the metaverse in mind.
These brands will ultimately start from scratch, reinvent their

85

digital goods in a more fantastical way, and exceed boundaries for what is feasible in the physical world.”129
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

CS 3-1 What marketing opportunities could exist for global
marketing in the metaverse? What potential obstacles
would have to be overcome to make global marketing
successful?
CS 3-2 The visual and auditory capabilities in the metaverse enable creativity but could also lead to sensory
overload. How can companies avoid this negative
phenomenon, particularly in a virtual environment
that is minimally under the control of any individual
marketer?
CS 3-3 Most brands in the metaverse will probably also exist
IRL (In Real Life). How can brands use metaverse
initiatives to increase sales of IRL products? What
steps should marketers take to ensure that metaverse
promotions do not damage the overall brand identity,
impacting IRL sales?

NOTES
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86

Section 2 • Making Sense of the World

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AList, February 26, 2022, https://www.alistdaily.com/digital/brands-enterthe-metaverse/.
109. Ann-Marie Alcántara and Patrick Coffee, “Metaverse Spending to Total $5
Trillion in 2030, McKinsey Predicts,” Wall Street Journal (Eastern Ed.), June
15, 2022, https://www.wsj.com/articles/metaverse-spending-to-total-5-trillionin-2030-mckinsey-predicts-11655254794?mod=flipboard.
110. Geri Mileva, “20 Brands Leaping into the Metaverse,” Influencer Marketing
Hub, April 21, 2022, https://influencermarketinghub.com/metaverse-brands/;
Ann-Marie Alcántara and Patrick Coffee, “Metaverse Spending to Total
$5 Trillion in 2030, McKinsey Predicts,” Wall Street Journal (Eastern Ed.),
June 15, 2022, https://www.wsj.com/articles/metaverse-spending-to-total5-trillion-in-2030-mckinsey-predicts-11655254794?mod=flipboard.
111. “What the Metaverse Means for Brands and Branding,” Advertising Week,
March 24, 2022, https://advertisingweek.com/what-the-metaverse-means-forbrands-and-branding/.
112. Ann-Marie Alcántara, “Restaurants’ Virtual Stores Test Consumers’ Appetite
for Metaverse Marketing,” Wall Street Journal (Eastern Ed.), April 5, 2022,
https://www.wsj.com/articles/restaurants-virtual-stores-test-consumersappetite-for-metaverse-marketing-11649160001.
113. Ann-Marie Alcántara and Patrick Coffee, “Metaverse Spending to Total
$5 Trillion in 2030, McKinsey Predicts,” Wall Street Journal (Eastern Ed.),
June 15, 2022, https://www.wsj.com/articles/metaverse-spending-to-total5-trillion-in-2030-mckinsey-predicts-11655254794?mod=flipboard.
114. Ann-Marie Alcántara, “Restaurants’ Virtual Stores Test Consumers’ Appetite
for Metaverse Marketing,” Wall Street Journal (Eastern Ed.), April 5, 2022,
https://www.wsj.com/articles/restaurants-virtual-stores-test-consumersappetite-for-metaverse-marketing-11649160001.
115. “Metaverse Marketing—Everything Brands Need to Know about Virtual
Worlds,” Ad Age, January 20, 2022, https://adage.com/article/digital-marketingad-tech-news/metaverse-faq-marketing-everything-brands-need-know-aboutvirtual-worlds/2394221.
116. Elias Ahonen, “Concerts in the Metaverse Could Lead to a New Wave of
Adoption,” Cointelegraph Magazine, December 27, 2021, https://cointele
graph.com/magazine/2021/12/27/vr-animal-concerts-metaverse-lead-nextwave-crypto-adoption.
117. Ralph Rozema, “How Virtual Concerts in the Metaverse Can Inspire Brands,”
Candid, accessed July 10, 2022, https://www.candidplatform.com/en/news/
platform-news/all-platform-news/marketing/how-virtual-concerts-in-the-­
metaverse-can-inspire-brands.html.
118. Kristi Waterworth, “6 Businesses That Have Bought Land in the Metaverse.” Nasdaq, accessed July 10, 2022, https://www.nasdaq.com/
articles/6-businesses-that-have-bought-land-in-the-metaverse.
119. Ann-Marie Alcántara, “Marketers Explore Metaverse Worlds,” Wall Street
Journal (Eastern Ed.), March 2, 2022, https://www.wsj.com/articles/
marketers-explore-metaverse-worlds-11646218800.
120. Webb Wright, “5 Brands Winning in the Metaverse,” The Drum, June 1, 2022,
https://www.thedrum.com/news/2022/06/01/5-brands-winning-the-metaverse.
121. “What Brands Should Know about the Metaverse,” Ad Age, August 2,
2021, https://adage.com/article/digital-marketing-ad-tech-news/
what-brands-should-know-about-metaverse/2354506.
122. Ben Plomion, “A Giant Leap for Advertising Kind: How the Metaverse Could
Lead to a Next-Gen Brand Experience,” Forbes, May 16, 2022, https://www
.forbes.com/sites/forbescommunicationscouncil/2022/05/16/a-giant-leapfor-advertising-kind-how-the-metaverse-could-lead-to-a-next-gen-brandexperience/.
123. “Advertising in the Metaverse Explained: It’s a Jungle out There,” XR Today,
December 31, 2021, https://www.xrtoday.com/virtual-reality/advertisingin-the-metaverse-explained-its-a-jungle-out-there/; Asa Hiken, “Metaverse
Marketing—Everything Brands Need to Know about Virtual Worlds,”
Ad Age, January 20, 2022, https://adage.com/article/digital-marketing-ad-technews/metaverse-faq-marketing-everything-brands-need-know-about-virtualworlds/2394221.

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124. Tomas Oscar Andrén, “How Influencer Marketing Will Change in the Metaverse,”
Forbes, June 6, 2022, https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbesagencycouncil/
2022/06/06/how-influencer-marketing-will-change-in-the-metaverse/.
125. Advertising Week, “What the Metaverse Means for Brands and Branding,” Advertising Week, March 24, 2022, https://advertisingweek.com/
what-the-metaverse-means-for-brands-and-branding/.
126. Chris Butler, “Identity Problems Get Bigger in the Metaverse,” O’Reilly
Media, March 15, 2022, https://www.oreilly.com/radar/identity-problemsget-bigger-in-the-metaverse/; “What the Metaverse Means for Brands and
Branding,” Advertising Week, March 24, 2022, https://advertisingweek.com/
what-the-metaverse-means-for-brands-and-branding/.

127. Sarah E. Needleman, “The Amazing Things You’ll Do in the ‘Metaverse’ and
What It Will Take to Get There,” Wall Street Journal (Eastern Ed.), October
16, 2021, https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-amazing-things-youll-do-in-themetaverse-and-what-it-will-take-to-get-there-11634396401.
128. Ann-Marie Alcántara and Patrick Coffee, “Metaverse Spending to Total
$5 Trillion in 2030, McKinsey Predicts,” Wall Street Journal (Eastern Ed.),
June 15, 2022, https://www.wsj.com/articles/metaverse-spending-to-total5-trillion-in-2030-mckinsey-predicts-11655254794?mod=flipboard.
129. “What Brands Should Know about the Metaverse,” Ad Age, August
2, 2021, https://adage.com/article/digital-marketing-ad-tech-news/
what-brands-should-know-about-metaverse/2354506.

4

Learning, Remembering,
and Knowing
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES When you finish reading this chapter, you should be able to:
4-1 Describe how conditioning results in learning.
4-2 Summarize how we learn about products and
consumption practices by observing others’
behavior.

4-3 Explain how our brains process and store
information about brands in our memory.
4-4 Discuss how knowledge about brands is organized
in our brains.

A

h, Sunday morning! The sun is shining, the birds are singing, and Joe is feeling
groovy! He puts on his vintage Levi’s 501 jeans (circa 1968) and his Beatles
T-shirt and saunters down to the kitchen. He’s just returned from his college
reunion. Just being back at his old campus haunts brought up tons of memories. When
he walked into the familiar business school lobby, he found that he was able to remember
names of former classmates, a few professors, and even some of the classes he took so
many years ago as if it was yesterday. Time to hit Facebook to follow up on some of the
old classmates he saw at the party—for sure his old posse hasn’t discovered Instagram
(much less TikTok) quite yet! Joe cranks up the Lava Lamp, throws a Grateful Dead
record on the turntable (ah, the sublime joys of vinyl), and sits back on his Barcalounger
as he clutches a huge bowl filled to the brim with his all-time favorite cereal, Cap’n
Crunch. He reaches for his laptop—let the memories begin!
OBJECTIVE 4-1
Describe how
conditioning results
in learning.

How Do We Learn?

Learning refers to the acquisition of information, behaviors,
or abilities. Learning can happen through direct experience
but also by observing others.1 And it can happen passively or
actively. We learn even when we don’t try: We recognize many brand names and hum
many product jingles, for example, even for products we don’t personally use. We call
this casual, unintentional acquisition of knowledge incidental learning.
Learning is an ongoing process. Our knowledge about the world constantly updates
as we are exposed to new stimuli and as we receive ongoing feedback that allows us to
modify our behavior when we find ourselves in similar situations later. The concept of
learning covers a lot of ground, ranging from a consumer’s simple association between
a stimulus, such as a product logo (e.g., Lululemon), and a response (e.g., “being
comfortable and stylish”) to a complex series of cognitive activities (e.g., writing an
essay on learning for a consumer behavior exam).
Psychologists who study learning advance several theories to explain the learning process. These theories range from those that focus on simple stimulus–response connections

Source: David South/Alamy Stock Photo

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(behavioral theories) to perspectives that regard learning as a set of internal mental
­processes that acquire and construct knowledge from observing what others say and
do (cognitive theories). It’s important for marketers to understand these theories as well
because basic learning principles are at the heart of many consumer purchase decisions.

Behavioral Learning Theories
Behavioral learning theories assume that learning takes place as the result of
responses to external events. Psychologists who subscribe to this viewpoint do not
focus on internal thought processes. Instead, they approach the mind as a “black box”
and emphasize the observable aspects of behavior. The observable aspects consist of
things that go into the box (the stimuli or events perceived from the outside world) and
things that come out of the box (the responses, or reactions to these stimuli).
Two major approaches to learning represent this view: classical conditioning and
instrumental conditioning. According to the behavioral learning perspective, the feedback we receive as we go through life shapes our experiences. Similarly, we respond
to brand names, scents, jingles, and other marketing stimuli because of the learned
connections we form over time. People also learn that actions they take result in
rewards and punishments; this feedback influences the way they will respond in similar
situations in the future. Consumers who receive compliments on a product choice will
be more likely to buy that brand again, whereas those who get food poisoning at a new
restaurant are not likely to patronize that restaurant in the future.

Classical Conditioning
As you can see in Figure 4.1, classical conditioning occurs when a stimulus that elicits
a response is paired with another stimulus that initially does not elicit a response on its
own. Over time, this second stimulus causes a similar response because we associate
it with the first stimulus. Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist who conducted research
on digestion in animals, first demonstrated this phenomenon in dogs. Pavlov induced
classically conditioned learning when he paired a neutral stimulus (a bell) with a
BEFORE CONDITIONING

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Unconditioned response (UCR)

Neutral stimulus

DURING CONDITIONING

Repeated exposures

Unconditioned response (UCR)

Figure 4.1 How Classical Conditioning Works

No response

AFTER CONDITIONING

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Source: Designs Stock/Shutterstock; William Perugini/Shutterstock; Alexander Lysenko/Shutterstock.

Conditioned response (CR)

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91

stimulus known to cause a salivation response in dogs (he squirted dried meat powder
into their mouths). The powder was an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) because it was
naturally capable of causing the response. Over time, the bell became a conditioned
stimulus (CS); it did not initially cause salivation, but the dogs learned to associate
the bell with the meat powder and began to salivate at the sound of the bell only. The
drooling of these canine consumers because of a sound, now linked to feeding time,
was a conditioned response (CR).
This basic form of classical conditioning that Pavlov demonstrated primarily
applies to responses to visual and olfactory cues that induce hunger, thirst, sexual
arousal, and other basic drives. When marketers consistently pair these cues with
conditioned stimuli, such as brand names, consumers may learn to feel hungry, thirsty,
or aroused when they encounter these brand cues at a later point.
Recent developments in conditioning research show that
learning is even more effective through evaluative conditioning.2 Instead of associating the UCS with a single activating stimulus, the UCS is paired with a series of different
stimuli that all trigger the same type of emotional response.
For instance, a study showed that pairing a Belgian beer with
a series of images of people having fun across several activities such as skiing led to stronger and longer lasting conditioning effects: The participants believed the beer was also
more fun when they encountered it in these situations.
Conditioning effects are more likely to occur after the
conditioned (CS) and unconditioned (UCS) stimuli have been
paired a number of times.3 Repeated exposures—repetition—
increase the strength of stimulus–response associations and
prevent the decay of these associations in memory. Some
Apple does a great job of placing its brands in the hands of
research indicates that the intervals between exposures may
likeable characters in TV shows and movies. In this scene from the
influence the effectiveness of this strategy as well as the type of
popular TV show, Superstore, you can clearly see the company’s
medium the marketer uses; the most effective repetition stratbrand logo on the product.
Source: Trae Patton/©NBC/Courtesy Everett Collection
egy is a combination of spaced exposures that alternate in terms
of media that are more and less involving, such as television
advertising complemented by print media.4
And it turns out that due to the process of evaluative
conditioning, a marketer can associate a brand with a diverse
set of images or associations that all trigger the same emotional
reaction. This is also a great way to create longer-lasting
associations. For instance, if you want people to associate a brand
with warm feelings, you might feature puppies in one ad, a cozy
fire in a log cabin in a different ad, and a laughing baby in another
ad. In this way, people associate your brand with “warm fuzzy
feelings” rather than just “cute puppies” or “laughing babies.”
Many classic advertising campaigns consist of product
slogans that companies repeat so often they are etched in consumers’ minds. Conditioning will not occur or will take longer if the CS is only occasionally paired with the UCS. One
result of this lack of association is extinction, which happens
when the effects of prior conditioning diminish and finally
disappear. This can occur when a product is overexposed in
the marketplace so that its original allure is lost.
The Izod Lacoste polo shirt, with its distinctive crocodile crest,
The Izod Lacoste polo shirt, with its distinctive crocodile
rescued itself from extinction.
Source: Edward Berthelot /Contributor
crest, is a good example. When the once-exclusive crocodile

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started to appear on baby clothes and many other items, it lost its cachet. Other contenders, such as the Ralph Lauren polo player, successfully challenged it as a symbol
of casual elegance. Now that Izod is being more careful about where its logo appears,
the brand is starting to regain its “cool” in some circles.

Marketing Applications of Classical
Conditioning Principles
Behavioral learning principles apply to many consumer phenomena, such as when a
marketer creates a distinctive brand image or links a product to an underlying need.
The transfer of meaning from an unconditioned stimulus to a conditioned stimulus
explains why “made-up” brand names, such as Marlboro, Coca-Cola, or Adidas, exert
such powerful effects on consumers. The association between the Marlboro man and
the cigarette is so strong that in some cases the company no longer even bothers to
include the brand name in its ads that feature the cowboy riding off into the sunset.
Indeed, recent research shows that these linkages cement early on; scans of children
show how the pleasure and appetite centers of their brains light up when they view
fast-food-company advertising images such as the McDonald’s logo.5
When researchers pair nonsense syllables (meaningless sets of letters) with such
evaluative words as beauty or success, the meaning transfers to the fake words. This
change in the symbolic significance of initially meaningless words shows that simple
associations can condition even complex meanings, and the learning that results can
last a long time.6 These associations are crucial to many marketing strategies that rely
on the creation and perpetuation of brand equity, in which a brand has strong positive associations in a consumer’s memory and commands a lot of loyalty as a result.7

Marketing Applications of Repetition

Wear-out and weariness are not only an issue for marketers but also for
public health practitioners who often rely on warnings: The more people are
exposed to warnings, the less they pay attention to them. One solution is
to create variations of the same basic message. A large study of warnings
on cigarette packaging conducted across 10 European countries found that
wear-out was not as strong when the warnings combined texts and pictures
compared to text-only warnings.10 Based on those findings, it’s probably a
good idea to regularly change the images we use in such warnings to help
reduce wear-out and keep the warnings effective.
Source: Kim Steele/Alamy Stock Photo

One advertising researcher argued that any more
than three exposures to a marketing communication are wasted. The first exposure creates awareness of the product, the second demonstrates its
relevance to the consumer, and the third reminds
them of the product’s benefits.8 However, even this
bare-bones approach implies that we need repetition
to ensure that the consumer sees or hears (and processes) the message at least three times. As we’ve
seen, this exposure is by no means guaranteed,
because people tend to tune out or distort many
marketing communications. Marketers who attempt
to condition an association must ensure that the consumers they target will be exposed to the stimulus
enough times to make it “stick.” A study that scrutinized the large body of research on advertising
repetition found that recall of a message increases
linearly with every exposure but levels off after eight
exposures.9
However, it is possible to have too much of a
good thing. Consumers can become so used to hearing or seeing a marketing stimulus that they no longer pay attention to it, a problem we call advertising
wear-out. And it gets worse: Too much exposure to
the same message can create advertising weariness,

Chapter 4 • Learning, Remembering, and Knowing

93

where consumers react even more negatively to the repeated message and become less
interested in the brand being advertised. A study of digital advertising for a financial service provider that examined nearly one million exposures across ten thousand
internet users found that a quarter of consumers showed weariness: They visited the
advertised website less often the more they were exposed to the ad.11 Overkill!

Marketing Applications of Classical Conditioning
Principles: The Halo Effect at Work
Advertisements often pair a product with a positive stimulus to create a desirable association. Various aspects of a marketing message, such as music, humor, or imagery,
can affect conditioning. In a classic study, subjects who viewed a slide of pens paired
with either pleasant or unpleasant music were more likely later to select the pen that
appeared with the pleasant music.12 Think about how you feel when you hear a text
coming on your Slack channel or the buzz of your phone when a message drops.

Burt’s Bees established a positive
reputation in categories like skincare
and lip balms, which then allowed the
company to offer other variations.
Source: Retro AdArchives /Alamy Stock Photo

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Section 2 • Making Sense of the World

But there’s another important reason for the
importance of classical conditioning in marketing:
Stimulus generalization refers to the tendency
of stimuli similar to a CS to evoke similar, conditioned responses. For example, Pavlov noticed in
subsequent studies that his dogs would sometimes
salivate when they heard noises that only vaguely
resembled a bell, such as keys jangling. People also
react to other, similar stimuli in much the same way
they responded to the original stimulus; we call this
generalization a halo effect.
Strategies that marketers base on stimulus generalization include:
Family branding—Many products capitalize
Bentley is among many luxury carmakers that successfully licenses its name
on
the
reputation of a company name. Companies
in other product categories.13
such as Campbell’s, Heinz, and General Electric
Source: Courtesy of Bentley Motors Limited.
rely on their positive corporate images to sell a
variety of product lines. On the other hand, this
strategy can come back to bite you if one of your operating
units hits a bump in the road (one of the reasons that Facebook changed its corporate name to Meta).14
Product line extension—Marketers add related products
to an established brand. Dole, which we associate with fruit,
introduced refrigerated juices and juice bars, whereas Sun
Maid went from raisins to raisin bread.
Licensing—Companies often “rent” well-known names,
hoping that the learned associations they have forged will
“rub off” onto other kinds of products. Zippo Manufacturing
Co., long known for its “windproof” cigarette lighters,
markets a men’s fragrance—and no, it doesn’t smell like
lighter fluid.15 The National Football League puts team logos
on, well, just about everything.16 Bentley lends its name to
We clearly appreciate the value of a halo effect when we look
colognes, furniture, skis, handbags, and even a hotel suite
at universities with winning sports teams: Loyal fans snap up
that costs $10,500 a night at the St. Regis hotel in New York.
merchandise, from clothing to bathroom accessories, emblazoned
The Ferrari prancing horse logo pops up on chess sets, Tod’s
with the school’s name.
loafers, and Oakley sunglasses.17
Source: Justin Sullivan /Getty Images
Look-Alike Packaging—Distinctive packaging designs create strong associations
with a particular brand. Companies that make generic or private-label brands and want
to communicate a quality image often exploit this linkage with look-alike packaging,
or putting their products in packages like those of popular brands.18 A drugstore’s
bottle of private-brand mouthwash that is deliberately packaged to resemble Listerine
mouthwash may evoke a similar response among consumers, who assume that this
“me-too” product shares other characteristics of the original. Indeed, consumers in
one study of shampoo brands tended to rate those with similar packages as similar
in quality and performance as well.19
How does this strategy affect consumers’ perceptions of the original brand? In
general, copying actually helps the copycat brand, as long as the imitator doesn’t
make grandiose claims that it can’t fulfill.20 Consumers also find it less unfair and
more acceptable when the copycat brand imitates another brand’s theme (like the
freshness of Alpine milk theme in the Milka chocolate brand) rather than the brand’s

Chapter 4 • Learning, Remembering, and Knowing

perceptual features (like the lilac color scheme of the Milka brand or the Starbucks
mermaid design).21 This “piggybacking” strategy can cut both ways: When the quality
of the me-too product turns out to be lower than that of the original brand, consumers
may exhibit even more positive feelings toward the original. However, if they perceive the quality of the two competitors to be about equal, consumers may conclude
that the price premium they pay for the original is not worth it.22

Consumer Confusion
Of course, this strategy can make a lot of work for lawyers if the copycat brand
gets too close to the original. Marketers of distinctive brands work hard to protect
their designs and logos, and each year companies file numerous lawsuits in so-called
Lanham Act cases that hinge on the issue of consumer confusion: How likely is
it that one company’s logo, product design, or package is so similar to another that
the typical shopper would mistake one for the other? Levi Strauss has sued almost
100 other apparel manufacturers that it claims have borrowed its trademark pocket
design of a pentagon surrounding a drawing of a seagull in flight or its distinctive
tab that it sews into its garments’ vertical seams.23 Recently, a theme park called
Evermore in Utah sued singer Taylor Swift because she titled her 2020 album with
the same name.24
Companies with a well-established brand image can promote the unique attributes of their brand—hence the constant reminders for American Express Travelers
Cheques: “Ask for them by name.” However, a brand name that a firm uses so widely
that it is no longer distinctive becomes part of the public domain and competitors
are free to borrow it: Think of well-worn names such as aspirin, cellophane, yo-yo,
escalator, and even google (which started as a noun and is now also a verb). This
high degree of acceptance can be a tough barrier to jump when you’re a competitor:
Even though Lyft launched before Uber, it still lags in terms of brand awareness and
continues to work hard to become top of mind ahead of Uber when we need a ride.25

Instrumental Conditioning
Instrumental conditioning (or operant conditioning) occurs when we learn to
perform behaviors that produce positive outcomes and avoid those that yield negative
outcomes. We most closely associate this learning process with the psychologist
B. F. Skinner, who demonstrated the effects of instrumental conditioning by teaching
pigeons and other animals to dance and play Ping-Pong, when he systematically
rewarded them for desired behaviors.27
Whereas responses in classical conditioning are involuntary and simple, we make
those in instrumental conditioning deliberately to obtain a goal, and these may be
more complex. We may learn the desired behavior over a period of time as a shaping
process rewards our intermediate actions. For example, the owner of a new store
may award prizes to shoppers who simply drop in; she hopes that over time they will
continue to drop in and eventually even buy something.
Also, whereas classical conditioning involves the close pairing of two stimuli,
instrumental learning occurs when a learner receives a reward after they perform
the desired behavior. In these cases, learning takes place over time, while the learner
attempts and abandons other behaviors that don’t get reinforced. A good way to
remember the difference is to keep in mind that in instrumental learning the person
makes a response because it is instrumental to gain a reward or avoid a punishment.
Over time, consumers come to associate with people who reward them and to choose
products that make them feel good or satisfy some need.

95

Buying, Having, Being
Make Some Noise with
Tinder’s Sound Signature
Classical conditioning works so
well with sound that many brands
have embraced sonic branding,
the association of a sound with their
brand.26 How do you feel when
you hear the classic sound of your
HBO 2.0, or Netflix application?
Sonic branding is so popular that
marketing agencies are specializing
in creating sound signatures for
brands. The dating app Tinder, for
instance, got a new sonic signature
based on research to identify the
most appropriate sounds to capture
its three essential brand characteristics: its lighthearted and fun element (percussive and bright tones),
its surprise (quick tempo), and
its emphasis on fresh and young
(game-like feel). The combination of
those three sound elements created
Tinder’s new sonic signature. Now,
whenever you hear the sound, you
immediately feel the very sense of
excitement, fun, and surprise that
Tinder strategically associated with
“We have a match!”

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Section 2 • Making Sense of the World

Instrumental conditioning occurs in one of three ways:

Positive reinforcement occurs after consumers try new products
and like them.
Source: Adene Sanchez / E+/Getty Images

1. When the environment provides positive reinforcement
in the form of a reward, this strengthens the response, and
we learn the appropriate behavior. For example, a food
blogger who gets compliments after posting a new way of
saving leftover guacamole and keeping it fresh and tasty
(without turning yucky brown) will be more likely to post
about similar topics in the future.
2. Negative reinforcement also strengthens responses so
that we learn the appropriate behavior. A YouTuber who
gets a lot of thumbs down or negative comments to a video
post will quickly learn what not to upload.
3. In contrast to situations where we learn to do certain
things to avoid unpleasantness, punishment occurs
when unpleasant events follow a response (such as when
our friends ridicule us if we use an off-putting Zoom
background). We learn the hard way not to repeat these
behaviors.28

To help you understand the differences among these ­mechanisms, keep in mind
that reactions from a person’s e­ nvironment to their behavior can be either positive or
negative, and that marketers can either apply or remove these outcomes (or anticipated
outcomes).
That is, under conditions of both positive reinforcement and punishment, the
person receives a reaction when they do something. In contrast, negative reinforcement
occurs when the person avoids a negative outcome—the removal of something
negative is pleasurable and hence is rewarding.

REINFORCEMENT

PUNISHMENT

ADDING something

ADD something positive
to increase behavior.

ADD something negative
to decrease behavior.

REMOVING something

REMOVE something negative
to increase behavior.

REMOVE something positive
to decrease behavior.

Increase Behavior
Figure 4.2 Types of Reinforcement
Source: Matsabe/Shutterstock.

Decrease Behavior

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97

Finally, when a person no longer receives a positive outcome, extinction is likely to occur, and the learned ­stimulus–
response connection will not be maintained (as when the
YouTuber no longer receives thumbs up on their videos).
Thus, positive and negative reinforcement strengthen the
future linkage between a response and an outcome because
of the pleasant experience. This tie is weakened under
conditions of both punishment and extinction because of
the unpleasant experience. Figure 4.2 will help you to “reinforce” the relationships among these four conditions.

Marketing Applications of Instrumental
Conditioning Principles
Casino operators program slot machines to deliver rewards

Principles of instrumental conditioning are at work when a
on an unpredictable schedule to keep players interested.
marketer rewards or punishes a consumer for a purchase or
Source: massimofusaro/Shutterstock
consumption decision. For instance, grocery stores encourage
consumers to bring their own shopping bags by providing
monetary incentives to do so.
Marketers have many ways to reinforce consumers’ behaviors, ranging from a simple “thank you” after a purchase to substantial rebates and follow-up phone calls. The
continuous reinforcement of consumption can become problematic, however, when the
behavior that is consistently encouraged is maladaptive or unhealthy. For instance, recent
research has uncovered that many of the addictions we might develop to social media or
our technologies took root through a process of instrumental conditioning: The constant
sounds of messages popping up on our phone keep us grabbing for it; the continuous
flow of notifications of likes on a social media post fuel our need to check our feed.29

Loyalty programs are a popular way for marketers to apply instrumental conditioning, because they can reward customers for their purchases.
Source: Mironov Konstantin/Shutterstock

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Frequency marketing is a popular technique that rewards regular purchasers
with prizes that get better as they spend more. The airline industry pioneered this
instrumental learning strategy when it introduced “frequent flyer” programs in
the early 1980s to reward loyal customers. The practice has spread to many other
businesses as well, ranging from grocery stores to casinos.

OBJECTIVE 4-2
Summarize how
we learn about
products and
consumption
practices by
observing others’
behavior.

Cognitive Learning Theory

Unlike behavioral theories of learning, cognitive learning
theory approaches learning as a set of internal mental processes. This comprehensive theory was initially developed
to explain how humans gradually acquire, construct, and use
knowledge from what they observe around them.
An Ocean Spray commercial for diet cranberry juice
illustrates how marketers can harness their knowledge of cognitive theories to
tweak marketing messages. The spot features two cranberry growers, who stand
knee-deep in a bog. A group of people who are exercising joins them. Originally,
the ad depicted these individuals having a party, but a cognitive scientist who
worked on the campaign nixed that idea; she argued that the exercise class would
send the diet message more quickly, whereas the party scene would confuse viewers
who would spend too much time trying to figure out why the group was celebrating.
This extra cognitive activity would distract from the ad’s message. And, contrary
to standard practice in advertising that the actors name the product as early as
possible, she decided that the main characters should wait a few seconds before
they mention the new diet product. She reasoned that viewers would need a second
or so more time to process the images because of the additional action in the ad (the
exercising). In a test of which ads got remembered best, this new version scored
in the top 10 percent.30

Observational Learning
Observational learning occurs when we watch the actions of others and note the
reinforcements they receive for their behaviors. In these situations, learning occurs
because of vicarious rather than direct experience. This type of learning is a complex
process; people store these observations in memory as they accumulate knowledge,
and then they use this information at a later point to guide their own behavior.
Modeling (not the Paris runway kind) is the process of imitating the behavior of
others. Marketing campaigns have long relied on stories with aspirational characters
and immersive stories in their attempts to encourage audiences to model the consumption behaviors depicted in the stories. For instance, recent research shows that advertisements for health services, whether for therapy, exercise, or career advice, were
more impactful on their audience when the story in the ad featured characters who
were intrinsically motivated (doing things because they want to) rather than characters
who were extrinsically motivated (doing things because they feel pressure to): The
researchers argued that consumers could more easily identify with the intrinsically
motivated characters and this facilitated the modeling process.31
The modeling process is a powerful form of learning, and people’s tendencies to
imitate others’ behaviors can have negative effects. Given how much time we spend
on social media, it is not surprising that it is a huge source of modeling influences.
Indeed, doctors report a pronounced spike in young patients seeking treatment for
tics—apparently, they were modeling content from TikTok creators who say they

Chapter 4 • Learning, Remembering, and Knowing

have Tourette syndrome, a tic disorder that makes patients involuntarily curse and slap
themselves. These #tourettes videos have been viewed more than 5 billion times.32

How Kids Develop Cognitive Skills
Theory of mind is a cognitive skill that refers to knowing and being aware of one’s
own and of other people’s mental states: understanding what they think and feel.
For instance, we say children have developed a theory of mind if they figure out that
to get what they want they may need to behave a certain way (like whining to their
poor parents). This cognitive skill allows children to become better negotiators to get
things they want! Once children have developed theory of mind, they understand how
others’ minds work and this makes them better able to make sense of the marketing
environment as well.33
The Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget was the foremost proponent of the idea that
children pass through distinct stages of cognitive development. He believed that a
certain cognitive structure characterizes each stage as the child learns to process
information.34
In one classic demonstration of cognitive development, Piaget poured the contents
of a short, squat glass of lemonade into a taller, thinner glass that held the same
amount of liquid. Five-year-olds, who still believed that the shape of the glass determined its contents, thought this glass held more liquid than the first glass. They are
in what Piaget termed a preoperational stage of development. In contrast, 6-year-olds
tended to be unsure, and 7-year-olds knew the amount of lemonade had not changed.
A child’s ability to make mature, “adult” consumer decisions obviously increases
with age (not that grown-ups always make mature decisions!). Many developmental
specialists no longer believe that children necessarily pass through these fixed stages at
the same time. An alternative view proposes that they differ in information-processing
capability, or the ability to store and retrieve information from memory. Researchers
who advocate this approach identify three developmental stages:35
1. Limited—Children who are younger than age 6 do not employ storage-andretrieval strategies.
2. Cued—Children between the ages of 6 and 12 employ these strategies but only
when prompted to do so.
3. Strategic—Children 12 and older spontaneously employ storage-and-retrieval
strategies.
This sequence of development underscores the notion that children do not think
in the same way adults do, and we can’t expect them to use information the same way
either. It also reminds us that they do not necessarily form the same conclusions as do
adults when they encounter product information.36
Conceptual brand meanings, which specify the nonobservable abstract features of
the product, such as the status of owning an item, enter the picture in middle childhood
(about age 8); children incorporate them into their thinking and judgments a few years
later. By the time most children reach 12 years of age, they think about brands on a
conceptual or symbolic level, and they are likely to incorporate these meanings into
brand-related judgments.37 For example, a younger child might ask for a new pair of
Adidas shoes simply because they are familiar with the brand Adidas from seeing it in
a shop, in ads, or on their friends’ feet, while a more developed child is more likely to
ask for a new pair of Adidas because they have a deep sense of the brand’s symbolic
meaning and they are conscious of all the rich semiotic associations with the brand,
which we studied in Chapter 3.

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Buying, Having, Being
From Mindlessness to
Mindfulness
By now you have figured out that
a lot of what we learn is automatic.
Behavioral learning theorists emphasize the routine, automatic nature
of conditioning, and even some
proponents of cognitive learning
agree that some information is
processed in an automatic, passive
way, a condition that researchers call “mindlessness” (we’ve all
experienced that!).42
The counterpart to mindlessness
is mindfulness. Mindfulness training allows us to be more attentive to
what otherwise may have become
automatic associations. As such,
training ourselves to be more alert
and mindful can help us de-link
concepts and retrain our brain to
remove unwanted associations or
to create new ones. For instance,
mindfulness can help people
re-learn how to eat and how to
enjoy what they eat.43 Because
mindfulness can allow us to
change our daily consumption
routines, it can also lower the
negative environmental impacts
of overconsumption.44
Mindfulness is related to the
practice of meditation and encourages followers to slow down, tune
out distractions, and focus on what
they are feeling now.45 Ironically,
mindfulness has itself become an
industry. You can buy Mindful Lotus
tea, Mindful Meats, or Mindful Mints;
subscribe to one of the many mindfulness apps, like Headspace, to
follow guided exercises; or attend
some of the many seminars and
workshops available. Even athletes
have gotten into the game: The
Golden State Warriors, the Seattle
Seahawks, and the Boston Red
Sox practice mindfulness in their
locker rooms. A research company
estimates that meditation-related
businesses in the United States
alone generated almost $1 billion
in revenue. That’s a lot to meditate
about!

When millions of preschoolers tune in to Nickelodeon’s hit show Dora the Explorer, they
don’t realize that they view content based on multiple-intelligence theory. This influential
perspective argues for other types of intelligence, such as athletic prowess or musical ability,
beyond the traditional math and verbal skills psychologists use to measure IQ. Thus, when
Dora consults her map, she promotes “spatial” skills. And when she asks her young viewers
to help her count planks to build a bridge, Dora builds “interpersonal intelligence.”38
Source: Carolyn Jenkins/Alamy Stock Photo

Kids’ Message Comprehension
Because children differ in their abilities to process product-related information,
advertisers’ direct appeals to them raise many serious ethical issues.39 Children’s
advocacy groups argue that kids younger than age seven do not understand the persuasive intent of commercials, and (as we’ve seen) younger children cannot readily
distinguish between a commercial and programming. Kids’ cognitive defenses are
not yet sufficiently developed to filter out commercial appeals, so in a sense, altering
their brand preferences may be likened to “shooting fish in a barrel,” as one critic
put it.40
Beginning in the 1970s, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) took action to
protect children. The agency limited commercials during “children’s” programming
(most often Saturday morning television) and required “separators” to help children
discern when a program ended and a commercial began (e.g., “We’ll be right back
after these commercial messages”). The FTC reversed itself in the early 1980s during
the deregulatory, pro-business climate of Ronald Reagan’s administration. The 1990
Children’s Television Act restored some of these restrictions.
The Children’s Advertising Review Unit (“CARU”), a part of the Better Business
Bureau, issued revised guidelines for advertising to children that went into effect
in early 2022. CARU warns advertisers to “. . . not use unfair, deceptive, or other
manipulative tactics” aimed at pressuring children to view ads or make purchases
or to unknowingly engage with advertising from in-app or in-game advertisements.
The guidelines also address the growing influencer phenomenon in social media;
influencers should disclose any significant connections to brands they are endorsing
in language that children can understand.41

Chapter 4 • Learning, Remembering, and Knowing

Marketing Applications of Cognitive
Learning Principles
Our ability to learn vicariously when we observe the outcomes of what others do
makes the lives of marketers much easier. They don’t necessarily have to directly
reward or punish consumers when they make a purchase (think how expensive or
even ethically questionable that might be!). Instead, they can show what happens to
desirable models who use or do not use their products; they know that consumers often
will imitate these actions later.
Consumers’ evaluations of the people they model go beyond simple stimulus–
response connections. For example, a celebrity’s image elicits more than a simple
reflexive response of good or bad; it brings a complex set of cultural meanings
and associations that can imbue a brand in the symbolic ways we learned about in
Chapter 3 and that we will revisit in Chapter 8 when we discuss persuasion.

OBJECTIVE 4-3
Explain how our
brains process and
store information
about brands in
our memory.

Remembering

Memory is a process of acquiring information and storing
it over time so that it will be available when we need it.
Contemporary approaches to the study of memory employ
an information-processing approach. They assume that the
mind is in some ways like a computer: Data are input,
processed, and output for later use in revised form. Figure 4.3 summarizes the
memory process:
1. In the encoding stage, information enters in a way the system will recognize.
2. In the storage stage, we integrate this knowledge with what is already in memory
and “warehouse” it until it is needed.
3. During retrieval stage, we access the desired information.46
Many of our experiences are locked inside our heads, and they may surface years
later if the right cues prompt them. Marketers rely on consumers to retain information they collect about products and services so they will apply it to future purchase
decisions. We combine this internal memory with external memory when we decide
what to buy. This includes all the product details on packages and other marketing
stimuli that permit us to identify and evaluate brand alternatives in the marketplace.47
SENSORY MEMORY
Temporary storage of information
received from the senses.

SHORT-TERM MEMORY
Brief storage of information
currently being used.

LONG-TERM MEMORY
Relatively permanent storage of
information.

Capacity: Low

Capacity: Limited

Capacity: Unlimited

Duration: Less than 1 second
(vision) or a few seconds (hearing)

Duration: Less than 20 seconds

Duration: Long or permanent

Attention
Information that passes through
an attentional gate is transferred
to short-term memory.

Figure 4.3 Types of Memory

Elaboration
Information subjected to elaborative
rehearsal or deep processing (e.g., its
meaning is considered) is transferred to
long-term memory.

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An app like Grocery that stores
shopping lists is a powerful external
memory aid.
Source: McLittle Stock /Shutterstock

The grocery-shopping list is a good example of a powerful external memory aid.
When consumers use shopping lists, they buy approximately 80 percent of the items
on the list. The likelihood that a shopper will purchase a particular list item is higher if
the person who wrote the list also participates in the shopping trip. This means that
if marketers can induce consumers to plan to purchase an item before they go shopping, there is a high probability that they will buy it. One way to encourage this kind of
advance planning is to provide peel-off stickers on packages so that, when consumers
notice the supply is low, they can simply peel off the label and place it directly on a
shopping list.48 Or, a retailer can support a phone app that generates a shopping list
for the user (you already can choose from an abundance of apps that do this).49

How Our Brains Encode Information
The way we encode, or mentally program, information helps to determine how our
brains will store this information. In general, it’s more likely that we’ll retain incoming
data when we associate it with other things already in memory. For example, we tend
to remember brand names that we link to physical characteristics of a product category
(e.g., Coffee-Mate creamer or Mixed Chicks Haircare) or that we can easily visualize (e.g., Tide detergent or Puma shoes) compared to more abstract brand names.50
Similarly, our brains automatically react to images of familiar celebrities and use them
to guide how we think about them to ascribe meaning to other images of people or
products with which they appear.51 So a customer might encode a new Hot Chicken
Wing Oreos offering (yes, that’s a real flavor) as similar to the plain vanilla type we’re
used to—until she takes a bite!
In many cases, though, we encode meanings at a more symbolic level, based on
the set of associations we hold in the brain’s semantic network. Let’s take a closer
look at how we encode these deeper meanings.
Episodic memories relate to events that are personally relevant and that we have
personally experienced.52 As a result, a person’s motivation to retain these memories
will likely be strong. Couples often have “their song,” which reminds them of their
first date or wedding. We call some especially vivid associations flashbulb memories
(where were you when you first heard that due to the COVID-19 pandemic, you would

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Certain events create flashbulb
memories. Do you remember when
you first found out about the pandemic
lockdown?
Source: UrbanImages/Alamy Stock Photo

have to stay home?). These memories are often stored in a narrative way, creating a
story structure that connects pieces of the event together.
Researchers describe three distinct memory systems: sensory memory, short-term
memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). Each plays a role in processing brandrelated information (see Figure 4.3).

Sensory Memory
Sensory memory stores the information we receive from
our senses. This storage is temporary; it lasts a couple of
seconds at most. For example, a consumer who walks past a
donut shop gets a quick, enticing whiff of something baking
inside. Although this sensation lasts only a few seconds, it
is sufficient to allow them to consider whether they should
investigate further. If they retain this information for further
processing, it transfers to short-term memory.

Short-Term Memory
Short-term memory (STM) also stores information for
a limited period of time, and it has limited capacity. Like
a computer, this system is working memory; it holds the
information we are currently processing. Our memories can
store verbal input acoustically (in terms of how it sounds) or
semantically (in terms of what it means).
We store this information as we combine small pieces
into larger ones in a process called chunking. A chunk is
a configuration that is familiar to the person and that they
can think about as a unit. For example, a brand name like 7
For All Mankind is a chunk that represents a great deal of
detailed information about the product.
Initially, researchers believed that our STM was capable
of processing between five and nine chunks of information
at a time; they described this basic property as “the magical

It’s common for marketers to give a brand a vivid name that
conjures up an image or story in our minds. Research suggests that
this strategy results in higher consumer evaluations versus brand
names composed of meaningless letters or numbers. One study
reported that consumers rated cell phones from Samsung and LG
more positively after they were the first in the industry to break the
practice of naming the phones with combinations of letters and
numbers—LG’s phones instead sport names like Chocolate, Shine,
Vu, Voyager, Dare, and Decoy, whereas Samsung started things off
with the BlackJack, UpStage, FlipShot, and Juke, and later added
the Access, Instinct, and Glyde. During the same period, these
companies increased market share in this category. Compared to
other phone brands, consumers rated these models as modern,
creative, engaging, original, cool, and easy to remember.53
Source: RAVEENDRAN/AFP via Getty Images

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number 7 ± 2.” This is the reason phone numbers today (at least in the
United States) originally had seven digits.54 It now appears that three to
four chunks is the optimal size for efficient retrieval (we remember sevendigit phone numbers because we chunk the individual digits, so we may
remember a three-digit exchange as one piece of information).55 Phone calls
aside, chunking is important to marketers because it helps determine how
consumers keep prices in short-term memory when they comparison-shop.56

Long-Term Memory
Individual cognitive or physiological factors are
responsible for some of the differences in retrieval
ability among people.57 The popularity of puzzles,
such as Rubik’s cube, Sudoku and Brain Box, and
centers that offer “mental gymnastics,” attests to
emerging evidence that we can keep our retrieval
abilities sharp by exercising our minds, just as
we keep our other muscles toned when we
work out on a regular basis.
Source: Singkam/Shutterstock

Long-term memory (LTM) is the system that allows us to retain information for a long period of time. A cognitive process of elaboration allows
information to move from STM into LTM. This involves thinking about
the meaning of a stimulus and relating it to other information already in
memory. The more effort it takes to process information (so-called deep
processing), the more likely it is that information will transfer into LTM.
Marketers assist in the process when they devise catchy slogans or jingles
consumers repeat on their own.

What Makes Us Forget?

Marketers obviously hope that consumers will not forget about their products. However, in a poll of more than 13,000 adults, more than half were unable to remember
any specific ad they had seen, heard, or read in the past 30 days. How many can you
remember right now? Clearly, forgetting by consumers is a big headache for marketers
(not to mention a problem for students when they study for exams!). In one major
study, only 23 percent of the respondents could recall a new product introduced in
the past year.58
Early memory theorists assumed that memories simply fade with the passage of
time. In a process of decay, the structural changes that learning produces in the brain
simply go away. Forgetting also occurs because of interference; as we learn additional
information, it displaces the previous information. Consumers may forget stimulus–
response associations if they subsequently learn new responses to the same or similar
stimuli; we call this process retroactive interference. Or prior learning can interfere
with new learning, a process we term proactive interference. Because we store pieces
of information in memory as nodes that link to one another, we are more likely to
retrieve a meaning concept that is connected by a larger number of links. But as we
learn new responses, a stimulus loses its effectiveness in retrieving the old response.59
These interference effects help to explain problems in remembering brand information. Consumers tend to organize attribute information by brand.60 Additional attribute information regarding a brand or similar brands may limit the person’s ability to
recall old brand information.
Recall may also be inhibited if the brand name is composed of frequently
used words. These words cue competing associations; as a result, we retain less
brand information.61 In one study, brand evaluations deteriorated more rapidly when
ads for the brand appeared with messages for 12 other brands in the same category
than when researchers showed the ad along with ads for 12 dissimilar products.62
Thus, when we increase the uniqueness of one brand, it impairs the recall of other
brands.63 However, when we call a competitor by name, this can result in poorer recall
for our own brand.64
Sometimes we just want to forget. Researchers have called this process motivated forgetting, and they showed that we try hard to forget any message that
threatens our social identity—our sense of who we are.65 For instance, we might

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105

know that meat-based products contribute to global warming and poor working conditions to a greater extent than plant-based products, yet many of us often ignore this
information altogether to justify continuing to eat a burger, even if we care deeply
for the planet!
It takes a lot of work to remember things: In fact, a recent study found that
memory efficacy—that is, the belief that we will be able to remember things that we
are experiencing right now—was directly linked to whether we behave more virtuously.66 This is because believing that we will remember what we are currently doing
makes us focus on actions that are more aligned with our values: like donating to
charities or engaging in volunteering activities. It’s like being our own future judges
of our current behavior!

What Helps Us To Remember?
It hasn’t been smooth sailing for the cruise industry lately, especially since these floating cities turned out to be ideal breeding grounds for the COVID virus. One of the
most embarrassing and high-profile accidents stranded several thousand guests on a
Carnival ship in the Gulf of Mexico with no electricity or working toilets, but plenty
of smartphones to record the dismal conditions. Carnival’s potential cruisers are skittish, so the cruise line launched a $25 million public relations offensive to lure people
back on board. The campaign asks previous customers to use social media to post
images and videos of happy experiences that will contribute to Carnival’s “Moments
That Matter” commercial. The ad’s voiceover says, “We never forget the moments that
matter. We hang them on our walls. We share them with everyone. And hold onto them
forever. Since the day we first set sail, millions of lasting moments have been made
with us. What will yours be?” Sure enough, the campaign received more than 30,000
submissions, presumably from passengers who enjoyed both the midnight chocolate
buffet and working plumbing.67
We’ve seen that retrieval is the process whereby we recover information from
long-term memory. As evidenced by the popularity of the board game Trivial Pursuit
or the TV show Are You Smarter Than a Fifth Grader?, we have a vast quantity of
information stored in our heads—a lot of which is not useful unless you play the
game! Although most of the information that enters LTM does not go away, it may
be difficult or impossible to retrieve unless the appropriate cues are present. What
factors influence the likelihood that we will remember the marketing messages that
organizations work so hard to create? Or simply that will help us remember the list of
items we had in mind to shop for when we enter the grocery store?

Salience
The salience of a brand refers to its prominence or level of activation in memory. Stimuli that stand out in contrast to their environments are more likely to
command attention, which, in turn, increases the likelihood that we will recall them.
The von Restorff Effect is well-known to memory researchers; it shows that almost any
technique that increases the novelty of a stimulus also improves recall. This explains
why unusual advertising or distinctive packaging tends to facilitate brand recall.69
The tactic of introducing a surprise element in an ad can boost recall, even if
the new information is not relevant to the remaining material.70 In addition, mystery
ads, in which the ad doesn’t identify the brand until the end, are more effective if we
want to build associations in memory between the product category and that brand—
especially in the case of relatively unknown brands.71
Furthermore, the intensity and type of emotions we experience at the time also
affect the way we recall the event later. We recall mixed emotions (e.g., those with

Buying, Having, Being
Digital Amnesia
“Just a second, I’ll Google the
answer.” Is internet access rotting
our brains? Probably not, but it is
making us less able to remember
things and thus less knowledgeable.
Some psychologists describe this
phenomenon as the Google Effect
(or digital amnesia)—the tendency
for people to rely too heavily on
the ability to readily access content
online and, as a result, be less likely
to remember certain details. One
study found that a third of adults
turn to Google with a query without
first trying to remember the answer.
Similarly, some researchers are
concerned that with over a billion
people relying on navigation apps
such as Google Maps, our sense
of direction is being destroyed
because the apps diminish our
natural ability to create maps in
our minds.68

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positive and negative components) differently from unipolar emotions that are either
wholly positive or wholly negative. The latter become even more polarized over time
so that we recall good things as even better than they really were and bad things as
even worse (maybe the “good old days” weren’t so good after all!).72

Visual versus Verbal Cues
Is a picture worth a thousand words? There is some evidence for the superiority of
visual memory over verbal memory, but this advantage is unclear because it is more
difficult to measure recall of pictures.73 However, the available data indicate that we
are more likely to recognize information we see in picture form at a later time.74 In
one recent study, participants who could freely take photographs during an experience
recognized more of what they saw and less of what they heard, compared with those
who could not take any photographs.75
A recent review of research on imagery and memory concluded that images play
a crucial role in retrieving past experiences that were encoded visually as well as in
imagining future experiences.76 Another study confirmed that consumers typically
recall ads with visual figures more often and they like them better.77
Visual aspects of commercials are more likely to grab a consumer’s attention. This
can be problematic when attention to the visual detracts from processing the actual
message, as a recent study reported (see Figure 4.4). The research project, which
relied on eye-tracking technology, revealed a common trick that pharmaceutical drug
companies use in their commercials: Visuals of happy people attracted so much of
the consumers’ attention that it reduced attention to and understanding of what the
audio was saying. Understanding of the warning and risks associated with the drug
was poorer when participants were exposed to a commercial
showing people with smiling faces than the same commercial
showing people with neutral faces.78
One reason for the power of visuals is that products are
important memory markers; they can encapsulate certain
time periods, and they serve as reminders of personal or collective experiences. For instance, we buy souvenirs to encapsulate happy memories or to capture intangible experiences
that we might otherwise forget.79 Certain brands come to
epitomize an era—like the TV series Friends and the 1990s.
Brands can become so associated with certain events or
cultural eras that they shape our memory of those events or
time periods.80 So even if we did not live through a given
period or in a given country, we might have seen products
or designs associated with them and these become part of
Well-established brands can serve as memory markers of earlier
popular memory.
times—like when trucker hats were all the rage.
We rely on photos or social media posts as memory
Source: TIPAKORN MAKORNSEN/ Shutterstock
markers that remind us of past events or experiences. The risk, however, is that these
photos may not accurately capture the reality, so our memories of even our own lived
events can become reconstructed and reshaped based on what was captured in the
photo. For instance, a study found that we remember experiences we had as having
lasted longer if we have lots of photos to remember them.81
Did your parents scan all your childhood drawings before they trashed the
physical copies? Photos also can serve as a form of memory preservation and
ultimately replace the physical object. A recent field study found that taking
pictures of things we like before donating them to charity increased donations: The
photo of the loved object reduces the loss we might otherwise have felt from giving
the object away.82

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Figure 4.4 “Shiny, Happy
People” in Pharmaceutical Ads

Neutral Facial Expression
Respondent is less visually distracted
and can process the audio warning.

Happy Facial Expression
Respondent is more visually distracted
and cannot process the audio warning.

Adding a Text Banner
The visual banner allows the respondent
to process the audio warning, even though
the facial expression is happy.

Photos and memorabilia can help make otherwise intangible experiences easier
to remember. But an ethnographic study of the memory practices of New Yorkers in
the wake of the 2001 terrorist attacks surprisingly found that products can help us
both remember and forget.83 Many New Yorkers who personally experienced 9/11
use souvenirs, such as a piece of debris found on the ground, to “unremember difficult memories.” The souvenir helps them to cope in the aftermath of a tragic event
by allowing the event to be revered as well as remembered.

Creating a Narrative
Given that our memories store a lot of the social information we acquire in story
form, as we’ll see in Chapter 8, constructing messages in the form of a narrative
helps them resonate with the audience. A narrative is often an effective way to convey
product information. Stories help people to construct mental representations of the
information they see or hear. Pictures aid in this construction and allow us to develop
more detailed mental representations.84
Research supports the idea that we are more likely to positively evaluate and purchase brands when we can immerse ourselves in a narrative that includes the brand.85
A recent study that analyzed consumer reviews on the travel website Trip Advisor
found that the reviews that got the most attention included narrative components, like
relatable characters and a chronology of events.86
Sometimes instead of creating a whole narrative around their brand, companies
just insert their brand in an existing story through product placement. Think about
brands you might have seen or heard mentioned in your favorite TV show: By placing

A commonly used trick in
pharmaceutical drug commercials is
to use visuals to distract consumers’
attention to the audio warning. Using
eye-tracking technology, researchers
found that a smiling face does exactly
that (attracts attention away form the
warning).

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those brands inside the story and amongst highly relatable characters of a well-liked
narrative, marketers make those brands instantly memorable. Some companies jump
on the product placement bandwagon even after the fact: For instance, Pottery Barn
later released an Apothecary Table similar to the one Rachel loved so much in the
Friends episode “The One with the Apothecary Table.”87

How Do We Measure Consumers’ Memories
for Marketing Messages?
Because marketers pay so much money to place their messages in front of consumers, they hope that people will remember these ads later. It seems that they have good
reason to be concerned. In one early study, fewer than 40 percent of television viewers
made positive links between commercial messages and the corresponding products;
only 65 percent noticed the brand name in a commercial, and only 38 percent recognized a connection to an important point.88 To make matters worse, recall seems to be
even weaker for digital ads. One recent study reported that while online media offer a
much less expensive way to reach consumers, people recall a maximum of about 30
percent of what they see. In contrast, they recall 60 percent of television messages.89

Recall versus Recognition
One indicator of good advertising is, of course, the impression it makes on us. But how
can we define and measure this impact? Two basic measures of impact are recall and
recognition. In a typical memory study, researchers show consumers brand messages—
either one at a time or in the context of a website, an event, or a videogame—and then
try to assess how well the consumers remember the advertised brand.
Recall tests ask consumers to independently think of
what they have seen without any prompt at all. For instance, a
recent study tested TV viewers’ memory of billboards placed
on the perimeter of a soccer game the day after a televised
game that pitted Germany against England. The recall test
asked them to list any billboard they remembered seeing on
the boards around the playing area.90
Obviously, this task requires great effort on consumers’
part. So often researchers use recognition tests and ask if
consumers recognize a brand from a list. For instance, in the
soccer game study, the researchers asked consumers to check
from a list which advertisers they remembered seeing on the
boards. Think about it: Would you rather respond to a multiple choice or an open-ended question? The multiple-choice
format is like a recognition test; you have cues to help you
retrieve that information from memory.
Under some conditions, recall and recognition measures
Social media platforms such as Instagram or Facebook have
tend to yield the same results, especially when the researchers
revolutionized how people store and share memories. However,
try to keep the viewers’ interest in the ads constant (although
at least some users feel that maybe these platforms do this
that may be an overly artificial way to study true memory for
a bit too well: They don’t necessarily want others (especially
ads).91 Generally, though, recognition scores tend to be more
employers, parents, and other authority figures) to know about
reliable and do not decay over time the way recall scores
all their “awesome” experiences. A big factor behind Snapchat’s
popularity is that the platform posts and then destroys more than
do.92 Recognition scores are almost always better than recall
60 million photos or messages every day. One of Snapchat’s
scores because recognition is a simpler process and the confounders explained the thinking behind the app: “It became clear
sumer has more retrieval cues available. Sometimes recall
how awful social media is. There is real value in sharing moments
yields almost null results. For instance, most of the particithat don’t live forever.”93
pants in the soccer study could not recall a single billboard
Source: Shutterstock /Zyabich
the day after the game!

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109

Both types of retrieval play important roles in purchase
decisions, however. Recall tends to be more important in
situations in which consumers do not have product data at
their disposal, so they must rely on memory to generate this
information.94 Recognition is more likely to be an important
factor in a store, where retailers confront consumers with
thousands of product options (i.e., external memory is abundantly available), and the task simply may be to recognize a
familiar package.

Problems with Memory Measures
Although measuring an ad’s memorability is important, analysts
have questioned whether existing measures accurately assess
these dimensions, for several reasons. First, the results we obtain
Using eye-tracking and biometric measures during exposure to
from a measuring instrument are not necessarily based on what
advertising, researchers can identify how strongly a message is
encoded. A recent study using functional magnetic resonance
we measure, but rather on something else about the instrument
imaging (fMRI) found that the strength of this encoding phase
or the respondent. This form of contamination is a response
affects how likely that message is remembered one week later.
bias. For example, people tend to give “yes” responses to quesThat study found that print ads were encoded more strongly and
tions, regardless of what the item asks. In addition, experimental
therefore were remembered better than digital ads, even though
subjects often are eager to be “good subjects”: They try to figure
the content was the same. The authors of the study suggest that,
even in the digital age, consumers engage more with print ads
out what the experimenter is looking for and give the response
than with digital ads.96
they think they are supposed to give. This tendency is so strong
Source: patrickheagney/Gettyimages
that in some studies the rate at which subjects claim they recognize bogus ads (ads they have not seen before) is almost as high as their recognition rate
for those they really have seen!95

Memory Lapses, Biases, and False Memories
People are also prone to forget information or retain inaccurate memories. These
memory errors are not just a problem in court cases that rely on eyewitness testimony;
they also call into question the accuracy of product usage databases that rely on
consumers to recall their purchase and consumption of food and household items.
For example, one study asked people to describe what portion of various foods—
small, medium, or large—they ate in a typical meal. However, the researchers used
different definitions of “medium.” Regardless of the definition they gave, about the
same number of people claimed they typically ate “medium” portions.97
In other situations, we may “fool ourselves” by distorting memories. For example,
some people who work toward a goal like losing weight or saving money may exaggerate (to themselves) how much progress they’ve made to justify current indulgences.
That tendency points to the importance of documenting your progress (your Fitbit
monitoring device doesn’t lie) to keep yourself on track.98
And, under some circumstances, our minds tend to distort what we remember.
For example, if a brand makes us feel emotionally conflicted because we know that
its products involve child labor, we tend to resolve this conflict not just by ignoring
the negative information but instead by forgetting it altogether. Researchers term this
“hiding our head in the sand” willfully ignorant memory; we remember instead only
those things we like about the brand.99

Marketing Applications of Consumers’ Memories
As we saw at the beginning of this chapter, Joe journeys through time with the aid
of many products that make him feel good because they remind him of earlier parts
of his life. Nostalgia describes the bittersweet emotion that arises when we view the
past with both sadness and longing.100

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Nostalgia appeals to our old memories have
become even more popular in the last few years, as
some big brands work hard to reassure customers
that they can depend on familiar products during
unsettling times. A retro brand is an updated version of a brand from a prior historical period. These
products trigger nostalgia, and researchers find that
they often inspire consumers to think back to an era
when (at least in our memories) life was more stable,
simple, or even utopian. Simply, they let us “look
backward through rose-colored glasses.” One study
reported that people who were asked to think about
the past were willing to pay more for products than
those who were asked to think about new or future
memories.101
By evoking nostalgia, brand messages satisfy
what
consumers crave: authenticity. Retro-styling
The biggest retro success story in recent years: the Old Spice Guy
in and of itself is not enough, though: Brands must
campaign that went viral and revived a men’s deodorant brand that is more
ensure that the product has personal relevance
than 70 years old.
Source: Pacific Press Media Production Corp./Alamy Stock Photo
to consumers.102 Planters Peanuts recruited the
actor Robert Downey, Jr., as the new voice of Mr. Peanut. “Retired” brand names,
including Meister Brau beer, the brokerage firm Shearson, Handi-Wrap plastic wrap,
and Wonder Bread were sold at auction to companies that want to bring them back
to life.103
Our prior experiences also shape what we like today. Consumer researchers
created a nostalgia index that measures the critical ages during which our preferences
are likely to form and endure over time. It turns out that a good predictor of whether
people will like a specific song is how old they were when that song was popular.
On average, we are most likely to favor songs that were popular when we were
23.5 years old (so pay attention to the hot songs if you haven’t turned 23 yet). Our
preferences for fashion models peak at age 33, and we tend to like movie stars who
were popular when we were 26 or 27 years old.104

OBJECTIVE 4-4
Discuss how
knowledge about
brands is organized
in our brains.

PepsiCo launched its “Throwback”
campaign that offers products like
Pepsi and Mountain Dew in authentic
packages from the past. Chex Mix
recently reintroduced its “Chex
Quest” video game from the 1990s
for the online gaming platform Steam,
while Coca-Cola revived Surge, a
discontinued citrus-flavored soda.105
And archrival.
Source: Keith Homan/Shutterstock

How Do We Organize
What We Know?

How can we possibly remember most of what we experience within the last week, much less the past few decades?
One clue is that our brains like to label and categorize new things we learn to
relate these experiences to what we already know about the world. The brain is
organized as an associative network that contains many bits of related information.
We each have organized systems of concepts that relate to brands, manufacturers,
and stores stored in our memories; the contents, of course, depend on our own
unique experiences.
Think of these storage units, or knowledge structures, as complex spider webs
filled with pieces of data. Incoming information gets put into nodes that connect to
one another (if you haven’t guessed, this is also why we called cyberspace the World
Wide Web). When we view separate pieces of information as similar for some reason,
we connect them together under some more abstract category. Then, we interpret new,
incoming information to be consistent with the structure we have created.106 This

Chapter 4 • Learning, Remembering, and Knowing

helps explain why we are better able to remember brands or stores that we believe “go
together”; for example, when Titleist golf balls rather than Chanel fragrances sponsors
a golf tournament.107
In the associative network, links form between nodes. For example, a consumer
might have a network for “electric cars.” Each node represents a concept related to
the category. This node can be an attribute, a specific brand, a celebrity the consumer
identifies with a specific car brand, or even a related product. A network for electric
cars might include concepts such as the brand name Tesla, as well as attributes such
as expensive or green. In turn, these associations themselves can activate other nodes
in the networks: The node “Elon Musk” may activate the country South Africa,
and all the associations consumers may have with that country (Nelson Mandela;
Zulu; Oscar Pistorius, the “Blade Runner” superabled athlete who was convicted
of murder in a sensational court case; etc.); that node might also trigger the label
“entrepreneur,” which could activate other “entrepreneur” nodes, like Bill Gates or
Steve Jobs.
When we ask the consumer to list electric cars, this consumer recalls only those
brands that show up in the appropriate category. The task of a new entrant that wants
to position itself as a category member (e.g., a new electric car manufacturer) is to
provide cues that facilitate its placement in the appropriate category. Figure 4.5 shows
a sample network for electric cars.
A marketing message may activate our associations with a brand directly (for
example, when it shows us a picture of the package), or it may do so indirectly when
it links to something else that’s related to the brand in our knowledge structure. If it
activates a node, it will also activate other linked nodes, much as tapping a spider’s
web in one spot sends movement reverberating across the web. Meaning thus spreads
across the network, and we recall concepts, such as competing brands and relevant
attributes, that we use to form attitudes toward the brand.
This process of spreading activation allows us to shift back and forth among
levels of meaning. The way we store a piece of information in memory depends on the
type of meaning we initially assign to it. This meaning type, in turn, will determine

Electric cars

Tesla
Toyota

Hybrids

Elon Musk
Prius
Entrepreneur
South Africa
Bill Gates

Zulu

Nelson
Mandela

Figure 4.5 An Associative Network for Automobiles

111

Buying, Having, Being
The Mulan Debacle
Sometimes the pent-up demand
for these favorites from days past
can cause a promotion to backfire
when too many people want them.
That’s what McDonald’s discovered
recently when it brought back its
“Szechuan” sauce for a day. The
condiment was created as part of a
1998 promotion for the Disney film
Mulan and was a hit among consumers who were kids at the time.
Hordes of them congregated at
Mickey D’s around the country, only
to discover that the limited supplies
ran out quickly.
One Twitter user posted a video
of an angry crowd chanting, “We
want sauce.” Some disappointed
fans searched online sites like eBay
where the condiment was selling for
exorbitant sums. An offer for three
sealed packs of the sauce sold for
$848.88 ($282.96 each), while a
single packet was bidding for $995.
Be careful what you wish for!108

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how and when something activates the meaning. Thus, we organize our knowledge
for the brand Uggs in one or more of the following ways:

•
•
•
•
•

Brand-specific—Knowledge is stored in terms of claims the brand makes (“it’s
luxurious”).
Communication-specific—Memory is stored in terms of the medium or content
of the marketing communication itself (an Instagram influencer styling her Uggs).
Brand identification—Memory is stored in terms of the brand name (e.g., “Ugg”).
Product category—Memory is stored in terms of how the product works or where
it should be used (a set of Uggs in one’s shoe collection).
Evaluative reactions—Memory is stored as positive or negative emotions (“that
boot looks so stylish”).109

Levels of Knowledge
Within a knowledge structure, we code elements at different levels of abstraction and
complexity. As we saw in Chapter 3, a schema is a cognitive framework we develop
through experience. We encode information more readily when that information is
consistent with an existing schema.110 The ability to move up and down among levels
of abstraction greatly increases processing flexibility and efficiency. For this reason,
young children who do not yet have well-developed schemas are not able to make as
efficient use of purchase information as are older children.111
One type of schema especially relevant to consumer behavior is a script, a sequence
of events an individual expects to occur. As consumers, we learn scripts that guide our
behavior in commercial settings. We expect a certain sequence of events, and we may
become uncomfortable if the service departs from our script. A script for a visit to the
dentist might include such events as (1) drive to the dentist, (2) read old magazines
in the waiting room, (3) hear name called and sit in dentist’s chair, (4) dentist injects
something into gums, (5) dentist turns on high-pitched drill, and so on. This desire to
follow a script helps to explain why such innovations as automatic bank machines, selfservice gas stations, or “scan-your-own” grocery checkouts have met with resistance by
some consumers who have trouble adapting to new sequences of events.112

How Do We Put Products into Categories?
Knowledge structures matter to marketers like Stonyfield, Green Valley, and Trader
Joe’s that sell yogurt-related items because
they want to ensure that customers correctly
group their products. To see why this is
important, consider how someone might
respond to these questions about an ice
cream cone: “What other products share
similar characteristics, and which would you
consider as alternatives to eating a cone?”
These questions may be more complex than they first appear. At one level, a
cone is like an apple because you could eat
both as a dessert. At another level, a cone is
similar to a piece of pie because you could
eat either for dessert and both are fattening.
Although other automotive companies make electric cars, for many drivers the Tesla
At still another level, a cone is like an ice
is a category exemplar.
cream sundae—you could eat either for
Source: Hadrian/ShutterStock

Chapter 4 • Learning, Remembering, and Knowing

Dessert
SUPERORDINATE LEVEL
Fattening Dessert

Ice Cream

Pie

Nonfattening Dessert

BASIC LEVEL

Cake

SUBORDINATE
LEVEL

Fruit

Yogurt

Low-fat
Ice Cream

Figure 4.6 Levels of Categorization

dessert, both are made of ice cream, and both are fattening. Figure 4.6 depicts these
three levels.
It’s easy to see that the foods a person associates with the category “fattening
dessert” influence their decision about what to eat after dinner. The middle level,
or basic level category, is typically the most useful for classifying products. At this
level, the items we group together tend to have a lot in common with each other but
still permit us to consider a broad enough range of alternatives. The broader superordinate category is more abstract, whereas the more specific subordinate category
often includes individual brands.113 Of course, not all items fit equally well into a
category. Apple pie is a better example of the subordinate category “pie” than is rhubarb pie, even though both are types of pies. This is because it’s more prototypical,
and most people would think of apple as a pie flavor before they thought of rhubarb.
In contrast, true pie experts probably know a lot about both typical and atypical
category examples.114
Product categories are the building blocks of a market, but sometimes companies
like to play with them; they create new ones when they introduce hybrid products
that feature characteristics from two distinct domains. Thus, we have the crossover
utility vehicle (CUV) that mixes a passenger car and a sport utility vehicle (SUV) and
the huge “athleisure” fashion phenomenon that fuses styles from athletic apparel
and leisure apparel to yield an army of Lululemon-clad yoga buffs. And let’s not even
talk about the “cronut” craze (a combination croissant and donut) that started with a
New York bakery and made its leap to national stardom courtesy of Dunkin’ Donuts.115

“If They Own This, They Must Own That”:
Consumption Constellations
These networks of brands alongside all the associations we make with them—
personalities, roles, and other meanings—are called consumption constellations.
These constellations connect all the associations we have learned around a concept,
such as “hipster,” which has become synonymous with someone who has specific tastes
in alternative, outside-the-mainstream food, experiences, fashions, and leisure activities. Products inside a constellation are complementary or often purchased together.
They can also be marketed as such: Social media influencers use the recipe to promote
constellations when they post videos that instruct their followers how to “get the look.”
Some evidence indicates that young children learn consumption-related information surprisingly well.116 Researchers found that the number of products and brands
children integrate in their knowledge structures grows proportionally to their age until
about age 12 because we start forming more rigid associations and stereotypes at the
onset of adolescence.117

113

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How Do You Become an Expert?
Who would you turn to if you’re in need of fashion advice? Or if you needed help
picking a good wine? Experts! When consumers are passionate about a topic or
product category, they seek more knowledge, and some even develop expertise about
certain topics, products, or brands. Experts are thirsty for knowledge: they have more
elaborated cognitive structures, they remember information better, and they are
more efficient at accessing that information.118
As useful as experts are, researchers have recently found that, sadly, experts
tend to become more emotionally numb: knowing so much takes a toll on the actual
enjoyment of having this knowledge.119 Researchers found evidence of this emotional numbness across a variety of consumption domains: From cinephiles to wine
connoisseurs, the more complex an expert’s cognitive structure of a given product
category, the less enjoyment they have in learning more about that product because
they become overly focused on the analytical process of updating their cognitive
structure. So, if you’re passionate about something and want to keep learning more
and more about it, it’s also important to continue having fun with it. If something
you’re passionate about starts to feel like work, take a break and pause to remember
why you enjoyed this in the first place. Having enjoyment from your passion should
take precedent over stressing about the accumulation and organization of more knowledge about it.
It is important to note that knowledge is constructed not just as function of cognitive processes that happen in the brain, but also through what is called embodied
knowledge: We develop and grow our knowledge through our own actions, and by
witnessing others’ actions. Experts develop their knowledge about products not from
reading more about them, but also living them. For instance, a recent in-depth study of
beer aficionados found that their sensory experiences were central to how they eventually developed the complex system of taste they needed to judge beers.120 Compared
to novices, experts tune in to their bodily experience and engineer their taste by dissecting their sensory experience and using more technical language to describe the
beer. So instead of saying things like “very tasty,” they provide more refined qualifiers that attempt to objectively describe the more nuanced sensations that the beer
provides: oaky, spice and apple-laden.

Marketing Applications of Consumers’
Knowledge Structures
The way we categorize products has a lot of strategic implications for marketers.
That’s because this process affects which products consumers will compare to our
product and the criteria they’ll use to decide whether they like us or the other guys.

Position a Product
The success of a positioning strategy hinges on the marketer’s ability to convince
the consumer to consider its product within a given category. For example, the
orange juice industry tried to reposition orange juice as a drink people can enjoy
all day long (“It’s not just for breakfast anymore”). However, soft-drink companies
attempt the opposite when they portray sodas as suitable for breakfast consumption. They are trying to make their way into consumers’ “breakfast drink” category,
along with orange juice, grapefruit juice, and coffee. Of course, this strategy can
backfire, as Pepsi-Cola discovered when it introduced Pepsi A.M. and positioned it
as a coffee substitute. The company did such a good job of categorizing the drink
as a morning beverage that customers wouldn’t drink it at any other time, and the
product failed.121

Chapter 4 • Learning, Remembering, and Knowing

115

Identify Competitors
At the abstract, superordinate level, many different
product forms compete for membership. The
category “entertainment” might comprise both
bowling and the ballet, but not many people
would substitute one of these activities for the
other. Products and services that on the surface
are quite different, however, compete with each
other at a broad level for consumers’ discretionary
dollars. Although bowling or ballet may not be
a likely tradeoff for many people, a symphony
might try to lure away ballet season ticket holders
by positioning itself as an equivalent member of
the superordinate category “cultural event.” We’re
This ad for Sunkist lemon juice attempts to establish a new category for the
often faced with choices between noncomparable
product by repositioning it as a salt substitute.
Source: Courtesy of Sunkist Growers.
categories, where we can’t directly relate the
attributes in one to those in another (the old
problem of comparing apples and oranges). When we can create an overlapping category
that encompasses both items (e.g., entertainment, value, usefulness) and then rate each
alternative in terms of that superordinate category comparison, the process is easier.122

Create an Exemplar Product
As we saw with the case of apple pie versus rhubarb pie, if a product is a really good
example of a category, then it is more familiar to consumers and they more easily recognize and recall it.123 The characteristics of these so-called category exemplars tend
to exert a disproportionate influence on how people think of the category in general.124
In a sense, brands we strongly associate with a category get to “call the shots”: They
define the criteria we use to evaluate all category members.

Locate Products in a Store
Product categorization also can affect consumers’ expectations regarding the places
where they can locate a desired product. If products do not clearly fit into categories
(e.g., is a rug furniture?), this may diminish our ability to find them or figure out what
they’re supposed to be once we do. For instance, a frozen dog food that pet owners
had to thaw and cook before they served it to Fido failed in the market, partly because
people could not adapt to the idea of buying dog food in the “frozen foods for people”
section of their grocery stores.

Create Distinctive Associations
Marketers have many branding and communication strategies at their disposal to
tap into consumers’ knowledge by associating their brands with existing nodes. For
instance, they can benefit, through what is called a halo effect, from associating
their brand with images, sounds, or celebrities that generate positive responses. First
entrants in a product category, like Tesla in the electric vehicles category, are sometimes called pioneer brands: They have an immediate advantage because there is not
competition for the node, and it becomes more easily associated with their name.125
In contrast, follower brands that ride their coattails are less distinctive.
More generally, we are more likely to recognize words, objects, and faces we
learn early in life than similar items we learn later. This applies to brands as well;
managers who introduce new entries into a market with well-established brand names
need to work harder to create learning and memory linkages by exposing consumers
to information about them more frequently.126

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The iconic (and deceased) reggae
singer Bob Marley’s name and image
appears on a vast range of products,
including caps, lanyards, T-shirts,
rolling papers, handbags and purses,
belts and buckles, beach towels, and
knapsacks. His daughter Cedella
launched High Tide swimwear to
further extend the franchise, and his
son Rohan created the Marley Coffee
brand; each variety is named after a
different Marley tune.127

Source: Jon Arnold Images Ltd /Alamy Stock Photo

CHAPTER SUMMARY
Now that you have finished reading this chapter, you should
be able to:
1. Describe how conditioning results in learning.
Behavioral learning theories assume that learning occurs because of responses to external events.
Classical conditioning occurs when a stimulus that
naturally elicits a response (an unconditioned stimulus)
is paired with another stimulus that does not initially
elicit this response. Over time, the second stimulus (the
conditioned stimulus) elicits the response even in
the absence of the first.

for it or when a consumer avoids a behavior because of
seeing someone else performing it and being rewarded
or punished for it.
3. Explain how our brains process and store information about brands in our memory.
Memory is the storage of learned information. The
way we encode information when we perceive it
determines how we will store it in memory. The memory
systems we call sensory memory, short-term memory,
and long-term memory each play a role in retaining
and processing information from the outside world in
marketing strategies.

2. Summarize how we learn about products and
consumption practices by observing others’
behavior.

4. Discuss how knowledge about brands is organized in our brains.

Cognitive learning occurs as the result of mental processes. For example, observational learning occurs
when the consumer performs a behavior because of
seeing someone else performing it and being rewarded

Our knowledge of brands is integrated in a complex network of nodes that, when activated, can in turn activate
associated nodes. In these networks live consumption
constellations and brand knowledge networks.

KEY TERMS
Advertising wear-out, 92
Advertising weariness, 92
Associative network, 110
Behavioral learning theories, 90
Brand equity, 92

Category exemplars, 115
Chunking, 103
Classical conditioning, 90
Cognitive learning theory, 98
Conditioned response (CR), 91

Conditioned stimulus (CS), 91
Consumer confusion, 95
Consumption constellations, 113
Decay, 104
Elaboration, 104

Chapter 4 • Learning, Remembering, and Knowing

Embodied knowledge, 114
Encoding stage, 101
Episodic memories, 102
Evaluative conditioning, 91
Expertise, 114
Extinction, 91
Family branding, 94
Follower brands, 115
Frequency marketing, 98
The Google effect, 105
Halo effect, 94
Hybrid products, 113
Incidental learning, 89
Instrumental conditioning, 95
Interference, 104
Knowledge structures, 110
Learning, 89
Licensing, 94
Long-term memory (LTM), 104
Look-alike packaging, 94
Memory, 101

Memory efficacy, 105
Memory markers, 106
Memory preservation, 106
Mindfulness, 100
Mixed emotions, 105
Modeling, 98
Motivated forgetting, 104
Multiple-intelligence theory, 100
Narrative, 103
Negative reinforcement, 96
Nodes, 111
Nostalgia, 109
Observational learning, 98
Pioneer brands, 115
Positive reinforcement, 96
Product line extension, 94
Product placement, 107
Punishment, 96
Recall, 108
Recognition, 108
Repetition, 91

117

Response bias, 109
Retrieval stage, 101
Retro brand, 110
Salience, 105
Script, 112
Semantic network, 102
Sensory memory, 103
Shaping, 95
Short-term memory (STM), 103
Sonic branding, 95
Sound signatures, 95
Spreading activation, 111
Stages of cognitive development, 99
Stimulus generalization, 94
Storage stage, 101
Theory of mind, 99
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS), 91
Unipolar emotions, 106
von Restorff effect, 105
Willfully ignorant memory, 109

REVIEW
4-1 What is the difference between an unconditioned
stimulus and a conditioned stimulus?
4-2 How can marketers use repetition to increase the likelihood that consumers will learn about their brand?
4-3 Why is it not necessarily a good idea to advertise a
product in a commercial where a popular song plays
in the background?
4-4 What is the difference between classical conditioning
and instrumental conditioning?
4-5 What is the major difference between behavioral and
cognitive theories of learning?
4-6 Name the three stages of information processing as
we commit information about products to memory.
4-7 What is external memory, and why is it important to
marketers?
4-8 Give an example of an episodic memory.
4-9 Why do U.S. phone numbers have seven digits (not
including the area code)?
4-10 List the three types of memory and explain how they
work together.

4-11 How is associative memory like a spider web?
4-12 How does the likelihood that a person wants to use
an ATM machine relate to a schema?
4-13 Why does a pioneer brand have a memory advantage
over follower brands?
4-14 If a consumer is familiar with a product, advertising
for it can work by either enhancing or diminishing
recall. Why?
4-15 Define nostalgia and explain why it’s such a widely
used advertising strategy.
4-16 Name the two basic measures of memory and
describe how they differ from one another.
4-17 List three problems with measures of memory for
advertising.
4-18 How do different types of reinforcement enhance
learning? How does the strategy of frequency marketing relate to conditioning?
4-19 How does learning new information make it more
likely that we’ll forget things we’ve already learned?

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CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CHALLENGE
DISCUSS

4-20 To hasten kids’ introduction to social media, a team
of Finnish designers invented a block-sorting toy that
also works like Twitter. It allows preverbal kids to
grab colorful blocks with icons for sleeping, eating,
or brushing their teeth; the kids then fit them into
slots to indicate what they’re up to. The device then
transmits the “status update” to light up the corresponding block-shape on the same toy in another
household.128 Should very young children be introduced to social media this way?
4-21 In his book Blink: The Power of Thinking Without
Thinking, author Malcolm Gladwell argues that hallowed marketing research techniques such as focus
groups aren’t effective because we usually react
to products quickly and without much conscious
thought; thus, it’s better simply to solicit consumers’
first impressions rather than getting them to think at
length about why they buy. What’s your position on
this issue?
4-22 Mindfulness training often claims to help people
change how they eat, how they work out, and how
they study. Do you agree?
4-23 Research shows that taking photos of experiences
with the intention to share them reduces one’s enjoyment of the experience. This happens because the
goal of sharing involves the possibility of feeling
judged by others.129 Has that happened to you? Can
you describe the experience and the reactions you got
to your photos?

Remembrance of Things Past by Marcel Proust. The
narrator dips a pastry (a “madeleine”) into his tea,
and this action unleashes a flood of memories that
drive the rest of the book. How might marketers try to
tie these powerful food-related memories to branding
strategies?
4-26 Some die-hard fans were not pleased when the
Rolling Stones sold the tune “Start Me Up” for about
$4 million to Microsoft, which wanted the classic
song to promote its Windows ’95 launch. The Beach
Boys sold “Good Vibrations” to Cadbury Schweppes
for its Sunkist soft drink, Steppenwolf offered “Born
to Be Wild” to plug the Mercury Cougar, and even
Bob Dylan sold “The Times They Are A-Changin’”
to Coopers & Lybrand (now called PriceWaterhouseCoopers).131 Other rock legends have refused to play
the commercial game, including Bruce Springsteen,
the Grateful Dead, Led Zeppelin, R.E.M., and U2.
According to U2’s manager, “Rock ’n’ roll is the last
vestige of independence. It is undignified to put that
creative effort and hard work to the disposal of a soft
drink or beer or car.”132 Singer Neil Young is especially adamant about not selling out; in his song
“This Note’s for You,” he croons, “Ain’t singing for
Pepsi, ain’t singing for Coke, I don’t sing for nobody,
makes me look like a joke.” What’s your take on this
issue? How do you react when one of your favorite
songs turns up in a commercial? Is this use of nostalgia an effective way to market a product? Why or
why not?

4-24 The “Google effect” describes our tendency to place
our trust in a search engine without bothering to think
for ourselves. Do you agree that this a problem? If
so, what do you think might be the consequences? Is
there any way to prevent “digital amnesia”?

4-27 The chapter discusses the possibility that our increasing reliance on apps to search for information is
diminishing our natural ability to think for ourselves.
Do you agree?

4-25 Even food can facilitate recall: One study looked at
how favorite recipes stimulate memories of the past.
When the researchers asked informants to list three of
their favorite recipes and to talk about these choices,
they found that people tended to link them with memories of past events, such as childhood memories,
family holidays, milestone events (such as dishes
they only make on special holidays, like corned beef
and cabbage on St. Patrick’s Day), heirlooms (recipes
handed down across generations), and the passing
of time (e.g., eating blueberry cobbler only in the
summer).130 Indeed, one of the most famous literary references is from the classic (3,000-page!) novel

4-29 The Snapchat app provides a way for social media
users to share content that disappears after a brief
time with their friends. In Europe, Google is fighting
an intense legal battle over what some call the “right
to be forgotten”; users want the option to dictate to
Google whether it will be allowed to display results

4-28 New passive monitoring systems allow us to pay tolls
automatically or simply show our phones equipped
with systems like Apple Pay. Convenient, for sure.
But these systems also eliminate the transparency of
the connection between the stimulus and the response.
As a result, we don’t think as much about the costs
when we use them. Is this a problem for consumers?

Chapter 4 • Learning, Remembering, and Knowing

when people search for them. On the other hand,
some people who believe that “information wants to
be free” say that if a person posts online, it should be

119

with the expectation that the content will be permanent and that you forfeit control over others’ right to
access it. Which argument is correct?

APPLY

4-30 Devise a product jingle memory test. Compile a list of
brands that are or have been associated with memorable jingles, such as Chiquita Banana, Alka-Seltzer,
McDonald’s, or even webuyanycar.com. Read this list
to friends and see how many jingles they remember.
You may be surprised at their level of recall.
4-31 A physician borrowed a page from product marketers when she asked for their advice to help persuade
people in the developing world to wash their hands
habitually with soap. Diseases and disorders caused
by dirty hands—like diarrhea—kill a child somewhere in the world about every 15 seconds, and about
half those deaths could be prevented with the regular use of soap. The project adapted techniques that
major marketers use to encourage habitual product
usage of items such as skin moisturizers, disinfecting
wipes, air fresheners, water purifiers, toothpaste, and
vitamins. For example, beer commercials often depict
a group of guys together because research shows that
being with a group of friends tends to trigger habitual
drinking! The researchers found that when people in
Ghana experienced a feeling of disgust, this was a cue

to wash their hands. However, as in many developing
countries, toilets are a symbol of cleanliness because
they have replaced pit latrines. So, an advertising
campaign included messages that reminded people
of the germs they could still pick up even in modern
bathrooms: Mothers and children walked out of restrooms with a glowing purple pigment on their hands
that contaminated everything they touched. These
images in turn triggered the habit of handwashing,
and the project resulted in a significant increase in
the number of consumers who washed their hands
with soap.133 How can other organizations that work
to improve public health, the environment, or other
social issues harness our knowledge about consumer
learning and habitual behavior to create or reenergize
positive habits?
4-32 Collect some pictures of “classic” products that have
high nostalgia value. Show these pictures to others
and allow them to free-associate. Analyze the types
of memories that these products evoke and think
about how a marketer might employ these associations in a product’s promotional strategy.

DIGGING IN WITH DATA

See “Data Case 1: Analyzing the Athletic Shoe Market” in Appendix A for an opportunity to work with real consumer
data and apply this chapter’s concepts to real world problems.

CASE STUDY

Kidfluence and Kidfluencers – Marketing
to Children Responsibly

Little kids are big business. In 2021, the market for toys in
the United States was $38 billion.134 U.S. children’s food
and beverages had revenues of $70 billion that year.135
And in 2023, all those cute little kids’ stylish outfits were
expected to bring in global revenues of $239 billion! While
children’s parents make most purchases, the kids can have
a big influence over what parents choose, and their influence often impacts purchases that are not only for kids.
This “kidfluence” effect has caused marketers to focus
­s ignificant promotional effort on these young consumers.136 But since children’s brains and decision-making
abilities are still developing, companies marketing to them
should make sure they are doing so in a responsible and
ethical manner.137

A little brain science can help explain what is going on
in those developing minds when they are exposed to marketing messages. Advertising targets two areas of the brain
that are not fully developed and therefore not necessarily
equipped for evaluation of nuanced marketing communication. The first is the limbic system, in charge of our emotional
responses. Intense stimuli, like loud noises, quick motion, and
bright colors, cause neural pathways to send messages that
result in joy and excitement and trigger the release of “feelgood” chemicals, like dopamine and endorphins. The other
important part of the brain is the prefrontal cortex, responsible for cognitive behavior, like decision-making skills and
self-control. The problem is that this important part of the
brain is not fully developed until we’re about 25 years old!138

120

Section 2

• Making Sense of the World

All advertisements utilize these brain functions, but these
functions are especially triggered by social media ads that
use creative speech, sounds, music, and visual effects. Some
of the most popular content on YouTube are videos directed
at children, with channels featuring kids engaged in pretend
play, the unboxing of toys, and animated nursery rhymes that
result in billions of views.139 YouTube Kids was created in
2015 as a safer place for kids to consume videos, but some
bad actors lured children to offensive videos that featured
popular characters like Spiderman and Frozen’s Elsa.140
Facebook (now Meta) joined the fray with its introduction
of Facebook Messenger, targeted at children ages 6 to 12.141
The ubiquity of digital devices makes it more challenging for
parents to monitor media consumption—both the content and
the ads that accompany it—than it was when traditional TV
was the only option.142
Social media has led to the rise of a particular kind
of spokesperson—influencers who are kids themselves.
Just as for their older counterparts, the domain of these
“kidfluencers” is largely YouTube and Instagram. Aubrey
Jade is a kidfluencer with 177,000 Instagram followers. Her
perfectly coiffed hair matches her stylish and trendy ’fits. “I
just love trench coats and I’m obsessed with this one!!” she
writes in one of her posts. Or perhaps someone posted for her
since she was only four years old when that post was made.143
When the Instagram kidfluencer known as Dear Giana was
nine years old, she signed a contract with Nike to promote
its products to her followers.144 But the king (or maybe little
prince) of kidfluencers is Ryan Kaji, the nine-year-old star of
YouTube Channel’s Ryan’s World. Kaji topped Forbes’ 2020
list of highest-paid YouTubers (of all ages) with an estimated
income of $29.5 million from his product lines and social
media content.145
Research has shown that consumers consider influencers as more trustworthy and relatable than traditional
“celebrities” because they are “everyday people.”146 This
relatability factor applies to children too, who identify
with a child who looks like them and plays with toys or
other products they may be interested in. Brain chemistry
also plays a role here, as endorphins and dopamine—those
feel good chemicals—are released when a child spends
time with a good friend, which can be similar to the experience of “loving” a kidfluencer or a brand character. The
popular “unboxing” videos are a good example of this
phenomenon—children who witness the joy of another kid
unboxing a product may then carry that joy to the product
itself. Matthew LaPierre, an associate professor of communication at the University of Arizona, researches media’s
impact on children’s health and well-being. He says these
videos get kids excited, but kids “don’t have that ability to

override their response and say, ‘Wait. I don’t really need
this product. Do I want this?’”147
Recognizing the need to be careful when marketing to
children (and in response to public pressure), advertisers and
social media companies have taken steps to help ensure a more
responsible approach to content for children. Walt Disney Co.
decided not to show preschoolers ads on its Disney+ service
and will not collect data on individual kids for targeting
purposes. Google and Facebook parent meta no longer allow
ad-targeting to people under 18.148 YouTube now forces
creators to designate whether uploaded videos are meant for
children, and if so, it disables features such as ad targeting and
comments.149 In its most significant move, YouTube removed
millions of low-quality videos from YouTube Kids, cutting its
library by about 80 percent.150 Major companies, including
McDonald’s, Pepsico, and Kraft foods, have tightened
restrictions on their pitches to children.151
Some watchdog organizations feel these voluntary moves
are insufficient and have asked for more regulation. In 2022,
a consortium of 31 groups, including the American Academy
of Pediatrics, called upon the Federal Trade Commission to
investigate the methods used to collect online data about kids:
“Advertising to children is a lucrative, booming business, and
not enough is understood about these new methods of surveilling and monetizing children, or the impact that it has on their
privacy and wellbeing,” according to the group’s letter to the
FTC.152 As the use of digital media by children continues
to grow, it will take the “village” of responsible advertisers,
legislators, and most of all, parents, to ensure that the youngest consumers are marketed to in a way appropriate for their
age and decision-making capabilities.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

CS 4-1 Discuss some of the ways that the limited decisionmaking and self-control capabilities of young children could lead them to make inaccurate assessments
of advertising messages. Use examples to illustrate.
CS 4-2 If you were designing an ad campaign directed at
6 to 10-year-old kids, what principles could you use
to ensure that you are communicating to them in an
appropriate and responsible manner, while still promoting your product?
CS 4-3 What are the risks to the children serving as kidfluencers who are allowed by parents (and encouraged
by marketers and fans) to take on this role? What
limitations regarding kidfluencers, if any, should
advertisers voluntarily agree to and/or legislators
enforce by law?

Chapter 4 • Learning, Remembering, and Knowing

121

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Susan E. Heckler and Terry L. Childers, “The Role of Expectancy and Relevancy in Memory for Verbal and Visual Information: What Is Incongruency?”
Journal of Consumer Research 18 (March 1992): 475–92.
Russell H. Fazio, Paul M. Herr, and Martha C. Powell, “On the Development
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Jennifer Aaker, Aimee Drolet, and Dale Griffin, “Recalling Mixed Emotions,”
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Chapter 4 • Learning, Remembering, and Knowing

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100. Susan L. Holak and William J. Havlena, “Feelings, Fantasies, and Memories:
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102. Jannine D. Lasaleta and Katherine E. Loveland, “What’s New Is Old Again:
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106. Walter A. Henry, “The Effect of Information-Processing Ability on Processing
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107. T. Bettina Cornwell, Michael S. Humphreys, Angela M. Maguire, Clinton S.
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108. Saheli Roy Choudhury, “McDonald’s Bungled a Rare Condiment Promotion,
Leaving Screaming Customers and $280 Packets,” CNBC, October 8, 2017,
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109. Kevin Lane Keller, “Memory Factors in Advertising: The Effect of Advertising Retrieval Cues on Brand Evaluations,” Journal of Consumer Research 14
(December 1987): 316–33. For a discussion of processing operations that occur
during brand choice, see Gabriel Biehal and Dipankar Chakravarti, “Consumers’ Use of Memory and External Information in Choice: Macro and Micro
Perspectives,” Journal of Consumer Research 12 (March 1986): 382–405.
110. Susan T. Fiske and Shelley E. Taylor, Social Cognition (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1984).
111. Deborah Roedder John and John C. Whitney Jr., “The Development of
Consumer Knowledge in Children: A Cognitive Structure Approach,” Journal
of Consumer Research 12 (March 1986): 406–17.

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112. Michael R. Solomon, Carol Surprenant, John A. Czepiel, and Evelyn G.
Gutman, “A Role Theory Perspective on Dyadic Interactions: The Service
Encounter,” Journal of Marketing 49 (Winter 1985): 99–111.
113. Robert M. McMath, “The Perils of Typecasting,” American Demographics
(February 1997): 60.
114. Eleanor Rosch, “Principles of Categorization,” in E. Rosch and B. B. Lloyd,
eds., Recognition and Categorization (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1978); cf. also
Joseph Lajos, Zsolt Katona, Amitava Chattopadhyay, and Miklos Savary,
“Category Activation Model: A Spreading Activation Network Model of Subcategory Positioning When Categorization Uncertainty Is High,” Journal
of Consumer Research 36, no. 1 (June 2009): 122–36; cf. also M. S. Isaac
and R. M. Schindler, “The Top-Ten Effect: Consumers’ Subjective Categorization of Ranked Lists,” Journal of Consumer Research 40, no. 6 (2014):
1181–1202.
115. Marzena Nieroda, Mona Mrad, and Michael R. Solomon, “How do
Consumers Think about Hybrid Products? Computer Wearables Have an
Identity Problem,” Journal of Business Research 89 (August 2018): 159–70;
Noah Rayman, “Dunkin’ Donuts Now Has Its Own Version of the Cronut,”
Time, October 27, 2014, http://time.com/3542225/dunkin-donuts-croissantdonut-cronut/; cf. also Michael R. Solomon, The New Chameleons: How to
Connect with Consumers Who Defy Categorization (London: Kogan Page
International, 2021).
116. Laura A. Peracchio, “How Do Young Children Learn to Be Consumers?
A Script-Processing Approach,” Journal of Consumer Research 18 (March
1992): 425–40; Laura A. Peracchio, “Young Children’s Processing of a
Televised Narrative: Is a Picture Really Worth a Thousand Words?” Journal of
Consumer Research 20 (September 1993): 281–93.
117. Lan Nguyen Chaplin and Tina M. Lowrey, “The Development of ConsumerBased Consumption Constellations in Children,” Journal of Consumer
Research 36, no. 5 (2010): 757–77.
118. Joshua J. Clarkson, Chris Janiszewski, and Melissa D. Cinelli, “The Desire for
Consumption Knowledge,” Journal of Consumer Research 39, no. 6 (2013):
1313–29.
119. Matthew D. Rocklage, Derek D. Rucker, and Loran F. Nordgren, “Emotionally
Numb: Expertise Dulls Consumer Experience,” Journal of Consumer Research
48, no. 3 (October 2021): 355–73, https://doi.org/10.1093/jcr/ucab015.
120. Andre F. Maciel and Melanie Wallendorf, “Taste Engineering: An Extended
Consumer Model of Cultural Competence Constitution,” Journal of Consumer
Research 43.5 (2017): 726–46.
121. Michael R. Solomon, “Mapping Product Constellations: A Social Categorization Approach to Symbolic Consumption,” Psychology & Marketing 5, no. 3
(1988): 233–58.
122. Elizabeth C. Hirschman and Michael R. Solomon, “Competition and Cooperation among Culture Production Systems,” in Ronald F. Bush and Shelby D.
Hunt, eds., Marketing Theory: Philosophy of Science Perspectives (Chicago,
IL: American Marketing Association, 1982): 269–72.
123. Michael D. Johnson, “The Differential Processing of Product Category and
Noncomparable Choice Alternatives,” Journal of Consumer Research 16
(December 1989): 300–339.
124. Mita Sujan, “Consumer Knowledge: Effects on Evaluation Strategies
Mediating Consumer Judgments,” Journal of Consumer Research 12 (June
1985): 31–46.
125. Marcus Cunha, Jr. and Juliano Laran, “Asymmetries in the Sequential Learning
of Brand Associations: Implications for the Early Entrant Advantage,” Journal
of Consumer Research 35, no. 5 (2009): 788–99.
126. Andrew W. Ellis, Selina J. Holmes, and Richard L. Wright, “Age of Acquisition and the Recognition of Brand Names: On the Importance of Being Early,”
Journal of Consumer Psychology 20, no. 1 (2010): 43–52.
127. Mark J. Miller, “Bob Marley Brand Expands from Music to Coffee to Swimwear,” Brandchannel, February 21, 2012, www.brandchannel.com/home/
post/2012/02/21/Bob-Marley-Brand-Extensions-022112.aspx.
128. http://passiripatti.com/2010/11/social-media-for-toddlers/; “Sign of the Times:
Toy Blocks That Teach Toddlers Social Networking,” Fast Company, November 30, 2010, accessed May 9, 2022.
129. Alixandra Barasch, Gal Zauberman, and Kristin Diehl, “How the Intention
to Share Can Undermine Enjoyment: Photo-Taking Goals and Evaluation of
Experiences,” Journal of Consumer Research 44, no. 6 (2018): 1220–37.
130. Stacy Menzel Baker, Holli C. Karrer, and Ann Veeck, “My Favorite Recipes:
Recreating Emotions and Memories Through Cooking,” Advances in Consumer Research 32, no. 1 (2005): 304–05.
131. Thomas F. Jones, “Our Musical Heritage Is Being Raided,” San Francisco
Examiner, May 23, 1997.
132. Kevin Goldman, “A Few Rockers Refuse to Turn Tunes into Ads,” New York
Times, August 25, 1995: B1.
133. Charles Duhigg, “Warning: Habits May Be Good for You,” New York Times
Magazine, July 17, 2008, www.ntyimes.com/2008/07/13/Business/13habit.html.
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124

Section 2

• Making Sense of the World

135. Erin Costello, “Balancing Nutrition and Appeal in Children’s Food and
Beverage,” Food Beverage Insider, May 3, 2022, https://www.foodbeverage
insider.com/market-trends-analysis/balancing-nutrition-and-appealchildrens-food-and-beverage.
136. Anne Sutherland and Beth Thompson, Kidfluence: Why Kids Today Mean
Business (Whitby, Canada: McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 2001).
137. Rachel E. Greenspan, “TikTok Is Breeding a New Batch of Child Stars. Psychologists Say What Comes Next Won’t Be Pretty,” Insider, July 9, 2020,
https://www.insider.com/psychologists-say-social-media-fame-may-harmchild-star-influencers-2020-5.
138. Heidi Borst, “Talking to Kids about Advertising,” National Geographic,
December 2, 2021, https://www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/family/2021/12/
talking-to-kids-about-advertising.
139. Yoree Koh, “How YouTube Kids Cleaned Up Its Act,” Wall Street Journal
(Eastern Ed.), March 5, 2022, https://www.wsj.com/articles/how-youtubekids-cleaned-up-its-act-11646476200.
140. Julia Alexander, “YouTube Kids Has Been a Problem since 2015 — Why Did It
Take This Long to Address?,” Polygon, December 8, 2017, https://www.polygon
.com/2017/12/8/16737556/youtube-kids-video-inappropriate-superhero-disney.
141. Georgia Wells and Jeff Horwitz, “Facebook’s Effort to Attract Preteens
Goes beyond Instagram Kids, Documents Show,” Wall Street Journal
(Eastern Ed.), September 28, 2021, https://www.wsj.com/articles/
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142. Katie Deighton, “Marketers Are Curbing Some Advertising to Children,” Wall
Street Journal (Eastern Ed.), May 31, 2022, https://www.wsj.com/articles/
marketers-are-curbing-some-advertising-to-children-11654030239.
143. Zulie Rane, “The Terrifying Rise of the Child Influencer and the Parents
Who Profit,” OneZero, October 25, 2021, https://onezero.medium.com/
the-terrifying-rise-of-the-child-fashion-influencer-e7b03278d887.

144. Ray A. Smith, “Meet the 9-Year-Old Telling You What to Wear,” Wall Street
Journal (Eastern Ed.), October 6, 2018, https://www.wsj.com/articles/
meet-the-9-year-old-telling-you-what-to-wear-1538823660.
145. Danya Hajjaji, “YouTube Lets Parents Exploit Their Kids for Clicks,” Newsweek, October 4, 2021, https://www.newsweek.com/youtube-lets-lawlesslucrative-sharenting-industry-put-kids-mercy-internet-1635112.
146. Grace Dean, “Food Brands Spend $1.8 Billion Advertising to Kids – but
Increasingly, Child YouTubers Are Plugging Their Products for Free,”
Business Insider, November 8, 2020, https://www.businessinsider.com/
mcdonalds-mms-among-fast-food-candy-brands-advertising-to-kids2020-11.
147. Heidi Borst, “Talking to Kids about Advertising,” National Geographic,
December 2, 2021, https://www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/family/2021/12/
talking-to-kids-about-advertising.
148. Katie Deighton, “Marketers Are Curbing Some Advertising to Children,” Wall
Street Journal (Eastern Ed.), May 31, 2022, https://www.wsj.com/articles/
marketers-are-curbing-some-advertising-to-children-11654030239.
149. Ryan Tracy, “FTC Faces Push to Study Ads Targeting Children,” Wall Street
Journal (Eastern Ed.), December 5, 2019, https://www.wsj.com/articles/
ftc-faces-push-to-study-ads-targeting-children-11575522061.
150. Yoree Koh, “How YouTube Kids Cleaned Up Its Act,” Wall Street
Journal (Eastern Ed.), March 5, 2022, https://www.wsj.com/articles/
how-youtube-kids-cleaned-up-its-act-11646476200.
151. Katie Deighton, “Marketers Are Curbing Some Advertising to Children,” Wall
Street Journal (Eastern Ed.), May 31, 2022, https://www.wsj.com/articles/
marketers-are-curbing-some-advertising-to-children-11654030239.
152. Ryan Tracy, “FTC Faces Push to Study Ads Targeting Children,” Wall Street
Journal (Eastern Ed.), December 5, 2019, https://www.wsj.com/articles/
ftc-faces-push-to-study-ads-targeting-children-11575522061.

5

Motivation
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES When you finish reading this chapter, you should be able to:
5-1 Understand how motivation can be intrinsic or
extrinsic.
5-2 Outline how products can satisfy a range of
consumer needs.

5-4 Explain how the way we evaluate and choose a
product depends on our degree of involvement
with the product, the marketing message, or the
purchase situation.

5-3 Discuss how setting goals correctly can motivate
consumers to strive toward and achieve those
goals.

D

uring the COVID-19 lockdown, Americans gained nearly
two pounds per month when everyone was under shelterin-place orders at the height of the pandemic in 2020.1 Many
people have emerged from the pandemic with goals to improve their
health.
Imani is a woman on a fitness mission. She’s aware of the body
positivity movement, which was initiated by plus-size black women. It
encourages people to love themselves as they are, regardless of whether
their body conforms to an idea that Western society perpetuates.2 She
is motivated by true concern about her health. After all, she has a family
history of high blood pressure and diabetes.
Coincidentally, she learns that her idol Beyoncé is partnering with
Peloton to create cycling, running, strength, and yoga classes that integrate her music with Peloton’s class content.3 Peloton was red-hot during the pandemic
as legions of gym rats had to migrate their workouts from the gym to home; the company boasts more than 874,000 digital subscribers to its fitness programs.4 And many
celebrities, from Jennifer Anniston to Diddy, proudly posted photos of themselves pedaling their way to fitness. True, Peloton stumbled a bit post-pandemic as it had to recall
a faulty treadmill product, and it miscalculated the number of people who would still be
interested in buying a Peloton bike after they were allowed back outside again.5 But the
prospect of a daily bike ride while she vibes to Beyoncé’s tunes fits her plans beautifully,
so like almost six million others, Imani bites the bullet, and she eagerly awaits delivery of
her new Peloton bike.

Source: Kali9/E+/Getty Images.

125

126

Section 2 • Making Sense of the World

OBJECTIVE 5- 1
Understand how
motivation can be
intrinsic or extrinsic.

The Motivation Process:
Why Ask Why?

What’s the best way to get motivated to exercise more? Some
people will run as far away as they can from a group exercise class. They do not enjoy
the social interaction and prefer to do their own thing. For others, like Imani, the social
nature of a Peloton class is what drives them.
To understand motivation is to understand why consumers do what they do. Why
do some people choose to bungee-jump off a bridge or compete on reality shows,
whereas others spend their leisure time playing chess or gardening? Whether it is to
quench a thirst, kill boredom, or attain some deep spiritual experience, we do everything for a reason, even if we can’t articulate that reason. We teach marketing students
from Day 1 that the goal of marketing is to satisfy consumers’ needs. However, this
insight is useless unless we can discover what those needs are and why they exist.
A beer commercial once asked, “Why ask why?” In this chapter, we’ll find out. As
you can see in Figure 5.1, we’ll start with a brief discussion about the forces that
influence motivation. Then, we’ll move on to goal setting and goal striving—getting
from a customer’s “wish” to reality.

Push or Pull? Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation
Motivation refers to the processes that lead people to behave as they do. It occurs
when a need that the consumer wishes to satisfy is activated. The need creates a state
of tension that drives the consumer to attempt to reduce or eliminate it. Like Imani’s
fitness objectives, the desired end state becomes a goal for the consumer to attain.
Marketers try to create products and services to provide the desired benefits and help
the consumer to reduce this tension.
The motivation can be intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation occurs when
a person pulls from their own inherent drives; extrinsic motivation occurs when a
person is pushed by an external force. Understanding what intrinsically motivates us
is crucial to help us reach our goals. Metamotivation refers to people’s understanding
of their own personal motivational states and the best ways to motivate themselves.6
Both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations can affect people’s behavior. For instance,
a study designed to understand why consumers create and post videos about brands
(user-generated content) found that both intrinsic motivations, such as being naturally

Intrinsic and extrinsic forces

Motivation (drive)
CURRENT STATE
(affected by unmet
needs)

Goal setting

DESIRED STATE
(goal)

Select goal &
determine goal level

Goal striving
Develop and implement
a plan to achieve the goal

Figure 5.1 Motivation and Goals

Chapter 5 • Motivation

altruistic, and extrinsic rewards, such as economic incentives, motivated the behavior
to create this content.7
Many programs are designed to create external incentives to motivate consumers.
For instance, financial literacy (see Chapter 2) initiatives try to find the most effective
ways to encourage consumers to reduce their credit card debt. One team of researchers
found that concentrated repayment strategies—those that consolidate all debt into a
single account—were more motivating than dispersed strategies, in which the debt
was dispersed across a range of accounts.8
Why would this be? Apparently, the concentrated strategy created greater extrinsic
motivation to get out of debt, because consumers felt that they were making greater
progress in debt repayment when they could see, in a single account, a greater proportion of the starting balance repaid. This finding serves as a reminder that a simple
adjustment like allowing a consumer to gauge their progress toward a goal can help
them to double down on their efforts to attain it.
Research on intrinsic and extrinsic motivation shows that, in general, intrinsic
motivation leads to better quality of performance (for instance, you work out harder),
whereas extrinsic motivation via monetary incentives leads to more quantity of performance (you work out more often).9 More recently, researchers have identified
what they call achievement motivation.10 This refers to wanting to do well and
trying to achieve some standard of excellence, whether that standard is conscious
or nonconscious.

Motivational Drive
Whether the need is utilitarian or hedonic, the magnitude of the tension it creates
determines the urgency the consumer feels to reduce it. We call this degree of arousal
a drive.

Drive Theory
Drive theory focuses on biological needs that produce unpleasant states of arousal
(e.g., your stomach grumbles during a morning class). The arousal this tension causes
motivates us to reduce it and return to a balanced state called homeostasis. Some
researchers believe that this need to reduce arousal is a basic mechanism that governs
much of our behavior. Indeed, there is research evidence for the effectiveness of
so-called retail therapy; apparently the act of shopping restores a sense of personal
control over one’s environment and as a result can alleviate feelings of sadness (at
least in the short term).13
If a behavior reduces the drive, we naturally tend to repeat it. Your motivation to
leave class early to grab a snack would be greater if you hadn’t eaten in 24 hours than
if you had eaten only two hours earlier. Your degree of motivation, then, depends on
the distance between your present state and the goal.
Drive theory runs into difficulties when it tries to explain some facets of human
behavior that run counter to its predictions. People often do things that increase a drive
state rather than decrease it. For example, we may delay gratification. If you know
you are going out for a lavish dinner, you might decide to forego a snack earlier in the
day even though you are hungry at that time.

Nonconscious Goals
Can you make choices that are consistent with your goal even when you’re not
conscious of the goals? The research says yes! Even goals that we are not aware of
(nonconscious goals) can have a strong impact on our choices.14

127

Buying, Having, Being
The Power of Placebos
The placebo effect vividly demonstrates the power that intrinsic
motivation plays on our feelings,
thoughts, and behaviors. This term
refers to the well-documented tendency for your brain to convince
you that a fake treatment is the real
thing—and thus a sugar pill or other
placebo actually can reduce pain,
treat insomnia, and provide other
benefits.11
A recent study looked at the
increase in sexual assaults and car
accidents caused by people who
drink alcohol mixed with energy
drinks. Although this mixture
doesn’t actually increase the
physiological effects of intoxication,
many people believe that it does.
When the researchers labeled a
cocktail made of vodka, Red Bull,
and fruit juice to emphasize that it
contained an energy drink, study
participants (males between 18 and
25) perceived themselves to be
more intoxicated than did those who
drank the same cocktail without this
labeling. The effect was more pronounced among those who believe
energy drinks increase intoxication.
Although the actual levels of intoxication did not differ (as measured
by a breathalyzer), participants who
believed that intoxication increases
risk-taking were more likely to score
high on a measure of risk-taking. In
addition, those who believed that
alcohol intoxication increases sexual
disinhibition scored higher on a
measure of sexual self-confidence—
predictions about whether a woman
would “accept their advances.”12

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• Making Sense of the World

One question that keeps some consumer researchers up at night is whether a
person even needs to be aware of a motivation to achieve a goal. The evidence suggests
that motives can lurk beneath the surface, and cues in the environment can activate
a goal even when we don’t know it. For instance, seeing a weight scale can prime a
goal to lose weight, even if we aren’t aware of that trigger. We will revisit these nonconscious influences in Chapter 8.

Self-Regulation
How much willpower do you have when it comes to controlling what you eat, how
fiercely you exercise, or even what you say to your friends? Self-regulation describes
our ability to monitor and manage our own emotions, thoughts, and behaviors.
Psychologists tout it as the most fundamental skill to be successful at many tasks in
our lives, and the best predictor of learning, of developing healthy relationships, and
of well-being.15
Having a self-regulatory strategy means that we specify in advance how we want
to respond in certain situations. These “if-then” plans, or implementation intentions,
may dictate how much weight we give to different kinds of information (emotional
or cognitive), a timetable to carry out a decision, or even how we will deal with disruptive influences that might interfere with our plans (like a bossy salesperson who
tries to steer us to a different choice).16
Consumers who know how to self-regulate are better at making plans toward goals
and at transforming those plans into reality.17 They are better at setting intentions,
translating these intentions into actions, and avoiding any interference. On the other
hand, failure to self-regulate can happen when we lose control of attention or misdirect
our efforts, often because we let emotions take over.18 We’ve all been there!
Each of us fights a constant battle to control our desires, whether these involve
splurging on expensive clothes or treating ourselves to fattening snacks. Many factors,
both internal (for example, willpower) and external (for
example, peer pressure), help to determine whether or when
we give in. Even something as innocent as checking your
Facebook page can make you lose control! Recent research
implies that when you focus on what your close friends post,
this makes you feel better. This momentary boost in selfesteem we get in turn prompts us to lose self-control and
engage in impulsive behaviors, such as binge eating and even
reckless spending that lowers credit scores.19
A recent study shed some light on why our efforts to
self-regulate get stronger or weaker over time as we progress
toward a goal—and especially why what starts out as an
exciting quest turns into a painful slog even though we’re
getting closer to the objective. The researchers distinguished
In recent years, researchers and marketers have become more
between two types of motivation: (1) Promotion motivation
aware of the role they can play in changing consumer behavior by
encourages people to focus on hopes and aspirations, while
helping people to regulate their own actions. This help may take
(2) prevention motivation instead focuses on responsibilithe form of simple feedback, like a phone app for people tracking
ties and duties as it prompts people to think about avoiding
sleeping patterns, or perhaps a wearable computing device like
something negative. We referred to these strategies as
the Fitbit that tells you how many steps you take in a day (and
how many more you should take). These applications provide a
“approach” and avoidance” when we talked about learning
feedback loop to help with self-regulation. The basic premise
in Chapter 4.
is amazingly simple: Provide people with information about their
As the researchers predicted, individuals tend to be
actions in real time, and then give them a chance to change those
more
promotion motivated in earlier stages of goal pursuit
actions so that you push them to improve.
and
become
more prevention motivated as goal attainment
Source: Rob Wilkinson/Alamy Stock Photo.

Chapter 5 • Motivation

draws near. The researchers speculate that when we are in the early stages of attaining a goal, we compare our progress with where we started, so we are optimistic. But
after we reach the midpoint, we switch our reference to the end goal we’re striving
for—and thus focus on our shortcomings instead. Their advice: In the early stages,
focus on how attaining the goal will help you to achieve things you hope for (such as
a healthy body). Then, when you’re in the home stretch, focus on how getting to your
goal will help you to fulfill your responsibilities. And make a list of things not to do to
stay on course. Finally, reward yourself with a break from something you don’t enjoy
when you’re making progress so long as it doesn’t short-circuit your efforts (e.g., no
congratulatory margaritas if you’re trying to get sober).20

OBJECTIVE 5-2
Outline how
products can
satisfy a range of
consumer needs.

Consumer Needs
Utilitarian and Hedonic Needs

As we saw in Chapter 1, a need reflects a basic goal, such as
keeping yourself nourished or protected from the elements.
When we focus on a utilitarian need, we emphasize the objective, tangible attributes
of products, such as miles per gallon in a car; the amount of fat, calories, and protein
in a cheeseburger; or the durability of a pair of blue jeans. Hedonic needs are subjective and experiential; here we might look to a product to meet our needs for excitement, self-confidence, or fantasy—perhaps to escape the mundane or routine aspects
of life.22
Many items satisfy our hedonic needs (there’s even a popular resort called
Hedonism). Upscale brands thrive when they offer the promise of pleasure to
the user—how badly do you “need” that Supreme hoodie or Coach bag?23 Hedonic
and utilitarian motivations affect consumers’ shopping behavior. For instance, consumers motivated to shop hedonically review larger assortments than if they shop for
utilitarian reasons.24
It’s hard to overstate the importance of hedonic consumption as an influence
on consumers’ choices. This term refers to the multisensory, fantasy, and emotional
aspects of consumers’ interactions with products.25 As manufacturing costs go down
and the amount of “stuff” that people accumulate goes up, consumers want to buy
things that will provide hedonic value in addition to simply doing what they’re
designed to do.

For some, jumping out of an airplane is an enjoyable
hedonic experience.
Source: iurii/Shutterstock.

129

Buying, Having, Being
The Quantified Self
Did you log your 10,000 steps
today? Have you posted data from
your workout so your friends can
see how you did? Don’t forget to
upload those pics of the yummy
salad you had for lunch today!
Or, maybe you’re a biohacker—
a person who meticulously monitors their bodily processes and vital
signs with the intent of creating a
superhuman race. Some wear a
headband that electrically stimulates
the brain to improve cognition.21
A few hardy souls even have a lightup implant surgically inserted into
their arms to monitor biometric data
that changes color when levels are
abnormal. This self-recording of
personal data is a hallmark of the
quantified self (QS) movement.
The first known attempt to meticulously self-track was by Sanctorius
of Padua, who in the 16th century
recorded his own weight versus
food intake and waste over a
30-year period (do not try this at
home!).
Today, a thriving industry caters
to this yearning to self-quantify.
Numerous startups are betting that
consumers will outsource their selfregulation as they try to morph into
better, brighter, augmented versions
of themselves. Companies hawk
apps and other devices like Fitbits
that measure how much individuals
sleep, eat, walk, and spend. Some
of these hi-tech tools are socially
grounded; their success hinges
upon consumers’ willingness to
share their data with their networks
to obtain reinforcement, feedback—
and sometimes a modicum of
shame that drives them to do better.
Now, go finish those 10,000 steps
so you can call it a day!

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Form is function. Two young entrepreneurs named Adam Lowry and Eric Ryan discovered
that basic truth when they quit their day jobs to develop a line of house-cleaning products
they called Method. Cleaning products—what a yawn, right?
For years, companies such as Procter & Gamble have plodded along, peddling boring boxes
of soap powder to generations of housewives who suffered in silence, scrubbing and buffing,
yearning for the daily respite of martini time. Lowry and Ryan gambled that they could offer
an alternative: cleaners in exotic scents such as cucumber, lavender, and ylang-ylang that
came in aesthetically pleasing bottles. The bet paid off. Within two years, the partners were
cleaning up, taking in more than $2 million in revenue. Shortly thereafter, they hit it big when
Target contracted to sell Method products in its stores.27
Source: Sara Stathas/Alamy Stock Photo.

In fact, research evidence suggests that our brains are wired to appreciate good
design: Respondents who were hooked up to a brain apparatus called a functional
magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scanner showed faster reaction times when they
saw aesthetically pleasing packages, even compared to well-known brands such as
Coca-Cola.26 That helps to explain why mass-market consumers thirst for great design
and why they reward those companies that give it to them with their enthusiastic
patronage and loyalty. From razor blades such as the Gillette Sensor to the Apple
Watch and even to the lowly trashcan, form is function.

How Can We Understand Needs?
Numerous psychologists have tried to define a universal inventory of needs they could
trace systematically to explain virtually all behavior. Let’s get into the weeds on the
most well-known applications.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
The psychologist Abraham Maslow originally developed his influential hierarchy
of needs to understand personal growth and how people attain spiritual “peak
experiences.” Marketers later adapted his work to understand consumer motivations.28
Maslow’s hierarchical structure implies that the order of development is fixed—that
is, we must attain a certain level before we activate a need for the next higher one. Marketers
embraced this perspective because it (indirectly) specifies certain types of product benefits
people might look for, depending on their stage of mental or spiritual development or on
their economic situation.29 An integrative view of consumer goal structures and goaldetermination processes proposes six discrete levels of goals wherein higher-level (versus
lower-level) goals are more abstract, more inclusive, and less mutable. In descending

Chapter 5 • Motivation

SELF-TRANSCENDENCE
I can observe the cycle of life in my garden

6

SELF-ACTUALIZATION
My garden gives me a sense of peace

5

ESTEEM
I can create something of beauty

4

SOCIAL
I can share my produce with others

3

SAFETY
I feel safe in the garden

2

PHYSIOLOGICAL
I eat what I grow

1

Figure 5.2 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

order of abstraction, these goal levels are life themes and values, life projects, current
concerns, consumption intentions, benefits sought, and feature preferences.
Figure 5.2 presents this model. At each level, the person seeks different kinds of
product benefits. Ideally, an individual progresses up the hierarchy until their dominant
motivation is a focus on “ultimate” goals, such as justice and harmony. The highest
level of Maslow’s hierarchy is self-transcendence, where an individual seeks to further
a cause beyond the self and to experience a communion beyond the boundaries of the
self through peak experiences.
Although this sixth level of Maslow’s motivational theory is often forgotten, it was
an important component of Maslow’s thinking because it reveals that the individual may
put their own individual needs aside in favor of service to others or to a greater cause.30
In other words, the individual rises above their own needs as they are driven toward a
higher purpose or the meaning of life, which is a central issue of human psychology.31
Unfortunately, this state is difficult to achieve (at least on a regular basis),
even though many marketing messages claim to provide such peak experiences.
Of course, the pandemic encouraged a lot of selfless behavior by caregivers and
others, as many people began to rethink their priorities.
The Great Resignation we witnessed in the years afterward (more than 30 million Americans quit their jobs)
as workers rethought what they wanted to do to make a
living also relates to this quest for meaning.32
Marketers’ applications of this hierarchy have been
somewhat simplistic, especially because the same product or
activity can gratify different needs. For example, one early
study found that gardening could satisfy needs at every level
of the hierarchy:33

•
•
•
•
•
•

Physiological – “I eat what I grow.”
Safety – “I feel safe in the garden.”
Social – “I can share my produce with others.”
Esteem – “I can create something of beauty.”
Self-actualization – “My garden gives me a sense of peace.”
Self-transcendence – “I can observe the cycle of life in
my garden.”

A basic activity like gardening can satisfy people at different
levels, depending upon their motivation to engage in it.
Source: Todd Arena/123RF.

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Another problem with taking Maslow’s hierarchy of needs too
literally is that it is culture-bound; its assumptions may apply only to
Western culture, where the typology was originally developed. People
in other cultures (or, for that matter, even some in Western cultures)
may question the order of the levels it specifies. A religious person
who has taken a vow of celibacy would not necessarily agree that
physiological needs must be satisfied before self-fulfillment can occur.

Terror Management
Because these needs are ingrained in us, the salience (awareness) of
our mortality can activate certain levels of needs—we certainly saw
this as many of us lost loved ones to COVID. Research on so-called
terror management theory shows that making people conscious of
their own death activates safety needs and motivates people to engage
in healthier behaviors.34
That body of research also shows that mortality salience
makes people more likely to engage in materialistic and self-serving
behaviors.35 That said, there is also new evidence that mortality
salience can also lead people toward the state of transcendence—for
instance, it may motivate them to give away possessions. The jury
is still out. . .36

Self-Determination
Organizations like the Peace Corps that need to recruit
members may appeal to our need for relatedness with
others as well as self-fulfillment.
Source: Peacecorps.gov.

•
•
•

According to self-determination theory, humans are intrinsically
motivated by the innate psychological needs for autonomy, relatedness, and competence:37

Autonomy refers to the experience of volition and willingness. When this need
is satisfied, we experience a sense of integrity because our actions, thoughts,
and feelings are self-endorsed and authentic. When this need is frustrated, we
experience a sense of pressure and often conflict, such as feeling pushed in an
unwanted direction.
Relatedness refers to the experience of warmth, bonding, and care, and is satisfied
by connecting to and feeling significant to others. Relatedness frustration comes
with a sense of social alienation, exclusion, and loneliness.
Competence is the belief in one’s ability to perform essential tasks. It is satisfied
when we capably engage in activities and experience opportunities for using and
mastering skills. When this need is frustrated, we experience a sense of ineffectiveness or even failure and helplessness.

Self-determination theory can be useful to understand the struggles that bottomof-the pyramid consumers in Maslow’s scheme face. Research on impoverished
consumers shows that the needs of relatedness and autonomy are useful to people
only if basic life necessities are available. Those living in extreme poverty face a great
deal of hopelessness, as they cannot even meet their most basic needs.38

How “Needy” Are You? Individual
Differences in Motivation
Other motivational approaches have focused on specific needs and their ramifications
for behavior. Some important needs that are relevant to consumer behavior include:

•

Need to belong (to be in the company of other people):39 People who have a higher
need to belong actively seek out the company of others. The need to belong is

Chapter 5 • Motivation

•
•
•

relevant to products and services for people in groups, such as participating in team
sports, frequenting bars, and even logging in to that Peloton class.
Need for power (to control one’s environment):40 Many products and services
allow us to feel that we have mastery over our surroundings. These products range
from “hopped-up” muscle cars and drivers bumping to the throbbing bass on their
car radios as they cruise down the road to luxury resorts that promise to respond
to every whim of their pampered guests.
Need for uniqueness (to assert one’s individual identity):41 Products satisfy the
need for uniqueness when they pledge to bring out our distinctive qualities. For
example, Fenty Beauty disrupted the beauty industry when Rihanna’s startup
offered women 50 distinct skin tone shades to match their distinct complexion.
A fresh start mindset:42 This concept captures the belief that people can change
their own destiny and get a fresh start, get a new beginning, and chart a new course
in life, regardless of their past or present circumstances. We’ve seen a lot of this
in the past few years, as many people used the pandemic as an opportunity to
radically change their living circumstances.

This is an important individual difference, because those who believe in a
fresh start mindset are more likely to set new goals for themselves, to change their
circumstances, and to reinvent themselves by engaging in new activities, adopting new
lifestyles, and making different consumption choices in order to create a positive future.
We can identify individuals who display this orientation based upon the way they answer
such questions as, “ Whatever their past, people can look forward to a new future.”

OBJECTIVE 5-3
Discuss how setting
goals correctly
can motivate
consumers to strive
toward and achieve
those goals.

Setting and Reaching Goals

There are entire industries whose sole purpose is to help
people achieve their financial, career, and health goals, or
to motivate them to have willpower. It turns out that setting
goals is the best way to motivate people to achieve those
goals. A ton of research has shown that when we consciously
set goals deliberately, when we monitor goal progress, and when we are committed to
reaching the goal, we are most likely to achieve it.46

Goal Conflicts
Recall that Imani questioned her motivations to pump up her exercise program. As
Figure 5.3 shows, consumers experience different kinds of conflicts that can impact
their purchase decisions. For example, we might be conflicted if we’re torn between
buying something that serves a useful purpose versus something that’s just “for fun”
(kind of like getting a package of tube socks versus a Vans snapback hat for your
birthday). Indeed, a recent study found that promotions such as price discounts,
rebates, coupons, and loyalty rewards exert a bigger impact on hedonic versus
utilitarian purchases. Apparently, it’s more difficult to justify a hedonic purchase,
so these promotions provide a way to reduce the guilt that comes from buying them
(“hey, it was on sale!”).47
A goal has valence, which means that it can be positive or negative. We direct
our behavior toward goals we value positively; we are motivated to approach the
goal and to seek out products that will help us to reach it. However, as we saw in
Chapter 4’s discussion of negative reinforcement, sometimes we’re also motivated to
avoid a negative outcome rather than achieve a positive outcome.

133

Buying, Having, Being
The Power of Grit
Perseverance toward a goal is
key to success. A new school of
thought says that grit, a combination of passion and long-term
perseverance toward one’s goals,
is even more important than genius.
Grit predicts how much effort and
persistence one will undertake in the
face of challenges.43
To know how “gritty” you are,
think about the degree to which you
agree/disagree with the following
statements:44
1. I often set a goal but later choose
to pursue a different one.
2. I have been obsessed with a
certain idea or project for a short
time but later lost interest.
3. I finish whatever I begin.
4. Setbacks don’t discourage me.
5. I am diligent.
However, there is still a debate
about whether it’s grit or some
other aspect of personality that
predicts success. Indeed, an
analysis of existing research on
grit (a meta-analysis of a large
number of studies) concluded that
grit is very strongly correlated with
conscientiousness, the ability to
be organized, responsible, industrious, and reliable, and that it may be
conscientiousness and not grit per
se that drives succeeding in one’s
goals.45 Whether it’s grit or conscientiousness, what really matters is
that they are both key ingredients of
motivation. How “gritty” are you?

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Approach

Approach

Approach

Avoidance

Avoidance

Avoidance

Figure 5.3 Types of Goal Conflicts
Source: Matsabe/Shutterstock.

We structure purchases or consumption activities to reduce the chances that we
will experience a nasty result. For example, many consumers work hard to avoid
rejection by their peers (an avoidance goal). They stay away from products that
they associate with social disapproval. Products such as deodorants and mouthwash
frequently rely on consumers’ negative motivation when ads depict the onerous social
consequences of underarm odor or bad breath.
New research shows that when we face conflicting goals (for example: save
money for retirement or buy nice things), these conflicting goals make us stressed
and anxious.48 The authors of that research found two simple solutions to reduce
this stress: slow breathing (think mindfulness, as we discussed in Chapter 4) and
transforming the anxiety into feelings of excitement. The researchers created this
anxiety reappraisal intervention by simply having their participants say out loud a
statement that read “I AM EXCITED!” three times. So, relabeling situations that
might evoke anxiety as exciting instead (e.g., “buying a new car is fun!”) can actually
lower stress—and we all can use that!
Because a purchase decision can involve more than one source of motivation,
consumers often find themselves in situations in which different goals, both positive
and negative, conflict with one another.49 Marketers attempt to satisfy consumers’
needs by providing possible solutions to these dilemmas. As Figure 5.3 shows, there
are three general types of conflicts we should understand.

Approach–Approach Conflict
A person has an approach–approach conflict when they must choose between two
desirable alternatives. A student might be torn between going home for the holidays
and going on a skiing trip with friends. Or, they might have to choose between going
to listen to two bands that are playing at different clubs on the opposite sides of town.
The theory of cognitive dissonance is based on the premise that people have a
need for order and consistency in their lives and that a state of dissonance (tension)
exists when beliefs or behaviors conflict with one another. We resolve the conflict
that arises when we choose between two alternatives through a process of cognitive
dissonance reduction, where we look for a way to reduce this inconsistency (or
dissonance) and thus eliminate unpleasant tension.

Chapter 5 • Motivation

Postdecision dissonance occurs when a consumer must choose between two
products, both of which possess good and bad qualities. When they choose one product
and not the other, the person gets the bad qualities of the product they buy and lose
out on the good qualities of the one they didn’t buy. This loss creates an unpleasant,
dissonant state that they want to reduce. We tend to convince ourselves, after the fact,
that the choice we made was the smart one as we find additional reasons to support
the alternative we did choose—perhaps when we discover flaws with the option we
did not choose (sometimes we call this rationalization). A marketer can bundle several
benefits together to resolve an approach–approach conflict. For example, Miller Lite’s
claim that it is “less filling” and “tastes great” allows the drinker to “have his beer
and drink it too.”

Approach–Avoidance Conflict
Many of the products and services we desire have negative consequences attached to
them as well as positive ones. We may feel guilty or ostentatious when we buy a luxury
product, such as a fur coat, or we might feel like gluttons when we crave a tempting
package of Twinkies. An approach–avoidance conflict occurs when we desire a goal
but wish to avoid it at the same time.
Some solutions to these conflicts include the proliferation of fake furs, which
eliminate guilt about harming animals to make a fashion statement, and the success of
diet programs such as Weight Watchers that promise good food without the calories.50
Many marketers try to help consumers overcome guilt by convincing them that they
deserve these luxuries. As the model for L’Oréal cosmetics proclaims, “Because I’m
worth it!”

Avoidance–Avoidance Conflict
Sometimes we find ourselves caught “between a rock and a hard place.” We may face
a choice with two undesirable alternatives: for instance, the option of either spending
more money on an old car or buying a new one. Don’t you hate when that happens?
Marketers frequently address an avoidance–avoidance conflict with messages that
stress the unforeseen benefits of choosing one option (e.g., when they emphasize
special credit plans to ease the pain of car payments).

Goal Framing Affects Goal Completion
In general, the higher we set our goals, the better we perform. A relatively easy way to
encourage people to set even higher goals for themselves is to frame them correctly.
A frame is simply a way of presenting information to change how it may be processed
and interpreted. We will cover the process of framing in more depth in Chapter 9, but
for now, it is sufficient to know that a framing effect occurs when our interpretation of
information—and/or how we behave in response to that information—changes based
on how the information is presented. Framing can also affect how we set goals and
how we strive toward them.

Positive and Negative Frames
Recent research finds that when they set goals, consumers can decide how many goalconsistent activities to undertake (such as exercising two days per week) or how many
goal-inconsistent activities to forego (such as not exercising five days per week). In
other words, they can apply positive or negative frames that influence how hard they
will work to achieve the goal.51
Researchers found evidence of this framing effect by conducting multiple studies
in which consumers selected activities toward a goal either by attending or skipping

135

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• Making Sense of the World

sessions. For instance, the participants read about a 10-week course that would
improve their job performance. The course took place over a 10-week period with
two lectures each week, and participants were asked to indicate how many lectures
they planned to attend (in the goal-consistent condition) versus miss (in the goalinconsistent condition). Every time participants were asked to miss activities, they
felt worse about themselves and compensated for these negative feelings by setting
even more ambitious goal levels.

Ends versus Means
When they pursue a goal, consumers generally have one of two mindsets: an outcomeoriented mindset (focusing on what the outcome will look like) or an implemental
mindset (focusing on how to reach that outcome). Recent research found that a positive mood is demotivating if you’re in an implemental mindset but motivating if you’re
in an outcome-oriented mindset.52 This is because a positive mood leads us to think of
more activities (i.e., means) that will accomplish our goal, and this in turn can make
the goal seem easier if we’re just focused on the outcome but harder if we’re focused
on how to carry out the necessary actions to achieve that outcome.
The way the researchers tested this theory was amazingly simple: to create
different mindsets toward a goal, participants were simply asked to describe the
outcome of the potential activities to accomplish the goal (outcome oriented) or
to describe the specific plans for when, where, and how to execute those plans
(implemental). Depending on the participants’ moods, these mindsets were more
or less motivating. So, before you make a plan to accomplish your goal, check
your mood!

The Time Frame
“I work better under a deadline.” Does the time you have to attain a goal make a difference? A set of research studies illustrates that the way you describe the amount of
time available to complete a task—the time frame—makes a difference. Researchers asked people to imagine they need to complete a language-learning / savings /
weight loss goal within a certain interval or by a certain date.53 They were then asked
if they would want to pursue that goal or how likely they would be to pursue it. No
matter the context, they found that people are more likely to pursue a goal when
they are given a time interval (“complete this review in two months”) than when the
deadline is framed as a specific date (“complete this review by Nov 17”), even when
the actual deadline is the same.
This happens because exact dates prompt us to also think about competing obligations falling within the interval. We end up focusing more on the (unenjoyable)
goal-pursuit process, whereas durations, which present the interval in isolation, make
us focus more on the goal’s (beneficial) outcome. A date that is specific makes salient
other competing goals and obligations and all we think about then is all the work we’ll
need to do to complete the goal. For instance, if you are wanting to learn some basic
Spanish before going on a trip to South America, you would look at this goal differently depending on whether you consider the time period (you have two months to
learn some español) or you consider the exact date of your flight out.
Furthermore, according to studies on the mere urgency effect, we tend to choose
to perform urgent tasks with short completion windows, compared to more important tasks.54 This tendency to pursue urgency over importance happens because urgent
tasks bring more immediate and certain outcomes, and we want to finish the
urgent tasks first and then work on important tasks later. This effect is so strong that
it even happens when the urgency is illusory—that is, when it seems that it has an
expiration date but in fact it does not. You might want to think about this the next time

Chapter 5 • Motivation

you’re deciding whether to complete a quick homework assignment that’s due this
week versus that bear of a term paper you’ve been trying not to think about.

Goal Difficulty and “Emergency Reserves”
Some goals are hard to achieve, like getting fit or writing a term paper, but that should
not be demotivating. In fact, hard goals can even lead to better success and greater satisfaction! The key is to make sure to have emergency reserves. These reserves provide
a type of slack in our goal pursuit in case we fail. Recent research shows that when
we actively pursue a challenging, conscious goal, we prefer harder over easier goals
if we have these emergency reserves, because we view these hard goals as more valuable than easier goals (e.g., seven days of exercise a week is more valuable than five)
but also because the slack makes them more attainable than goals without the slack.55
To show that people prefer the emergency reserves, researchers conducted a
series of studies with college students. They found that students preferred an exam
that required 20/25 points to pass, but with five emergency reserve points (versus
requiring 15/25 or 20/25 points, without reserves). To show that even harder goals
are preferred when reserves are available, they let students go online every morning
and complete 35 CAPTCHAs. They got $1 each morning if they did this, and $5 if
they completed their goal: 5 days a week (easy goal), 7 days a week (hard goal), 5 to
7 days a week (range goal), and 7 days a week with 2 free pass days “just in case”
(hard goal with reserve). Not only did the hard goal with reserve lead to the highest
performance on the exam; it was also the most satisfying experience. So, when you
set a goal, especially a challenging one, be sure to identify some emergency reserves
you can fall back on if necessary.

Goal Specificity
Goals cannot be too generic. They must be specific. Paying off as much debt as
possible is too generic. In contrast, setting specific goals like “reducing my student
loan by 25 percent this year” will be more motivating and lead to better success.
Recent research demonstrates that a specific goal is more effective because
it provides a concrete reference point.56 With specific goals (e.g., save $1,000),
people focus on that goal, and it “looms larger” for them. As they approach it (e.g.,
saving their 900th dollar), they feel more and more motivated. With nonspecific
goals (e.g., save as much as you can), people instead focus on their starting point
(e.g., their current savings). They become less and less motivated as they progress,
because the reference point falls further away. The more specific the goal, the
more motivating.

OBJECTIVE 5-4
Explain how the
way we evaluate
and choose a
product depends
on our degree
of involvement
with the product,
the marketing
message, or the
purchase situation.

Consumer Involvement
Imagine this conversation between two shoppers at a car
dealership:
Consumer #1: I want the electric one with a sunroof that
can accelerate from 0 to 60 miles per hour in 3 seconds
and has more than 300 miles of driving range between
charges.
Consumer #2: I want a red one.

Involvement is “a person’s perceived relevance of the object based on their
inherent needs, values, and interests.”57 Figure 5.4 illustrates that different factors

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POSSIBLE RESULTS OF
INVOLVEMENT

ANTECEDENTS OF INVOLVEMENT
PERSON FACTORS

elicitation of counter
arguments to ads

needs
importance
interest
values

INVOLVEMENT

with advertisements

OBJECT OR STIMULUS
FACTORS
differentiation of
alternatives

with products

source of
communication

with purchase
decisions

content of
communication

effectiveness of ad
to induce purchase
relative importance
of the product class
perceived differences
in product attributes
preference for a
particular brand
influence of price
on brand choice
amount of information
search
time spent deliberating
alternatives

SITUATIONAL FACTORS
purchase/use
occasion

type of decision rule
used in choice
INVOLVEMENT = f (person, object, situation)

The level of involvement may be influenced by one or more of these three factors. Interactions among
person, object, and situational factors are likely to occur.

Figure 5.4 The Elements of Involvement

may create involvement. These factors can be something about the person, something
about the object, or something about the situation.
Our motivation to attain a goal increases our desire to acquire the products or
services that we believe will satisfy it. However, as we see in the case of Consumer #2
at the car dealership, not everyone is motivated to the same extent. Involvement
reflects our level of motivation to process information about a product or service we
believe will help us to solve a problem or reach a goal.58 Think of a person’s degree
of involvement as a continuum that ranges from absolute lack of interest in a marketing stimulus at one end to obsession at the other. Inertia describes consumption
at the low end of involvement, where we make decisions out of habit because we lack
the motivation to consider alternatives.
Depending on whether the need we want to satisfy is utilitarian or
hedonic (see Chapter 1), as our involvement increases we think more about the product
(“I’ve spent the last three days researching mortgage interest rates”) or we experience a strong emotional response (“I get goose bumps when I imagine what my
daughter will look like in that bridal gown”).59 Not surprisingly, we tend to find higher
levels of involvement in product categories that demand a big investment of money
(like houses) or self-esteem (like clothing) and lower levels for mundane categories
like household cleaners or hardware.60 Still, bear in mind that virtually anything can
qualify as highly involving to some people—just ask a “tool guy” to talk about his
passion for hammers or plumbing supplies.
When Apple put its first iPhone on sale, thousands of adoring iCultists around the
country (including the mayor of Philadelphia) waited in front of Apple stores for days
to be one of the first to buy the device—even though they could order the phone online
and have it delivered in three days. Somehow that was too long to wait for a cell phone

Chapter 5 • Motivation

with a touchscreen. As one loyal consumer admitted,
“If Apple made sliced bread, yeah, I’d buy it.”61
Cult products such as Apple—or Hydrox,
Harley-Davidson, Jones Soda, Chick-Fil-A, Manolo
Blahnik designer shoes (think Carrie on Sex and the
City), and the Boston Red Sox—command fierce
consumer loyalty, devotion, and maybe even worship
by consumers.62 A large majority of consumers agree
that they are willing to pay more for a brand when
they feel a personal connection to the company.63

Types of Involvement
A freelance software programmer named Winter is
on a mission to visit every Starbucks in the world.
To date, he’s been to more than 14,000 outlets in
Harley-Davidson is a cult product for many motorcycle riders.
numerous countries. When he learned that a StarSource: Wirestock, Inc./Alamy Stock Photo.
bucks store in British Columbia was scheduled to
close the next day, he spent $1,400 to fly there immediately just to order a cup of
coffee in the nick of time. He chronicles his odyssey on starbuckseverywhere.net.64
Okay, maybe Winter needs to get a life. Still, his passion demonstrates that
involvement takes many forms. It can be cognitive, as when a “gearhead” is motivated to learn all they can about the latest specs of a new tablet, or emotional, as when
the thought of a new Armani suit gives a clotheshorse the chills.65 What’s more, the
act of buying the Armani may be highly involving for people who are passionately
devoted to shopping.
To further complicate matters, advertisements such as those Nike or Adidas
produce may themselves be involving for some reason (e.g., because they make us
laugh or cry or inspire us to exercise harder). So, it seems that involvement is a
fuzzy concept because it overlaps with other things and means different things to
different people. Indeed, the consensus is that there are actually several broad types
of involvement we can relate to the product, the message, or the perceiver.66

Product Involvement
Product involvement is a consumer’s level of interest in a particular product. The
more closely marketers can tie a brand to an individual, the higher the involvement
they will create.
As a rule, product decisions are likely to be highly involving if the consumer
believes there is a lot of perceived risk. This means the person believes there may be
negative consequences if they chose the wrong option. Risk is greater when a product
is expensive or complicated. In some cases, perceived risk also is a factor when others
can see what we choose, and we may be embarrassed if we make the wrong choice.67
Remember that a product does not necessarily have to cost a fortune or be hard to
use to be risky—for example, a college senior who is going to a job interview may
obsess about sweating too much and give a lot of thought to the brand of deodorant
they use that morning.
Figure 5.5 lists five kinds of risk—including objective (e.g., physical danger) and
subjective (e.g., social embarrassment) factors—as well as the products each type
tends to affect. Perceived risk is less of a problem for consumers who have greater
“risk capital,” because they have less to lose from a poor choice. For example, a highly
self-confident person might worry less than a vulnerable, insecure person who chooses
a brand that peers think isn’t cool.

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BUYERS MOST
SENSITIVE TO RISK

PURCHASES MOST
SUBJECT TO RISK

MONETARY
RISK

Risk consists of money and
property. Those with relatively
little income and wealth are most
vulnerable.

High-ticket items that require
substantial expenditures are most
subject to this form of risk.

FUNCTIONAL
RISK

Risk consists of alternative means
of performing the function or
meeting the need. Practical
consumers are most
sensitive.

Products or services whose
purchase and use requires the
buyer’s exclusive commitment are
most sensitive.

PHYSICAL
RISK

Risk consists of physical vigor,
health, and vitality. Those who are
elderly, frail, or in ill health are
most vulnerable.

Mechanical or electrical goods
(such as vehicles or flammables),
drugs and medical treatment, and
food and beverages are most
sensitive.

SOCIAL
RISK

Risk consists of self-esteem and
self-confidence. Those who are
insecure and uncertain are most
sensitive.

Socially visible or symbolic goods,
such as clothes, jewelry, cars,
homes, or sports equipment are
most subject to social risk.

PSYCHOLOGICAL
RISK

Risk consists of affiliations and
status. Those lacking
self-respect or attractiveness to
peers are most sensitive.

Expensive personal luxuries that
may engender guilt, durables, and
services whose use demands
self-discipline or sacrifice are
most sensitive.

Figure 5.5 Five Types of Perceived Risk

When a consumer is highly involved with a specific product, this is the Holy
Grail for marketers because it means they exhibit brand loyalty: Repeat purchasing
behavior that reflects a conscious decision to continue buying the same brand.68 Note
that this definition states that the consumer not only buys the brand on a regular basis,
but that they also have a strong positive attitude toward it rather than simply buying it
out of habit. In fact, we often find that a brand-loyal consumer has more than simply a
positive attitude; frequently, they are passionate about the product. “True-blue” users
react more vehemently when a company alters, redesigns, or (God forbid) eliminates
a favorite brand. One simple test to find out if you’re brand loyal: If the store is
temporarily out of your favorite brand, will you buy a different product or hold off
until you can get your first choice?
Although everyone wants to cultivate brand-loyal customers, there is a wrinkle
that sometimes confounds even the most effective marketers. We often engage in
brand switching, even if our current brand satisfies our needs. Sometimes, it seems we
simply like to try new things; we crave variety as a form of stimulation or to reduce
boredom. Variety-seeking, the desire to choose new alternatives over more familiar
ones, even influences us to switch from our favorite products to ones we like less! This
can occur even before we become satiated, or tired, of our favorite. Research supports
the idea that we are willing to trade enjoyment for variety because the unpredictability
itself is rewarding.
We’re especially likely to look for variety when we are in a good mood or when
there isn’t a lot of other stuff going on.69 So, even though we have favorites, we still

Chapter 5 • Motivation

like to sample other possibilities. However, when the decision situation is ambiguous,
or when there is little information about competing brands, we tend to opt for the
safe choice.
Strategies to Increase Product Involvement. Here are a few ways to increase

product involvement:
1. Mass customization describes the personalization of products and services
for individual customers at a mass-production price. This product involvement
strategy applies to a wide range of products and services, from newspaper websites
that allow readers to choose which sections of the paper they want to see, to Dell
computers that you can configure, to Levi’s blue jeans that have a right leg one
inch shorter than a left leg to fit an asymmetrical body (this is more common than
you think).70
2. DIY (do it yourself) refers to doing activities ourselves (e.g., home repairs or
furniture assembly) rather than hiring someone else to do it. When we have the
opportunity to personalize a product, our involvement increases because the item
reflects our unique preferences. The DIY market is projected to reach almost
$14 billion in just a few years. One reason for the boom: When we build the
product ourselves, the value we attach to it increases because our own labor is
involved.71 Researchers term this the IKEA Effect. Of course, there may also
be that unsettling feeling when you finish assembling a bookcase and there’s still
one part left over.
3. Co-creation strategies go a step farther, because the company works jointly
with customers to create value. This approach is catching on in B2B environments, where organizations partner with their biggest clients to envision new
solutions to their problems. For example, DHL developed robotics applications
such as self-driving trolleys in warehouses that allow workers to pick merchandise for delivery in a more efficient way.72 On the B2C side, Anheuser-Busch
invited input from 25,000 beer drinkers when it developed a new lager called
Black Crown.73
4. Gamification is a red-hot marketing strategy today; it refers to the application of
gaming principles, such as friendly competition and the ability to earn badges as
you master different tasks, to nongaming contexts. This approach offers a way to
dramatically increase involvement, especially for activities that can benefit from
a bit of motivation. When the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC)
wanted to promote financial literacy, the government agency created its Money
Smart program. It’s designed to look like a board game similar to Monopoly, and
it challenges players to learn financial skills such as setting up a bank account,
paying bills on time, and avoiding identity theft. The game attracted more than
40,000 users in a year.74

Message Involvement
It started with Jay Z’s celebrated campaign to promote his autobiographical Decoded
book. The agency Droga5 created a national scavenger hunt when it hid all 320 pages
of the book (mostly blown-up versions) in outdoor spots in 13 cities that somehow
related to the text on each page (e.g., on cheeseburger wrappers in New York).
Coldplay borrowed a page from this book more recently to promote its album Ghost
Stories. The band hid lyric sheets inside ghost stories in libraries around the world and
gave out clues on Twitter.75 This represents an emerging way to engage consumers: In
alternate reality games (ARGs), thousands of people participate in a fictional story
or competition to solve a mystery.

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Product involvement often depends on the situation we’re in. The Charmin toilet tissue brand sponsors a website,
appropriately named SitOrSquat.com. The site helps travelers find the cleanest public restrooms wherever they happen
to be. The brand manager explains, “Our goal is to connect Charmin with innovative conversations and solutions as a
brand that understands the importance of bringing the best bathroom experience to consumers, even when they’re away
from home.” According to Charmin, SitOrSquat lists over 52,000 toilets in 10 countries.
Source: Courtesy of The Procter & Gamble Company.

As these novel scavenger hunts illustrate, media vehicles possess different qualities
that influence our motivation to pay attention to what they tell us, known as message
involvement. Print tends to be a high-involvement medium (whether it appears on
a “dead tree” or in an e-book). The reader actively processes the information and
(if desired) they are able to pause and reflect on it before turning the page.76 In contrast,
television tends to be a low-involvement medium because more viewers are passive, and
exert relatively little control (remote-control “zipping” notwithstanding) over content.
Strategies to Increase Message Involvement Although consumers’ involvement
levels with a product message vary, marketers do not simply sit back and hope for the
best. If they are aware of some basic factors that increase or decrease attention, they
can take steps to increase the likelihood that product information will get through. A
marketer can boost a person’s motivation to process relevant information via one or
more of the following techniques:77

•

Use novel stimuli, such as unusual cinematography, sudden silences, or unexpected movements, in commercials. When a British firm called Egg Banking

Chapter 5 • Motivation

•
•
•
•

•

•

introduced a credit card to the French market, its ad agency created unusual commercials to make people question their assumptions. One ad stated, “Cats always
land on their paws,” and then two researchers in white lab coats dropped a kitten
off a rooftop—never to see it again (animal rights activists were not amused).78
Use prominent stimuli, such as loud music and fast action, to capture attention. In print formats, larger ads increase attention. Also, viewers look longer at
colored pictures than at black-and-white ones.
Include celebrity endorsers. As we’ll see in Chapter 6, people process more
information when it comes from someone they admire or at least know about,
whether Michael Jordan, Bill Gates, or Kylie Jenner.
Provide value that customers appreciate. Charmin bathroom tissue set up public toilets in Times Square that hordes of grateful visitors used. Thousands more
people (evidently with time on their hands) visited the brand’s website to view
the display.79
Invent new media platforms to grab attention. Procter & Gamble printed trivia
questions and answers on its Pringles snack chips with ink made of blue or red
food coloring, and a company called Speaking Roses International patented a technology to laser-print words, images, or logos on flower petals.80 An Australian firm
creates hand stamps that nightclubs use to identify paying customers; the stamps
include logos or ad messages so partiers’ hands become an advertising platform.81
Encourage viewers to think about actually using the product. If a people can
imagine this, they are more likely to want to obtain the real thing. Research shows
that even subtle cues in an advertisement can encourage this mental rehearsal. One
simple example is orienting an image of a cup with its handle to the right so that
(for a right-handed person) it matches the dominant hand and facilitates mental
stimulation.82
Create spectacles where the message is itself a form of entertainment. In the
early days of radio and television, ads literally were performances; show hosts
integrated marketing messages into the episodes. Today live advertising that
features attention-grabbing events called spectacles is making a comeback as
marketers try harder and harder to captivate jaded consumers:83 Axe body products
sponsored a posh Hamptons (New York) nightclub for the whole summer season;
it became The Axe Lounge, sporting branding on the DJ booth and menu and Axe
products in the restrooms.

Situational Involvement
Situational involvement describes engagement with a store, website, or a location
where people consume a product or service. Many retailers and event planners today
focus on enhancing customers’ experiences in stores, dealerships, and stadiums.
Industry insiders refer to this as a “butts-in-seats” strategy. That’s why some fans who
attend Atlanta Falcons football games get visited by a cheerleader in the stands for
a photo op and also why Chrysler is ramping up its efforts to get people to test drive
cars at dealerships and auto shows. As the head of the car company’s “experiential
marketing unit” explained, “We know a physical experience with a vehicle is a great
way to allow people to try it out and move it up on their consideration list.”84
Strategies to Increase Situational Involvement

Personalization: As we saw for product involvement, retailers can personalize the
messages shoppers receive at the time of purchase. For example, a few marketers tailor
the recommendations they give shoppers in a store based on what they picked up from
a shelf. At some Dunkin’ Donuts locations, a person who orders a morning coffee sees
an ad at the cash register that pushes hash browns or breakfast sandwiches. And, of

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course, recommendation agents that provide customized suggestions when we shop
online perform much the same function.
High tech: The point of purchase can be much more than a place to stack up
stuff and wait for people to throw it in their carts. Exciting new technologies such
as augmented reality, virtual reality, and beacons allow retailers to turn the shopping
experience into an adventure. We’ll revisit these options in Chapter 8.
Subscription boxes: Many startups, such as FabFitFun, Birchbox Ipsy, Dollar
Shave Club, and Graze, deliver “surprises” of exotic food items, personal care products, books, wine, clothing, and many other wondrous goodies on a regular basis
to consumers who sign up. Subscription company websites attract about 37 million
visitors a year, and that number has grown by over 800 percent in just three years.
A website called My Subscription Addiction sums up the enthusiasm these services
have generated for many thousands of variety junkies.85

CHAPTER SUMMARY
Now that you have finished reading this chapter, you should
be able to:
1. Understand how motivation can be intrinsic or
extrinsic.
Motivation refers to the processes that lead people to
behave as they do. It occurs when a need that the consumer wishes to satisfy is activated. The need creates a
state of tension that drives the consumer to attempt to
reduce or eliminate it. The motivation can be intrinsic,
pulling from the person’s inherent drives, or it can be
extrinsic, pushed by an external force.
2. Outline how products can satisfy a range of
consumer needs.
Marketers try to satisfy consumers’ needs, but the
reason any product is purchased can vary widely. The
identification of consumer motives is an important
step to ensure that a product will meet the appropriate
need(s). Traditional approaches to consumer behavior
have focused on the abilities of products to satisfy
rational needs (utilitarian motives), but hedonic motives
(such as the need for exploration or fun) also guide many
purchase decisions. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs demonstrates that the same product can satisfy different needs.
3. Discuss how setting goals correctly can motivate
consumers to strive toward and achieve those
goals.

When we set goals deliberately, when we monitor
goal progress, and when we are committed to
reaching the goal, we are most likely to achieve it.
Consumers experience different kinds of conf licts
that can impact their purchase decisions, such as
approach–approach and approach–avoidance conflicts. A goal has valence, which means that it can
be positive or negative. We direct our behavior
toward goals we value positively; we are motivated
to approach the goal and to seek out products that
will help us to reach it. In general, the higher we set
our goals, the better we perform. One way to encourage people to set even higher goals for themselves is
to frame them correctly. Some factors that influence
the results include the time frame, specificity, and
difficulty of the goal.
4. Explain how the way we evaluate and choose a
product depends on our degree of involvement
with the product, the marketing message, or the
purchase situation.
Product involvement can range from low, where consumers make purchase decisions based on inertia,
to high, where they form strong bonds with favorite
brands (cult products). Marketing strategies also need
to consider consumers’ extent of engagement with the
messages about their products and the environments in
which consumption of these products occur.

KEY TERMS
Achievement motivation, 127
Alternate reality games (ARGs), 141
Approach–approach conflict, 134

Approach–avoidance conflict, 135
Autonomy, 132
Avoidance–avoidance conflict, 135

Body positivity, 125
Brand loyalty, 140
Co-creation, 141

Chapter 5 • Motivation

Competence, 132
Conscientiousness, 133
Cult products, 139
DIY (do it yourself), 141
Drive, 127
Drive theory, 127
Emergency reserves, 137
External incentives, 127
Extrinsic motivation, 126
Feedback loop, 128
Frame, 135
Fresh start mindset, 133
Goal, 126
Great Resignation, 131
Grit, 133
Hedonic consumption, 129
Hierarchy of needs, 130

High tech, 144
Homeostasis, 127
IKEA Effect, 141
Implemental mindset, 136
Implementation intentions, 128
Intrinsic motivation, 126
Involvement, 137
Mass customization, 141
Metamotivation, 126
Message involvement, 142
Mere urgency effect, 136
Motivation, 126
Mortality salience, 132
Nonconscious goals, 127
Outcome-oriented mindset, 136
Perceived risk, 139
Personalization, 143

145

Placebo effect, 127
Positive or negative
frames, 135
Prevention motivation, 128
Product involvement, 139
Promotion motivation, 128
Quantified self (QS) movement, 129
Relatedness, 132
Retail therapy, 127
Self-determination theory, 132
Self-regulation, 128
Situational involvement, 143
Spectacles, 143
Terror management theory, 132
Time frame, 136
Theory of cognitive dissonance, 134
Variety-seeking, 140

REVIEW
5-1 What is motivation, and why is this idea so important
to marketers?

5-6 List three types of perceived risk, and give an example of each.

5-2 Describe three types of motivational conflicts. Cite an
example of each from a current marketing campaign.

5-7 What is consumer involvement? How does this concept relate to motivation?

5-3 Explain the difference between a need and a want.

5-8 What are some strategies marketers can use to
increase consumers’ involvement with their products
or messages?

5-4 What is cognitive dissonance?
5-5 Name the levels in Maslow’s hierarchy and give an
example of a marketing appeal focused at each level.

CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CHALLENGE
DISCUSS

5-9 Does money buy happiness? Why or why not?
5-10 The chapter discusses the quest by many consumers
to quantify their personal actions—exercise, bodily
functions, finances, perhaps even the number of dates
they went on this month. As we continue to “outsource” these measurements to technology and share
them with our networks, do you think this can go too
far? At what point do we stop being an individual and
start to be a set of metrics?
5-11 A group of psychologists argued that we need to
revise Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. They propose
we should delete “self-actualization” from the
pinnacle and replace it with “parenting.” Right below
this peak, they added “mate retention” and “mate
acquisition.” They claim that too many people see
Maslow’s triangle as “aspirational”—a description

of what fulfilled individuals “should” do—rather
than as an explanation of how human motivation
actually works. Their perspective is evolutionary;
if the only purpose of art, music, and literature is
self-fulfillment, how does that contribute to the survival of the species? What do you think—do our
motivations to buy, have, and be ultimately come
down to survival of our gene pool?86
5-12 Our emotional reactions to marketing cues are so
powerful that some high-tech companies study mood
in small doses (in 1/30 of a second increments) as they
analyze people’s facial reactions when they see ads or
new products. They measure happiness as they look
for differences between, for example, a true smile
(which includes a relaxation of the upper eyelid) and
a social smile (which occurs only around the mouth).

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Whirlpool used this technique to test consumers’ emotional reactions to a yet-to-be-launched generation of
its Duet washers and dryers. The company’s goal:
To design an appliance that will make people happy.
Researchers discovered that even though test subjects

said they weren’t thrilled with some out-of-the-box
design options, such as unusual color combinations,
their facial expressions said otherwise.87 Does the
ability to study our emotional reactions at such a
specific level give marketers an unfair advantage?

APPLY

5-13 Our online behaviors also can satisfy needs at different levels of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, especially
when we participate in social networks such as Instagram or TikTok. Web-based companies can build
loyalty if they keep these needs in mind when they
design their offerings:

•
•
•
•
•
•
•

We satisfy physiological needs when we use the
internet to research topics such as nutrition or
medical questions.
The internet enables users to pool information
and satisfy safety needs when they call attention
to bad practices, flawed products, or even dangerous predators.
Profile pages on Facebook allow users to define
themselves as individuals.
Online communities, blogs, and social networks
provide recognition and achievement to those
who cultivate a reputation for being especially
helpful or an expert in some subject.
Users can seek help from others and connect with
people who have similar tastes and interests.
Access to invitation-only communities provides
status.
Spiritually based online communities can provide
guidance to troubled people.88

Interview people you know about their motivations to participate in social media. Ask them to provide a list of the platforms they access most. Then,
for each, probe their reasons for visiting these. What
needs do these sites appear to satisfy? How might
these insights help you to devise ideas for new social
media products?
5-14 Interview members of a celebrity fan club. Describe
their level of involvement with the “product,” and
devise some marketing strategies to reach this group.

5-15 The text notes that marketers continue to push the
envelope to create spectacles that will increase consumer involvement with their messages:

•
•
•
•

A British show broadcast a group of skydivers
who performed a dangerous jump to create a
human formation in the air that spelled out the
letters H, O, N, D, A.
Honda built a musical road in Lancaster, PA;
grooves in the cement create a series of pitches
that play the “William Tell Overture” when a car
drives over them.
A New York campaign for Jameson Irish Whiskey
projects an ad onto a wall—an operator scans the
street for pedestrians who fit the brand’s profile
and inserts live text messages directed at them
into the display.
To promote the 25th anniversary of the Michael
Jackson album Thriller, which featured zombies
dancing in a music video of the title song, Sony
BMG staged a performance in the London Underground. A group of “passengers” suddenly burst
into a zombie-like dance before they disappeared
into the crowd, and this videotaped scene was
posted online. The video inspired similar performances in other countries, and within a week,
more than a million people had downloaded these
films. In a similar stunt for T-Mobile, several
hundred commuters at the Liverpool rail station
broke into a dance; more than 15 million people
watched the performance on YouTube in the
following weeks.

Can you top these? Imagine that a client hires
you to launch a new energy drink. Propose a spectacle you could engineer that would attract potential
customers to learn more about your product.

DIGGING IN WITH DATA

See “Data Case 1: Analyzing the Athletic Shoe Market” in Appendix A for an opportunity to work with real consumer
data and apply this chapter’s concepts to real world problems.

Chapter 5 • Motivation

CASE STUDY

Game On! Using Gamification to Engage
with Consumers

If you are like many of us, you have probably been playing
games most of your life. Your odyssey may have begun
with Chutes and Ladders, but today, you’re more likely
to be one of the estimated 3.24 billion people around the
world who enjoy video games. 89 Marketers have taken
notice. They have learned that games can be a great way
to get and hold consumers’ attention and help them engage
with a brand.90
The consulting firm Gartner defines gamification as “the
use of game mechanics and experience design to digitally
engage and motivate people to achieve their goals.”91 In recent
years, organizations have devised games to encourage people
to save, improve their fitness, and to increase employee productivity.92 Similarly, gamification marketing harnesses these
gaming design elements to attract and retain customers.93
Games are particularly effective in reaching younger
millennial and Gen Z consumers who have grown up with
digital technology. Indeed, one study found that 68 percent of
Gen Z males feel that gaming is a part of their identity!94 And
gaming is not just for males anymore; a 2019 study found
that 63 percent of mobile gamers are female.95 No wonder,
then, that this technique is so effective to reach these coveted
consumers.
A major goal of this approach is to recreate some of
the passion and attention that players often exhibit when
they’re immersed in a game. If a marketer can somehow
replicate this “secret sauce” at least to some extent, they
hope to see increased engagement with what they offer.96
McDonald’s top prize in its 2017 Monopoly campaign was
$65 million, and Chipotle’s digital racing game had a grand
prize of a Tesla Model 3.97 Most prizes are more modest,
but they still provide a more immersive experience than
traditional advertising.98 Some other examples:

•
•
•
•

147

Samsung asks consumers to watch product videos, review
products, and participate in Q&A sessions, and in return
awards badges that become entries in a drawing for Samsung products.99
Rather than doing traditional marketing research, KIND,
the healthy snack bar company, used its Raise the Bar
contest to get customers to vote on its next flavor.100
M&M promoted its new pretzel-flavored candy by challenging players to find a pretzel hidden among an image
of a bunch of M&Ms.101
If you are a coffee lover, you are likely part of the Starbucks Rewards loyalty program in which your coffee
habit lets you progress through levels to earn some free
java.102

Games are an effective promotional tool for several
reasons. A loyalty program can be enhanced by gamification
that continually rewards customers for desired behavior,
encouraging them to come back for more. A game can create
word-of-mouth promotion—often through social media—
as those playing tell their friends, increasing brand awareness. Gamification can also be a great way to gather data, as
players will often readily share contact information to enter
a contest or to receive rewards.103
Why does an ad a marketer puts in game form sometimes work better than a traditional ad? There is a little psychology at work here. Matthew Pierce, CEO of gamification
company Versus Systems, believes we react differently to a
game than we do to a traditional ad. As he explains it, “It’s
not being forced to watch an ad, but being able to choose
what you want to play for. That literally opens up different
pathways in your brain, and you stop thinking about it as
an ad. You see it as a reward, as a prize. You see that it’s
something you earned, and that's materially different.”104
These games give users control and reinforce desirable
­behavior—such as providing a product review—through
rewards. Games can also satisfy our need for achievement,
even if only in small ways.105 The tendency to form habits
is also at play; some games offer players rewards to return
on a regular basis.106
Some marketers classify gamification broadly to include
any kind of interaction with consumers that has game-like
elements—some as simple as getting a reward for watching an ad or purchasing more of a product, the latter typical of many loyalty programs. A stricter definition identifies
true gamification as marketing interactions that involve elements of games you’ll recognize if you’re a video gamer:
strategy, competition, and the opportunity to be recognized
for achievements as you play.
Does gamification work? A 2019 report from the
organization Brand Loyalty and Visa found that 81 percent
of consumers will participate in a game when it is part of a
loyalty program. The M&M brand got some nice buzz from its
pretzel game with 25,000 new likes on the brand’s Facebook
page, along with 6,000 shares and 10,000 comments.107
Samsung’s gamification initiative led to an amazing 500
percent increase in product reviews.108
Most important, games can lead to purchases. A study
by digital agency Reflect Digital found that 60 percent of
study respondents would be more likely to make a purchase
from a brand if they had enjoyed playing a game offered
by the company; the number rises to 86 percent for those
who have played branded games before.109 As examples, a

148

Section 2

• Making Sense of the World

create-your-own pizza game app led to a boost in earnings of
30 percent for Domino’s, and a White Castle game resulted
in conversions to purchase of 36 percent.110
Gamification is likely here to stay. A report by Allied
Market Research estimated the global gamification market
at $9.9 billion in 2020.111 The market is projected to grow
to $32 billion by 2025 and $38.4 billion by 2026.112 It’s not
surprising, then, that 75 percent of media agencies say they
consider gamified advertising to be the superior way to build
trust relationships with consumers.113 Tim Sayler, chief
marketing officer of watchmaker Breitling is convinced. He
states, “Gamification is a huge trend and more and more of
our media platforms will automatically be gamified, because
they work better [than traditional advertising].” With the
growth in loyalty and increases in revenues that gamification
is bringing to companies like Breitling, Starbucks, Chipotle,

and many others, we can expect companies to continue to
“get their game on.”114
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

CS 5-1 Choose a product without an apparent gamification
strategy, and design a campaign that uses games to
engage users. Test your creativity by designing something more involved than simply winning badges for
buying more of the product.
CS 5-2 What makes a “good” game? Create a list of dos and
don’ts for effective marketing gamification.
CS 5-3 Does gamification work with all demographics (age,
income, gender, education)? What game design
elements should be considered when marketing to
different demographic segments?

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to Measure Its Success,” Customer Thermometer, April 4, 2022, https://
www.customerthermometer.com/customer-retention-ideas/gamificationloyalty-program/.
92. Stephanie Walden, “How Gamification Can Help You Meet Your Financial
Goals,” Forbes, April 16, 2021, https://www.forbes.com/advisor/banking/
how-gamification-can-help-you-meet-financial-goals/.
93. Simon Byrne, “Everything You Need to Know about Gamification Marketing,”
Bazaarvoice, February 18, 2022, https://www.bazaarvoice.com/blog/
everything-you-need-to-know-about-gamification-marketing/.
94. Haley Walden, “How to Boost Engagement with Gamification in Digital
Marketing,” Elegant Themes, October 19, 2020, https://www.elegantthemes
.com/blog/marketing/gamification-in-digital-marketing.
95. Ming Liu, “Breitling Gets Its Game On,” New York Times, April 6, 2021,
https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/06/fashion/watches-breitling-mobile-­
gaming.html.

96. Emily Heaslip, “What Is Gamification? And Is It Right for Your Business?,”
U.S. Chamber of Commerce, https://www.uschamber.com/co/start/strategy/
gamification-in-workplace.
97. Rae Steinbach, “10 Gamification Marketing Examples for Your Next Campaign,”
NeverBounce, December 19, 2017, https://neverbounce.com/blog/gamificationmarketing-examples; “Chipotle Launches Rewards Exchange with New Video
Game and Tesla Model 3 Giveaway - Jun 22, 2021,” Chipotle, https://newsroom.
chipotle.com/2021-06-22-Chipotle-Launches-Rewards-Exchange-With-NewVideo-Game-And-Tesla-Model-3-Giveaway, accessed August 5, 2022.
98. Ashira Prossack, “How Gamification Is Changing Advertising,” Forbes,
May 27, 2021, https://www.forbes.com/sites/ashiraprossack1/2021/05/27/
how-gamification-is-changing-advertising/.
99. Brigg Patten, “Effective Training Strategies: 7 Companies Using Gamification,”
InSync Training, https://blog.insynctraining.com/effective-trainingstrategies-7-companies-using-gamification-correctly, accessed August 5, 2022.
100. Ben Moss, “7 Ways to Use Gamification in Marketing Campaigns,” Webdesigner Depot, September 8, 2021, https://www.webdesignerdepot.com/
2021/09/7-ways-to-use-gamification-in-marketing-campaigns/.
101. Zarrar Chishti, “10 Best Gamification Marketing Examples,” dummies,
October 23, 2020, https://www.dummies.com/article/business-careers-money/
business/marketing/10-best-gamification-marketing-examples-273998/.
102. Ibid.
103. “What Are Gamification Platforms and Why Does Your Marketing Team Need
One?,” CataBoom, January 13, 2022, https://www.cataboom.com/, accessed
August 6, 2022; Simon Byrne, “Everything You Need to Know about Gamification Marketing,” Bazaarvoice, February 18, 2022, https://www.bazaarvoice
.com/blog/everything-you-need-to-know-about-gamification-marketing/.
104. Ashira Prossack, “How Gamification Is Changing Advertising,” Forbes,
May 27, 2021, https://www.forbes.com/sites/ashiraprossack1/2021/05/27/
how-gamification-is-changing-advertising/?sh=18c490bed4e3.
105. Nicolas Algoedt, “Gamification Guide to Delightful Customer Experiences,” Insider, April 30, 2022, https://useinsider.com/the-definitive-guideto-gamification-real-life-examples/.
106. Laurence Goasduff, “How Gamification Boosts Consumer Engagement,”
Gartner, https://www.gartner.com/smarterwithgartner/how-gamificationboosts-consumer-engagement, accessed August 5, 2022.
107. Zarrar Chishti, “10 Best Gamification Marketing Examples,” dummies,
October 23, 2020, https://www.dummies.com/article/business-careers-money/
business/marketing/10-best-gamification-marketing-examples-273998/.
108. Brigg Patten, “Effective Training Strategies: 7 Companies Using Gamification,” InSync Training, https://blog.insynctraining.com/effectivetraining-strategies-7-companies-using-gamification-correctly, accessed
August 5, 2022.
109. Todd Hedberg, “Level Up Your Loyalty: Gamify to Boost Engagement,”
Advertising Week, December 7, 2021, https://advertisingweek.com/level-upyour-loyalty-gamify-to-boost-engagement/.
110. Haley Walden, “How to Boost Engagement with Gamification in
Digital Marketing,” Elegant Themes, October 19, 2020, https://www
.elegantthemes.com/blog/marketing/gamification-in-digital-marketing; Ashira
Prossack, “How Gamification Is Changing Advertising,” Forbes, May 27, 2021,
https://www.forbes.com/sites/ashiraprossack1/2021/05/27/how-gamificationis-changing-advertising/.
111. Allied Market Research, “Gamification Market Is Projected to Reach $95.5
Billion by 2030,” GlobeNewswire, May 24, 2022, https://www.globenews
wire.com/en/news-release/2022/05/24/2449015/0/en/Gamification-Market-isProjected-to-Reach-95-5-Billion-by-2030-Allied-Market-Research.html.
112. Ben Moss, “7 Ways to Use Gamification in Marketing Campaigns,” Webdesigner
Depot, September 8, 2021, https://www.webdesignerdepot.com/2021/09/7ways-to-use-gamification-in-marketing-campaigns/; Nicolas Algoedt,
“Gamification Guide to Delightful Customer Experiences,” Insider, April
30, 2022, https://useinsider.com/the-definitive-guide-to-gamification-reallife-examples/.
113. Gaydova Christina, “The Role of Gamification in Modern Advertising,” NT,
https://nt.technology/en/blog/the-role-of-gamification-in-modern-advertising/,
accessed August 5, 2022.
114. Ming Liu, “Breitling Gets Its Game On,” New York Times, April 6, 2021, https://
www.nytimes.com/2021/04/06/fashion/watches-breitling-mobile-gaming
.html.

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Section

3

Buying and Having:
Choosing and Using
Products
In Section 3, we look at how consumers think about products, the steps they take to choose
one, and what happens after they buy something. Chapter 6 focuses on the nature and power
of attitudes and identifies all the factors that affect persuasion, or how marketers influence us.
In Chapter 7, we look at the steps we take to make decisions and distinguish between the
processes of fast, habitual decision-making and slow, more rational decision-making. Chapter 8
highlights the many factors that affect our shopping experiences and addresses the massive
changes in consumer behavior related to the virtualization of shopping, the sharing economy,
and the climate change crisis.

Chapters Ahead
Chapter 6

Attitudes and How
to Change Them

Chapter 7

Deciding

Chapter 8

Buying, Using, and Disposing

153

6

Attitudes and
How to Change Them

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES When you finish reading this chapter, you should be able to:
6-1 Explain the functions and components of attitudes
in consumer behavior.
6-2 Describe the ways in which we form attitudes.

6-4 Discuss the ways in which the source, the
message, and the medium are used to craft
persuasion strategies.

6-3 Explain how persuasion is an active attempt to
create or change attitudes.

A

Source: DragonImages/Alamy Stock Photo.

154

lex is hanging out at the mall, idly texting some
friends about some stuff she saw in a few stores.
When she checks her Snapchat, she sees several
friends are posting about their college application plans.
She groans to herself; it’s starting already! She’s just beginning her senior year of high school, and already everybody’s
thinking about what happens next year. Alex realizes it’s time
to bite the bullet and really start to investigate this, but it’s all
so confusing. She’s been getting bombarded with enticing
ads and brochures from so many different schools. They’re
hard to escape; some arrive by snail mail and others keep
hitting her with emails and texts. A few have invited her to
take virtual campus tours on their websites, and one even
wants her to enter a virtual world version of the campus
as an avatar to walk around and “talk” to current students.
It’s amazing to see how different their pitches are, too.
Sure, some universities tout their academic excellence, but
others play up their international programs, job placement programs, and even
amenities (rock climbing walls!). Of course, she’s familiar with some of the schools that
are starting to court her, and she already has a positive attitude toward a few—and based
on what she’s heard about some others, she already knows it’s “. . . over my dead body
am I going there.” But others feel like a blank slate; so far at least, she has absolutely no
idea what it would be like to be a student at these schools. As Alex starts to post some
queries in her network to see what people can tell her about these options, she knows
it’s time to buckle up—this is going to be an intense year.

Chapter 6 • Attitudes and How to Change Them

The Power of Attitudes

OBJECTIVE 6-1
Explain the
functions and
components
of attitudes in
consumer behavior.

People use the term attitude in many contexts. A friend
might ask you, “What is your attitude toward recycling?”
A parent might scold, “Young man, I don’t like your attitude.”
Some bars even euphemistically refer to happy hour as “an
attitude adjustment period.” For our purposes, though, an attitude is a lasting, general
evaluation of people (including oneself), objects, advertisements, or issues.1 We call
anything toward which one has an attitude an attitude object (A o ). As Alex will
learn during her college search process (and no doubt you did too), we assimilate
information from a variety of sources and often put a lot of effort into forming an
attitude toward many things, including a complex attitude object like a university.
An attitude is lasting because it tends to endure over time. It is general because
it applies to more than a momentary event, such as hearing a loud noise, though you
might, over time, develop a negative attitude toward all loud noises. Consumers have
attitudes toward a wide range of attitude objects, from product-specific behaviors
(e.g., you use Crest toothpaste rather than Colgate) to more general, consumptionrelated behaviors (e.g., you enjoy taking bike rides on the weekend). Attitudes help
to determine whom you choose to date, what music you listen to, whether you
recycle aluminum cans, or whether you choose to become an environmental scientist
for a living.
In this chapter, we’ll consider the contents of an attitude, how we form attitudes,
and how we measure them. We will also review some of the surprisingly complex
relationships between attitudes and behavior and then take a closer look at how
marketers can change these attitudes.

Attitudes (Generally) Guide our Behavior
If you like chocolate, you’re more likely to eat it. The reason attitudes matter is that
they guide our behaviors (see Figure 6.1). The psychologist Daniel Katz developed
the functional theory of attitudes to explain how attitudes facilitate behavior. 2
According to this pragmatic approach, attitudes exist because they serve some

Persuasion

(forms/changes)

Persuasion:
Process of forming or changing
someone’s attitude

Persuasive processes:
• Central (slow, rational) vs.
Peripheral (fast, emotional)
processes (ELM)
• Narrative persuasion
Persuasive communication factors:
• Source
• Message (types of appeals)
• Medium: increasingly
advertainment

Attitude

(guides)

Attitude:
Lasting, general evaluation of an
attitude object (person, brand,
product, message, issue)

Comprised of
cognitions and emotions
Usually positive or negative
Has explicit and implicit
elements

Attitude-Behavior
link depends on:
Attitude
commitment
Social context
(Norms; Social
Pressure)

Figure 6.1 Model of Persuasion -> Attitude -> Behavior

Behavior

Consumer
Behavior

155

156

Section 3

• Buying and Having: Choosing and Using Products

function for the person. Two people can each have an attitude toward some object for
different reasons. As a result, it’s helpful for a marketer to know why an attitude is
held before they try to change it. These are different attitude functions:

•

•

•
•

Utilitarian function—The utilitarian function relates to the basic principles
of reward and punishment we learned about in Chapter 4. We develop some
attitudes toward products simply because they provide pleasure or pain. If a
person likes the taste of a cheeseburger, that person will develop a positive
attitude toward cheeseburgers. Messages that stress straightforward product
benefits (e.g., you should drink Diet Coke “just for the taste of it”) appeal to the
utilitarian function.
Value-expressive function—Attitudes that perform a value-expressive function
relate to the consumer’s self-concept (Chapter 6) or central values (Chapter 7).
A person forms a product attitude in this case because of what the product says
about them as a person. Value-expressive attitudes also are highly relevant to the
psychographic analyses we discussed in Chapter 7, which consider how consumers
cultivate a cluster of activities, interests, and opinions to express a particular
social identity.
Ego-defensive function—Attitudes we form to protect ourselves either from
external threats or internal feelings perform an ego-defensive function. An early
marketing study showed that housewives resisted the use of instant coffee because
it threatened their conception of themselves as capable homemakers (this doesn’t
seem to be a big issue for most anymore!).3
Knowledge function—We form some attitudes because we need order, structure,
or meaning. A knowledge function applies when a person is in an ambiguous
situation (“it’s okay to wear sweatpants on a Zoom call, but only if I wear a nice
top”) or when they confront a new product (e.g., “Bayer wants you to know about
pain relievers”).

Attitudes, Fast and Slow: Cognitive and
Affective Components
Alex’s nerve-wracking college selection paints a picture of a consumer who thoughtfully and rationally forms an attitude toward different schools. Really? How many
high school seniors do you know who think like this? Sure, a prospective student who
visits a college may consider the attributes that formed Alex’s attitudes. But in many
cases, we let our emotions guide our attitudes, as we react with enthusiasm, joy, or
even disgust to specific events:

•
•
•

“I said hello to a few current students, but they didn’t say hello back.”
“It was a beautiful spring day, and kids were hanging out everywhere.”
“The sandwich I had in the Student Union wasn’t very fresh.”

Obviously, the attitude that a mediocre lunch activates is quite different than one
that reflects a person’s deep-seated conviction that same-sex schools provide a more
productive learning environment. We refer to these two distinct ways of deciding as
slow thinking and fast thinking. The distinction between these two systems is common
in psychology: “Type 1” processes are fast, autonomous, and intuitive, while “Type 2”
processes are slow, deliberative, and analytic. We’ll revisit this idea in Chapter 9 to
understand how these attitudes influence our decisions among competing options.
Guess what? We can apply the same basic logic to help us to understand attitudes.
Attitudes include cognitive (beliefs) and affective (emotional) elements. But not all

Chapter 6 • Attitudes and How to Change Them

attitudes are created equal: Some are “hot” in that they’re driven by emotional reactions, while others are “cool” because they form based on the knowledge a customer
believes they have about the product.

“I Know It”: Cognitive Focus
Cognitive models of attitudes focus primarily on the beliefs (accurate or not) we hold
about a product. Making sure your customers have correct information about what you
sell is crucial—and even more so in this age of misinformation, where it’s very easy
for a rival or even a mischievous consumer to disseminate falsehoods.
Because our beliefs about things like universities can be complex, marketing
researchers may use multiattribute attitude models to understand them. This type of
model assumes that consumers’ attitudes toward an attitude object (Ao ) depend on the
beliefs they have about several of its attributes. When we use a multiattribute model,
we assume that we can identify these specific beliefs and combine them to derive a
measure of the consumer’s overall attitude. We’ll describe how these models work
with the example of a consumer like Alex at the beginning of the chapter who evaluates a complex attitude object that should be familiar to you: a college.
Basic multiattribute models contain three specific elements:4

•
•
•

Attributes are characteristics of the Ao . A researcher tries to identify the attributes
that most consumers use when they evaluate the Ao . For example, one of a college’s
attributes is its scholarly reputation.
Beliefs are cognitions about the specific Ao (usually relative to others like it).
A belief measure assesses the extent to which the consumer perceives that a brand
possesses a particular attribute. For example, a student might believe that the
University of North Carolina is strong academically.
Importance weights reflect the relative priority of an attribute to the consumer.
Although people might consider an Ao for several attributes, some are likely to
be more important than others (i.e., consumers will give them greater weight).
Furthermore, these weights are likely to differ across consumers. In the case of
colleges and universities, for example, one student might stress research opportunities, whereas another might assign greater weight to athletic programs.

The most influential multiattribute model is called the Fishbein Model, named
after its primary developer.5 The model measures three components of attitude:

•
•
•

Salient beliefs people have about an Ao (i.e., those beliefs about the object a person
considers during evaluation).
Object-attribute linkages, or the probability that a particular object has an important attribute.
Evaluation of each of the important attributes.

When we combine these three elements, we compute a consumer’s overall attitude
toward an object. (We’ll see later how researchers modify this equation to increase its
accuracy.) The basic formula is:
A jk = ∑ β ijk I ik
where
i = attribute
j = brand
k = consumer

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• Buying and Having: Choosing and Using Products

I = the importance weight given attribute i by consumer k
β = consumer k’s belief regarding the extent to which brand j possesses
attribute i
A = a particular consumer’s (k’s) attitude score for brand j
We obtain the overall attitude score (A) when we multiply consumers’ rating
of each attribute for all the brands they considered by the importance rating for that
attribute.
To see how this basic multiattribute model works, let’s suppose we want to predict
which college our friend Alex is likely to attend. After months of waiting anxiously,
Alex gets accepted by four schools. Because she must now decide among these, we
would first like to know which attributes Alex will consider when she forms an attitude
toward each school. We can then ask Alex to assign a rating regarding how well
each school performs on each attribute and determine the relative importance of the
attributes to her.
By summing scores on each attribute (after we weigh each by its relative
importance), we compute an overall attitude score for each school. Table 6.1 shows
these hypothetical ratings. Based on this analysis, it seems that Alex has the most
favorable attitude toward Smith. She is clearly someone who would like to attend a
college for women with a solid academic reputation rather than a school that offers a
strong athletic program or a party atmosphere.

Marketing Applications of the Multiattribute Model
Suppose you were the director of marketing for Northland College, another school Alex
considered. How might you use the data from this analysis to improve your image?
Capitalize on relative advantage. If prospective students view one brand as superior on a particular attribute, a marketer needs to convince consumers like Alex that
this attribute is important. For example, although Alex rates Northland’s social atmosphere highly, she does not believe this attribute is a valued aspect for a college. As
Northland’s marketing director, you might emphasize the importance of an active
social life, varied experiences, or even the development of future business contacts
that a student forges when they make strong college friendships.

TABLE 6.1    The

Basic Multiattribute Model: Alex’s College Decision
Beliefs (B)

Attribute (i )

Importance (I )

Warren

Ivy

State

Northland

Academic reputation

6

   8

   9

   6

   3

All women

7

   9

   3

   3

   3

Cost

4

   2

   2

   6

   9

Proximity to home

3

   2

   2

   6

   9

Athletics

1

   1

   2

   5

   1

Party atmosphere

2

   1

   3

   7

   9

Library facilities

5

   7

   9

   7

   2

163

142

153

131

Attitude score

Chapter 6 • Attitudes and How to Change Them

159

Strengthen perceived product/attribute linkages. A marketer may discover that

consumers do not equate his brand with a certain attribute. Advertising campaigns
often address this problem when they stress a specific quality to consumers (e.g.,
“new and improved”). Alex apparently does not think much of Northland’s academic
quality, athletic programs, or library facilities. You might develop an informational
campaign to improve these perceptions (e.g., “little-known facts about Northland”).
Add a new attribute. Product marketers frequently try to distinguish themselves

Buying, Having, Being

from their competitors when they add a product feature. Northland College might try
to emphasize some unique aspect, such as a hands-on internship program for business
majors that takes advantage of ties to the local community.

Too Nice to Use?

Influence competitors’ ratings. Finally, you can decrease your competitors’ higher
ratings with a comparative advertising strategy. In this case, you might publish an
ad that lists the tuition rates of several area schools with which Northland compares
favorably and emphasize the value for the money its students get.

“I Feel It”: Affective Focus
Moods involve temporary positive or negative affective states that are not necessarily
linked to a particular event (e.g., you might have just “woken up on the wrong side
of the bed this morning”). Emotions such as happiness, anger, and fear tend to be
more intense; they often relate to a specific triggering event, such as receiving an
awesome gift.
Marketers can use these affective states to shape or change our attitudes toward
products and brands. For instance, they often try to link a product or service with a
positive mood or emotion (just think of a sentimental Hallmark greeting card).6

Moods Shape Our Judgments

Can a product’s design ever be too
beautiful? Some recent research
says yes. Although we know that
consumers respond positively to
aesthetically pleasing options, ironically, in some cases, the package
can be so attractive that consumers
are reluctant to use what’s inside.
They feel sad if they do, because
they have destroyed the effort
required to make the item attractive.
In a field study, researchers stocked
a fitness studio bathroom with plain
white toilet paper and white toilet
paper with holiday motifs. Patrons
used twice the number of plain
sheets! A laboratory study replicated
this effect; participants ate fewer
cupcakes with fancy decorations
than they did plain cupcakes.8
There is a potential silver lining
to these findings: Ironically, if
manufacturers want to reduce the
waste that products like napkins
produce, the solution may be to
make them so pretty people don’t
want to use them!

Mood congruency refers to the idea that our moods tend to shape our judgments;
consumers evaluate the same products more positively when they are in a positive versus
a negative mood. This is why advertisers attempt to place their ads after humorous TV
programming or create uplifting messages that put viewers in a good mood. Similarly,
retailers work hard to make shoppers happy by playing “up” background music and
encouraging staff to be friendly. Then, of course, there’s the traditional “three-martini”
business lunch. . .
On other occasions, marketing communications may
deliberately evoke negative affect, such as a feeling of regret
if you forget to play the lottery. Perhaps a more productive
way to harness the power of negative affect is to expose
consumers to a distressing image and then provide a way to
improve it. For example, a nonprofit organization might run
an ad showing a starving child when it solicits donations.
Helping others to resolve their own negative moods is
known as negative state relief. We’ve seen a trend in advertising toward inspirational stories that manipulate our emotions like a roller-coaster: Think about the commercials
Budweiser ran during several Super Bowls about a puppy
who befriends a horse, gets lost, finds his way home, and so
on. This practice even has a name: sadvertising.7 Because
Product design and other aesthetic attributes help to create
these affective responses tend to be fleeting (compared to the
positive attitudes when they generate positive emotional reactions.
cognitive aspects of attitudes we discussed earlier), emotional
Source: Rob Cousins/Alamy Stock Photo.

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• Buying and Having: Choosing and Using Products

messages are especially persuasive when they involve outcomes the person
will experience shortly as opposed to those that involve a longer time frame.9

Emotions Rule Our Brains: Neuromarketing

Neuromarketing techniques rely on sophisticated
devices like the fMRI to understand how our
brains respond to marketing messages.
Source: James Steidl/Shutterstock.

How can we measure and detect affect-based attitudinal responses? Some
corporations, including Google, CBS, Disney, and Frito-Lay, have teamed
up with neuroscientists to find out.10 The emerging field of neuromarketing
uses functional magnetic resonance imaging (or fMRI), a brain-scanning
device that tracks blood flow as we perform mental tasks, to take an
up-close look at how our brains respond to marketing messages and product
design features. In recent years, researchers have discovered that regions in
the brain, such as the amygdala, the hippocampus, and the hypothalamus,
are dynamic switchboards that blend memory, emotions, and biochemical
triggers. These interconnected neurons shape the ways that fear, panic,
exhilaration, and social pressure influence our choices.
Scientists know that specific regions of the brain light up in these scans
to show increased blood flow when a person recognizes a face, hears a
song, makes a choice, or senses deception. Now they hope to harness this
technology to measure consumers’ reactions to movie trailers, automobiles, the appeal of a pretty face, and even their loyalty to specific brands.
DaimlerChrysler took brain scans of men as they looked at photos of cars
and confirmed that sports cars activated their reward centers. The company’s
scientists found that the most popular vehicles—the Porsche- and Ferraristyle sports cars—triggered activity in a section of the brain they call the
fusiform face area, which governs facial recognition. A psychiatrist who ran
the study commented, “They were reminded of faces when they looked at
the cars. The lights of the cars look a little like eyes.”

Oops! Attitudes Aren’t as Simple
as We Thought
Complicated concepts like attitudes don’t always fit into the neat little boxes we
would like them to. As we learn more about attitudes and their impact on behavior,
we find some “messy” factors to keep in mind, such as:

•

•

Ambivalence: You might “love” your smartphone (and keep it with you 24/7),
but why does it insist on sending you annoying messages when you’re trying
to concentrate on your accounting homework? Generally, attitudes have a
valence: They range from strongly negative to strongly positive. But there are
many products, brands, and services toward which we hold both positive and
negative views. When this happens, we experience attitudinal ambivalence:
A sense of being torn or mixed about an attitude object, because both positive and
negative components of our attitudes are simultaneously accessible.11
Explicit and implicit elements: Explicit attitudes are those that consumers
are conscious of. But we also hold more difficult-to-detect implicit attitudes,
those that occur outside of our awareness but still have a big impact on what we
think, say, or do. This may be due to a social desirability bias—a conscious
effort to report only attitudes that are deemed socially acceptable while keeping
your “real” feelings buried. 12 This bias can be a headache for marketing
researchers who try to measure consumers’ “real” feelings about unpopular
topics or products.

Chapter 6 • Attitudes and How to Change Them

161

Buying, Having, Being
Take Your Medicine!

CVS tries to increase medication adherence by including a reminder function in its app.
Source: Patti McConville/Alamy Stock Photo.

•

Social pressure: Admit it—you’ve said or done something in the past that didn’t
totally reflect your actual attitude because of the social pressure to conform to
what others say or do. Join the club! We’re often acutely aware of normative
influences—what we believe other people think we should do. In a classic demonstration of “do as I say, not as I do,” many studies report a low correlation between
a person’s reported attitude toward something and actual behavior toward it. Hence
the popular expression, “the road to hell is paved with good intentions.”

An Improved Fishbein Model to the Rescue:
The Theory of Reasoned Action
So, what makes it more likely that we’ll see a firm linkage between attitudes and
behavior? Researchers tinkered with the Fishbein model to improve its predictive
ability. They call the newer version the Theory of Reasoned Action.16 This model
contains several important additions to the original, and although the model is still not
perfect, it does a better job of prediction.17 Let’s look at some of the modifications to
this model via Alex’s college choice. You saw in Table 6.1 that one of her criteria was
a school near home. However, if she felt that this choice would be unpopular (perhaps
her friends would think she was too immature), she might ignore or downgrade this
preference when she made her decision.
Researchers added a new element, the subjective norm (SN), to account for the
effects of what we believe other people think we should do. They use two factors to
measure SN: (1) the intensity of a normative belief (NB) that others believe we should
take or not take some action and (2) the motivation to comply (MC) with that belief
(i.e., the degree to which the consumer takes others’ anticipated reactions into account
when they evaluate a purchase).

The (in)consistency between attitudes and behavior links to a major
public health problem: medication
adherence. This term describes the
extent to which people fill and take
prescribed medicines. Although
some patients unfortunately don’t
adhere to prescriptions because
they can’t afford them, many simply
forget to swallow their pills. This
breakdown between attitudes and
behavior threatens many people’s
health, and it also adds huge costs
to the healthcare system. An industry study estimates it costs U.S.
taxpayers $290 billion annually.13
The CVS chain found that even for
chronic diseases, one-third of their
customers stopped taking their
prescribed medicine after a month,
and half stopped after a year. CVS
aggressively reminds people to fill
their prescriptions with texts, emails,
and phone calls.14 More generally,
healthcare companies spend over
$3 billion per year on hardware
and software solutions to remind
patients about their prescriptions.15

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OBJECTIVE 6-2
Describe the ways
in which we form
attitudes.

How Do We Form Attitudes?

We all have lots of attitudes, and we don’t usually question
how we got them. Certainly, you’re not born with the
heartfelt conviction that, say, Pepsi is better than Coke or
that K-Pop music liberates the soul. From where do these attitudes come?
As we saw earlier, attitudes contain both cognitive and affective elements.
Attitudes that are formed through a cognitive process tend to be more durable. We
hold them more strongly than those attitudes that are formed because of an emotional
response.18 So, to understand how committed someone is to their attitude, it’s useful
to think about how those attitudes formed in the first place.19
One consumer may be highly brand loyal, like the hard-core fans we discussed
in Chapter 5; they have an enduring, deeply held, positive attitude toward
an attitude object, and it would be difficult to weaken this involvement.
However, another person may be a fickle consumer: They may have a
mildly positive attitude toward a product but be quite willing to abandon
it when something better comes along. In this section, we’ll consider the
differences between strongly and weakly held attitudes and briefly review
some of the major theoretical perspectives researchers use to explain how
attitudes form and relate to our other attitudes.

Commitment
Consumers vary in their commitment to an attitude; the degree of
commitment relates to their level of involvement with the attitude object (see
Chapter 5). 20 A person who holds an attitude with greater confidence or
conviction is more likely to act on it. As such, it is helpful to distinguish
between attitudes we hold firmly and those that are more superficial. One
study on environmental issues and marketing activities found, for example,
that people who express greater conviction in their feelings regarding
environmentally responsible behaviors, such as recycling, show greater
consistency between attitudes and behavioral intentions.21
Let’s look at three (increasing) levels of commitment:

As we saw in Chapter 4, we simply may form
an attitude toward a brand due to classical
conditioning: A marketer repeatedly pairs an
attitude object, such as the Under Armour name,
with a catchy tagline (“Under Armour: The Only
Way is Through”). Or we can form an attitude
because of instrumental conditioning: The marketer
reinforces us when we consume the attitude object
(e.g., you take a swig of Pepsi, and it quenches
your thirst). Finally, this learning can result from a
complex cognitive process. For example, teenagers
may model the behavior of friends and media
endorsers, such as Megan Thee Stallion or Cardi B,
who drink Pepsi, because they believe that this will
allow them to fit in with the desirable lifestyle that
Pepsi commercials portray.
Source: Dimitrios Kambouris/Getty Images.

1. Compliance—At the lowest level of involvement, compliance,
we form an attitude because it helps us to gain rewards or avoid
punishment. This attitude is superficial; it is likely to change when
others no longer monitor our behavior or when another option becomes
available. You may drink Pepsi because the cafeteria sells it and it is
too much trouble to go elsewhere for a Coca-Cola.
2. Identification—Identification occurs when we form an attitude to
conform to another person’s or group’s expectations. Advertising that
depicts the dire social consequences when we choose some products
over others relies on the tendency of consumers to imitate the behavior
of desirable models (more on this in Chapter 11).
3. Internalization—At a high level of involvement we call
internalization, deep-seated attitudes become part of our value system.
These attitudes are difficult to change because they are so important
to us. The infamous Coke debacle of the 1980s (still a standard in
marketing textbooks today) illustrates what can happen when a
marketer messes with strongly held attitudes. In this case, Coca-Cola

Chapter 6 • Attitudes and How to Change Them

decided to change its flavor formula to meet the needs of younger consumers
who often preferred a sweeter taste (more characteristic of Pepsi). The company
conducted rigorous blind taste tests that showed people who didn’t know what
brands they were drinking preferred the flavor of the new formula. Much to its
surprise, when New Coke hit the shelves, the company faced a consumer revolt
as die-hard Coke fans protested. This allegiance to Coke was obviously more than
a minor taste preference for these people; the brand was intertwined with their
social identities and took on intense patriotic and nostalgic properties. You don’t
mess with internalized attitudes!

The Consistency Principle
Have you ever heard someone say, “Pepsi is my favorite soft drink. It tastes terrible,”
or “I love my boyfriend. He’s the biggest idiot I’ve ever met”? Probably not (at least
until the couple gets married!), because these beliefs or evaluations don’t go together.
According to the principle of cognitive consistency, we value harmony among our
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, and a need to maintain uniformity among these
elements motivates us. This desire means that, if necessary, we change our thoughts,
feelings, or behaviors to make them consistent with other experiences. That boyfriend
may slip up and act like a moron occasionally, but his partner (eventually) will find a
way to forgive him—or dump him.
The consistency principle is an important reminder that we don’t form our
attitudes in a vacuum: A big factor is how well they fit with other, related attitudes we
already hold. Sometimes we jump through hoops to justify our desires. For example,
researchers find that promotions such as price discounts, rebates, coupons, and loyalty
rewards are more effective for hedonic purchases than for utilitarian purchases. Why?
Because it is more difficult to defend buying something just because it makes us feel
good rather than something we need. These promotions provide the guilt-reducing
justification we require to splurge on such items.22
We’ve already reviewed this phenomenon in Chapter 5, when we learned about
the theory of cognitive dissonance. We saw that when a person is confronted with
inconsistencies among attitudes or behaviors, they will take some action to resolve
this “dissonance”; perhaps they will change their attitude or modify their behavior to
restore consistency. The theory has important ramifications for consumer behavior. We
often confront situations in which there is some conflict between our attitudes toward
a product or service and what we do or buy.23
According to the theory, our motivation to reduce the negative feelings of
dissonance makes us find a way for our beliefs and feelings to fit together. The theory
focuses on situations in which two cognitive elements clash. A cognitive element is
something a person believes about themselves, a behavior they perform, or an observation about their surroundings. For example, the two cognitive elements “I know vaping
causes cancer” and “I vape” are dissonant with one another. This psychological inconsistency creates a feeling of discomfort that the smoker tries to reduce. The magnitude
of dissonance depends on both the importance and number of dissonant elements.24 In
other words, we’re more likely to observe dissonance in high-involvement situations
where there is more pressure to reduce inconsistencies.
We reduce dissonance when we eliminate, add, or change elements. A person can
stop smoking (eliminating) or remember Great-Aunt Sophie who smoked until the
day she died at age 95 (adding). Alternatively, they might question the research that
links cancer and vaping (changing), perhaps by believing industry-sponsored studies
that try to refute this connection.

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Buying, Having, Being
Basking in Reflected Glory
Consumers often like to publicize
their connections with successful
people or organizations (no matter
how shaky the connection) to
enhance their own standing.
Researchers call this tactic basking
in reflected glory. A series of
studies at Arizona State University
(ASU) showed how students’
desires to identify with a winning
image—in this case, ASU’s football
team—influenced their consumption
behaviors. After the team played
a game each weekend, observers
recorded the incidence of schoolrelated items, such as ASU
T-shirts and caps that students
walking around campus wore.
The researchers correlated the
frequency of these behaviors to the
team’s performance. If the team
won on Saturday, students were
more likely to show off their school
affiliation (basking in reflected glory)
the following Monday than if the
team lost. And the bigger the point
spread, the more likely researchers
were to observe students who wore
clothes with the ASU logo.26

Balance Theory
Have you ever heard the expression, “Any friend of Joe’s is a friend of mine?” How
about “My enemy’s enemy is my friend?” Balance theory considers how people
perceive relations among different attitude objects, and how they alter their attitudes
so that these remain consistent (or “balanced”).25
Balance theory is like the principle of cognitive consistency. A balance theory
perspective involves relations (always from the perceiver’s subjective point of view)
among three elements, so we call the resulting attitude structures triads. Each triad
contains (1) a person and their perceptions of (2) an attitude object and (3) some
other person or object. The theory specifies that we want relations among elements
in a triad to be harmonious. If they are unbalanced, this creates tension that we are
motivated to reduce by changing our perceptions to restore balance.
We link elements together in one of two ways: They can have either a unit relation, where we think that a person is somehow connected to an attitude object (something like a belief), or they can have a sentiment relation, where a person expresses
liking or disliking for an attitude object. To see how balance theory might work,
consider the following scenario:

•
•
•

Chris would like to date Dan, who is in their consumer behavior class. In balance
theory terms, Chris has a positive sentiment relation with Dan.
One day, Dan shows up in class wearing an earring. Dan has a positive unit relation with the earring.
Men who wear earrings are a turnoff to Chris. They have a negative sentiment
relation with men’s earrings.

According to balance theory, Chris faces an unbalanced triad. As Figure 6.2
shows, they will experience pressure to restore balance by altering some aspect of
the triad. How can they do this? Chris could decide that they do not like Dan after
Chris

Earring

Dan

Chris

Dan

Chris

Earring

Dan

UNBALANCED TRIAD

Earring

Chris

Dan
BALANCED TRIADS

Figure 6.2 Balance Theory
Source: Zizi_mentos/Shutterstock.

Earring

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165

When a school’s team wins a game,
students (and fans) are more likely
to wear merchandise that link them
to the institution as they “bask in
reflected glory.”

Source: Rose-Marie Murray/Alamy Stock Photo.

all. Or their liking for Dan could prompt them to decide that earrings on men are
cool. Chris might even try to negate the unit relation between Dan and the earring by
deciding that Dan must wear it as part of a fraternity initiation (this reduces the freechoice element). Finally, Chris could choose to “leave the field” by accepting a date
with Dan’s roommate Doug who doesn’t wear an earring (but who has an awesome
tattoo). Note that although the theory does not specify which of these routes Chris
will choose, it does predict that they will change one or more of their perceptions to
achieve balance.
Balance theory helps us to understand how an attitude toward a person or celebrity
can transfer to a brand that they are associated with. For instance, in a study of
products that appeared on TV shows, viewers’ attitudes toward a brand that appeared
in an episode was more positive if the brand was positively associated with a character
that the viewer liked.27 If you like the TV character Ted Lasso and see that he is often
associated with Apple products, you will develop a more positive attitude toward
Apple products. This can work both ways: You are more likely to like Ted Lasso if
you already like Apple products.
OBJECTIVE 6-3
Explain how
persuasion is an
active attempt to
create or change
attitudes.

Persuasion: How Do Marketers
Change Attitudes?

BUY NOW! Advertisers constantly bombard us with
messages imploring us to change our attitudes—and, of
course, buy their products. Persuasion is an active attempt
to create or change attitudes. This is Job #1 for many marketing communicators.
These persuasion attempts can range from logical arguments to graphic pictures, from peers who try to intimidate us to celebrities who try to charm us. Let’s
review some of the factors that influence the effectiveness of marketing communications. Our focus will be on some basic aspects of communication that specifically help to determine how and if consumers will form new attitudes or modify
existing ones.

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Sell the Steak or the Sizzle?:
The Elaboration Likelihood Model
As we saw in Chapter 5, consumers’ level of involvement determines which cognitive
processes will activate when they receive a message. This in turn influences which
aspects of a communication they process. Like travelers who come to a fork in the
road, they choose one path or the other. The direction they take determines which
aspects of the marketing communication will work and which will fall on deaf ears.
The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) assumes that, under conditions
of high involvement (system 2 processing), we take the central route to persuasion
(“the steak”). In this scenario, we prioritize cognitive information as we strive to learn
as much as we can to make a smart choice. But under conditions of low involvement
(system 1 processing), we take a peripheral route instead. Here, we tend to focus
on the “sizzle”: the more superficial components of a brand, such as its packaging,
who endorses it, or the emotions it arouses in us that (we believe) will tell us quickly
whether it’s something that we want. Figure 6.3 diagrams the ELM model.28
The harsh truth: Most of us aren’t that motivated to pay attention to most
persuasion attempts we receive. Furthermore, as we saw way back in Chapter 3,
our poor overworked brains probably couldn’t make sense of a lot of this even if we
wanted to. So, it’s fair to say that we process many or even most advertising messages
peripherally rather than centrally. Let’s dig into this a bit more.

Fast Persuasion: The Peripheral Route
We take the well-travelled peripheral route when we’re not really motivated to think
in depth about the marketer’s arguments. Instead, we’re likely to use other cues to
decide how to react to the message. These cues include the product’s package, the
attractiveness of the source, and the context in which the message appears. We call
sources of information extraneous to the actual message peripheral cues because they
surround the actual message.

EXPOSURE TO A MESSAGE

Likelihood to elaborate?

PERIPHERAL ROUTE

Low

High

CENTRAL ROUTE

(more affective process)

(more cognitive process)

FAST PERSUASION
(system 1)

SLOW PERSUASION
(system 2)

Belief Change

Cognitive Responses

Behavior Change

Belief and Attitude Change

Attitude Change

Behavior Change

Figure 6.3 The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) of Persuasion

Chapter 6 • Attitudes and How to Change Them

The peripheral route to persuasion highlights the paradox of low involvement:
When we don’t care as much about a product, the way it’s presented (e.g., who
endorses it or the visuals that go with it) increases in importance. The implication here
is that we may buy low-involvement products chiefly because the marketer designs
a “sexy” package, chooses a popular spokesperson, or creates a stimulating shopping
environment. In other words, especially when a consumer engages in emotional or
behavioral decision making, these environmental cues become more important than
when they perform cognitive decision making; as a result, they look more carefully at
the product’s performance or other objective attributes.
Marketers are just beginning to explore the effects of this type of incidental brand
exposure, where subtle cues in the environment influence our reactions—even when
we’re unaware of the cause! We’ll get into this process in more detail in Chapter 9, but
for now, here are a few examples of the overlooked power of peripheral cues:

•
•
•
•

People in a room who were exposed to a sign of the brand name “Apple” provided
responses on an unrelated task that were more unique compared with those who
saw a sign with the IBM brand name.29
College students who used a “cute” ice cream scoop to help themselves to ice
cream took a larger amount than those who used a plain scoop; the researchers
explained that the whimsical object drove them to be more self-indulgent even
though they weren’t aware of this effect.30
Some students scored higher on difficult Graduate Record Examination questions
when they took the test using a Massachusetts Institute of Technology pen, and
they delivered a better athletic performance when they drank water from a Gatorade
cup during strenuous exercise.31
E-cigarettes in music videos create more positive attitudes toward e-cigarettes
among youth: Compared with participants who watched music videos with images
of vaping removed, those who saw videos with images of vaping were more likely
to want to use e-cigarettes in the future.32

Slow Persuasion: The Central Route
An expectant mother who hears a radio message that warns about drinking while
pregnant might say to herself, “They’re right. I really should stop drinking alcohol now
that I’m pregnant.” Or she might offer a counterargument, such as, “That’s a bunch
of baloney. My mother had a cocktail every night when she was pregnant with me,
and I turned out fine.” If people generate counterarguments in response to a message,
it’s less likely that they will yield to the message, whereas if they generate further
supporting arguments, it’s more likely they’ll comply.33
According to the ELM, when we find the information in a persuasive message
relevant or interesting, we pay careful attention to it. We focus on the arguments the
marketer presents and process this content cognitively. These counterarguments may
take the form of reasons why what the message is saying is wrong or doesn’t apply to
you. We can think of these arguments as part of our cognitive defenses, or our natural
tendency to refute messages that try to persuade us.34
To recap, the basic idea of the ELM is that involved consumers who are motivated to engage in elaboration look for the “steak” (e.g., strong, rational arguments).
Those who are less involved and not inclined to elaborate on the message very much
go for the “sizzle” (e.g., the colors and images in packaging or famous people’s
endorsements). It is important to remember, however, that the same communications
variable can be both a central and a peripheral cue, depending on its relation to the
attitude object. The physical attractiveness of a model might serve as a peripheral
cue in a car commercial, but their beauty might be a central cue for a product such
as shampoo, where a major product benefit is to enhance attractiveness.35

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Narrative Persuasion
Earlier in the chapter, we talked about Budweiser’s popular series of commercials where
a Clydesdale pony befriends a Labrador puppy.36 Quite a story! Just like novelists,
poets, and artists, marketers are storytellers. Advertisers structure commercials, print
ads, and billboards like other art forms; they borrow conventions from literature and art
to communicate.37 That’s because they hope to take us to “another place” (at least in our
heads), where their brand plays the hero. The term narrative transportation describes
the extent to which someone feels immersed in a story and is thus “transported” into the
action. This is a very powerful way to convey a message, and the icing on the cake is
that narrative ads are also more likely to be shared and to be shared more frequently.
After all, a story is more compelling than a lecture (don’t tell your professor).38
Messages that feature a narrative, which is a series of connected events (i.e., a plot)
centered on a character, are more compelling than those that rely on a logical argument.
In a lecture, the source speaks directly to the audience to inform them about a product
or to persuade them to buy it. The emerging perspective on narrative persuasion is that
stories often are more effective. Why would this be?
Because a lecture clearly implies an attempt at persuasion, the audience will
regard it as such. Assuming it motivates listeners, they weigh the merits of the message
along with the source’s credibility. Counterarguments occur (e.g., “How much did
Coke pay him to say that?”). Consumers accept the appeal if it overcomes objections
and is consistent with their beliefs. But a story draws you in; it encourages you to
vicariously live through the event from the character’s perspective. Consumers who
are immersed in the story typically are more likely to believe that what the narrative is
conveying is real and to accept its premise, without questions or counterarguments.39
This also is the case for online reviews: A study dissected the structure of almost
200,000 online consumer reviews with automated text analysis.40 Researchers found
reviews are more persuasive if they have characteristics that make them resemble a
narrative—for example, thoughts or feelings (“They changed the show!”) that then
lead to a subsequent event (“This is my last time attending the show!”). Reviews
that had better-developed characters and events as well as more emotionally charged
genres and dramatic event orders—i.e., reviews higher in narrativity, or the extent to
which a message tells a story—were more transporting and as a result more persuasive. The lesson: Marketers should encourage people who had positive experiences to
“share their story” about the experience on social media or online reviews.

Persuasion Knowledge: Talking Back to Marketers
Do we passively accept everything these messages want us to believe? Obviously
not! The premise of the persuasion knowledge model is that consumers develop
knowledge about persuasion attempts and then call upon this experience whenever
they believe someone is trying to change their mind. For example, say you notice that
an Instagram post is labeled “Sponsored Content”: This cue will probably make you
more critical of the message, less likely to find the source credible, and less likely to
believe that what the post says is true.

Media Literacy
A large body of research has shown that when consumers access their persuasion
knowledge, they evaluate the source of the persuasion attempt less favorably and they
are less likely to get persuaded. As we saw in Chapter 2, this form of media literacy
acts as a defense mechanism against persuasion, because people identify the ulterior
motives or manipulative tactics of a marketer, so they become more suspicious and
counterargue more.41

Chapter 6 • Attitudes and How to Change Them

Media literacy is especially important for those who have not yet developed
critical skills, such as children. A research program the National Institutes of Health
funded to correct the influence of alcohol messages that are prevalent in the content
of TV shows popular with youth illustrates one attempt to help young consumers
develop persuasion knowledge.42
Hoping to bypass otherwise stringent regulations on advertising their products,
alcohol advertisers often revert to product placements in these shows. This strategy
capitalizes on the narrative persuasion process we reviewed earlier in this chapter. But
consumer advocates and policymakers worry that showing alcohol use in a positive
light can lead young people to develop unhealthy attitudes toward drinking. So, in this
program, the researchers developed TV episodes that emphasized the social benefits
of drinking—but they also created a one-minute epilogue in which one of the lead
characters told viewers that what they see on TV is “not real” and that alcohol can
change their behavior for the worst.
Overall, the epilogues were effective at countering the influence of the TV
episode, but they were especially effective among those viewers who were highly
transported in the story and who reported high levels of persuasion knowledge. The
high level of narrative transportation made them pay more attention to what the TV
characters had to say, including in the epilogue, while activation of the persuasion
knowledge allowed them to be more critical and thus less accepting of the drinking
message.

Disclosures and Warnings: Do They Work?
A recent meta-analysis of all types of disclosures and warning found consistent
evidence that disclosures are effective at activating persuasion knowledge, generating
more critical processing, and in turn increasing resistance to persuasive attempts.43 Of
course, one size does not fit all when it comes to warnings. Although they are designed
to activate persuasion knowledge, they can also backfire by bringing attention to the
product being advertised.
But wait, it’s not that simple (surprise!). New research shows that in this day and
age of constant and often obvious attempts to persuade, consumers use persuasion
knowledge differently. Instead of skepticism and rejection of the message, they may
simply search for a more credible source.44 In some cases, they admire the source for
their skills at persuasion and view these attempts positively! So, whereas conventional
wisdom is that persuasion knowledge is always a bad thing, this research shows that
boosting consumers’ persuasion knowledge in fact helps the marketer by making
consumers evaluate the marketer more positively. Have you ever interacted with a
talented salesperson who can get you to buy those jeans and instead of being more
critical of them, you are quite impressed with their skills?

OBJECTIVE 6-4
Discuss the
ways in which
the source, the
message, and the
medium are used
to craft persuasion
strategies.

•

Crafting Persuasive
Communications Strategies
The communications model in Figure 6.4 captures all the
elements marketers need to consider when they want to
connect with their customers:

•

One of these is a source, where the communication
originates.
Another is the message itself. There are many ways to say something, and the
structure of the message has a significant effect on how we perceive it.

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Consumer
Consumer
Medium
Source

Consumer

Message
Consumer

Consumer
Consumer

Figure 6.4 21st Century Communications Model

•
•
•
•

The message is conveyed via a medium, which could be TV, a social media post,
radio, magazines, billboards, personal contact, or even a matchbook cover.
One or more receivers interpret the message considering their own experiences.
Finally, the source receives feedback so that the marketer can use receivers’ reactions to modify aspects of the message as necessary.
In today’s dynamic world of interactivity, there are also many elements of
consumer-to-consumer exchanges around the source, the message, and the
medium. We will discuss these social processes more fully in Chapter 11.

Decisions, Decisions: Tactical Communications Options
Suppose Audi wants to create an advertising campaign for a new ragtop it targets
to young drivers. As it plans this campaign, the automaker must develop a message
that will arouse desire for the car. To craft persuasive messages that might persuade
someone to buy this car instead of the many others available, we must answer several
questions:

•
•

•

Who will drive the car in the ad? A NASCAR driver? A career woman? A reality
show star? The source of a message helps determine whether consumers will
accept it.
How should we construct the message? Should it emphasize the negative consequences of being left out when others drive cool cars and you still tool around
in your old clunker? Should it directly compare the car with others already on
the market, or maybe present a fantasy in which a high-powered but overworked
executive abruptly decided to leave a boring meeting to cruise down the highway
in their Audi?
What media should we use? Should the ad run in a magazine? Should we air it
on TV? Sell the product door-to-door? Post the material on Instagram or create
a Facebook group? Convince bloggers on popular sites like Justacarguy.com or
Carscoops.com to write about it?45 If we do produce a print ad, should we run it in
the pages of Vogue? Good Housekeeping? Car and Driver? Sometimes where you

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•

171

say something is as important as what you say. Ideally, we should
match the attributes of the medium with those of what we sell.
For example, advertising in magazines with high prestige is more
effective when we want to communicate messages about overall
product image and quality, whereas specialized expert magazines
do a better job when we want to convey factual information.46
What characteristics of the target market might lead its members
to accept the ad? If targeted users are frustrated in their daily lives,
they might be more receptive to a fantasy appeal. If they’re status
oriented, maybe a commercial should show bystanders who swoon
with admiration as the car cruises by.

Social scientists developed the traditional model of communicaWhen consumers opt in to receive information from an
tions to understand situations in which a source transmits information
organization, they are more likely to pay attention to it
to many receivers at one time—typically via a broadcast medium,
when a message arrives.
such as television. This perspective essentially views advertising as
Source: liliwhite/123RF.
the process of transferring information to the buyer before a sale. It
regards a message as perishable—the marketer repeats the same message to a large
audience and then the message “vanishes” when a new campaign takes its place.
That model doesn’t work as well now that we can narrowcast, or finely tune our
messages to suit small groups of receivers (sometimes even one person at a time). And
the popular strategy we call permission marketing acknowledges that a marketer
will be more successful when they communicate with consumers who have already
agreed to listen to them; consumers who “opt out” of listening to the message probably
weren’t good prospects in the first place.47

The Source
Regardless of whether we receive a message by “snail mail” (netheads’ slang for the
postal service), email, or SMS text, common sense tells us that if different people say
or write the same words, the message can still affect us differently. Researchers have
demonstrated the power of source effects for more than 70 years. Indeed, a synthesis
of the findings of more than 1,700 advertising studies with 2.4 million participants
concluded that the source is even more influential than the message itself!48
Under most conditions, the source of a message can have a big impact on the likelihood that receivers will accept it. Marketers can choose a spokesperson because they
are an expert, attractive, famous, or even a “typical” consumer who is both likable
and trustworthy. Credibility and attractiveness are two particularly important source
characteristics (i.e., how much we either believe or like the communicator).49
How do marketing specialists decide whether to stress credibility or attractiveness
when they select a message source? There should be a match between the needs of
the recipient and the potential rewards the source offers. When this match occurs, the
recipient is more motivated to process the message. An attractive source, for example,
is more effective for receivers who tend to be sensitive about social acceptance and
others’ opinions, whereas a credible, expert source is more powerful when they speak
to internally oriented people.50 However, even a credible source’s trustworthiness
evaporates if they endorse too many products.51

Source Credibility
Source credibility refers to a communicator’s expertise, objectivity, or trustworthiness.
This dimension relates to consumers’ beliefs that this person is competent and that they
will provide the necessary information we need when we evaluate competing products.

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Source credibility is an incredibly important factor in advertising, where celebs of all
stripes hawk products and services.
On the other hand, some subtle cues can diminish credibility: Consider for example
those superfast disclaimers you often hear at the end of a commercial message that
supply additional information the advertiser is required to provide (“possible side
effects may include nausea, diarrhea, or death”). Although
people tend to assume that people who speak faster are more
intelligent, they may trust them less. When consumers don’t
already have a positive attitude toward a product, a fast-paced
disclaimer leads them to think the advertiser has ulterior
motives and they trust the company less.52
Source credibility also suffers if consumers perceive
that the source is biased.53 Knowledge bias implies that a
source’s knowledge about a topic is not accurate. Reporting
bias occurs when a source has the required knowledge, but
we question their willingness to convey it accurately—as
when a racket manufacturer pays a star tennis player to use
its products exclusively. The source’s credentials might be
appropriate, but the fact that consumers see the expert as a
“hired gun” compromises believability.
Facebook’s credibility was damaged when it came out that
purveyors of fake news had bought huge amounts of advertisThe issue of source credibility has never been more
ing on the platform and that the company allowed advertisers to
important than it is today when an explosion of fake news—
target very specific racial groups. Facebook is scrambling to repair
hoaxes spread by hackers or other outsiders—has caused
the damage. It now offers a “Related Articles” tool so that readers
many people to question the trustworthiness of even the most
can consult other sources to acquire more context about a story
respected traditional and social media outlets. Programs to
and reduce the frequency with which people share hoaxes. Even
so, the ability of almost anyone to create a doctored video or to
disseminate false information have taken their toll on the
post a story that looks “authentic” creates a very big problem, and
American public; nearly two-thirds of Americans believe
not just for politicians: Marketers now must contend with even
the mainstream media publish fake news. Indeed, in a recent
greater skepticism among consumers about whether what they
survey among 92,000 news consumers in 46 countries, the
read about product claims is fake news as well.55
United States ranked dead last in media trust.54
Source: BigNazik/Shutterstock.
Although in general more positive sources tend to
increase attitude change, there are exceptions to this rule. Sometimes we can think a
source is obnoxious, yet it is still effective. For example, most Americans hate negative
political ads, yet such ads are widespread. Twenty years ago, a law was passed that
required politicians to place their endorsement on all ads that they run: “My name is
_____, and I approve this message.”
Yet recent research shows that this law could have unintended consequences by
making negative ads more effective. In the study, the researchers showed participants
eight political ads, half from Democrats and half from Republicans, all from late 2000s
U.S. Senate races.56 They used different types of ads—policy attack, character attack,
policy positive, and character positive—and manipulated whether the participants also
saw the candidate’s endorsement at the end. They measured how much participants
perceived the candidate as credible, believable, and trustworthy, and then measured
their attitudes toward each candidate. They found clear evidence that the endorsements
boosted the evaluations of policy-focused attack ads—but not those ads that were
positive or character-focused. The researchers concluded that the endorsement made
the ad content seem truer and more credible.
In some instances, the differences in attitude change between positive sources
and less positive sources diminish over time. After a while, people appear to “forget”
about the negative source and change their attitudes anyway. We call this process the
sleeper effect.57

Chapter 6 • Attitudes and How to Change Them

Source Attractiveness: “What Is Beautiful Is Good”
Source attractiveness refers to the social value recipients attribute to a communicator.
This value relates to the person’s physical appearance, personality, social status, or
similarity to the receiver (we like to listen to people who are like us). No wonder that
many organizations are willing to pay top dollar to communicators who can get the
job done.

Is Beauty Only Skin Deep?
Some sources appeal to us because they are cool, brainy, or just plain famous
(Kardashians, anyone?). But many just are nice to look at. Almost everywhere we
turn, beautiful people try to persuade us to buy or do something. As we’ll see in
Chapter 9, our society places a high premium on physical attractiveness. We assume
that good-looking people are smarter, hipper, and happier than the rest of us. This is
an example of a halo effect, which occurs when we assume that persons who rank
high on one dimension excel on others as well. We can explain this effect in terms
of the consistency principle we discussed previously in this chapter; we are more
comfortable when all our judgments about a person correspond.

Star Power: Celebrities as Communications Sources
Which celeb’s products are you using today? Maybe you’re wearing Kim Kardashian
shapewear under Nicole Richie sleepwear and resting your head on an Ellen DeGeneres
pillow. How about a sip of Drake champagne, Chainsmokers tequila, or Post Malone
rosé—or perhaps you prefer to roll Snoop Dogg cannabis in Wiz Khalifa papers, then
discard your ashes in a receptable customdesigned by actor Seth Rogen.58
Many big-time marketers pay big
bucks to secure celebrity endorsements;
they hope that the star’s popularity will
transfer to their product, or perhaps even
discourage harmful behavior like excessive
drug or cigarette use.59 Celebrities hawk
everything from grills (George Foreman) to
perfumes (Jennifer Lopez). As our earlier
discussion about the consistency principle
illustrates, these messages are more
effective when there’s a logical connection
between the star and the product. When
Bob Dylan pitches Victoria’s Secret lingerie
(yes, he really did), marketers may need to
reread their consumer behavior textbook.60
Then again, Justin Bieber puts his name
on almost everything. . . including nail
Marketers hope that a star’s popularity will transfer to their product.
Source: Bastian/Agencja Fotograficzna Caro/Alamy Stock Photo.
polish!61
There is no doubt that celebrity endorsements are still very popular: Current
estimates indicate that about 20 to 25 percent of all ads worldwide rely on this
strategy.62 But do celebrity endorsements work? A meta-analysis of 46 studies through
2016 finds that celebrity endorsements do not (1) increase awareness of a product
or brand, (2) boost attitude toward the ad itself, and (3) make people more likely to
purchase the item. But they do make people like the product more.63 And this tactic
often pays off financially—brands that employ celebrity endorsers often see a jump
in their stock prices.64

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In general, celebrity endorsers are more effective when they are (1) male (vs
female) endorsers, (2) actors rather than models, musicians, or TV hosts, and (3)
endorsers who are congruent with the product. They also are more effective when the
endorsement itself is (1) implicit rather than explicit and (2) about a new product. For
instance, a study showed that a visual depicting Sarah Jessica Parker holding a bottle
of a new drink named V led to more positive attitudes toward the new brand V if the
visual was presented as a picture taken by a passerby on a city street (a natural, implicit
form of endorsement) than if the visual was presented as part of a commercial for the
drink (an explicit form of endorsement).65

From Talking Head to Partner: The Celebrity Collab
As trust in traditional advertising tanks, some brands still seek to engage with celebrities, but on different terms. Rather than just paying a lot of money to use their likeness,
companies are creating collaborations with celebrities—so-called collabs—that link
to the endorser’s image or passion in a meaningful way:

•
•
•

Jeni’s Splendid Ice Cream launched a new flavor based on collaboration with
country music star Dolly Parton. Every purchase of a pint of Strawberry Pretzel
Pie supports Dolly’s Imagination Library, which provides free books to children
to inspire a love of reading.
With Adidas, the singer Beyoncé launched her Ivy Park collection—an athletic
wear line that reflects “shared respect for and commitment to creativity, and the
belief that through sport, we have the power to change lives.”66
The rapper Travis Scott put his name on his favorite meal at McDonald’s, including
his custom-order Quarter Pounder (essentially just a Quarter Pounder with bacon),
which quickly became known as the “Travy Patty.” This $6 meal, which also
included a medium order of fries and a Sprite, was only available for a
limited time—and it became such a viral hit that McDonald’s ran out of
the ingredients!67

Nonhuman Endorsers

Spokescharacters boost the effectiveness of advertising claims.
Source: Pat Canova/Alamy Stock Photo.

Creating a unit relation between a product and a star can backfire if
the public’s opinion of the celebrity endorser shifts from positive to
negative. Well-known endorsers like comedian Bill Cosby and Jared
Fogel (of Subway fame) ran into “legal problems” that discredited them.
Kim Kardashian started a firestorm when she promoted an appetitesuppressing lollipop on Instagram.68 The strategy can also cause trouble
if people question the star-product unit relation: The singer Mariah Carey
did a collab with McDonald’s that included Big Macs, hotcakes, and
chocolate-chip cookies—even though she previously claimed that she
eats only Norwegian salmon and capers! 69
As we previously noted, stars’ motives may be suspect if they plug
products that don’t fit their images or if consumers begin to believe the
celebrities never met a product they didn’t like (for a fee). Celebrities
may be involved in a scandal or deviate from a brand’s desired image;
many athletes—think Lance Armstrong, Michael Phelps, and Maria
Sharapova—get signed to lucrative endorsement deals and then fail drug
tests or otherwise get into trouble.70 Don’t you hate when that happens?
For these reasons, some marketers seek alternative sources, including
cartoon characters and mascots. As the marketing director for a company that
manufactures costumed characters for sports teams and businesses points
out, “You don’t have to worry about your mascot checking into rehab.”71

Chapter 6 • Attitudes and How to Change Them

Researchers report that spokescharacters—such as Chester Cheetah and the
GEICO Gecko—do, in fact, boost viewers’ recall of claims that ads make and yield
higher brand attitudes.72 Some of the most popular spokescharacters in recent years
include Snoopy (MetLife), Sasquatch (Jack Link’s Beef Jerky), Allstate’s Mayhem
Man, Grumpy Cat (Grenade Coffee’s Grumppuccino iced drink), and that old stand-by
the Pillsbury Doughboy.73

The Most Convincing Sources? Other Consumers
Whom do you believe more—the companies that want to sell you something, or your
personal connections that advocate one brand over another? There is no doubt that the
most compelling source of information is other consumers: Through word of mouth,
reviews, and social media, consumers’ voices can be loud. And in a world increasingly
crowded with many sources of messages, consumers’ voices often prevail over more
traditional sources.

The Message
Subtle aspects of the way a source delivers a message can influence our interpretation
of what the source is saying. Even the layout in a print ad sends a message about how
the consumer should relate to the advertised item.
Characteristics of the message itself help determine its impact on attitudes. These
variables include how we say the message as well as what we say. Depending on
the marketer’s objectives and the nature of the product, different kinds of messages
produce different results. A marketer faces some crucial issues when they create a
message. Let’s look at some of the biggies:

Should We Use Pictures or Words?
The saying “A picture is worth a thousand words” captures the idea that visuals are
effective, especially when the communicator wants to influence receivers’ emotional
responses. For this reason, advertisers often rely on vivid illustrations or photography
that can prompt fast thinking/peripheral processing.74
However, a picture is not always as effective when it communicates information
intended to prompt more slow thinking/central processing. Ads that contain the same
information elicit different reactions when the marketer presents them in visual versus
verbal form. The verbal version affects ratings on the utilitarian aspects of a product,
whereas the visual version affects aesthetic evaluations. Verbal elements are more
effective when an accompanying picture reinforces them, especially if they frame the
illustration (the message in the picture strongly relates to the copy).75
Because it requires more effort to process, a verbal message is most appropriate
for system 2 situations, such as print contexts where the reader really pays attention
to the advertising. Verbal material decays more rapidly in memory, so these messages
require more frequent exposure to obtain the desired effect. Visual images, in contrast,
allow the receiver to chunk information at the time of encoding (see Chapter 4).
Chunking results in a stronger memory trace that aids retrieval over time.76

Types of Message Appeals
A persuasive message can tug at the heartstrings or scare you, make you laugh, make
you cry, or leave you yearning to learn more. In this section, we’ll review the major
types of message appeals available to communicators (see Table 6.2).77 As we saw
in our discussion of the elaboration likelihood model, emotional appeals engage more
affective processes (they make us feel) and trigger fast persuasion, whereas rational
appeals engage cognitive processes (they make us think) and trigger slow persuasion.

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TABLE 6.2    Types
Appeal

of Message Appeals

Valence

Frame

Comparative

Positive/negative

Relative advantage, high performance, better value, independence

Gain-Framed

Positive

Personal gains, long-term advantage

Two-Sided

Positive/negative

Logical inferences, balanced perspective

Safety

Positive/ negative

Durable, effective, reliable

Scarcity

Negative

Limited edition, exclusive, time sensitive78

Reciprocity

Positive

Offering a gift to encourage donations

Family

Positive

Belonging, community

Youth

Positive

Energetic, fun, energy, liveliness

Status

Positive

Exclusivity, high-end

Adventure

Positive

Thrill-seeking, excitement, active

Sex

Positive/Negative

Physiological arousal, sensation, fantasy

Humor

Positive

Pleasure, satire, wit, positive mood

Fear

Negative

Anxiety, tension, danger, threat

Rational

Emotional

Comparative Appeals
Comparative advertising refers to a message that compares two or more recognizable brands and weighs them in terms of one or more specific attributes.79 That’s not
very “polite,” and indeed many countries prohibit this approach because people find
such a confrontational approach offensive.80
Not so in the U.S., as 10 minutes of watching aggressive TV commercials will
affirm. Way back in 1971, the FTC (Federal Trade Commission) issued guidelines that
encouraged advertisers to name competing brands in their ads. The U.S. government
did this to improve the information available to consumers in ads, and indeed recent
evidence indicates that, at least under some conditions, this type of presentation does
result in more informed decision making.81 However, advertisers need to tread lightly,
especially when they risk ruffling the feathers of other companies. Fox rejected a commercial that SodaStream submitted for the Super Bowl because the actress Scarlett
Johansson sensually sips her homemade soda and says, “Sorry, Coke and Pepsi.”82
This strategy can cut both ways, especially if the sponsor depicts the competition
in a nasty or negative way. Although some comparative ads result in desired attitude
changes, they may also be lower in believability and stir up source derogation
(i.e., the consumer may doubt the credibility of a biased presentation).83

How Do We Structure the Argument?
Many marketing messages are like debates or trials: A source presents an argument
and tries to convince the receiver to shift their opinion. As you’ve no doubt guessed,
the way we present the argument may be as important as what we say.

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177

Two-Sided Appeals
Most messages merely present one or more positive
attributes about the product or reasons to buy it.
These are supportive arguments. In contrast, twosided messages present both positive and negative
information. Research indicates that two-sided
ads can be quite effective, yet marketers rarely
use them.84
After General Motors declared bankruptcy,
an ad declared: “Let’s be completely honest:
No company wants to go through this.” 85 No
kidding. But why would a marketer want to devote
advertising space to publicize a negative? Under the
right circumstances, refutational arguments that
first raise a negative issue and then dismiss it can
be quite effective. This approach increases source
credibility because it reduces reporting bias; this
means that the receiver assumes the source has
carefully considered both sides of the argument.
Also, people who are skeptical about the product
may be more receptive to a balanced argument
instead of a “whitewash.”86 For example, research
In this famous ad, Volkswagen draws attention to a “flaw” in its car—a
evidence indicates that when experts have strong
blemished chrome strip on the glove compartment!
arguments on their side, they are more effective if
Source: Retro AdArchives/Alamy Stock Photo.
they express some uncertainty rather than stating
unequivocally that they are correct.87
This doesn’t mean the marketer should go overboard
and confess to major problems with the product (though
hopefully there aren’t any major ones to admit to). The typical
refutational strategy discusses relatively minor attributes
that may present a problem or fall short when the customer
compares a product to competitors. Positive, important
attributes then refute these drawbacks. For example, Avis
got a lot of mileage when it claimed to be only the “No.
2” car rental company, whereas a classic ad for Volkswagen
woefully described one of its cars as a “lemon” because there
was a scratch on the glove compartment chrome strip.88
A two-sided strategy appears to be the most effective
when the audience is well-educated (and presumably more
impressed by a balanced argument).89 It is also best to
use when receivers are not already loyal to the product—
“preaching to the choir” about possible drawbacks may
So, does a sex appeal like the one in this men’s deodorant ad
raise doubts unnecessarily. Because two-sided messages
work? Although erotic content may indeed draw attention to an ad,
convey both positive and negative information, they can be
its use may be counterproductive. In one survey, an overwhelming
thought of as a type of ambivalence, which we saw earlier is
61 percent of the respondents said that sexual imagery in a product’s
connected to behavior.
ad makes them less likely to buy it.90 Ironically, a provocative

Sex Appeals
Echoing the widely held belief that “sex sells,” many
marketing communications for products from perfumes to
autos feature heavy doses of erotic suggestions that range

picture can be too effective; it can attract so much attention that it
hinders processing and recall of the ad’s contents. Sexual appeals
also appear to be ineffective when marketers use them merely as
a “trick” to grab attention. They do, however, appear to work when
the product is itself related to sex (e.g., lingerie or Viagra).91
Source: lev radin/Shutterstock.

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from subtle hints to blatant displays of skin. Nestlé recently took over a
coffee shop in a trendy Manhattan neighborhood, and models in head-totoe body paint—and nothing else—replaced the usual baristas to plug the
company’s “all natural” creamer product.92 Now, that’s a novel use of a
sex appeal to move lattes!

Humor Appeals

Humor can ease the awkwardness that many
consumers feel about buying sensitive or intimate
products.
Source: Washington Imaging/Alamy Stock Photo.

A TV commercial for Metamucil showed a National Park Service ranger
who pours a glass of the laxative down Old Faithful and announces that
the product keeps the famous geyser “regular.” Yellowstone National Park
started getting letters from offended viewers. Park officials also had their
own concerns: They didn’t want people to think that the geyser needed
“help” or that it’s okay to throw things down into it!93
Do humor appeals work? Overall, funny advertisements do get
attention. One study found that recognition scores for humorous liquor ads
were better than average. However, the verdict is mixed as to whether humor
affects recall or product attitudes in a significant way.94 One reason silly ads
may shift opinions is that they provide a source of distraction. A funny ad
inhibits counterarguments (in which a consumer thinks of reasons why they
do not agree with the message); this increases the likelihood of message
acceptance because the consumer doesn’t come up with arguments against
the product.95
However, not all humorous ads improve attitudes toward the advertised brands. Sometimes they can hurt brands because they cause negative
emotions if the audience doesn’t understand the humor, or perhaps if the
message offends them.96

Fear Appeals

Buying, Having, Being
“The Fear of God”
Here’s a reason that fear appeals
don’t work well—and certainly one
you hadn’t thought of! Very simply,
fear appeals are less effective when
we are reminded of God.100 When
the concept of God is prominent
in our minds, we tend to comply
with fear appeals less, because
we associate the idea of a higher
power with unlimited support. So,
thinking of God gives us a sense
that we will have enough emotional,
mental, and physical resources to
persevere through bad events. Ironically, one possible lesson is that it’s
not a good idea to use a fear appeal
in environments where people are
likely to be thinking about a higher
power, such as in shows with
religious themes. If you want to
change an attitude, don’t assume
this will happen if you “put the fear
of God” into your customers!

Volkswagen’s advertising campaign to promote the safety of its Jetta model really
got people’s attention. The spots depict graphic car crashes from the perspective of
the passengers who chatter away as they drive down the street. Without warning,
other vehicles come out of nowhere and brutally smash into their cars. In one spot,
viewers see a passenger’s head striking an airbag. The spots end with shots of stunned
passengers, the damaged Jetta, and the slogan: “Safe happens.” The ads look so
realistic that consumers called the company to ask if any of the actors were hurt.97
Fear appeals emphasize the negative consequences that can occur unless the
consumer changes a behavior or an attitude. These types of messages are common
in advertising, although more so in social marketing contexts in which organizations
encourage people to convert to healthier lifestyles by quitting smoking, using contraception, or relying on a designated driver.
Several countries, including the United States, are looking at tough new guidelines
for cigarette advertising and packaging. These options include requiring a range of
horrific images to appear directly on the cigarette packaging (and in cigarette ads) to
show people who have suffered from the ravages of cigarettes, such as a man with
cigarette smoke coming out of a tracheotomy hole in his throat or a cadaver on an
autopsy table.98
This tactic, if it’s implemented, may well scare away would-be smokers, but do
fear appeals work more generally? Most research on this topic indicates that these
negative messages are most effective when the advertiser uses only a moderate threat.
Otherwise, consumers will tune out the ad because too severe a threat can make us
feel powerless against the threat. In the end, the most effective fear appeal campaigns
are those that also include a solution to the problem or potential coping responses.99

Chapter 6 • Attitudes and How to Change Them

179

Australia requires the inclusion of
graphic images as health warnings on
cigarette packages.
Source: Kyodo News Stills/Getty Images.

For instance, a campaign to communicate the risk of online bank fraud
could rely on fear appeals, but it should also feature different actions
that consumers can use to reduce that risk.

Appeals That Use Narrative Devices
As we discussed earlier, narratives are very persuasive. As such,
advertising creatives rely (consciously or not) on well-known narrative
devices in their marketing communications. To start, many ads take the
form of an allegory, which is a story about an abstract trait or concept
that advertisers tell in the context of a person, animal, vegetable, or
object. Thus, colorful characters such as Mr. Goodwrench, the Jolly
Green Giant, and Charlie the Tuna may personify a product or service.

Scarcity makes products more desirable.
Source: CarmenKarin/Shutterstock.

Organizations that provide intangible
services like life insurance often
borrow a powerful metaphor to help
consumers visualize what they sell.

Source: The History Collection/Alamy Stock Photo.

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Resonance combines a play on words with a relevant picture. Whereas metaphor
substitutes one meaning for another by connecting two things that are in some way
similar, resonance employs an element that has a double meaning—such as a pun,
in which two words sound similar but have different meanings. For example, an ad
for a diet strawberry shortcake dessert might bear the copy “berried treasure” so
that the brand conveys qualities we associate with buried treasure, such as valuable
and hidden. Because the text departs from expectations, it creates a state of tension
or uncertainty on the part of the viewer until they figure out the wordplay. Once the
consumer “gets it,” they may prefer the ad to a more straightforward message.101

Should We Repeat the Message?
Repetition can be a double-edged sword for marketers. As we noted in Chapter 4, we
usually need multiple exposures to a stimulus before learning occurs. Contrary to the
saying “familiarity breeds contempt,” people tend to like things that are more familiar
to them, even if they were not that keen on them initially.102 Psychologists call this
the mere exposure phenomenon.
Advertisers find positive effects for repetition even in mature product categories:
Repeating product information boosts consumers’ awareness of the brand, even
though the marketer says nothing new.103 However, as we saw in Chapter 4, too much
repetition creates habituation, whereby the consumer no longer pays attention to the
stimulus because of fatigue or boredom. Excessive exposure can cause advertising
wear-out, which can result in negative reactions to an ad after we see it too much.104
So, what does that tell us about the optimal number of times to expose a person to
a persuasive message? Research evidence indicates that “three’s the charm” when it
comes to exposing an audience to a product claim. Additional messages tend to trigger
skepticism and reverse any positive impact.105 But this rule is not fully set in stone.106
When ads are transporting—for instance, with mental imagery (people are prompted to
use their imagination while they process an ad)—then more claims beyond three about a
product lead people to like the product more. This is because
people are more transported (the narrative transportation
or
t
c
a
F
g
n
i
concept we discussed earlier) by the ad, which reduces
earn
tive L
Positive Effect
Posi
counterarguing. Again, the power of narrative persuasion!
The two-factor theory explains the fine line between
Net Eff
familiarity
and boredom; it proposes that two separate psyect
chological processes operate when we repeatedly show
NUMBER OF EXPOSURES
Neutral Effect
an ad to a viewer. The positive side of repetition is that
it increases familiarity and thus reduces uncertainty about
Neg
ativ
e Te
the product. The negative side is that over time boredom
diu
mF
act
increases with each exposure. At some point the amount of
or
boredom exceeds the amount of uncertainty the message
Negative Effect
reduces, and this results in wear-out. Figure 6.5 depicts this
pattern. Its effect is especially pronounced when each expoFigure 6.5 Two-Factor Theory of Message Repetition
sure is long (such as a 30-second commercial).107
The two-factor perspective implies that advertisers can overcome this problem if
they limit the amount of exposure per repetition (e.g., use 15-second spots instead of
longer commercials). They can also maintain familiarity but alleviate boredom if they
slightly vary the content of ads over time—although each spot differs, the campaign
still revolves around a common theme. Recipients who see varied ads about the
product absorb more information about product attributes and experience more positive
thoughts about the brand than do those who see the same information repeatedly. This
additional information also allows the person to resist attempts to change their attitude
in the face of a counterattack by a competing brand.108

Chapter 6 • Attitudes and How to Change Them

The Medium
In traditional advertising, the message is placed before or after content on a given
medium, say a print ad for a new brand of designer jeans next to an article about fashion
in Vogue magazine, or a TV commercial for Mountain Dew during the commercial
break of your favorite sitcom. But most people tune out advertising of this sort.

Advertainment
As we saw in the section on persuasion models, messages are less likely to trigger
counterarguments if they are linked to a narrative. This insight has led to a whole
new world of advertainment: The fusion of advertising and entertainment.109 Advertainment can take many forms, from making ads seem like they are actual editorial
content (native advertising), to placing products in the content of films, TV shows,
or music videos (product placement) or in videogames (advergaming), to many other
variations where the medium becomes the message. Let’s take a quick look at these
advertainment media.
Native Advertising. The term native advertising refers to digital messages designed

to blend into the editorial content of the publications in which they appear. The idea
is to capture the attention of people who might resist ad messages that pop up in the
middle of an article or program.
These messages may look a lot like a regular article, but they often link to a sponsor’s
content. For example, Airbnb collaborated with The New York Times to produce an issue
of the newspaper’s T magazine (devoted to travel). It was dedicated to Ellis Island
and showed how immigrants used to travel to New York in search of a new life. The
campaign included old photos that highlighted the hospitality these visitors received—
which is of course a benefit that Airbnb emphasizes to today’s travelers.110
Product Placement. In the movie version of Sex and the City, Carrie’s assistant

admits that she “borrows” her pricey handbags from a rental website called Bag
Borrow or Steal. The company’s head of marketing commented about the mention,
“It’s like the Good Housekeeping Seal of Approval. It gives us instant credibility and
recognition.”111
It’s hard not to see real brands in fictional media today, even though this was
almost unheard of in the earlier days of broadcasting. In fact, speaking of Sex and the
City, you may remember that in the first episode of the sequel And Just Like That. . .
Carrie’s husband, Mr. Big, has a heart attack and dies after riding his Peloton. The
company’s stock price plummeted when the show’s episode was released!112
Happily, most product placements work out better. The singer Katy Perry gave a
boost to Harley-Davidsons’ efforts to reach her more than 100 million social media
followers when she released “Harleys in Hawaii,” a hit inspired by a tropical vacay
with her fiancé, the actor Orlando Bloom. Within two weeks, the video was streamed
20 million times on Spotify. Harley’s investment in this massive publicity effort: Just
the motorcycles they loaned to use in the video.113
Harley-Davidson got tons of great exposure (oops, they got another free plug
here!). In many cases, these “plugs” are no accident. Product placement is the insertion of real products in fictional movies, TV shows, books, and plays. Many types of
products play starring (or at least supporting) roles in our culture; the most visible
brands in recent years include Dell, Samsung, Apple, Chevrolet, and Ray-Ban. In
each case, their exposure in media earned them the equivalent of between $6 million
and $16 million.114
Product placement is by no means a casual process: Marketers pay about
$23 billion per year to plug their brands in TV and movies.115 Today, most major

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releases brim with real products, even though a majority of consumers believe the
line between advertising and programming is becoming too fuzzy and distracting
(though as we might expect, concerns about this blurring of boundaries are more
pronounced among older people than younger).116 A study reported that consumers
respond well to placements when the show’s plot makes the product’s benefit clear.
For example, audiences had a favorable impression when a retailer provided furniture,
clothes, appliances, and other staples for the struggling families who got help on
ABC’s Extreme Makeover: Home Edition during the show’s ten-year run.117
Advergaming. In the video game Crazy Taxi, you can pull into a KFC for a quick

bucket. A version of the popular game Doom, known as Chex Quest, dialed down the
violence level but increased sales of Chex cereal by over 200 percent. The characters
in Mario Kart 8 drive Mercedes vehicles.118
It’s no secret that consumers love their videogames—about a quarter of all
app downloads are games, and the time we spend playing them surged during the
pandemic. Revenues from mobile gaming are projected to hit $272 billion by 2030.119
About three-quarters of U.S. consumers now play video games, and many brands—
including Axe, Mini Cooper, and Burger King—create game narratives that immerse
players in the action.
The future is bright for advergaming, where online games merge with interactive
advertisements that let companies target specific types of consumers. These placements can be short exposures, such as a billboard that appears around a racetrack, or
they can take the form of branded entertainment and integrate the brand directly into
the action. The mushrooming popularity of user-generated videos on YouTube and
other sites creates a growing market to link ads to these sources as well.
Reality Engineering. Mattel announced that it was putting a “for sale” sign on the

Barbie Malibu Dreamhouse, where the doll character supposedly has lived in comfort
since the introduction of Malibu Barbie in 1971. The campaign mixed actual and
imaginary elements. A section of the real estate website Trulia carried the for-sale
listing that described the property as “the dreamiest of dream houses.”120 Welcome to
reality engineering, which occurs when marketers appropriate elements of popular
culture and use them as promotional vehicles.121
Reality engineers have many tools at their disposal; they plant products in movies,
pump scents into offices and stores, attach video monitors in the backs of taxicabs, buy
ad space on police patrol cars, or film fake “documentaries,” such as The Blair Witch
Project.122 It’s hard to know what’s real anymore; specialists even create “used jeans”
when they apply chemical washes, sandpaper, and other techniques to make a new pair of
jeans look like they’re ready for retirement. The industry has a term for this practice that
sums up the contradiction: new vintage!123 And this process is accelerating: ­Historical
analyses of Broadway plays, best-selling novels, and the lyrics of hit songs, for example,
clearly show large increases in the use of real brand names over time.124

CHAPTER SUMMARY
Now that you have finished reading this chapter, you should
be able to:
1. Explain the functions and components of
attitudes in consumer behavior.

An attitude is a predisposition to evaluate an object
or product positively or negatively. We form attitudes
toward products and services, and these attitudes often
determine whether we will purchase or not.

Chapter 6 • Attitudes and How to Change Them

A key to attitude formation is the function the attitude holds
for the consumer (e.g., is it utilitarian or ego defensive?).
2. Describe the ways in which we form attitudes.
One organizing principle of attitude formation is the importance of consistency among attitudinal components—that
is, we alter some parts of an attitude to be in line with
others. Such theoretical approaches to attitudes as cognitive dissonance theory, self-perception theory, and balance
theory stress the vital role of our need for consistency.
Multiattribute attitude models underscore the complexity
of attitudes: They specify that we identify and combine
a set of beliefs and evaluations to predict an overall
attitude. Researchers integrate factors such as subjective
norms and the specificity of attitude scales into attitude
measures to improve predictability.
3. Explain how persuasion is an active attempt to
create or change attitudes.
The traditional view of communications regards the
perceiver as a passive element in the process. New
developments in interactive communications highlight the
need to consider the active roles a consumer plays when
they obtain product information and build a relationship
with a company. Advocates of permission marketing argue
that it’s more effective to send messages to consumers who
have already indicated an interest in learning about a product
than trying to hit people “cold” with these solicitations.

183

4. Discuss the ways in which the source, the
message, and the medium are used to craft
persuasion strategies.
The communications model specifies the elements
marketers need to transmit meaning. These include a
source, a message, a medium, a receiver, and feedback. Two
important characteristics that determine the effectiveness
of a source are its attractiveness and credibility.
Some elements of a message that help to determine its
effectiveness include the following: communication of
the message in words or pictures; employment of an
emotional or a rational appeal; frequency of repetition;
conclusion drawing; presentation of both sides of the
argument; and inclusion of fear, humor, or sexual references. Advertising messages often incorporate elements
from art or literature, such as dramas, lectures, metaphors, allegories, and resonance.
Reality engineering occurs when marketers appropriate
elements of popular culture to use in their promotional
strategies.
The relative influence of the source versus the message
depends on the receiver’s level of involvement with
the communication. The elaboration likelihood model
(ELM) specifies that source effects are more likely to
sway a less involved consumer, whereas a more involved
consumer will be more likely to attend to and process
components of the actual message.

KEY TERMS
Advergaming, 182
Advertainment, 181
Allegory, 179
Ambivalence, 160
Attitude object (Ao ), 155
Attitude, 155
Balance theory, 164
Basking in reflected glory, 164
Collabs, 174
Communications model, 169
Comparative advertising, 176
Compliance, 162
Counterargument, 167
Covert advertising, 186
Disclosures, 169
Ego-defensive function, 156

Elaboration Likelihood Model
(ELM), 166
Emotions, 159
Explicit attitudes, 160
Fake news, 172
Fast persuasion, 166
Fast thinking, 156
Fear appeals, 178
Fishbein model, 157
Functional theory of attitudes, 155
Halo effect, 173
Humor appeals, 178
Identification, 162
Implicit attitudes, 160
Internalization, 162
Knowledge bias, 172

Knowledge function, 156
Medication adherence, 161
Mental imagery, 180
Mere exposure phenomenon, 180
Mood congruency, 159
Moods, 159
Multiattribute attitude models, 157
Narrative persuasion, 168
Narrative transportation, 168
Narrativity, 168
Native advertising, 181
Negative state relief, 159
Neuromarketing, 160
Normative influences, 161
Paradox of low involvement, 167
Peripheral route, 166

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• Buying and Having: Choosing and Using Products

Permission marketing, 171
Persuasion, 165
Persuasion knowledge model, 168
Principle of cognitive
consistency, 163
Product placement, 181
Reality engineering, 182
Refutational arguments, 177
Reporting bias, 172
Resonance, 180

Sadvertising, 159
Sex appeals, 178
Sleeper effect, 172
Slow persuasion, 167
Slow thinking, 156
Social desirability bias, 160
Source attractiveness, 173
Source credibility, 171
Source derogation, 176
Spokescharacters, 175

Sponsored content, 168
Subjective norm (SN), 161
Supportive arguments, 177
Theory of reasoned action, 161
Two-factor theory, 180
Two-sided messages, 177
Utilitarian function, 156
Valence, 160
Value-expressive function, 156

REVIEW
6-1 How can an attitude play an ego-defensive function?
6-2 How do levels of commitment to an attitude influence the likelihood that it will become part of the way
we think about a product in the long term?
6-3 We sometimes enhance our attitude toward a product
after we buy it. How does the theory of cognitive dissonance explain this change?
6-4 What is mood congruency and how do advertisers use
it?
6-5 According to balance theory, how can we tell if a
triad is balanced or unbalanced? How can consumers
restore balance to an unbalanced triad?
6-6 Describe a multiattribute attitude model and list its
key components.

6-12 Describe the elements of the traditional communications model and tell how the updated model
differs.
6-13 What is source credibility, and what are two factors
that influence our decision as to whether a source is
credible?
6-14 What is a halo effect, and why does it happen?
6-15 Marketers must decide whether to incorporate
rational or emotional appeals in a communications
strategy. Describe conditions that are more favorable
to one or the other.
6-16 When should a marketer present a message visually
versus verbally?
6-17 How does the two-factor theory explain the effects of
message repetition on attitude change?

6-7 “Do as I say, not as I do.” How does this statement
relate to attitude models?

6-18 Do humorous ads work? If so, under what conditions?

6-8 What is a subjective norm, and how does it influence
our attitudes?

6-19 Why do marketers use metaphors to craft persuasive
messages? Give two examples of this technique.

6-9 What are some obstacles to predicting behavior even
if we know a person’s attitudes?

6-20 What is the difference between a lecture and a drama?

6-10 Describe the theory of reasoned action. How does it
improve our ability to predict behavior from attitudes?
6-11 List three psychological principles related to
persuasion.

6-21 What is narrative transportation, and how does this
apply to persuasion?
6-22 Describe the elaboration likelihood model and
summarize how it relates to the relative importance
of what is said versus how it’s said.

CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CHALLENGE
DISCUSS

6-23 “If it’s on the internet, it must be true.” How big a
problem is misinformation about brands? The chapter
states that most Americans no longer trust the accuracy

of what they see in mainstream media. Do you
agree? What are the ramifications of this distrust for
marketers, and how might they improve the situation?

Chapter 6 • Attitudes and How to Change Them

6-24 An antismoking ad sponsored by the New York City
Department of Health crossed the line for many
viewers. The spot showed a young boy who cries
hysterically as a crowd of adults walk by him. The
voiceover says, “This is how your child feels after
losing you for a minute. Just imagine if they lost you
for life.” The ad aroused a lot of controversy because
it wasn’t clear if the child was merely acting or if the
spot’s producers provoked his tears for the camera. Is
this genre of “scared straight” advertising an effective
way to convince people to curb unhealthy behaviors
like smoking?
6-25 The Pandora music site attracts about 70 million listeners, who tune in to playlists Pandora creates based
on their initial preferences for certain artists. The site
uses a music intelligence algorithm to dissect the
characteristics of favorite songs and serve up others
that are similar. Pandora’s engineers constantly tweak
the playlists as they experiment with variations of the
experience. For example, do listeners want to hear
mostly familiar songs, or do they want to discover
new music? One of the biggest issues they wrestle
with: How frequently should Pandora repeat the same
song or artist in a playlist? The site constantly tries
new variations to arrive at the optimal number of repetitions, but it turns out a lot depends on other factors,
such as the time of day and where listeners are when
they tune in. For example, Pandora’s data show that
users welcome new music instead of the same old,
same old, but when they’re at work not so much.
The company continues to tweak its algorithm as it
tries to answer the elusive question, “Can you have
too much of a good thing?”125 What do you think—
should music sites like Pandora focus on songs we
love now, songs they think we will love, or both?
6-26 The sleeper effect implies that perhaps we shouldn’t
worry too much about how positively people evaluate
a source. Similarly, there’s a saying in public relations that “any publicity is good publicity.” Do you
agree?
6-27 The American Medical Association encountered a
firestorm of controversy when it agreed to sponsor
a line of healthcare products that Sunbeam manufactured (a decision it later reversed). Should trade
or professional organizations, journalists, professors,
and others endorse specific products?
6-28 Swiss Legend, a watch brand, gets famous people
to wear its colorful timepieces. One way it does this
is to give away its products at awards shows. Publicists call this common practice “gifting the talent”:
Companies provide stars with “goody bags” full of

185

complimentary products.126 What do you think about
the practice of “gifting the talent” to accumulate
endorsements? Is this a sound strategy? Is it ethical
for celebrities to accept these gifts?
6-29 Watchdog groups have long decried product placements because they blur the line between content
and advertising without adequately informing viewers. The networks themselves appear to be divided
on how far they want to open the gate. According
to one study, the effectiveness of product placement
varies by product category and type of placement.
Consumers indicate that product placements have
the most influence on their grocery, electronics, and
apparel purchases. The most common platform for
a placement is to get a brand shown on a T-shirt or
other piece of an actor’s wardrobe.127 What do you
think about this practice? Under what conditions is
product placement likely to influence you and your
friends? When (if ever) is it counterproductive?
6-30 One of the most controversial intersections between
marketing and society occurs when companies provide “educational materials” to schools.128 Many
firms, including Nike, Hershey, Crayola, Nintendo,
and Foot Locker, provide free book covers swathed
in ads. Standard art supplies, blocks, trucks, and dolls
get supplemented with Milton Bradley and Care
Bears worksheets, Purell hand-cleaning activities,
and Pizza Hut reading programs. Clearasil provides
sample packets of its acne medication along with
brochures to educate high school students about
proper skin care; the handouts also direct students
to the Clearasil website where they can register for
music downloads and iPods. Other companies contract with schools to run focus groups with their
students during the school day to get reactions to
new product ideas. Some schools encourage kids to
practice their math as they count Tootsie Rolls, and
the kids use reading software that bears the logos of
Kmart, Coke, Pepsi, and Cap’n Crunch cereal. Many
educators argue that these materials are a godsend for
resource-poor schools that otherwise could not provide computers and other goodies to their students.
However, a California law bans the use of textbooks
with brand names and company logos. This legislation was prompted by complaints from parents about
a middle-school math book that uses names such as
Barbie, Oreos, Nike, and Sony PlayStation in word
problems. What’s your position on these practices?
Should corporations be allowed to promote their
products in schools in exchange for donations of
educational materials, computers, and so on?

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• Buying and Having: Choosing and Using Products

6-31 Some consumer advocates worry that the above
forms of weaving brands and products in the content
of entertainment amounts to covert advertising, a
form of advertising that works under the guise of nonadvertising formats.129 The U.S.’s Children’s Advertising Review Unit expressed concern that sponsors
were not appropriately disclosed in child influencer
unboxing videos. A study testing the potential usefulness of disclosing sponsorship of those videos found
that pre-roll warnings helped the parents be more
aware of the sponsorship, and hopefully in turn more
mindful about explaining these persuasion attempts
to their children.130
Whether it’s sponsored digital content, native
advertising, product placement, or advergaming, the
concern is that consumers do not recognize the persuasive nature of the ad, so they are being tricked.
Do you agree?
6-32 Commercial Alert, a consumer group, is highly
critical of neuromarketing. The group’s executive
director wrote, “What would happen in this country
if corporate marketers and political consultants could
literally peer inside our brains and chart the neural
activity that leads to our selections in the supermarket
and voting booth? What if they then could trigger this
neural activity by various means, so as to modify our

behavior to serve their own ends?”131 What do you
think? Is neuromarketing dangerous?
6-33 A recent study’s findings sum up the impact of sex
appeals: Yes, they get noticed and remembered—but
many viewers don’t recall what the ad was plugging!
And, males do like provocative messages more than
females, but this doesn’t translate into stronger brand
attitudes.132
Another study looked specifically at the issue of
whether sexy ads increase desire for romantic products. According to human evolutionary theory, men
tend to be primed to take advantage of sexual opportunities whenever they are reasonably available, as
relationships with multiple partners maximizes the
likelihood that their genes will be passed on. Therefore, the researchers reasoned, they should dislike
objects that don’t help them to achieve this goal. Sure
enough, when male subjects saw highly sexual ads,
they reported less interest in joining the long-term
dating site eHarmony.com or buying jewelry from
Kay Jewelers. This diminished interest did not occur
for female subjects.133
What’s your position on the use of sex in
advertising? Should brands “engage” viewers with
titillating imagery?

APPLY

6-34 Think of a behavior someone does that is inconsistent
with their attitudes (e.g., attitudes toward cholesterol,
drug use, or even buying things to make them stand
out or attain status). Ask the person to elaborate on
why they do the behavior and try to identify the way
the person resolves dissonant elements.

6-38 Observe the process of counterargumentation by asking a friend to talk out loud while they watch a commercial. Ask them to respond to each point in the ad
or to write down reactions to the claims the message
makes. How much skepticism regarding the claims
can you detect?

6-35 Construct a multiattribute model for a set of local
restaurants. Based on your findings, suggest how restaurant managers could improve their establishment’s
image via the strategies described in this chapter.

6-39 The chapter discusses the important problem of
medication adherence. How can healthcare marketers
strengthen the link between intentions and behavior
to boost the rate at which people take their prescribed
medications? Devise a communications strategy to
increase the adherence rate.

6-36 Locate foreign ads at sites like japander.com in which
celebrities endorse products that they don’t pitch on
their home turf. Ask friends or classmates to rate the
attractiveness of each celebrity; then show them these
ads and ask them to rate the celebrities again. Does
the star’s “brand image” change after it’s paired with
cheesy ads? Based on these results, what advice
would you give to a manager who must choose
among endorsement offers for a famous client?
6-37 Collect ads that rely on sex appeal to sell products.
How often do they communicate benefits of the actual
product? How effective do you believe they are?

6-40 Make a log of all the commercials a network
television channel shows during a two-hour period.
Assign each to a product category and decide whether
each is a drama or an argument. Describe the types
of messages the ads use (e.g., two-sided arguments),
and keep track of the types of spokespeople who
appear (e.g., TV actors, famous people, animated
characters). What can you conclude about the
dominant forms of persuasive tactics that marketers
currently employ?

Chapter 6 • Attitudes and How to Change Them

6-41 A metaphor places two dissimilar objects into a close
relationship such that “A is B,” whereas a simile
compares two objects such that “A is like B.” A and
B, however dissimilar, share some quality that the
metaphor highlights. Metaphors allow the marketer
to apply meaningful images to everyday events. In
the stock market, “white knights” battle “hostile
raiders” with the help of “poison pills”; Tony the
Tiger equates cereal with strength; and “you’re in
good hands with Allstate” insurance.134
Collect examples of ads that rely on the use
of metaphors or similes. Do you feel these ads
are effective? If you were marketing the products,
would you feel more comfortable with ads that use
a more straightforward, “hard-sell” approach? Why
or why not?
6-42 A brand that wants customers to see it as a “friend”
by depicting a model using it is more effective when

187

the product image appears horizontally and near the
model. On the other hand, if a brand wants customers
to see it as a “leader,” the advertiser will have better
luck if it physically places the brand above the user
and farther away (“it’s lonely at the top”).135 Create a
mockup of two versions of an ad that depict the same
brand as either a “friend” or a “leader.”
6-43 Devise an attitude survey for a set of competing automobiles. Identify areas of competitive advantage or
disadvantage for each model you include.
6-44 A government agency wants to encourage people
who have been drinking to use designated drivers.
What advice could you give the organization about
constructing persuasive communications? Discuss
some factors that might be important, including the
structure of the communications, where they should
appear, and who should deliver them. Should it use
fear appeals? If so, how?

DIGGING IN WITH DATA

See “Data Case 2: Evolving Trends in Fitness and French Fries” in Appendix A for an opportunity to work with real
consumer data and apply this chapter’s concepts to real world problems.

CASE STUDY

Anti-Smoking Advertising—Can You Be Scared
into Quitting?

Most advertising is focused on encouraging consumers to
buy products or services. But advertising can also be used
to discourage the use of products considered to be harmful.
One of the best examples of this is the use of advertising
focused on discouraging smoking. Over many years, different
types of ads have been used—informational, funny, and some
designed to be very shocking—but all focused on convincing
smokers to kick the habit or, better, never to start it.
Smoking is America’s leading preventable cause
of death and illness, responsible for more than 480,000
deaths each year—about 1,300 deaths per day. 136 Each
year in the United States, more people die from smoking
than from murder, suicide, AIDS, drugs, alcohol, and car
crashes—combined.137 One would think that compelling
statistics like these would scare anyone away from taking
a single puff on a cigarette. However, the many factors
involved in the decision to start and to continue to smoke
create the need for persuasive messaging involving more
than just facts.
A form of this messaging began with the Federal
Cigarette Labeling and Advertising Act of 1965 that mandated
warnings be placed on each pack of cigarettes stating in clear

terms: “Caution: Cigarette Smoking May Be Hazardous to
Your Health.”138 Early anti-smoking ad campaigns began
appearing around this time and were largely executed as
public service announcements, or free TV airtime mandated
by the Federal Communications Commission.139 The ads
focused on explaining the dangers of smoking and making
it seem less socially acceptable to smoke. This advertising
had some effectiveness but had to compete for time on the
air with other good causes, such as preventing forest fires.
More recently, private anti-smoking groups began much
more aggressive advertising. The Truth campaign, which is
focused on teens, went nationwide in 2000. Recognizing that
kids smoked because they wanted to rebel, they used
that image to challenge young smokers with a question: “Are
you really rebelling by giving all of your money to these big
corporations run by old white guys?”140
The Centers for Disease Control decided on a different
strategy, sponsoring ads that featured smokers who were
experiencing the results of their habit. One shows a woman
who must speak with an artificial device because her voice
box has been removed; she explains that she misses singing
lullabies to her grandson. Others feature people who have lost

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• Buying and Having: Choosing and Using Products

their teeth, a woman who had a premature baby, and a man
with a hole in his throat—all results of smoking.141
Do these fear appeals work? The research says yes—
at least for some. These types of appeals appear to be
most effective with “prevention-focused” people who are
concerned with possible negative outcomes.142 However, one
experiment found that scary images had the opposite effect
on some adolescents, making them more at risk for future
smoking. It may be that they responded in a defensive manner
that caused them to downplay the health risks portrayed in
the graphic photographs.143
In contrast to prevention-focused people, those who are
“promotion-focused” are concerned with aspirations and
achievements.144 A PSA released by Ireland’s government
health service (and later used in New York) may be more
effective for this personality type. In this ad, people lip-synced
to Gloria Gaynor’s anthem “I Will Survive,” as they decided
to quit cigarettes.145 A campaign in Florida focused on the
positives of quitting with the tagline, “Quit smoking and you
quit all the crap that goes with it. You Quit. You Win.”146
Angela Rodriguez, VP of strategic planning and insights at
Alma, who produced the ads said, “We . . . learned that those
same scare tactic approaches don’t always connect, so we
shifted our strategy to a more empathetic one . . . The result
is [a] very emotive creative that is respectful of the smokers
we are trying to reach.”147
All of these approaches are having an effect, with the
number of smokers 18 years or older in the United States
at 16 percent in 2021, compared to 45 percent in 1954.148
Advertising cannot take all the credit; bans on smoking in
public spaces, taxes on cigarettes, and extensive education and
quit-smoking programs have all contributed.149 But the CDC

credits ad campaigns with making a difference, including
creating a spike in calls to its 1-800-QUIT-NOW hotline.150
Whether selling cars or encouraging smokers to quit,
advertisers have several persuasive approaches available for
use. Considering the many factors involved in the decision
to start or quit smoking, multiple ad approaches are needed
to persuade someone to make a change. Just as with the
marketing of products and services, our target markets are
not always as homogeneous as they might appear, so different
appeals work with different sub segments. Choosing the right
ones just may help someone avoid an early death due to
cancer or heart disease.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

CS 6-1 What is another health, political, or philanthropic
cause that could benefit from an advertising campaign? Create two taglines that could be used: one for
people who are prevention-focused and another
for those who are promotion-focused.
CS 6-2 Health warnings have appeared on cigarette packages
for almost 50 years. Discuss how habituation,
or a decline in responsiveness due to repeated
exposure (see Chapter 4), may be a factor affecting
their effectiveness. In 134 countries, graphic images
related to smoking’s effects must also be shown on
the packages.151 Why or why not might this help
smokers decide to quit?
CS 6-3 How can a marketer determine what kinds of appeals
will be the most persuasive in making the case for a
product or cause? Design a simple experiment using
the cause you chose for question CS 6.1.

NOTES
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Anchoring and Adjustment (MPAA) Model of Attitude Generation and
Recruitment Journal of Consumer Research, 33, no. 1, (June 2006):
1–15, https://doi.org/10.1086/504121.
5. Martin Fishbein, “An Investigation of the Relationships between Beliefs about an
Object and the Attitude toward that Object,” Human Relations 16 (1983): 233–40.
6. Micael Dahlen, Helge Thorbjørnsen, Jonas Colliander, Sara Rosengren, Alice
Gemvik, and Christian Thorwid, “The Effects of Communicating Passion in
Advertising: How Messages Like ‘We Love What We Do!’ Shape People’s

7.

8.

9.
10.

Product and Brand Evaluations,” Journal of Advertising Research 60, no. 1
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partner=newsletter#!.
Freeman Wu, Adriana Samper, Andrea C. Morales, and Gavan J. Fitzsimons,
“It’s Too Pretty to Use! When and How Enhanced Product Aesthetics
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Hannah H. Chang and Michel Tuan Pham, “Affect as a Decision-Making
System of the Present,” Journal of Consumer Research 40, no. 1 (2013): 42–63.
Carmen Nobel, “Neuromarketing: Tapping into the ‘Pleasure Center’ of
Consumers,” Forbes February 1, 2013, www.forbes.com/sites/hbsworking
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Sucker Born in Every Medial Prefrontal Cortex,” New York Times, October 26,
2003, www.nytimes.com.

Chapter 6 • Attitudes and How to Change Them

11. Frenk van Harreveld, Joop van der Pligt, and Yael N. de Liver, “The Agony
of Ambivalence and Ways to Resolve It: Introducing the MAID Model,”
Personality and Social Psychology Review 13, no. 1 (2009): 45–61; Anne
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27. Cristel A. Russell and Barbara Stern (2006), “Consumers, Characters, and
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189

32. Scott I. Donaldson, Allison Dormanesh, Patricia Escobedo, Anuja Majmundar,
Matthew Kirkpatrick, and Jon-Patrick Allem, “The Impact of E-Cigarette
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34. Cristel A. Russell, Véronique Régnier-Denois, Boris Chapoton, and Denise
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35. Richard E. Petty, John T. Cacioppo, Constantine Sedikides, and Alan J.
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America’s Heart,” Washington Post, January 31, 2014, https://www.washington
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37. Barbara Stern, “Literary Criticism and Consumer Research: Overview and
Illustrative Analysis,” Journal of Consumer Research 16 (1989): 322–34;
Barbara J. Phillips and Ed McQuarrie, “Narrative and Persuasion in Fashion
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doi.org/10.1086/653087.
38. John Deighton, Daniel Romer, and Josh McQueen, “Using Drama to Persuade,”
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39. Laurence Dessart, “Do Ads That Tell a Story Always Perform Better? The
Role of Character Identification and Character Type in Storytelling Ads,”
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40. Tom van Laer, Jennifer Edson Escalas, Stephan Ludwig, and Ellis A van
den Hende, “What Happens in Vegas Stays on TripAdvisor? A Theory and
Technique to Understand Narrativity in Consumer Reviews,” Journal of
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41. Martin Eisend and Farid Tarrahi, “Persuasion Knowledge in the Marketplace:
A Meta-Analysis,” Journal of Consumer Psychology 32, no. 1 (2021): 3–22.
42. Cristel Antonia Russell, Anne M. Hamby, Joel W. Grube, and Dale W. Russell,
“When Do Public Health Epilogues Correct the Influence of Alcohol Story
Lines on Youth? The Interplay of Narrative Transportation and Persuasion
Knowledge,” Journal of Public Policy & Marketing 38, no. 3 (2019): 316–31.
43. Martin Eisend, Eva A. van Reijmersdal, Sophie C. Boerman, and Farid Tarrahi,
“A Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Disclosing Sponsored Content,” Journal of
Advertising 49, no. 3 (2020): 344–66.
44. Matthew S. Isaac and Kent Grayson, “Beyond Skepticism: Can Accessing
Persuasion Knowledge Bolster Credibility?,” Journal of Consumer Research
43, no. 6 (April 2017): 895–912.
45. https://justacarguy.blogspot.com/; www.carscoops.com/.
46. Gert Assmus, “An Empirical Investigation into the Perception of Vehicle
Source Effects,” Journal of Advertising 7 (Winter 1978): 4–10. For a more
thorough discussion of the pros and cons of different media, see Stephen Baker,
Systematic Approach to Advertising Creativity (New York, NY: McGraw-Hill,
1979).
47. Seth Godin, Permission Marketing: Turning Strangers into Friends, and
Friends into Customers (New York, NY: Simon & Schuster, 1999).
48. Martin Eisend and Farid Tarrahi, “The Effectiveness of Advertising:
A Meta-Meta-Analysis of Advertising Inputs and Outcomes,” Journal of
Advertising 45, no. 4 (2016): 519–31.
49. Herbert Kelman, “Processes of Opinion Change,” Public Opinion Quarterly
25 (Spring 1961): 57–78; Susan M. Petroshius and Kenneth E. Crocker,
“An Empirical Analysis of Spokesperson Characteristics on Advertisement
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50. Kenneth G. DeBono and Richard J. Harnish, “Source Expertise, Source
Attractiveness, and the Processing of Persuasive Information: A Functional
Approach,” Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 55, no. 4 (1988): 541–46.
51. Joseph R. Priester and Richard E. Petty, “The Influence of Spokesperson
Trustworthiness on Message Elaboration, Attitude Strength, and Advertising
Effectiveness,” Journal of Consumer Psychology 13, no. 4 (2003): 408–21.
52. Kenneth C. Herbst, Eli J. Finkel, David Allan, and Gráinne M. Fitzsimons,
“On the Dangers of Pulling a Fast One: Advertisement Disclaimer Speed,
Brand Trust, and Purchase Intention,” Journal of Consumer Research 38, no.
5 (2012): 909–19.
53. Alice H. Eagly, Andy Wood, and Shelly Chaiken, “Causal Inferences about
Communicators and Their Effect in Opinion Change,” Journal of Personality
& Social Psychology 36, no. 4 (1978): 424–35.
54. Rick Edmonds, “US Ranks Last among 46 Countries in Trust in Media, Reuters
Institute Report Finds,” Poynter, June 24, 2021, https://www.poynter.org/
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190

Section 3

• Buying and Having: Choosing and Using Products

55. Jonathan Easley, “Poll: Majority Says Mainstream Media Publishes Fake News,”
The Hill, May 24, 2017, http://thehill.com/homenews/campaign/334897-pollmajority-says-mainstream-media-publishes-fake-news; Aimee Picchi, “‘Trust
Has Been an Issue’: Facebook Ads Take a Sour Turn,” CBS News, September
20, 2017, www.cbsnews.com/news/facebook-ads-take-a-sour-turn/; Thuy Ong,
“Facebook Found a Better Way to Fight Fake News,” The Verge, December 21,
2017, www.theverge.com/2017/12/21/16804912/facebook-disputed-flagsmisinformation-newsfeed-fake-news; Neil Macarquhar and Andrew Rossback,
“How Russian Propaganda Spread from a Parody Website to Fox News,”
New York Times, June 7, 2017, www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/06/07/
world/europe/anatomy-of-fake-news-russian-propaganda.html?_r= 0; Steve
Coll, “Donald Trump’s ‘Fake News’ Tactics,” The New Yorker, December
11, 2017, www.newyorker.com/magazine/2017/12/11/donald-trumpsfake-news-tactics.
56. Minah H. Jung and Clayton R. Critcher, “How Encouraging Niceness Can
Incentivize Nastiness: An Unintended Consequence of Advertising Reform,”
Journal of Marketing Research 55, no. 1 (2018): 147–61.
57. Anthony R. Pratkanis, Anthony G. Greenwald, Michael R. Leippe, and Michael
H. Baumgardner, “In Search of Reliable Persuasion Effects: III. The Sleeper
Effect Is Dead, Long Live the Sleeper Effect,” Journal of Personality & Social
Psychology 54 (1988): 203–18.
58. Amanda Hess, “The Triumph of the Celebrity Endorsement,” New York
Times, April 21, 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/14/arts/celebrityendorsements-catherine-zeta-jones.html?searchResultPosition= 1, accessed
April 12, 2022.
59. Debra Z. Basil and Paul M. Herr, “Attitudinal Balance and Cause-Related
Marketing: An Empirical Application of Balance Theory,” Journal of Consumer
Psychology 16, no. 4 (2006): 391–403.
60. Brian Steinberg, “Bob Dylan Gets Tangled Up in Pink: Victoria’s Secret
Campaign Drafts Counterculture Hero; Just Like the Rolling Stones,” Wall
Street Journal, April 2, 2004: B3.
61. Robert Klara, “Brands by Bieber,” Brandweek, January 1, 2011, www.adweek
.com/news/advertising-branding/brands-bieber-126241.
62. Christian Schimmelpfennig (2018) Who is the Celebrity Endorser? A Content
Analysis of Celebrity Endorsements, Journal of International Consumer
Marketing, 30:4, 220-234, DOI: 10.1080/08961530.2018.1446679.
63. Johannes Knoll and Jörg Matthes, “The Effectiveness of Celebrity
Endorsements: A Meta-Analysis,” Journal of the Academy of Marketing
Science 45, no. 1 (2017): 55–75.
64. Anita Elberse and Jeroen Verleun, “The Economic Value of Celebrity
Endorsements,” Journal of Advertising Research 52, no. 2 (June 2012):
149–65.
65. Cristel A. Russell and Dina Rasolofoarison, “Uncovering the Power of Natural
Endorsements: A Comparison with Celebrity-Endorsed Advertising and
Product Placements,” International Journal of Advertising 36, no. 5 (2017):
761–78.
66. Quoted at https://careers.adidas-group.com/the-company?locale=en, accessed
May 10, 2022.
67. Tani Song, “Year in Rewind: The Best Celebrity/Brand Collabs 2020-2021,”
Hollywood Branded, August 4, 2021, https://blog.hollywoodbranded.com/
year-in-rewind-the-best-celebrity/brand-collabs-2020-2021, accessed March
11, 2022.
68. Hollee Actman Becker, “People Are Pissed at Kim Kardashian over This
Ad She Posted to Her Instagram,” Elite Daily, May 16, 2018, https://www
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69. Anna P. Kambhampaty and Julie Creswell, “The Era of the Celebrity Meal,”
New York Times, April 7, 2022, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/12/08/style/
celebrity-fast-food-partnerships.html, accessed May 11, 2022.
70. Zach Brooke, “When Brands Lose a Celebrity Sponsor to Scandal,” American
Marketing Association, March 14, 2016, www.ama.org/publications/
eNewsletters/Pages/brands-lose-celebrity-sponsor-endoresment-scandalmaria-sharapova.aspx.
71. Nat Ives, “Marketers Run to Pull the Plug When Celebrity Endorsers Say the
Darnedest Things,” New York Times, July 16, 2004, www.nyt.com.
72. Judith A. Garretson and Scot Burton, “The Role of Spokescharacters as
Advertisement and Package Cues in Integrated Marketing Communications,”
Journal of Marketing 69 (October 2005): 118–32.
73. “America’s Most Liked Spokescharacters,” E-Poll Market Research
Blog, April 5, 2017, https://blog.epollresearch.com/2017/04/05/
americas-most-liked-spokescharacters/.
74. Robert C. Grass and Wallace H. Wallace, “Advertising Communication: Print
vs. TV,” Journal of Advertising Research 14 (1974): 19–23.
75. Elizabeth C. Hirschman and Michael R. Solomon, “Utilitarian, Aesthetic, and
Familiarity Responses to Verbal versus Visual Advertisements,” in Advances
in Consumer Research 11, ed. Thomas C. Kinnear (Provo, UT: Association for
Consumer Research, 1984), 426–31.

76. Terry L. Childers and Michael J. Houston, “Conditions for a Picture-Superiority
Effect on Consumer Memory,” Journal of Consumer Research 11 (September
1984): 643–54.
77. Jacob Hornik, Chezy Ofir, and Matti Rachamim, “Advertising Appeals,
Moderators, and Impact on Persuasion: A Quantitative Assessment Creates a
Hierarchy of Appeals,” Journal of Advertising Research 57, no. 3 (May 2017):
305–18.
78. Ashesh Mukherjee and Seung Yun Lee, “Scarcity Appeals in Advertising: The
Role of Expectation of Scarcity,” Journal of Advertising 45, no. 2 (2016):
256–68.
79. Cornelia Dröge and Rene Y. Darmon, “Associative Positioning Strategies
through Comparative Advertising: Attribute vs. Overall Similarity Approaches,”
Journal of Marketing Research 24 (1987): 377–89; Darrell Muehling and
Norman Kangun, “The Multidimensionality of Comparative Advertising:
Implications for the FTC,” Journal of Public Policy & Marketing (1985):
112–28; William L. Wilkie and Paul W. Farris, “Comparison Advertising:
Problems and Potential,” Journal of Marketing 39 (October 1975): 7–15; R.
G. Wyckham, “Implied Superiority Claims,” Journal of Advertising Research
(February–March 1987): 54–63.
80. Shabdita Pareek, “These Advertisements Showing Intense Brand Wars Are
Brilliantly Creative,” ScoopWhoop, February 4, 2016, www.scoopwhoop.com/
Rival-Brand-Advertisements-Wars/#.vc5a8x4to.
81. Cornelia Pechmann and Gabriel Esteban, “Persuasion Processes Associated
with Direct Comparative and Noncomparative Advertising and Implications for
Advertising Effectiveness,” Journal of Consumer Psychology 2, no. 4 (1994):
403–32.
82. Bruce Horovitz, “Sodastream’s Super Bowl Spot Gets Rejected—Again,”
USA Today, January 25, 2014, www.usatoday.com/story/money/business/
2014/01/25/5-biggest-advertisers-going-for-it-in-super-bowl/4835695//
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83. Stephen A. Goodwin and Michael Etgar, “An Experimental Investigation of
Comparative Advertising: Impact of Message Appeal, Information Load, and
Utility of Product Class,” Journal of Marketing Research 17 (May 1980): 187–
202; Gerald J. Gorn and Charles B. Weinberg, “The Impact of Comparative
Advertising on Perception and Attitude: Some Positive Findings,” Journal of
Consumer Research 11 (September 1984): 719–27; Terence A. Shimp and
David C. Dyer, “The Effects of Comparative Advertising Mediated by Market
Position of Sponsoring Brand,” Journal of Advertising 3 (Summer 1978):
13–19.
84. Linda L. Golden and Mark I. Alpert, “Comparative Analysis of the Relative
Effectiveness of One- and Two-Sided Communication for Contrasting
Products,” Journal of Advertising 16 (1987), 18–25; Michael A. Kamins,
“Celebrity and Noncelebrity Advertising in a Two-Sided Context,” Journal of
Advertising Research 29 (June–July 1989): 34; Robert B. Settle and Linda L.
Golden, “Attribution Theory and Advertiser Credibility,” Journal of Marketing
Research 11 (May 1974): 181–85.
85. Rupal Parekh and Jean Halliday, “New Ad Introduces Consumers to ‘New
GM,’” Ad Age, June 1, 2009, https://www.crainsdetroit.com/article/20090603/
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May 11, 2022.
86. Alan G. Sawyer, “The Effects of Repetition of Refutational and Supportive
Advertising Appeals,” Journal of Marketing Research 10 (February 1973):
23–33; George J. Szybillo and Richard Heslin, “Resistance to Persuasion:
Inoculation Theory in a Marketing Context,” Journal of Marketing Research
10 (November 1973): 396–403.
87. Uma R. Karmarkar and Zakary L. Tormala, “Believe Me, I Have No Idea What
I’m Talking About: The Effects of Source Certainty on Consumer Involvement
and Persuasion,” Journal of Consumer Research 36 (April 2009): 1033–49.
88. Golden and Alpert, “Comparative Analysis of the Relative Effectiveness
of One- and Two-Sided Communication for Contrasting Products”; Gita
Venkataramani Johar and Anne L. Roggeveen, “Changing False Beliefs from
Repeated Advertising: The Role of Claim-Refutation Alignment,” Journal of
Consumer Psychology 17, no. 2 (2007): 118–27.
89. Martin Eisend. “Two-Sided Advertising: A Meta-Analysis,” International
Journal of Research in Marketing, 23 (2) (2006): 187–98.
90. Mark Dolliver, “Seeing Too Much Sex in Ads, or Too Little?” Adweek,
December 6, 2010, http://teens.adweek.com/aw/content_display/datacenter/
research/e3i5b647315f27310efc8f6df37dcb48e9b.
91. Michael S. LaTour and Tony L. Henthorne, “Ethical Judgments of Sexual
Appeals in Print Advertising,” Journal of Advertising 23, no. 3 (September
1994): 81–90.
92. “Nestle Uses Naked Models to Sell Natural Coffee Creamer,” Fox News (July
16, 2015), https://www.fox32chicago.com/news/nestle-uses-naked-models-tosell-natural-coffee-creamer, accessed May 11, 2022.
93. Katharine Q. Seelye, “Metamucil Ad Featuring Old Faithful Causes a Stir,”
New York Times, January 19, 2003, www.nyt.com.

Chapter 6 • Attitudes and How to Change Them

94. Thomas J. Madden and Marc G. Weinberger, “The Effects of Humor on
Attention in Magazine Advertising,” Journal of Advertising 11, no. 3 (1982):
8–14; Marc G. Weinberger and Harlan E. Spotts, “Humor in U.S. versus U.K.
TV Commercials: A Comparison,” Journal of Advertising 18 (1989): 39–44;
Woltman Elpers, Josephine L.C.M., Ashesh Mukherjee, and Wayne D. Hoyer,
“Humor in Television Advertising: A Moment-to-Moment Analysis,” Journal
of Consumer Research 31, no. 3 (2004): 592–98.
95. David Gardner, “The Distraction Hypothesis in Marketing,” Journal of
Advertising Research 10 (1970): 25–30.
96. Caleb Warren, Erin Percival Carter, and A. Peter McGraw, “Being Funny Is
Not Enough: The Influence of Perceived Humor and Negative Emotional
Reactions on Brand Attitudes,” International Journal of Advertising 38, no.
7 (2019): 1025–45, Caleb Warren, Adam Barsky, A. Peter McGraw, “Humor,
Comedy, and Consumer Behavior,” Journal of Consumer Research 45, no.
3 (2018): 529–52; Caleb Warren, Adam Barsky, and Peter McGraw,“What
Makes Things Funny? An Integrative Review of the Antecedents of Laughter
and Amusement,” Personality and Social Psychology Review 25, no. 1 (2020):
41–65.
97. Brian Steinberg, “VW Uses Shock Treatment to Sell Jetta’s Safety,” Wall Street
Journal, April 19, 2006: B4.
98. “U.S. Gives Up on Graphic Cigarette Package Warnings—for Now,” Ad
Age, March 20, 2013, http://adage.com/article/news/u-s-graphic-cigarettepackage-warnings/240436/.
99. Davide C. Orazi and Marta Pizzetti, “Revisiting Fear Appeals: A Structural
Re-Inquiry of the Protection Motivation Model,” International Journal of
Research in Marketing 32, no. 2 (2015): 223–25.
100. Eugenia C. Wu and Keisha M. Cutright, “In God’s Hands: How Reminders
of God Dampen the Effectiveness of Fear Appeals,” Journal of Marketing
Research 55, no. 1 (2018): 119–31
101. Edward F. McQuarrie and David Glen Mick, “On Resonance: A Critical
Pluralistic Inquiry into Advertising Rhetoric,” Journal of Consumer Research
19 (September 1992): 180–97.
102. Robert B. Zajonc, “Attitudinal Effects of Mere Exposure,” Journal of
Personality & Social Psychology 8 (1968): 1–29.
103. Giles D’Souza and Ram C. Rao, “Can Repeating an Advertisement More
Frequently Than the Competition Affect Brand Preference in a Mature
Market?,” Journal of Marketing 59 (April 1995): 32–42.
104. George E. Belch, “The Effects of Television Commercial Repetition on
Cognitive Response and Message Acceptance,” Journal of Consumer Research
9 (June 1982): 56–65; Marian Burke and Julie Edell, “Ad Reactions over Time:
Capturing Changes in the Real World,” Journal of Consumer Research 13
(June 1986): 114–18; Herbert Krugman, “Why Three Exposures May Be
Enough,” Journal of Advertising Research 12 (December 1972): 11–14.
105. Susannah Jacob, “The Power of Three: Three Is the Right Number for
Persuasion, a Study Says,” New York Times, January 3, 2014, www.nyt.
com/2014/01/05/fashion/Three-Persuasion-The-Power-of-Three.
html?ref=style.
106. Liangyan Wang, Eugene Y. Chan, Haipeng (Allan) Chen, Han Lin, and Xinzhan
Shi, “When the ‘Charm of Three’ Fades: Mental Imagery Moderates the Impact
of the Number of Ad Claims on Persuasion,” Journal of Consumer Psychology
(2021).
107. Robert F. Bornstein, “Exposure and Affect: Overview and Meta-Analysis of
Research, 1968–1987,” Psychological Bulletin 106, no. 2 (1989): 265–89; Arno
Rethans, John Swasy, and Lawrence Marks, “Effects of Television Commercial
Repetition, Receiver Knowledge, and Commercial Length: A Test of the TwoFactor Model,” Journal of Marketing Research 23 (February 1986): 50–61.
108. Curtis P. Haugtvedt, David W. Schumann, Wendy L. Schneier, and Wendy
L. Warren, “Advertising Repetition and Variation Strategies: Implications for
Understanding Attitude Strength,” Journal of Consumer Research 21 (June
1994): 176–89.
109. Cristel A. Russell, “Advertainment: Fusing Advertising and Entertainment,”
Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Yaffe Center for Persuasive
Communication (2007).
110. Chris Richardson, “Here Are the Brightest Native Advertising Examples of
2017,” Native Advertising Institute, May 16, 2017, https://nativeadvertising
institute.com/blog/native-advertising-examples/.
111. Quoted in Simona Covel, “Bag Borrow or Steal Lands the Role of a Lifetime,
Online Retailer Hopes to Profit from Mention in ‘Sex and the City,’” Wall Street
Journal, May 28, 2008, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB121184149016921095
.html?mod=rss_media_and_marketing; www.bagborroworsteal.com.
112. Daniel Kreps, “Peloton Goes into Damage Control as ‘And Just Like That . . . ’
Scene Sends Stock Spiraling,” Rolling Stone, December 10, 2021, https://
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accessed April 21, 2022.
113. Mark Gardiner, “A Katy Perry Song Drops a Gift in Harley-Davidson’s Lap,”
New York Times, November 5, 2019, https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/05/
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191

114. Ben Ice, “Which Brands Got the Most Value out of Product Placements in
2016?,” Marketing, March 8, 2017, www.marketingmag.com.au/news-c/
brands-movie-product-placements-2016/.
115. Beth L. Fossen, “Product Placement Is a $23 Billion Business and Growing.
Here’s Why Brands Keep Betting on It,” Fast Company, September 14, 2021,
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116. Claire Atkinson, “Ad Intrusion Up, Say Consumers,” Ad Age, January 6, 2003: 1.
117. Motoko Rich, “Product Placement Deals Make Leap from Film to Books,” New
York Times, June 12, 2006, www.nyt.com.
118. Zachery Barton, “The Evolution of Advergames: Top 3 Examples of Marketing
in Gaming,” Medium, May 20, 2017, https://medium.com/@zbbarton0706/
the-evolution-of-advergames-top-3-examples-of-marketing-in-gaming3e688aad6884, accessed May 11, 2022.
119. “The Rise of Advergaming,” BW Gaming World, February 26, 2022, https://
bwgamingworld.com/the-rise-of-advergaming/, accessed March 11, 2022.
120. Stuart Elliott, “Leaving Behind Malibu in Search of a New Dream Home,”
New York Times, February 6, 2013, www.nyt.com/2013/02/07/business/media/
barbie-to-sell-her-malibu-dreamhouse.html?_r=0.
121. Michael R. Solomon and Basil G. Englis, “Reality Engineering: Blurring the
Boundaries Between Marketing and Popular Culture,” Journal of Current
Issues & Research in Advertising 16, no. 2 (Fall 1994): 1–17.
122. Marc Santora, “Circle the Block, Cabby, My Show’s On,” New York Times,
January 16, 2003, www.nyt.com; Wayne Parry, “Police May Sell Ad Space,”
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123. Austin Bunn, “Not Fade Away,” New York Times, December 2, 2002, www.nyt
.com.
124. This process is described more fully in Michael R. Solomon, Conquering
Consumerspace: Marketing Strategies for a Branded World (New York, NY:
AMACOM, 2003).
125. John Paul Titlow, “At Pandora, Every Listener Is a Test Subject,”
Fast Company, August 14, 2013, www.fastcolabs.com/3015729/
in-pandoras-big-data-experiments-youre-just-another-lab-rat.
126. Rob Walker, “The Gifted Ones,” New York Times Magazine, November 14,
2004, www.nyt.com.
127. Center for Media Research, “Product Placement, Sampling, and Word-ofMouth Collectively Influence Consumer Purchases,” October 22, 2008, www
.mediapost.com; Brian Steinberg and Suzanne Vranica, “Prime-Time TV’s
New Guest Stars: Products,” Wall Street Journal, January 12, 2004, www.wsj
.com; Karlene Lukovitz, “‘Storyline’ Product Placements Gaining on Cable,”
Marketing Daily, October 5, 2007, www.mediapost.com.
128. Jack Neff, “Clearasil Marches into Middle-School Classes,” Ad Age (November
2006): 8; Bill Pennington, “Reading, Writing and Corporate Sponsorships,”
New York Times, October 18, 2004; Caroline E. Mayer, “Nurturing Brand
Loyalty: With Preschool Supplies, Firms Woo Future Customers and Current
Parents,” Washington Post, October 12, 2003: F1.
129. Bartosz W. Wojdynski and Nathaniel J. Evans, (2020) “The Covert Advertising
Recognition and Effects (CARE) Model: Processes of Persuasion in Native
Advertising and Other Masked Formats,” International Journal of Advertising
39, no. 1 (2020): 4–31, doi: 10.1080/02650487.2019.1658438.
130. Nathaniel J. Evans, Mariea Grubbs Hoy, and Courtney C. Childers, “Parenting
YouTube Natives: The Impact of Pre-Roll Advertising and Text Disclosures
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131. Quoted in Sandra Blakeslee, “If Your Brain Has a ‘BuyButton,’ What Pushes
It?,” New York Times, October 19, 2004, https://www.nytimes.com/2004/10/19/
science/if-your-brain-has-a-buybutton-what-pushes-it.html, accessed April 22,
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132. John G. Wirtz, Johnny V. Sparks, and Thais M. Zimbres, “The Effect of
Exposure to Sexual Appeals in Advertisements on Memory, Attitude, and
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2650487.2017.1334996.
133. Jingjing Ma and David Gal, “When Sex and Romance Conflict: The Effect
of Sexual Imagery in Advertising on Preference for Romantically Linked
Products and Services,” Journal of Marketing Research 53, no. 4 (2016):
479–96.
134. Barbara B. Stern, “Medieval Allegory: Roots of Advertising Strategy for the
Mass Market,” Journal of Marketing 52 (July 1988): 84–94.
135. Xun Huang, Xiuping Li, and Meng Zhang, “‘Seeing’ the Social Roles of
Brands: How Physical Positioning Influences Brand Evaluation,” Journal
of Consumer Psychology 23, no. 4 (2013): 509–14.
136. CDCTobaccoFree, “Fast Facts,” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
October 6, 2021, https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/
fast_facts/index.htm.
137. “The Toll of Tobacco in the United States,” Campaign for Tobacco-Free Kids,
May 1, 2017, https://www.tobaccofreekids.org/problem/toll-us.

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138. “Smoking and Tobacco Use,” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/by_topic/policy/legislation/index
.htm, accessed June 27, 2018.
139. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, “Reducing Tobacco Use: A
Report of the Surgeon General,” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
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fullreport.pdf, accessed July 10, 2022.
140. Chris Woolston, “The Anti-Ads,” Knowable Magazine, February 9, 2018,
https://www.knowablemagazine.org/article/society/2018/anti-ads.
141. “Latest Campaign,” Make Smoking History, https://makesmokinghistory.org
.au/more-information/latest-campaign, accessed July 10, 2022; Kim Painter,
“Shocking CDC Anti-Smoking Campaign Is Back with New Ads,” USA Today,
June 24, 2014, https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2014/06/24/
cdc-smoking-ads-video/11306343/.
142. Safa Amirbayat, “Alma’s Anti-Smoking Ad Empathizes with Smokers,”
Medium, April 23, 2018, https://medium.com/@canvas8/advertising-insightsalma-positive-anti-smoking-ad-62c98572d894.
143. James Felton, “These Anti-Smoking Ads Have an Unintended Effect on Teens,” IFL
Science, December 15, 2017, http://www.iflscience.com/health-and-medicine/
these-antismoking-ads-have-an-unintended-effect-on-teens/.
144. Safa Amirbayat, “Alma’s Anti-Smoking Ad Empathizes with Smokers,”
Medium, April 23, 2018, https://medium.com/@canvas8/advertising-insightsalma-positive-anti-smoking-ad-62c98572d894.
145. Tim Nudd, “This Irish Anti-Smoking Ad Is So Good It’s Now Running in
New York,” Adweek, January 5, 2018, https://www.adweek.com/creativity/thisirish-anti-smoking-ad-is-so-good-its-now-running-in-new-york/.

146. “Win Anti-Smoking Campaign,” Cancer Institute, July 12, 2018, https://www
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quit-smoking-campaigns/win-anti-smoking-campaign, accessed July 12,
2018.
147. Safa Amirbayat, “Alma’s Anti-Smoking Ad Empathizes with Smokers,”
Medium, April 23, 2018, https://medium.com/@canvas8/advertisinginsights-alma-positive-anti-smoking-ad-62c98572d894.
148. “Tobacco and Smoking,” Gallup, August 9, 2007, https://news.gallup.com/
poll/1717/tobacco-smoking.aspx; Niall McCarthy, “U.S. Smoking Rate Falls
to Record Low,” Statista, July 27, 2018, https://www-statista-com.go.asbury
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149. Matthew Perrone, “Big Tobacco’s Anti-Smoking Ads Begin after Decade of
Delay,” The Chicago Tribune, November 21, 2017, http://www.chicagotribune
.com/business/ct-biz-anti-smoking-tv-ads-20171121-story.html.
150. “Tips from Former Smokers,” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
May 31, 2018, https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/campaign/tips/about/impact/
campaign-impact-results.html.
151. Canadian Cancer Society (National Office), “Tobacco Plain Packaging
Momentum Continues Worldwide with 38 Countries and Territories Moving
Forward with Regulations,” PR Newswire, November 9, 2021, https://
www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/tobacco-plain-packaging-momentumcontinues-worldwide-with-38-countries-and-territories-moving-forward-withregulations-301419266.html.

7

Deciding
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES When you finish reading this chapter, you should be able to:
7-1 Identify the two primary ways in which consumers
make decisions.
7-2 Outline the steps of the rational (slow) decision
making process.
7-3 Summarize the ways in which we engage in fast
thinking and rules of thumb to make decisions.

7-4 Describe how context effects can influence the
decision making of a consumer, even when
the consumer is unaware of the influence.
7-5 Discuss how online shopping and purchasing
platforms can influence consumer decision
making.

C

han has had it! There’s only so much longer he can go on
watching TV on his tiny, antiquated set. It was bad enough
trying to squint at Stranger Things. The final straw was when
he couldn’t tell the Titans from the Jaguars during an NFL football game.
When he went next door to watch the second half on Jamie’s home
theater setup, he finally realized what he was missing. Budget or not, it
was time to act: A person must have their priorities.
Where to start looking? The web, naturally. Chan checks out a few
comparison-shopping websites, including pricegrabber.com and bizrate
.com. After he narrows down his options, he ventures out to check on
a few sets in person. He figures he’ll probably get a decent selection
(and an affordable price) at one of those huge “big-box” stores. Arriving
at Zany Zack’s Appliance Emporium, Chan heads straight for the Video
Zone in the back; he barely notices the rows of toasters, microwave
ovens, and stereos on his way. Within minutes, a smiling salesperson in a cheap suit
accosts him. Even though he could use some help, Chan tells the salesperson he’s only
browsing. He figures these guys don’t know what they’re talking about, and they’re
simply out to make a sale no matter what.
Chan examines some of the features on the 60-inch flatscreens. He knew his friend
Cara had a set by Prime Wave that she really liked, and his sister Mi-Sun warned him to
stay away from the Kamashita. Although Chan finds a Prime Wave model loaded to the
max with features including surround sound, he chooses the less expensive Precision
2000X because it has one feature that really catches his fancy: synchronized backlighting
for game playing to play Minecraft the way it was intended.
Later that day, Chan is a happy man as he sits in his easy chair and watches Sheldon
match wits with Leonard, Howard, and the others on The Big Bang Theory. If he’s going
to be a couch potato, he’s going in style.

Source: Edwin Tan/E+/Getty Images.

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OBJECTIVE 7-1
Identify the two
primary ways in
which consumers
make decisions.

Fast or Slow Thinking?

Chan’s decision represented his response to a problem. In
fact, every consumer decision we make is a response to a
problem. Of course, the type and scope of these problems
varies enormously. As discussed in Chapter 5, our needs
range from simple physiological priorities, such as quenching thirst, to whether we
will spend our hard-earned money on a television to abstract intellectual or aesthetic
quandaries such as choosing a college major—or perhaps what to wear to that
upcoming Drake concert.
We make some decisions thoughtfully and rationally as we carefully weigh the
pros and cons of different choices. In other cases, we let our emotions guide us to one
choice over another as we react to a problem with enthusiasm, joy, or even disgust.
Decision-making researchers refer to these two distinct ways of deciding as slow
thinking and fast thinking.
This distinction should remind you of the two routes to persuasion we discussed
in Chapter 6. Just as attitudes may develop and change due to high versus low levels
of involvement and elaboration, decision making also can be a high or a low effort
process. When purchase decisions are important, we might put a lot of effort into it.
Decision making in those cases might even resemble a full-time job. A person may
literally spend days or weeks agonizing over an important purchase, such as a new
home, a car, or even an iPhone versus a Samsung Galaxy.
But often the decision-making process is almost automatic; we seem to make
snap judgments based on little information or develop habits to ease the process of
making decisions or to be more efficient. Imagine if you had to carefully consider
every product decision you make before putting an item in your grocery cart!
When the task requires a well-thought-out, rational approach, we’ll invest the
brainpower to do it. Otherwise, we look for shortcuts such as “just do what I usually
do,” or perhaps we make “gut” decisions based on our emotional reactions. In some
cases, we create a mental budget that helps us to estimate what we will consume
over time so that we can regulate what we do in the present. If the dieter knows they
will be chowing down at a big BBQ tomorrow, they may decide to skip that tempting
candy bar today.1
Part of what we’re going to discuss in this chapter already is
familiar ground to you:
System 1

System 2

Fast

Slow

Unconscious

Conscious

Automatic

Effortful

Everyday
Decisions

Complex
Decisions

Error-prone

Reliable

Figure 7.1 The Two Primary Consumer
Decision-Making Systems: Fast and Slow
OR System 1 and System 2 Processing

•
•
•

In Chapter 4, we reviewed approaches to learning that link options
to outcomes, where over time we come to link certain choices to
good or bad results, and this can help us make faster decisions.
In Chapter 5, we talked about how needs activation motivates us
to look for ways to fill those needs and also how low versus high
levels of involvement activate very different types of thinking
about the available choices.
And in Chapter 6, we distinguished between the cognitive and
affective processes that underpin persuasion. These ideas really
relate to types of decision making because they remind us that
depending on the situation and the importance of what we’re
dealing with, our choices can be dominated by “hot” emotions or
“cold” information processing.

Figure 7.1 summarizes the two systems of consumer decision
making: They are sometimes called fast versus slow, intuitive versus
analytic, or System 1 versus System 2.

Chapter 7 • Deciding

The distinction between these two systems is common in psychology: “System 1”
processes are fast, autonomous, intuitive, etc., and “System 2” processes are slow,
deliberative, analytic, etc. But how do we know which system someone will use?
It usually comes down to the type of purchase. A decision like the one Chan faces
is complex because it involves a substantive amount of money and consideration of
many attributes and many options. It would likely involve System 2 processes. In
contrast, many of the everyday decisions we face are habitual and do not require as
much thinking and debating, so they would involve System 1 processes.
This distinction is enormously important for our purposes, because if we know
whether our customers are likely to use either System 1 or System 2, that knowledge
can be a game-changer when it comes time to decide what kinds of information these
two very different scenarios require. While we usually assume that the consumer is in
System 2 mode when they choose a product or service, the harsh reality is that most
consumer decisions actually occur in System 1 mode when they are likely to ignore
the shower of information we rain down upon them.

OBJECTIVE 7-2
Outline the steps of
the rational (slow)
decision making
process.

Rational (Slow) Decision Making

When they think slow, consumers approach decision making
from a rational perspective. They calmly and carefully integrate as much information as possible with what they already
know about a product, painstakingly weigh the pluses and
minuses of each alternative, and arrive at a satisfactory decision. This kind of careful,
deliberate thinking is especially relevant to activities such as financial planning that
call for a lot of attention to detail and many choices that impact a consumer’s quality
of life.2
When marketing managers believe that their customers in fact do undergo this
kind of planning, they should carefully study steps in decision making to understand
just how consumers weigh information, form beliefs about options, and choose criteria
they use to select one option over others. With these insights in hand, they can develop
products and promotional strategies that supply the specific information people look
for in the most effective formats.3

Steps in the Rational Decision-Making Process
Let’s think about Chan’s process of buying a new TV that we described at the beginning of the chapter. He didn’t suddenly wake up and crave a new flatscreen. Chan
went through several steps between the time he felt the need to replace his TV and
when he brought one home. We describe these steps as (1) problem recognition, (2)
information search, (3) evaluation of alternatives, and (4) product choice.
After we make a decision, its outcome affects the final step in the process. That’s
because learning occurs based on how well the choice worked out (“I’ll never buy their
shoddy merchandise again!”). This learning process in turn influences the likelihood
that we’ll make the same choice the next time the need for a similar decision occurs.
Figure 7.2 provides an overview of this decision-making process. Let’s briefly look at
each step.

Step 1: Problem Recognition
Problem recognition occurs when we experience a significant difference between our
current situation and some state we desire. As we noted at the beginning of the chapter,
this problem requires a solution. A person who unexpectedly runs out of gas on the
highway has a problem, as does the person who becomes dissatisfied with the image

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After weathering some negative
headlines in recent years, Peloton
launched an advertising campaign
called “Love Every Journey” that
featured testimonials from customers
who were initially skeptical of the
connected fitness brand—and who
perhaps threw shade about the brand
on social media—but have since
become loyal converts.4
Source: Edwin Tan/E+/Getty Images.

Problem Recognition
Chan is fed up with his old
TV that has bad sound
reproduction.

of his car, even though there is nothing mechanically wrong with it.
Although the quality of Chan’s TV had not changed, he altered his
standard of comparison, and as a result he had a new problem to
solve: how to improve his viewing experience. This is the “starting
gun” that initiates the problem-solving process.

Step 2: Information Search
Information Search
Chan surfs the Web to
learn about TVs.

Evaluation of Alternatives
Chan compares several
models in the store in
terms of reputation
and available features.
Product Choice
Chan chooses one model
because it has a feature
that really appeals to him.
Outcomes
Chan brings home the TV
and enjoys his purchase.

Figure 7.2 Stages in Consumer Decision Making

Once a consumer recognizes a problem, they need to identify
options to solve it. Information search is the process by which we
survey the environment for appropriate data to make a reasonable
decision. As we saw in Chapter 5, we might recognize a need and
then search the marketplace for specific information (a process we
call prepurchase search). However, many of us, especially veteran
shoppers, enjoy browsing just for the fun of it or because we like
to stay up to date on what’s happening in the marketplace. Those
shopaholics engage in ongoing search.5 As a general rule, we search
more when the purchase is important, when we have more of a need
to learn more about the purchase, or when it’s easy to obtain the
relevant information.6
Does knowing something about the product make it more or less
likely that we will engage in research? The answer to this question
isn’t as obvious as it first appears: Product experts and novices use
different strategies when they make decisions. “Newbies” who
know little about a product should be the most motivated to find out
more about it. However, experts are more familiar with the product
category, and thus they should be better able to understand the
meaning of any new product information they might acquire.
So, who searches more? The answer is neither: Search tends to be
greatest among those consumers who are moderately knowledgeable
about the product. Typically, we find an inverted-U relationship
between knowledge and search effort, as Figure 7.3 shows. People

AMOUNT OF SEARCH

Chapter 7 • Deciding

PRODUCT KNOWLEDGE

Figure 7.3 The Relationship between Amount of Information Search and
Product Knowledge

with limited expertise may not feel they are competent to search extensively. In
fact, they may not even know where to start. Chan, who did not spend a lot of time
researching his purchase, is typical. He visited one store, and he looked only at brands
with which he was already familiar. In addition, he focused on only a small number
of product features.7
Because experts have a better sense of what information is relevant to the decision, they engage in selective search, which means their efforts are more focused and
efficient. In contrast, novices are more likely to rely on the opinions of others and on
“nonfunctional” attributes, such as brand name and price, to distinguish among alternatives. Finally, novice consumers may process information in a “top-down” rather
than a “bottom-up” manner; they focus less on details than on the big picture. For
instance, they may be more impressed by the sheer amount of technical information
an ad presents than by the actual significance of the claims it makes.8
Any trial lawyer will tell you never to ask a question of a witness unless you
already know what they will answer. Consumers too like to consult reliable sources
that tend to tell them what they want to hear. We can see that the search process isn’t
perfect, so there’s always some bias in terms of what we get when we cast our nets.
This is true whether we’re asking people we know for advice or we’re simply browsing
online.
The internet puts an almost limitless supply of information at our fingertips—at
least in theory. The reality often is quite different. Rather than taking advantage of
many sources that may provide us with a range of opinions or options when we want
to make a decision, sophisticated algorithms ensure that we access only content that
reinforces what we already think we know.
A filter bubble occurs when the broadcast media, websites, and social media platforms we consult serve up answers based upon what they “think” we want to see. For
example, we get personalized Google search results and a Facebook news stream that’s
based upon sites we’ve clicked on in the past, our browsing history, and our physical
location. This means we’re far less likely to be exposed to conflicting viewpoints, so
we each live in a “bubble” of our own making. Conservatives who watch Fox News

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Buying, Having, Being
What Do I Have to Lose?
Maybe a Lot!
Consumers rarely consider
opportunity costs, or alternative
ways to use one’s resources, when
they select one option over others.
Yet, research shows that consumers
can benefit from considering
opportunity costs while deciding.13
When people consider opportunity
costs, they see the alternative
option(s) as more valuable, relative
to the current option they are
considering. For example, if you
are considering purchasing a trip
to Hawaii but then think about how
you would have to give up a trip to
Europe to afford the trip to Hawaii,
then that trip to Europe seems more
valuable to you than it otherwise
would have. Of course, if you’re a
planner, you probably know this
already because people who like to
plan tend to consider opportunity
costs more.

religiously will see stories that confirm their beliefs, while their liberal counterparts
get the same assurance from MSNBC.9
Thus, what starts as a search for the best information upon which to base our
decisions may end in a self-fulfilling prophecy, where we read and see only content
that confirms what we thought all along. This problem is troubling enough that
the U.S. Congress is considering a bill introduced in 2021 called the Filter Bubble
Transparency Act that would require that internet platforms give users the option to
engage without being manipulated by algorithms driven by user-specific data.10

Step 3: Evaluate Alternatives
Much of the effort we put into a purchase decision occurs at the stage where we have
to put the pedal to the metal and choose a product from several alternatives. This
may not be easy; modern consumer society abounds with choices. In some cases,
there may be literally hundreds of brands (as in cigarettes) or different variations of
the same brand (as in shades of lipstick).
We call the alternatives a consumer knows about the evoked set and the ones they
seriously consider the consideration set.11 Recall that Chan did not know much about
the technical aspects of television sets, and he had only a few major brands in mind.
Of these, two were acceptable possibilities and one was not.
For obvious reasons, a marketer who finds that their brand is not in their target
market’s evoked set has cause to worry. You often don’t get a second chance to make a
good first impression; a consumer isn’t likely to place a product in their evoked set after
they have already considered it and rejected it. Indeed, we’re more likely to add a new
brand to the evoked set than one that we previously considered but passed over, even
after a marketer has provided additional positive information about it.12 For marketers,
a consumer’s reluctance to give a rejected product a second chance underscores the
importance of ensuring that it performs well from the time the company introduces it.

Many decisions force us to choose between two attractive alternatives, so we also have to
consider opportunity costs when we weigh pros and cons of each choice.
Source: Nathan Danks/Shutterstock Jupiterimages/PHOTOS.com/Getty Images.

Chapter 7 • Deciding

TABLE 7.1    Hypothetical

Alternatives for a TV Set
Brand Ratings

Attribute

Importance Ranking

Prime Wave

Precision

Kamashita

Synchronized
backlighting

1

Excellent

Good

Good

Size of screen

1

Excellent

Excellent

Excellent

Stereo surround
sound

2

Good

Excellent

Good

Brand reputation

3

Excellent

Excellent

Poor

Onscreen programming

4

Excellent

Good

Poor

Sleep timer

6

Excellent

Poor

Good

Evaluative Criteria When Chan looked at different television sets, he focused on
one or two product features and completely ignored several others. He narrowed down
his choices as he only considered two specific brand names, and from the Prime Wave
and Precision models, he chose one that featured synchronized backlighting. Table 7.1
summarizes the attributes of the TV sets that Chan considered. Now, let’s see how a
comparison of these attributes can alter Chan’s choice of a specific brand depending
on the rules he uses to consider them.
Evaluative criteria are the dimensions we use to judge the merits of competing
options. When he compared alternative products, Chan could have chosen from among
many criteria that ranged from functional attributes (“Does this TV offer synchronized
backlighting?”) to experiential ones (“Does this TV’s sound reproduction make me
imagine I’m in a concert hall?”).
Another important point is that criteria on which products differ from one another
carry more weight in the decision process than do those where the alternatives are
similar. If all brands a person considers rate equally well on one attribute (e.g., if all
TVs come with surround sound), Chan needs to find other reasons to choose one over
another. Determinant attributes are the features we use to differentiate among our
choices.
Marketers often educate consumers about which criteria they should use as
determinant attributes. For example, consumer research from Church & Dwight
indicated that many consumers view the use of natural ingredients as a determinant
attribute. As a result, the company promoted its toothpaste made from baking soda,
which the company already manufactured for Church & Dwight’s Arm & Hammer
brand.14

In the slow-thinking Type 2 system, people tend to think carefully
about the pros and cons of various options, almost like a computer that follows a
somewhat complicated formula to decide. Not so much for Type 1 thinking, where one
attribute that may not even be central to the choice drives our decision (the package
color or the celebrity endorser, for example).
To choose between options, consumers may use compensatory and noncompensatory rules. Let’s take a quick look at some important ones.

Decision Rules

A compensatory rule allows a product to make up for its
shortcomings on one dimension by excelling on another. This rule is more likely to

Compensatory Rules

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apply during Type 1 thinking, where we’re motivated enough to weigh the pros and
cons of a set of choices. There are two basic types of compensatory rules:
1. The simple additive rule leads to the option that has the largest number of positive attributes. A person may use this process when it’s difficult to get more
information. It’s not the best solution, because some of the attributes may not be
meaningful to the customer. Even so, we may be impressed by a brand that boasts
a laundry list of features, though most of them are not determinant attributes.
2. A weighted additive rule allows the consumer to consider the relative importance of the attributes by weighing each one. If this sounds familiar, it should:
The calculation process strongly resembles the multiattribute attitude model we
discussed in Chapter 6.
Noncompensatory Rules Compensatory rules require the decision maker to carefully consider the attributes of competing options, but we all know that we don’t
necessarily do that—especially when we’re thinking fast! When we make habitual or
emotional decisions, we typically use a noncompensatory rule.15 This means that
if an option doesn’t suit us on one dimension, we just reject it out of hand and move
on to something else rather than think about how it might meet our needs in other
ways: “I’ve never heard of that brand,” or maybe “That color is gross.” Here are some
specific ways we do that:

•
Buying, Having, Being
How Low Is “Low Calorie”
Depends on Surrounding
Menu Options
The way we make decisions
depends on our comparison
set, which echoes the categorizations we studied in Chapter 4.
A recent study that examined how
consumers use calorie information
demonstrates why the categories
we use to define products are
important. When people saw menus
that listed the calorie count of
individual items, they chose more
dietetic items. However, when the
lower calorie items were grouped
into a single “low-calorie” category
on the menu, diners selected them
less frequently. The researchers
explain that consumers have
negative associations with lowcalorie labels, so they’re more likely
to dismiss these options in the early
stages of the decision process. As
a result, individual items are less
likely to make the cut into diners’
consideration sets, so ironically this
menu information results in fewer
healthier choices overall.16

•

•

The lexicographic rule says, “Select the brand that is the best on the most important attribute.” If a decision maker feels that two or more brands are equally good
on that attribute, they then compare the brands on the second-most important
attribute. This selection process goes on until the tie is broken. In Chan’s case,
because both the Prime Wave and Precision models were tied on his most important attribute (a 60-inch screen), he chose the Precision because of its rating on his
second-most important attribute: its stereo capability.
The elimination-by-aspects rule is like the lexicographic rule because the buyer
also evaluates brands on the most important attribute. In this case, though, they
impose specific cut-offs. For example, if Chan had been more interested in having
a sleep timer on his TV (i.e., if it had a higher importance ranking), he might have
stipulated that his choice “must have a sleep timer.” Because the Prime Wave
model had one and the Precision did not, he would have chosen the Prime Wave.
Whereas the two former rules involve processing by attribute, the conjunctive
rule entails processing by brand. As with the elimination-by-aspects procedure,
the decision maker establishes cut-offs for each attribute. He chooses a brand if it
meets all the cutoffs but rejects a brand that fails to meet any one cut-off. If none
of the brands meet all the cutoffs, he may delay the choice, change the decision
rule, or modify the cutoffs he chooses to apply.

If Chan stipulated that all attributes had to be rated “good” or better, he would not
have been able to choose any of the available options. He might then have modified
his decision rule, conceding that it was not possible to attain these high standards
in his price range. In this case, perhaps Chan could decide that he could live without
synchronized backlighting, so he would reconsider the Precision model.
If we’re willing to allow good and bad product qualities to cancel each other out,
we arrive at a different choice. For example, if Chan were not concerned about having
stereo reception, he might have chosen the Prime Wave model. But because this brand
doesn’t feature this highly ranked attribute, it doesn’t stand a chance when he uses a
noncompensatory rule.

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As feature creep becomes more
of a problem, just providing clear
instructions to users is a major “pain
point” for many manufacturers.
Source: supercavie/Shutterstock.

Buying, Having, Being
Read the Label!

Step 4: Product Choice
Once we assemble and evaluate the relevant options in a category, eventually we
must choose one.17 Recall that the decision rules that guide our choices range from
simple and quick strategies to complicated processes that require a lot of attention
and cognitive processing.18
Our job isn’t getting any easier as companies overwhelm us with more and more
features. We deal with 50-button remote controls, digital cameras with hundreds of
mysterious features and book-length manuals, and cars with dashboard systems worthy
of the space shuttle. Experts call this spiral of complexity feature creep. As evidence
that the proliferation of gizmos is counterproductive, Philips Electronics found that
at least half of the products buyers return have nothing wrong with them; consumers
simply couldn’t understand how to use them! What’s worse, on average the buyer
spent only 20 minutes trying to figure out how to use the product and then gave up.
Given the range of problems we
all confront in our lives, clearly it is difficult to apply a one-size-fits-all explanation to
the complexities of consumer behavior. Things get even more complicated when we
realize just how many choices we must make in today’s information-rich environment.
Ironically, for many of us, one of our biggest problems is not having too few choices
but rather too many.
This condition of choice overload, or hyperchoice, forces us to make repeated
decisions that may drain psychological energy while decreasing our abilities to make
smart choices.19 A study conducted in a grocery store illustrates how having too much
can handicap our thought processes. Shoppers tried samples of flavored fruit jams
in two different conditions: In the “limited choice” condition, they picked from six
flavors; whereas those in the “extensive choice” group saw 24 flavors. Thirty percent
of consumers in the limited group bought a jar of jam as a result, and a paltry three
percent of those in the extensive group did.

Choice Overload: Too Much of a Good Thing?

Product labels assist us with
problem solving, but some are
more useful than others. Here
are some examples of the
not-so-helpful variety:

• Instructions for folding up a
•

•
•
•
•
•
•
•

portable baby carriage: “Step 1:
Remove baby.”
On a Conair Pro Style 1600
hair dryer: “WARNING: Do not
use in shower. Never use while
sleeping.”
At a rest stop on a Wisconsin
highway: “Do not eat urinal
cakes.”
On a bag of Fritos: “You could
be a winner! No purchase
necessary. Details inside.”
On some Swanson frozen
dinners: “Serving suggestion:
Defrost.”
On Tesco’s Tiramisu dessert
(printed on bottom of box):
“Do not turn upside down.”
On Marks & Spencer bread
pudding: “Product will be hot
after heating.”
On packaging for a Rowenta
iron: “Do not iron clothes on
body.”
On Nytol sleeping aid: “Warning:
May cause drowsiness.”

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Consumers tend to want more options, but when there
are too many options, they tend to make poorer decisions or
just give up in frustration. A review of all the studies to date
(a meta-analysis) on this paradox of choice suggests that
companies can have it both ways: Provide options, but make
the decision itself less difficult, and try to educate consumers
about how best to make their decision between those options.20

Step 5: Postpurchase Evaluation

A common feedback loop we increasingly see on highways
comes from those “dynamic speed displays” that use a radar
sensor to flash “Your Speed” when you pass one. This isn’t new
information; all you have to do is look at your speedometer to
know the same thing. Yet on average, these displays result in a
10 percent reduction in driving speed among motorists for several
miles following exposure to the feedback loop.21
Source: Iaarts/Stockimo/Alamy Stock Photo.

Another old saying goes, “The proof of the pudding is in
the eating.” In other words, the true test of our decisionmaking process is whether we are happy with the choice
we made after we undergo all these stages. Postpurchase
evaluation closes the loop; it occurs when we experience the
product or service we selected and decide whether it meets
(or maybe even exceeds) our expectations. That may involve
soliciting feedback from others to determine whether we’ve
done the right thing or (perhaps) committed a serious fashion
gaffe. We’ll take a closer look at that in Chapter 8.

When all is said and done with the transaction, is the customer always right? Not anymore. Today,
postpurchase evaluation is just starting to work both ways. In
the process called social scoring, both customers and service providers increasingly
rate one another’s performance. Have you ever written a negative review of your Uber
driver or a server at a restaurant? A heads up: While we’re busily documenting our
interactions with salespeople and other service providers, they’re returning the favor.
People who work in small businesses have always been aware of problem customers
who drop in periodically to torment them. But now, at least in theory, a salesperson
or other service provider at any kind of organization large or small can grade your
behavior. And the icing on the cake is that they can share these scores with others. It’s
no longer only Santa who knows if you’ve been naughty or nice.
At platforms like Airbnb and Uber, users get a rating each time they patronize the
service. It’s no surprise that according to Lyft and Uber drivers, failure to leave a tip
is a sure-fire road to a dismal evaluation. For your future reference, these are some
other behaviors that will make or break a five-star rating straight from the mouths of
operators:22

•
•
•
•
•

Social Scoring

“Don’t puke in or ruin the car.”
“The most common reason for a lower passenger rating is making us wait after we
arrive to pick you up. If you’re ready to go at the curb when we arrive, it means
a lot.”
“Rude passengers immediately get four stars. Depending on the level of rudeness,
their rating can go down to one star.”
“Passengers get a one-star ding for everything they mess up, like not being ready,
slamming doors, or being impolite.”
“I will deduct points for rude behavior or illegal activities. I will also deduct points
for passengers who leave garbage in my car.”

That’s not just FYI stuff; a bad rating can prevent you from booking rooms or
rides down the road. Uber and Lyft share rider ratings with other drivers, who may

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203

choose not to pick up a passenger with an unsavory record.
Open Table bans people from using its service if they have
missed too many reservations. At Airbnb, you sometimes
must make the case for your worthiness to stay at a guesthouse. The application process feels a bit like getting a surprise inspection visit from a social worker when you’re trying
to adopt a child.
This new transparency may disrupt not only the service
economy—it also can obliterate the traditional power
disparity between buyer and seller. Suddenly, the user must
play nice and think about how today’s nasty behavior will
influence tomorrow’s reputation. So far it doesn’t seem that
service businesses have thought much about the potential
impact of this reverse rating process, but it could be just a
As social scoring catches on, both customers and service
matter of time before overly demanding patients need to
providers need to be aware that others rate their performance.
locate doctors who will agree to put up with them, customers
Source: lovro77/iStock/Getty Images Plus.
who like to yell at repairmen have no one to fix their leaking
toilets, and perhaps even students who email their professor at 2:00 a.m. with urgent
questions about assignments that were due two weeks ago get banned from registering
for classes (okay, that last one is a fantasy of ours that we just threw in there).23
When we do not select a certain option and this
foregone option now seems better than the option that we chose, we may end up
experiencing regret.24 The more we know about the foregone option, the more likely
we are to wish we had decided differently.
In addition, regret is likelier when (1) the decision consumers made created a lot
of change from how things were prior to this decision (think: moving houses!), (2) the
decision cannot be undone, and (3) the outcome of a choice is negative. In cases when
the eventually chosen product leads to a negative outcome, people are more motivated
to think of other alternatives that can undo it (e.g., returning the product) or that they
can do better in the future.
Regret makes people less likely to repurchase the chosen products, but it does
not make people more likely to complain to the maker of that product. With online
shopping and meal delivery services continuing to take up a larger share of consumer
purchases, the potential for consumer regret is likely much higher today than it used
to be. Thus, companies should take note of how they can anticipate regret and try to
address it, so the customer feels better about their purchase.

Regret and How to Avoid It

Although consumers tend to like
to make their own choices, having to choose sometimes leads to anxiety and decision paralysis. Interestingly, a solution to this is to delegate our decision to others,
especially when we are afraid to make decisions we may regret.25
Researchers found evidence of this in a series of lab experiments in which they
gave participants the choice between two options.26 They made the choice either
difficult or easy by having participants choose between two cheap options (more
difficult) or a cheap and expensive option (less difficult), and they told the participants
they could either choose for themselves or ask the experimenter to choose. No
matter what the product context was (they conducted the same experiments with
headphones, jellybeans, and a hypothetical decision of whether to undergo surgery
after an accident), they found that consumers consistently prefer to delegate choices
to someone else when the choice is difficult.
“Deer in the Headlights”: Decision Paralysis

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Consumers delegate because they are afraid of regretting their decision if it leads
to a less-than-ideal outcome. This helps to explain why we often turn to third parties,
such as stockbrokers and interior designers, to help us arrive at important decisions.27
OBJECTIVE 7-3
Summarize the
ways in which we
engage in fast
thinking and rules
of thumb to make
decisions.

Buying, Having, Being
Are You in the Mood?
Our mood biases our decisions
and the way we make them.32 But
what happens to the quality of our
choices when our mood is a bit too
good? A survey found that about
one-fifth of Americans admitted
to buying while under the influence; drunk shopping purchases
account for billions of dollars in
revenues every year. If you’ve ever
visited DoorDash or Grubhub to
order some late-night munchies
after an evening of carousing, you
won’t be surprised to learn that
more than 80 percent of drunk
shoppers admit to purchasing food
while drunk. The next-most popular
categories for intoxicated purchases
are shoes, clothes, and accessories.
Good luck checking out your new
(bizarre?) purchase when it arrives
after you’ve sobered up!33

Fast Thinking and Rules
of Thumb

Chan’s meditations about the exact TV model to buy probably don’t resemble most of the choices he makes. If he’s
anything like most of us, he deals with dozens of decisions
every day and he makes most of them almost automatically.
“Cream and sugar?” “Fries with that?”
The rational decision-making steps we’ve just reviewed are well and good, but
common sense tells us we don’t undergo this elaborate sequence every time we buy
something.28 If we did, we’d spend our entire lives making these decisions. This would
leave us little time to enjoy the things we eventually decide to buy! And some of our
buying behaviors don’t seem “rational” because they don’t serve a logical purpose
(you don’t use that navel ring to hold a beach towel).
Habitual decision making, or fast decision making, describes the choices we
make with little or no conscious effort. Many purchase decisions are so routine
we may not realize we’ve made them until we look in our shopping carts! Although
decisions we make with little conscious thought may seem dangerous or at best stupid,
this process is actually quite efficient in many cases. The journalist Malcolm Gladwell
hit the bestseller list with his book Blink, which demonstrated how snap judgments
that occur in the blink of an eye can be surprisingly accurate.29
When a person buys the same brand over and over, does this mean it’s just a habit,
or are they truly loyal to that product? The answer is, it depends: In some cases, the
explanation really is just inertia, which means that it involves less effort to throw a
familiar package into the cart. Brand loyalty is a totally different story. This describes
a pattern of repeat purchasing behavior that involves a conscious decision to continue
buying the same brand.
As you might imagine, though both inertia and brand loyalty yield the same result,
the latter is harder to achieve but also much more valuable because it represents a true
commitment by the consumer. One simple test that may help to tell the difference: If
the consumer discovers that a store is out of their normal brand, will they just choose
another one or defer the purchase to find their favorite somewhere else? If the answer
is “my way or the highway,” that marketer has a loyal customer.

Behavioral Biases
The traditional perspective on human behavior views people as cool, detached decision makers who carefully evaluate the pros and cons before they choose an option.
That view, known as homo economicus (“economic man”), regards us as ideal decision makers with complete rationality and complete access to all the information we
need to make an informed decision.30
Does that description of System 2 thinking apply to many of the choices you
make? Sure, we may come close when we’re choosing something important like
a new laptop, home, or car. But the reality is that we just don’t work that hard for
most decisions. And that’s a good thing: One reason is simply that it’s not possible
for our brains to process all that detailed information about everything, nor is it
probably worth our time. Another reason is that we often are less homo economicus
and more homo ludens—“man the player.” 31 This perspective recognizes the

Chapter 7 • Deciding

emotional and more light-hearted aspects of consumption that result in joy, fantasy,
and creativity.
System 1 processing, because it is a lot faster and less rational, can lead to behavioral biases, when our preferences deviate from the standard economic model that
views people as rational decision makers who calmly and carefully weigh their choices
to be sure they make the best possible decision.34 A common example to demonstrate
the two systems is the following puzzle:
A bat and a ball together cost $1.10. The bat costs $1 more than the ball. How
much does the ball cost?35
The majority of people quickly guess 10 cents (did you?). The correct answer,
however, is five cents—which, again, most people can work out after spending more
time thinking about the question. As this example demonstrates, System 1 thinking is
faster—but often marred by biases and false assumptions.
The research discipline at the intersection of psychology and economics, known
as behavioral economics, focuses upon these biases that take the form of nonstandard beliefs. For example, we tend to be overconfident in our own knowledge or abilities, or we tend to ignore base rates and sample sizes when we estimate probabilities
(a bias known as the law of small numbers).

Heuristics and Mental Accounting: Take the Shortcut
Let’s face it—people can be lazy sometimes! Especially when we’re overwhelmed
by so many things calling for our attention, it’s often tempting to find shortcuts so
that we don’t have to sweat the details for some decisions. That’s a good strategy in
many cases, because these shortcuts allow our poor overworked brains to pay more
attention to important decisions.
And the reality is that many purchase decisions fall into this category. If you’re
the brand manager for, say, a company that sells paper towels, you think a lot about
this product, and you probably believe your brand outshines the rest. But the hard truth
is that your customers aren’t very invested in mastering the intricacies of the paper
towel market. They simply want a brand that absorbs liquids and doesn’t disintegrate
when they touch it. That means you can shower them with detailed technical information all day long, but they’re probably not going to “absorb” that. Instead, they may
choose a familiar brand name with a lively, easy-to-remember tagline like, “Bounty
is the quicker picker-upper.”
This example illustrates that rather than trying to arrive at the best possible
result—a maximizing solution—we, in fact, often are quite content to exert less
mental effort and settle for an adequate outcome—a satisficing solution. This “good
enough” perspective on decision making is called bounded rationality. It recognizes
that many decisions aren’t worth agonizing over, so long as the end result is adequate.
This distinction is hugely important to marketers, because if consumers look to merely
satisfice rather than maximize their choice, it’s a game-changer in terms of the types
of information they will look for and how they will use this information.

Mental Accounting
In addition, many habitual spending decisions we make are subject to mental
accounting biases:
Imagine that you’re working at a job that pays $1,000 per week. You spend your
income carefully, and you even try to put some of your paycheck into an investment
account for your future. One day, you learn that a distant relative has died, and they left
you $1,000 in their will. This totally unexpected windfall makes you do the happy dance—
and to celebrate you take 20 of your closest friends out to dinner at a nice restaurant.

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Just like that, the inheritance is gone—but at least you have the glowing social media
posts to show for it.
Is this $1,000 that came and went very quickly the “same” money as the amount
you see in your weekly paycheck? Obviously not, because you treated it very differently. Mental accounting reminds us that the way we think and use money depends
on all kinds of subjective factors: for instance, how we earned it (from a job versus
inheritance) or what form it is (cash versus credit versus gift card; home versus foreign
currency). These biases can make us spend more money on useless things or spend it
faster (for example, inherited money is spent faster than earned money, and we spend
more when we use credit cards because a charge isn’t “real money”).36 None of that
is very rational since in the end, it is all the same money!

Heuristics
Chan made certain assumptions instead of conducting an extensive information search.
In particular, he took it for granted that the selection at Zany Zack’s was more than sufficient, so he didn’t even bother to shop at any other stores. We refer to these shortcuts
as heuristics. These “mental rules of thumb” range from the general (“higher-priced
products are higher-quality products” or “buy the same brand I bought last time”) to
the specific (“buy Domino, the brand of sugar my mother always bought”).37
So much for that “rational” view of decision making! These rules of thumb save
us a lot of time and effort, and in most cases, a hastily made bad choice doesn’t come
back to haunt us. But sometimes these shortcuts may not be in our best interest. A car
shopper who personally knows one or two people who have had problems with a particular vehicle, for example, might assume that he would have similar trouble with it
rather than taking the time to find out that it has an excellent repair record.38 Table 7.2
summarizes a few of the most prevalent heuristics we commonly use.
TABLE 7.2    Examples

of Heuristics

Heuristic Name

Definition

Availability

Selecting an option based on the information most easily available to our mind

Representativeness

Selecting an option that is closest to the most representative example in the category

Price

Selecting an option solely based on its price: for instance, many people assume that a higher-priced option is of better
quality than a lower-priced option

Anchoring Heuristic

Using the first information received about an option to decide about it (that prior judgment hence becoming an anchor)

Variety-Seeking

Selecting an option that is different from previous choices, for the sake of variety

Risk Aversion

Selecting the safest option in a set

Familiarity

Selecting the most familiar option in a set

OBJECTIVE 7-4
Describe how
context effects
can influence the
decision making of
a consumer, even
when the consumer
is unaware of the
influence.

The Unseen Power of Context
Effects: Framing, Priming,
and Nudging
Remember that in earlier chapters we talked about how physical
cues “prime” us to react—even when we’re not aware of this
impact. The sensations we experience are context effects

Chapter 7 • Deciding

that subtly influence how we think about products we encounter. Here are some
examples from consumer research:

•
•
•

Respondents evaluated products more harshly when they stood on a tile floor
rather than a carpeted floor.39
Fans of romance movies rate them higher when they watch them in a cold room
(the researchers explain this is because they compensate for the low physical temperature with the psychological warmth the movie provides).40
When a product is scented, consumers are more likely to remember other attributes
about it after they encounter it.41

Researchers continue to identify factors that bias our decisions, and many of
these are factors that operate beneath the level of conscious awareness.42 In one
study, respondents’ attitudes toward an undesirable product—curried grasshoppers!—
improved when they were asked to approach a plate full of them. Since we typically
get closer to things (or people) we like, it seems this physical movement cued their
minds to think that they liked the delicacy more than they actually did.43 To help
understand this process, try to force yourself to smile or frown and then carefully
gauge your feelings; you may find that the old prescription to “put on a happy face”
to cheer yourself up has some validity.44
The notion that even subtle changes in a person’s environment can strongly influence their choices has emerged on center stage in the study of consumer behavior in
recent years. Unlike standard economic theory that regards people as rational decision makers, the rapidly growing field of behavioral economics focuses on the effects
of psychological and social factors on the economic decisions we make, and many of
these choices are anything but “rational.” Indeed, it turns out that it’s quite possible
to modify the choices of individuals and groups merely by tinkering with the way we
present information to them.

Framing
Often, it’s just a matter of framing, or how we pose the question to people or what
exactly we ask them to do. For example, people hate losing things more than they
like getting things; economists call this tendency loss aversion. To see how framing
works, consider the following scenario:
You’ve scored a free ticket to a sold-out football game. At the last minute, though,
a sudden snowstorm makes it dangerous to get to the stadium. Would you still go?
Now, assume the same game and snowstorm—except this time you paid a small fortune for the ticket. Would you head out in the storm in this case?
Researchers who work on prospect theory analyze how the value of a decision
depends on gains or losses—and how that choice is communicated to the buyer. It
turns out that the way we frame the question matters a lot. In the preceding scenario,
researchers find that people are more likely to risk their personal safety in the storm if
they paid for the football ticket than if it’s a freebie. Only the most die-hard fan would
fail to recognize that this is an irrational choice, because the risk is the same regardless
of whether you got a great deal on the ticket. Researchers call this decision-making bias
the sunk-cost fallacy: If we’ve paid for something, we’re more reluctant to waste it.

Priming
In a recent study, researchers subtly encouraged some subjects to “go against the
flow”—i.e., make unpopular choices. In some studies, the researchers primed “going
against the flow” by using actual fur and asking participants to rub the fur against the

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direction of its growth (against the flow), while others went with the direction of growth.
In a later (seemingly unrelated) part of the study, lo and behold, these people were more
likely to choose products that were less popular or desirable. The earlier session apparently encouraged people to think about “marching to the beat of a different drummer,” and
this orientation led them to alter their choices (without being aware of the connection!).45
Welcome to the power of priming: including cues in the environment that make
us more likely to react in a certain way even though we’re unaware of these influences.
A prime is a stimulus that encourages people to focus on some specific aspect of their
lives, such as their financial well-being, the environment, or “going against the flow.”
Here are some examples:

•

•

A group of undergraduates was primed to think about money; they saw phrases like
“she spends money liberally” or pictures that would make them think of money.
Then this group and a control group that wasn’t focused on money answered questions about moral choices they would make. Those students who had been primed
to think of money consistently exhibited weaker ethics. They were more likely to
say they would steal a ream of paper from the university’s copying room and more
likely to say they would lie for financial gain.46
When people see pictures of “cute” products, they are more likely to engage in
indulgent behavior, such as eating larger portions of ice cream.47

Start of September

Figure 7.4 The Impact of
Temporal Framing
To manipulate temporal framing to shift
people’s attention, researchers framed
the timing of a sale as either “Start of
September Sale” or “End of August
Sale.” They then had people try to find
a specific brand of margarine in the
sale ad. They either placed the margarine on the left or the right. Those in
the “End of August” condition took a
lot less time to find the margarine when
it was on the right. And vice versa for
those in the “Start of September” and
“margarine on the left” conditions.
Source: Sheng Bi, Andrew Perkins, and David
Sprott, (2021), “The Effect of Start/End Temporal
Landmarks on Consumers’ Visual Attention and
Judgments,” International Journal of Research in
Marketing 38, no. 1 (2021): 136–54.

Sale

Start temporal landmark and
product on the left side

Start of September

Sale

Start temporal landmark and
product on the right side

End of August

Sale

End temporal landmark and
product on the left side

End of August

Sale

End temporal landmark and
product on the right side

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•
•

209

In a field study in a wine store, researchers played either stereotypically French
or German music on alternate days. On the days when French music was in the
background, people bought more French versus German wine, and the reverse
happened on German music days. Follow-up questionnaires indicated customers
were not aware of the impact of the music on their choices.48
Temporal framing also makes a difference: Framing something in a message as
coming at the end of a time period (end of summer sale!) shifts our attention to
the right, while framing something as coming at the beginning of a time period
(start of the semester sale!) shifts our attention to the left. This in turn makes us
like products on that side more, makes products that are oriented in that direction
more appealing, etc.49

Nudging
Much of the current work in behavioral economics demonstrates how a nudge—a
deliberate change by an organization that intends to modify behavior—can result
in dramatic effects.50 One popular nudge is to set the “optimal” option as a default,
because most of us typically believe that when defaults exist, we should just stick with
those options. We can apply this default bias—where we are more likely to comply
with a requirement than to make the effort not to comply—to numerous choice situations. For example, people are more likely to save for retirement if their employers
automatically deduct a set amount from their paychecks than if they must set up this
process themselves.
We see another simple “nudge” based upon the default bias in programs that ask
people to “opt out” of a program if they don’t want to participate, rather than asking
them to “opt in.” In Europe, countries that ask drivers to indicate if they want to be an
organ donor convince less than 20 percent of drivers to do so. In contrast, those that
require drivers to opt out if they don’t want to be donors get more than 95 percent
participation!51

Amazon often employs an urgency nudge, or a nudge for consumers to act immediately, to tell interested customers that an offer is a
limited-time deal.
Source: Amazon.

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You can opt out of a reminder by texting back OPT OUT.
24 Hours Before Appointment
PENMED: John, this is a reminder that a flu vaccine has
been reserved for your appt with Dr. Smith.
Please ask your doctor for the shot to make sure you
receive it.

Figure 7.5 Effective Text Messages Using a “Nudge”

OBJECTIVE 7-5
Discuss how
online shopping
and purchasing
platforms can
influence consumer
decision making.

Do Nudges Work?
Priming and nudging tactics are increasingly common. In
the U.K., there is even a government-affiliated organization
called the Behavioural Insights Team—a.k.a. the Ministry of
Nudges!52 And indeed, there is a lot of evidence that nudges
do affect behavior. A recent study compared the effectiveness
of many types of nudges sent as text messages to patients to
encourage flu vaccinations.53 The study identified the most
effective messages: The best text nudges told patients that
a flu vaccine was reserved for them and used language that
people expected to see from their healthcare providers (i.e.,
serious, no jokes). Text nudges are effective! Sending a text
nudge prior to a primary care visit increased vaccination
rates by an average of 5 percent. Figure 7.5 displays the most
effective texting strategy in terms of nudging consumers
toward getting flu shots. This shows us that even simple textbased nudges can make people more likely to get vaccinated!

Online Decision Making

What’s the most common way for us to start our decisionmaking process today? Google it, of course! Although there
are other search engines out there, such as Microsoft’s
Bing, Yahoo!, or even YouTube (which is the world’s
second-largest engine after Google), Google’s version of
the software that examines the web for matches to terms like “home theater system”
or “tattoo removal services” is so dominant—with 96 percent of the world’s mobile
search market—that the name has become a verb. But even a giant like Google can’t
rest on its laurels. Changes in how we search will probably reduce our reliance on
search engines. Increasingly consumers bypass Google as they go directly on their
smartphones or tablets to apps like Yelp to read and write product reviews.54
As anyone who’s ever googled knows, the web delivers enormous amounts of
product and retailer information in seconds. The biggest problem web surfers face
these days is to narrow down their choices, not to beef them up. In cyberspace, simplification is key. Still, the sad reality is that in many cases we simply don’t search as
much as we might. If we google a term, most of us are only likely to look at the first
few results at the top of the list.

Search Engine Optimization
Indeed, that’s one reason why search engine optimization (SEO) is so important
today; this term refers to the tactics companies use to design websites and posts to
maximize the likelihood that their content will show up when someone searches for
a relevant term.
Just as an expert fisherman chooses his spot and carefully selects the right lure
to catch a fish, SEO experts create online content that will attract the attention of
the search algorithms, or mathematical formulas, that companies like Google use to
determine which entries will turn up in a search. The algorithm will hunt for certain
keywords, and it also will consider who uses them. For example, if a lot of influential
people share an entry, the formula will weight it more.

Chapter 7 • Deciding

The Power of Customer Reviews
Can you imagine choosing a restaurant before you check it out online? Increasingly
many of us rely on online reviews to steer us toward and away from specific restaurants, hotels, movies, garments, music, and just about everything else. A survey of
28,000 respondents in 56 countries reported that online user ratings are the secondmost trusted source of brand information (after recommendations from family and
friends).
We usually put a lot of stock in what members of our social networks recommend. Unfortunately, user ratings don’t link strongly to actual product quality that
objective evaluation services like Consumer Reports provide. And there’s evidence
that mobile reviews may be less helpful than desktop reviews, even when the same
reviewer writes both. Comments posted via mobile devices are more emotional and
more negative.55

How Accurate Are Customer Reviews?
As the old saying goes, “If it sounds too good to be true, it probably is.” When we
check out online reviews of a product and they’re all glowing, we tend to be a bit suspicious. It’s more effective for a review to include some negative reviews—especially if
shoppers think they’re irrelevant. Why? We usually assign a lot of weight to negative
information because we expect it to be more diagnostic than sugar-coated comments.
So, when we encounter bad stuff, but we don’t feel it’s very helpful, we still feel that
we have more complete information about the product, and thus we’re comfortable
that we can make a wise choice.56
Researchers also have recently documented what they call the binary bias:
People tend to easily distinguish between positive ratings (e.g., 4s and 5s) and negative ratings (e.g., 1s and 2s), but they are not sensitive to distinctions between more
extreme and less extreme (5 vs. 4 or 1 vs. 2 values).57 As a result, when we see several reviews that are aggregated, we pay more attention to the proportion of positive
to negative reviews, rather than the distribution of different review values. Another
piece of evidence of how easily we can be swayed by the way reviews and ratings
are presented!

The Long Tail
One advantage these reviews provide is that consumers learn about other, less popular options they may like as well, and at the same time products such as movies,
books, and CDs that aren’t “blockbusters” are more likely to sell. At the online
entertainment company Netflix, for example, fellow subscribers recommend about
two-thirds of the films that people order. In fact, between 70 and 80 percent of
Netflix rentals come from the company’s back catalog of 38,000 films rather than
recent releases.58
This aspect of online customer review is one significant factor that’s fueling an
important business model called the long tail.59 The basic idea is that we no longer
need to rely solely on big hits (such as blockbuster movies or best-selling books) to
find profits. Companies can also make money if they sell small amounts of items that
only a few people want—if they sell enough different items. For example, Amazon.
com maintains an inventory of 3.7 million books, compared to the 100,000 or so you’ll
find in a large retail store like Barnes & Noble. Most of these stores will sell only a
few thousand copies (if that), but the 3.6 million books that Barnes & Noble doesn’t
carry make up a quarter of Amazon’s revenues! Other examples of the long tail include
successful microbreweries and TV networks that make money on reruns of old shows
on channels like the Game Show Network.

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Buying, Having, Being
AI: Who’s Calling the Shots?
Whether or not you think we’re
about to be enslaved by robots,
there’s no doubt that AI applications
will revolutionize how consumers
interact with products—and very
soon. Innovative companies are
already experimenting with AI personal shoppers that can help their
customers to decide what to buy:

• Outdoor brand The North Face

•

•

partnered with IBM’s Watson
AI platform to use natural conversation and a dialogue-based
recommendation engine to help
users of the brand’s site pick
out the jacket that best fits their
needs. A customer simply tells
the platform when and where
they’d like to use the jacket, and
then answers additional questions to refine the results.65
KFC China teamed up with the
huge Chinese search engine
Baidu to develop AI-enabled
facial recognition checkout.
It predicts what menu items
customers will order based
upon their age, gender, and
mood. Over time, the AI will
recognize repeat customers and offer them what they
ordered on prior visits. Thus,
a younger male might get a
recommendation for a crispy
chicken hamburger, while the
AI will suggest porridge and
soybean milk to a woman in her
50s (wow, automated gender
stereotyping?).66
West Elm uses an AI application
to generate recommendations
for specific furnishing products
it sells based upon what a
shopper pins to a Pinterest
Board. The company also can
upsell, or encourage customers
to buy additional items, due to
the suggestions.67

Cybermediaries
With the tremendous number of websites and apps available and the huge number
of people who spend big chunks of their day online, how can people organize information and decide where to click? A cybermediary often is the answer. This term
describes a website or app that helps to filter and organize online market information
so that customers can identify and evaluate alternatives more efficiently.
Many consumers regularly link to comparison-shopping sites, such as Bizrate.
com or Pricegrabber.com, for example, that list online retailers that sell a given item
along with the price each charges.60 Directories and portals, such as Yahoo! or The
Knot, are general services that tie together a large variety of different sites. Forums,
fan clubs, and user groups offer product-related discussions to help customers sift
through options. We will revisit these types of social influences in Chapter 12. Intelligent agents are sophisticated software programs that use collaborative filtering
technologies to learn from past user behavior to recommend new purchases.61 When
you let Amazon.com suggest a new book, the site uses an intelligent agent to propose
novels based on what you and others like you have bought in the past.
Our homes are the last frontier for digital selling assistants. Over 100 million
consumers in the U.S. alone now use AI assistants like Amazon’s Alexa or Google’s
Home in their home.62 These devices do a lot more than turn on your lights or play
your favorite music. They also are sales platforms that can interact with consumers
in a natural, humanlike manner and that can connect our requests with our browsing
history to guide our purchases.
Artificial intelligence increasingly powers search engines, digital assistants, and
chatbots. Research shows that conversational robo advisors elicit greater trust than
nonconversational ones, because the conversing allows a more natural interface for
consumers to engage with the robo advisor.63 These conversational robots can be very
influential: Recent research found that we tend to follow financial investment advice
from a conversational robo advisor even if this investment advice is inconsistent with
our actual risk profile or if the fees associated with the investment are large.
Physical robots are all the more influential if their designers give them human
characteristics. A recent review of a large dataset of over 10,000 individuals who interacted with service robots that assist humans with various tasks found that the more
effective ones exhibit such traits as intelligence, likability, safety, and social skills.64
Just like with the people we meet!

Chapter 7 • Deciding

213

CHAPTER SUMMARY
Now that you have finished reading this chapter, you should
be able to:
1. Identify the two primary ways in which consumers make decisions.
Every consumer decision we make is a response to a
problem. Of course, the type and scope of these problems varies enormously. We make some decisions
thoughtfully and rationally as we carefully weigh the
pros and cons of different choices. In other cases, we
let our emotions guide us to one choice over another as
we react to a problem with enthusiasm, joy, or even disgust. Decision-making researchers refer to these distinct
ways of thinking as slow and fast thinking. Perspectives
on decision making range from a focus on habits that
people develop over time to novel situations involving
a great deal of risk in which consumers must carefully
collect and analyze information before making a choice.
Many of our decisions are highly automated; we make
them largely by habit.
2. Outline the steps of the rational (slow) decision
making process.
A typical decision involves several steps. The first is
problem recognition, when we realize we must take
some action. This recognition may occur because a
current possession malfunctions or perhaps because we
have a desire for something new. Once the consumer
recognizes a problem and sees it as sufficiently
important to warrant some action, they begin the process
of information search. This search may range from
performing a simple memory scan, to determining what
they have done before to resolve the same problem, to
extensive fieldwork during which they consult a variety
of sources to amass as much information as possible.
In the evaluation of alternatives stage, the options a
person considers constitute their evoked set. When
the consumer eventually must make a product choice
among alternatives, they use one of several decision
rules. Noncompensatory rules eliminate alternatives
that are deficient on any of the criteria they’ve chosen.
Compensatory rules, which consumers are more likely
to apply in high-involvement situations, allow them to
consider each alternative’s good and bad points more
carefully to arrive at the overall best choice. Once the
consumer makes a choice, they engage in postpurchase

evaluation to determine whether it was a good one; this
assessment, in turn, influences the process the next time
the problem occurs.
3. Summarize the ways in which we engage in fast
thinking and rules of thumb to make decisions.
In many cases, people engage in surprisingly little
research. Instead, they rely on various mental shortcuts,
such as brand names or price, or they may simply imitate
others’ choices. We may use heuristics, or mental rules
of thumb, to simplify decision making. One of the most
common beliefs is that we can determine quality by
looking at the price. Other heuristics rely on well-known
brand names or a product’s country of origin as signals
of product quality. When we consistently purchase a
brand over time, this pattern may be the result of true
brand loyalty or simply inertia because it’s the easiest
thing to do.
4. Describe how context effects can influence the
decision making of a consumer, even when
the consumer is unaware of the influence.
Principles of mental accounting demonstrate that
the way a problem is framed and whether it is put in
terms of gains or losses influences what we decide.
In addition, other cues in the environment—including
subtle ones of which we may not even be aware—may
prime us to choose one option over another. A prime
is a stimulus that encourages people to focus on some
specific aspect of their lives. Much of the current work
in behavioral economics demonstrates how a nudge—a
deliberate change by an organization that intends to
modify behavior—can result in dramatic effects.
5. Discuss how online shopping and purchasing
platforms can influence consumer decision
making.
The internet has changed the way many of us search for
information. Today, our problem is more likely weeding
out excess detail than searching for more information.
Comparative search sites and intelligent agents help
to filter and guide the search process. We may rely on
cybermediaries, such as web portals or AI programs, to
sort through massive amounts of information to simplify
the decision-making process.

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KEY TERMS
Behavioral biases, 205
Behavioral economics, 205
Binary bias, 211
Bounded rationality, 205
Brand loyalty, 204
Choice overload, 201
Compensatory rule, 199
Conjunctive rule, 200
Consideration set, 198
Context effects, 206
Cybermediary, 212
Decision paralysis, 203
Default bias, 209
Determinant attributes, 199
Digital selling assistants, 212
Drunk shopping, 204
Elimination-by-aspects rule, 200
Evaluative criteria, 199
Evoked set, 198
Fast thinking, 194

Feature creep, 201
Filter bubble, 197
Framing, 207
Habitual decision making, 204
Heuristics, 206
Homo economicus, 204
Homo Ludens, 204
Hyperchoice, 201
Inertia, 204
Information search, 196
Intelligent agents, 212
Lexicographic rule, 200
Long tail, 211
Loss aversion, 207
Maximizing solution, 205
Mental accounting, 205
Mental budget, 194
Noncompensatory rule, 200
Nonstandard beliefs, 205
Nudge, 209

Opportunity costs, 198
Paradox of choice, 202
Postpurchase evaluation, 202
Priming, 208
Problem recognition, 195
Prospect theory, 207
Rational perspective, 195
Satisficing solution, 205
Search engine optimization
(SEO), 210
Search engines, 210
Slow thinking, 194
Simple additive rule, 200
Social scoring, 202
Standard economic model, 205
Sunk-cost fallacy, 207
Temporal framing, 209
Upsell, 212
Urgency nudge, 209
Weighted additive rule, 200

REVIEW
7-1 Why can “mindless” decision making actually be more
efficient than devoting a lot of thought to what we buy?
7-2 List the steps in the model of cognitive decision making.
7-3 Name two ways in which a consumer problem arises.
7-4 Give an example of the sunk-cost fallacy.
7-5 What is prospect theory? Does it support the argument that we are rational decision makers?
7-6 “Marketers need to be extra sure their product works as
promised when they first introduce it.” How does this
statement relate to what we know about consumers’
evoked sets?

7-8 List three product attributes that consumers use as
product quality heuristics and provide an example of
each.
7-9 How does a brand name work as a heuristic?
7-10 Describe the difference between inertia and brand
loyalty.
7-11 What is the difference between a noncompensatory
and a compensatory decision rule? Give one example
of each.
7-12 What is a prime? How does it differ from a nudge?

CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CHALLENGE
DISCUSS

7-13 Excessive food consumption may link to emotional
issues, such as feelings of inferiority or low selfesteem. In some situations, people consume
products (especially food) as a reaction to prior life
experiences, such as loss of a loved one or perhaps
abuse as a child. A British man whom the U.K.
news media once dubbed “the world’s fattest man”
when he weighed in at 980 pounds is a case in point.

He explained that as an adult his insatiable desire
to constantly eat stemmed from an abusive father
and sexual abuse by a relative: “I still had all these
things going around in my head from my childhood.
Food replaced the love I didn’t get from my parents.”
(The good news: After a gastric bypass operation
this man has lost almost two-thirds of his body
weight).68 Obviously this is an extreme case, and it

Chapter 7 • Deciding

certainly doesn’t mean that everyone who struggles
with their weight is a victim of abuse! Nonetheless,
emotion often plays a role—a dieter may feel elated
when he weighs in at three pounds less than last
week; however, if he fails to make progress, he may
become discouraged and actually sabotage himself
with a Krispy Kreme binge.69 Is it ethical for food
companies to exploit these issues by linking their
products to enhanced moods?
7-14 The chapter discusses ways that organizations can
use “nudges” to change consumer behavior. Critics
refer to them as benevolent paternalism because they
argue they force people to “eat their vegetables”
by restricting the freedom to choose. For example,
several cities, including New York and Philadelphia,
have tried (unsuccessfully thus far) to ban the sales
of extra-large portions of sugary drinks. What’s your
take on these efforts—should local, state, or federal
governments be in the business of nudging citizens
to be healthier?
7-15 Technology has the potential to make our lives easier
as it reduces the amount of clutter we need to work
through to access the information on the internet
that really interests us. However, perhaps intelligent
agents that make recommendations based only on
what we and others like us have chosen in the past
limit us, in that they reduce the chance that we will
stumble on something through serendipity (e.g.,
a book on a topic we’ve never heard of or a music
group that’s different from the style we usually listen
to). Will the proliferation of “shopping bots” make
our lives too predictable by giving us only more of
the same? If so, is this a problem?
7-16 It’s increasingly clear that many postings on blogs
and product reviews on websites are fake or are
posted there to manipulate consumers’ opinions.
How big a problem is this if consumers increasingly

215

look to consumer-generated product reviews during
the stage of information search? What steps, if any,
can marketers take to nip this problem in the bud?
7-17 For the same reasons that anthropomorphized digital
assistants are influential, they are also worrisome.
Recent research reveals that consumers are increasingly concerned artificial intelligence assistants are
invading their privacy and threatening their human
identity. Some even put Alexa back in her box so
she can’t hear background conversations.70 Even
if you’re not ready to give up on Alexa or Google
Home, what steps (if any) do you think you should
take to protect your data privacy?71
7-18 Research supports the argument that the way we pay
for a product changes the way we perceive it. More
specifically, credit cards prime people to focus less on
the costs of the item and more on the benefits. Using
plastic decouples the expense of the purchase, so we
tend to buy more when we can charge it.72 Newer
innovations like digital wallets take this a step further
so payment—at least at the time of purchase—is even
less painful. Are these formats going to create problems if they prime us to think more about short-term
gratification and less about the long-term hit to our
budgets? Do marketers have an obligation to try to
prevent these problems?
7-19 Country of origin can discourage sales in some situations, and in some cases, this is due to deeply held
moral views that lead people to “cancel” a company.
For example, some Jews refuse to buy cars made by
Mercedes-Benz and other German automakers due to
their use of slave labor to make vehicles during World
War II.73 Should a company bear responsibility for
decisions its predecessors made?
7-20 If people are not always rational decision makers, is
it worth the effort to study how they make purchasing
decisions?

APPLY

7-21 Find examples of electronic recommendation agents
on the web. Evaluate these. Are they helpful? What
characteristics of the sites you locate are likely to
make you buy products you wouldn’t have bought
on your own?
7-22 Sometimes a company invents a determinant attribute:
Pepsi-Cola accomplished this when it stamped
freshness dates on soda cans. It spent about $25 million
on an advertising and promotional campaign to
convince consumers that there’s nothing quite as

horrible as a stale can of soda—even though people in
the industry estimate that drinkers consume 98 percent
of all cans well before this could be a problem. Six
months after it introduced the campaign, lo and
behold, an independent survey found that 61 percent of
respondents felt that freshness dating is an important
attribute for a soft drink!74 Devise a similar strategy
for another product category by coming up with a
completely new product attribute. How would you
communicate this attribute to your customers?

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7-23 Choose someone you know who grocery shops on
a regular basis and keep a log of their purchases of
common consumer products during the term. Can
you detect any evidence of brand loyalty in any
categories based on consistency of purchases? If
so, talk to the person about these purchases. Try to
determine if their choices are based on true brand
loyalty or on inertia. What techniques might you use
to differentiate between the two?
7-24 Hershey’s stresses the determinant attribute of
product authenticity when the chocolate company
states: “Hershey, PA is where it all started more
than 100 years ago, and it’s still where the famous
Hershey’s Kisses are made.”75 Find examples of
other companies that appeal to their heritage. How
effective are these messages?
7-25 Form a group of three. Pick a product and develop a
marketing plan based on either slow or fast decision
making. What are the major differences in emphasis
between the two perspectives? Which is the most
likely type of decision-making process for the
product you selected?
7-26 Identify a person who is about to make a major
purchase. Ask that person to make a chronological
list of all the information sources they consult before
deciding what to buy. How would you characterize
the types of sources they use (i.e., internal versus
external, media versus personal, and so on)? Which
sources appeared to have the most impact on the
person’s decision?
7-27 Perform a survey of country-of-origin stereotypes.
Compile a list of five countries and ask people what
products they associate with each. What are their
evaluations of the products and likely attributes of
these different products? The power of a country
stereotype can also be demonstrated in another way.
Prepare a brief description of a product, including
a list of features, and ask people to rate it in terms
of quality, likelihood of purchase, and so on. Make
several versions of the description, varying only the
country from which it comes. Do ratings change as a
function of the country of origin?
7-28 Ask a friend to “talk through” the process they
used to choose one brand rather than others during
a recent purchase. Based on this description, can
you identify the decision rule that they most likely
employed?
7-29 Think of a product you recently shopped for online.
Describe your search process. How did you become
aware that you wanted or needed the product? How

did you evaluate alternatives? Did you wind up buying online? Why or why not? What factors would
make it more or less likely that you would buy something online versus in a traditional store?
7-30 Can you replicate Chan’s decision-making process as
he chose a TV brand for other consumers or other
products? Create a grid for a different product category
that lists available brands and the features each offers.
(Hint: Product websites for computers, cars, and other
complex products often generate these grids when
they allow you to choose the “compare products”
option.) Present this grid to several respondents and
ask each to talk aloud as they evaluate their options.
Based on their description, can you identify which
decision rule they seem to use?
7-31 Extraneous characteristics of the choice situation can
influence our selections, even though they wouldn’t
if we were totally rational decision makers. Create
two versions of this scenario (alternate the text you
see in parentheses as directed), and ask a separate
group of people to respond to each:
You are lying on the beach on a hot day. All you
have to drink is ice water. For the past hour you have
been thinking about how much you would enjoy a
nice cold bottle of your favorite brand of beer. A companion gets up to go make a phone call and offers to
bring back a beer from the only nearby place where
beer is sold (either a fancy resort hotel or a small,
run-down grocery store, depending on the version
you’re given). He says that the beer might be expensive and so asks how much you are willing to pay for
it. What price do you tell him?
When researchers gave both versions of this
question to respondents, they found that the median
price participants who read the fancy-resort version
gave was $2.65, but those who got the grocery-store
version were only willing to pay $1.50. In both versions, the consumption act is the same, the beer is
the same, and they don’t consume any “atmosphere”
because they drink the beer on the beach.76 How do
these results compare to yours?
7-32 Several products made in China (including toothpaste and toys) have been recalled because they
are dangerous or even fatal to use. Some American
consumers have stopped buying them as a result.
Essentially these consumers use country of origin
as a heuristic to avoid Chinese products. If the
Chinese government hired you as a consultant to
help it repair some of the damage to the reputation
of products made there, what actions would you
recommend?

Chapter 7 • Deciding

217

DIGGING IN WITH DATA

See “Data Case 2: Evolving Trends in Fitness and French Fries” in Appendix A for an opportunity to work with real
consumer data and apply this chapter’s concepts to real world problems.

CASE STUDY

P&G and the Moments of Truth – Just How Many
Moments Are There?

As you are learning in this course, a consumer’s journey to a
buying decision has several steps, and there are many factors
that influence the choices made at each point in the process.
P&G, the world’s third-largest consumer-packaged-goods
company, has explained this as the moments of truth.77 The
company started with two, added another, and other marketing
experts now believe there are many more moments that
marketers must consider when interacting with consumers.
The concept of the moment of truth began in the 1980s
with Jan Carlzon, president of Scandinavian Airlines, who
said, “Any time a customer comes into contact with a business,
however remote, they have an opportunity to form an impression.” He believed that if a company managed that interaction
to a positive outcome the company would be successful.
In 2005, former P&G CEO A.G. Lafley refocused the
concept from customer service to sales and broke the process
down into two big steps: the first moment (FMOT) when the
customer is looking at the product in the store, comparing it
to alternatives on the shelf, and the second moment (SMOT)
that occurs when the customer is using the product at home.78
Later, ex-P&G brand manager Pete Blackshaw suggested a
third important moment (TMOT) when customers provide
feedback about their purchase to the company and to friends
and family.79
Remember the Star Wars “prequels”? Well, in 2011
Google introduced a prequel of sorts to this moment of
truth concept with its Zero Moment Of Truth (ZMOT). This
moment is focused on the internet research that consumers
do before they buy, which is standard practice today for products of all kinds. ZMOT was born from a Google study that
found that 50 percent of shoppers used a search engine for
product or brand research. They also learned that for some
purchases, consumers were spending more time at the ZMOT
stage than FMOT.80 Convinced, P&G updated its process to
include ZMOT, FMOT, and SMOT.
FMOT, SMOT, TMOT, ZMOT—are you keeping up?
But wait—in 2014, marketing firm eventricity Ltd. added
<ZMOT, or less than zero moment of truth. This is something that happens in the consumer’s life—a stimulus—that
motivates them to begin doing research, leading to the zero
moment.81

A final moment is what one expert calls the Actual
Moment Of Truth (AMOT), or the period between when a customer buys a product online and when it’s received. Developed by Amit Sharma, formerly of both Walmart and Apple,
this moment is designed to prevent companies from dropping
the ball after an order is placed, keeping customers informed
about the status of their order and making suggestions about
their future use of the product.82
How does this alphabet soup of terminology drive
marketing strategy? For P&G, it became a rallying cry for the
CEO to focus the work of his marketing team on key points in
the consumer journey when the company could win consumers’
business. P&G even established a Director of FMOT to lead
the production of flashier, sharper in-store displays.83 It also
helped drive marketing investment decisions. P&G is the largest
advertiser in the world with a budget of over $11.5 billion in
2021.84 A significant amount of that spend has been focused on
digital advertising, the battleground for ZMOT.
The framework also helps P&G and all marketers understand that the path from stimulus to purchase to brand loyalty is
a journey with many important signposts along the way. Google
now coaches marketers to consider “micro-moments,” those
snippets of time when we turn to our mobile devices. Google
calls them the “I want-to-know moments, I want-to-go moments,
I want-to-do moments, and I want-to-buy moments,” when consumers make quick decisions and when preferences are shaped.85
Researchers Laurent Muzellece and Eamonn
O’Raghallaigh may have the final word with UMOT, or the
ubiquitous moment of truth, suggesting that all of the MOTs
in the journey are important and with mobile technology are
merging into one synchronous moment.86 In today’s “always
on” world, marketers need a strategy for continually reaching
out to consumers with clear and compelling messages that meet
their information needs at each point in the buying process.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

CS 7-1 Focus upon each of the “moments of truth” in turn.
What specific strategies could P&G employ in each
situation to increase the probability of a sale and
repeat business?

218

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• Buying and Having: Choosing and Using Products

CS 7-2 For a consumer purchasing a new car, which would be
the first, second, and third most important moments
in the process? Explain your prioritization.

CS 7-3 Do frameworks like the MOTs help marketers, or
is this just “consultant-speak?” If you believe the
approach helps, explain how.

NOTES
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(2020): 712–32.

Chapter 7 • Deciding

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Tsukayama, Christophe Van den Bulte, Kevin G. Volpp, and Angela L. Duckworth, “A Megastudy of Text-Based Nudges Encouraging Patients to Get Vaccinated at an Upcoming Doctor’s Appointment,” Proceedings of the National
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• Buying and Having: Choosing and Using Products

81. Shep Hyken, “The New Moment of Truth in Business,” Forbes, April 9,
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82. ibid.
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86. Laurent Muzellec and Eamonn O’Raghallaigh, “Mobile Technology and Its
Impact on the Consumer Decision-Making Journey: How Brands Can Capture the Mobile-Driven ‘Ubiquitous’ Moment of Truth,” Journal of Advertising
Research 58, no. 1 (2018): 12–15.

8

Buying, Using,
and Disposing
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES When you finish reading this chapter, you should be able to:
8-1 Explain the factors that influence consumers’
shopping experience during each phase of the
purchasing process.

8-4 Explain how the climate change crisis requires
us to think differently about buying, using, and
disposing to limit our environmental footprint.

8-2 Describe how the virtualization of shopping
increases our reliance on digital assets.

8-5 Identify the maladaptive consumer behaviors that
can occur in the purchasing and using phases.

8-3 Summarize how the growth of a “sharing
economy” changes the way consumers think
about using and owning.

M

ateo is really psyched. The big day has arrived: He’s going
to buy a car! Although used car prices spiked after Covid,
Mateo figures there’s no guarantee they will come down to
earth anytime soon, so it’s time to get in the game. He’s had his eye on
that silver 2015 Honda Accord parked in the lot of Jon’s Auto-Rama
for weeks now. Although the sticker says $2,999, Mateo figures he can
probably get this baby for a cool $2,000. Besides, Jon’s dilapidated
showroom and seedy lot make it look like just the kind of place that’s
hungry to move some cars. Mateo did his homework on the web. First,
he found out the wholesale value of similar used Accords from the Kelley
Blue Book (kbb.com), and then he scouted out some cars for sale in his
area at cars.com. So, Mateo figures he’s coming in loaded for bear—
he’s going to show these guys they’re not dealing with some newbie.
Unlike some of the newer, flashy car showrooms he’s been in lately, this place is a real
nuts-and-bolts operation; it’s so dingy and depressing he can’t wait to get out of there
and take a shower. Mateo dreads the prospect of haggling over the price, but he hopes
to convince the salesperson to take his offer because he knows the real market value of
the car he wants. At the Auto-Rama lot, big signs on all the cars proclaim that today is
Jon’s Auto-Rama Rip Us Off Day! Things look better than Mateo expected—maybe he
can get the car for even less than he hoped. He’s a bit surprised when a salesperson
comes over to him and introduces herself as Kristen. He expected to deal with a middleaged man in a loud sport coat (a stereotype he has about used-car salespeople), but
this is better luck: He reasons that he won’t have to be so tough if he negotiates with a
woman his age. Kristen laughs when he offers her $1,800 for the Honda; she points out
that she can’t take such a low bid for such a sweet car to her boss, or she’ll lose her job.

Source: Mandy Godbehear/Shutterstock.

221

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Section 3 • Buying and Having: Choosing and Using Products

Kristen’s enthusiasm for the car convinces Mateo even more that he has to
have it. When he finally writes a check for $2,700, he’s exhausted from all the
haggling. What an ordeal! In any case, Mateo reminds himself that he at least
convinced Kristen to sell him the car for less than the sticker price, and maybe
he can fix it up and sell it for even more in a year or two. Mateo relishes that
thought—his real dream is to take advantage of the tax credit for buying an
electric car like a Nissan Leaf and eventually leave the world of gas-guzzlers
behind for good.

OBJECTIVE 8- 1
Explain the factors
that influence consumers’ shopping
experience during
each phase of the
purchasing process.

The Shopping Experience

Many consumers dread the act of buying a car.
But change is in the wind, as dealers transform
the car showroom. Car shoppers like Mateo log on
to internet buying services, call auto brokers who
negotiate for them, buy cars at warehouse clubs,
and visit giant auto malls where they can easily comparison shop. Indeed,
the average car buyer today visits only 1.6 auto dealerships, as compared
with five just a decade ago. Instead, they spend about 60 percent of their
shopping time online as they research their options.1 In fact, 30 percent
of car purchases in the U.S. now occur entirely online—compared with a
paltry 2 percent before the pandemic.2 Mateo’s experience when he bought
Technological and cultural changes (including
a car illustrates some of the concepts we’ll discuss in this chapter. He did a lot
the pandemic) provide new ways to obtain
of legwork beforehand, and elements of the physical environment where he
familiar products and services, as this auto
bought his Honda influenced his decision. As Mateo’s experience reminds us,
“vending machine” illustrates.
Source: Michael Ventura/Alamy Stock Photo.
making a purchase is often not a simple, routine matter where you just pop into
a store and make a quick choice. Figure 8.1 illustrates the main factors that affect our
shopping experience before, during, and after the purchase occurs.

Shop ’Til You Drop?
We all know some people who shop simply for the sport of it and others whom we must
drag kicking and screaming to a mall. Shopping is how we acquire needed products
and services, but social motives for shopping also are important. Thus, shopping is an
activity that we can perform for either utilitarian (functional or tangible) or hedonic
(pleasurable or intangible) reasons—or both.

PRE-PURCHASE:

PURCHASE:

POST-PURCHASE:

Utilitarian vs. hedonic
shopping orientation

Store atmospherics

Expectancy
disconfirmation

Point of Purchase Stimuli
Salespeople

Dissonance

Figure 8.1 Factors Affecting the Pre-Purchase, Purchase, and
Post-Purchase Experience

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So, do people hate to shop or love it? Consumers vary in terms of their shopping
orientation, or general attitudes about shopping. These orientations vary depending
on the product categories and store types we consider. One consumer might hate to
shop for a car but love to browse in used vinyl record stores. A shopper’s motivation
influences the type of shopping environment that will be attractive or annoying; for
example, a person who wants to locate and buy something quickly may find loud
music, bright colors, or complex layouts distracting, whereas someone who is there
to browse may enjoy the sensory stimulation.3
A key distinction in shopping motivations is shopping for purpose, which is the
utilitarian function of shopping, versus shopping for fun, which is the hedonic function. One item on a scale that measures hedonic value is the following sentiment:
“During the trip, I felt the excitement of the hunt.” When we compare that type of
sentiment with a functional statement, such as “I accomplished just what I wanted to
on this shopping trip,” there’s a clear contrast between these two dimensions.4
Hedonic shopping motives (sometimes jokingly called “retail therapy”) include
the following:5

•
•
•
•
•
•

Gratification seeking: Shopping for stress relief, to alleviate a negative mood, or as a special treat to oneself.
Idea shopping: The desire to keep up with trends and
new fashions, to see new products and innovations.
Adventure seeking: Seeking stimulation, excitement,
adventure, or the “feeling of being in another world” that
can be triggered by sights, smells, and sounds.
Social shopping: The enjoyment of shopping with
friends and families, socializing and bonding with others
while shopping.
Role play: The pleasure derived from imagining how
friends and relatives will accept a gift.
Value shopping: The thrill of purchasing items on sale
and hunting for bargains and discounts. Buying an item
for a lower price than it costs regularly leads to an increase
in customer satisfaction and happiness.

Brick-and-mortar retailers today have to provide “value-added” to a
physical shopping trip in the form of entertainment or other experiences to compete with the convenience of just ordering stuff online.
Old school shopping environments that don’t provide any stimulation
may find themselves abandoned by bored shoppers.
Source: sirtravelalot/Shutterstock.

Let’s face it: Today most of us never have to visit a “brickand-mortar” store to buy almost anything we want. Instead, we have many paths available
to us—especially if we like to hibernate in our pajamas at home. Some paths offer great
convenience or even significant savings; others stimulate, educate, or even titillate. A
consumer can order a pair of Vince Camuto ankle strap sandals online and wait for the
friendly UPS driver to pull up to their door two days later. Or they can visit a brick-andmortar store where a friendly salesperson will fawn over them. The consumer may even
take a selfie wearing the shoes, send it out to their “peeps,” and get their reactions in real
time before committing to the purchase. In all these scenarios, the shoes get added to the
collection in the consumer’s closet, but the experience of acquiring them is quite different.
A consumer’s physical and social environment affects their shopping experience
and whether and how they might select a particular product. Important cues include
their immediate environment as well as the amount and type of other consumers who
also are shopping at the same time. Dimensions of the physical environment, such
as decor, odors, and even temperature, can significantly influence consumption. One
study even found that if a Las Vegas casino pumped certain odors into the room,
patrons fed more money into the slot machines!6 In this section, we take a closer look
at some of these factors to show how important store design is to consumer behavior.

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Figure 8.2 Design Thinking

Source: Samattana Sawangrak/MAQE Bangkok Co., Ltd. Design Thinking.

As fierce as the competition is among brands for your undying devotion, it’s perhaps
even more heated among retailers that want to lure you to their store or website to
make the transaction. This is one reason that a management perspective called design
thinking is so hot right now. This process (see Figure 8.2) identifies a series of steps
the designer should take to make interacting with a product service, or store as seamless
as possible—beginning with empathy for the customer’s experience. It emphasizes the
importance of creating products, services, and stores that aren’t just pretty. Instead, they
make sense in terms of how customers live their lives and use what they buy.
One offshoot of the design-thinking revolution is the recognition that managers
need to step out of their little boxes and cross over to the consumer’s perspective to
understand their products—and to identify any “pain points” during the shopping
process. For this reason, many marketers are taking a close look at the customer
journey, or the specific series of steps that occur during before, during, and even after
the shopping experience.7
A customer journey methodology encourages brands to map out in excruciating detail all the steps a customer takes while they interact with the company—no
matter where and no matter how trivial. It’s a powerful way to improve the experience. The journey spans a variety of touchpoints by which the customer moves from
awareness to engagement and purchase. Successful brands focus on developing a
seamless experience that ensures each touchpoint interconnects and contributes to
the overall journey.
The consumer journey concept was influenced by the Japanese approach to total
quality management (TQM). To help companies achieve more insight, researchers
go to the gemba, which to the Japanese means “the one true source of information.”8
According to this philosophy, it’s essential to send marketers and designers to the
precise place where consumers use the product or service rather than to ask laboratory
subjects to use the product or service in a simulated environment. (see Figure 8.3)

Retailing As Theater
Disney is revamping its stores to re-imagine the “magic” of the customer experience.
It’s not just about 50 varieties of mouse ears; they carry curated collections by Coach,
David Lerner, and Ethan Allen furniture. The stores now offer interactive experiences
as well, so shoppers can battle Darth Vader on a big screen and even purchase cotton

Chapter 8 • Buying, Using, and Disposing

The Gemba –

Leave dirty tray
on table.

Put bags
down.

Trash

7
Ooops... Not supposed
to use the trash can.

6

Cashier
Beverages

Need
Silverware!

5

1

4

Enter

225

Can’t see bags!
Go get them.

Food

3
2

Trays

Silver

Figure 8.3 Going to the Gemba
Source: © Quality Function Deployment Institute.

Host Foods, which operates food concessions in major airports, sent a team to the
gemba—in this case, an airport cafeteria—to identify problem areas. Employees watched
as customers entered the facility, and then they followed the customers as
they inspected the menu, procured silverware, paid, and found a table. For
example, the team identified a common problem that many people traveling
solo experience: the need to put down your luggage to enter the food line
and the feeling of panic you get because you’re not able to keep an eye on
your valuables when you get your meal. This simple insight allowed Host to
modify the design of its facilities to improve a patron’s line-of-sight between
the food area and the tables.9

candy and the iconic mouse ears from carts that are the same as those
they’ll see in Disneyland and Disney World. They can watch live
streams from the actual theme parks and celebrate birthdays and other
events while they shop.10
Disney knows it’s all about theater. The competition for customers
becomes even more intense as nonstore alternatives, from websites and
print catalogs to TV shopping networks and home shopping parties,
continue to multiply. With all these shopping alternatives available,
how can a traditional store compete? Many malls are giant entertainment centers, almost to the point that their traditional retail occupants
seem like an afterthought. Today, it’s commonplace to find carousels,
miniature golf, skating rinks, or batting cages in a suburban mall.
The quest to entertain means that many stores go all out to create
imaginative environments that transport shoppers to fantasy worlds
or provide other kinds of stimulation. We call this strategy retail
theming. Innovative merchants today use four basic kinds of theming
techniques:
1. Landscape themes rely on associations with images of nature,
Earth, animals, and the physical body. Bass Pro Shops, for example, creates a simulated outdoor environment, including pools
stocked with fish.

Hershey runs a make-believe factory smack in the
middle of Times Square. It features four steam
machines and 380 feet of neon lighting, plus a moving
message board that lets visiting chocoholics program
messages to surprise their loved ones.11
Source: Gordon Bell/Shutterstock.

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Buying, Having, Being
Welcome to Your Being
Space
One popular theming strategy is to
convert a store into a being space.
This kind of environment resembles
a sort of commercial living room,
where we can go to relax, be
entertained, hang out with friends,
escape the everyday, or even learn.
When you think of being spaces,
Starbucks probably comes to mind.
The coffee chain’s stated goal is to
become our “third place” where we
spend the bulk of our time, in addition to home and work. Starbucks
led the way when it outfitted its
stores with comfy chairs and Wi-Fi.
Reflecting the ever-quickening
pace of our culture, many of
these being spaces come and
go rapidly—on purpose. Pop-up
stores appear in many forms
around the world. Typically, these
are temporary installations that do
business for only a few days or
weeks and then disappear before
they get old. For example, the
Swatch Instant Store sells limitededition watches in a major city
until the masses discover it; then
it closes and moves on to another
“cool” locale. The Dutch beer brand
Dommelsch organized pop-up
concerts: Fans entered barcodes
they found on cans, beer bottles,
and coasters on the brewer’s
website to discover dates and
locations. You may even run into
a pop-up store on your campus;
several brands, including the Brazilian
flip-flop maker Havaianas, Victoria’s
Secret’s Pink, and sustainableclothing brand RVL7, run pop-up
projects around the United States.13

2. Marketscape themes build on associations with manufactured places. An example
is The Venetian hotel in Las Vegas, which lavishly recreates parts of the real
Italian city.
3. Cyberspace themes build on images of information and communications
technology. eBay’s retail interface instills a sense of community among its
vendors and traders.
4. Mindscape themes draw on abstract ideas and concepts, introspection, and fantasy,
and often possess spiritual overtones. The Kiva Day Spa in downtown Chicago
offers health treatments based on a theme of American Indian healing ceremonies
and religious practices.12
These design features typically work together to create an overall impression.
When we think about stores, we don’t usually say, “Well, that place is fairly good in
terms of convenience, the salespeople are acceptable, and services are good.” We’re
more likely to proclaim, “That place gives me the creeps,” or “It’s so much fun to shop
there.” We quickly get an overall impression of a store, and the feeling we get may
have more to do with intangibles, such as interior design and the types of people we
find in the aisles, than with the store’s return policies or credit availability.

Store Atmospherics
Retailers want you to come in—and stay. Careful store design increases the amount
of space the shopper covers, and stimulating displays keep them in the aisles longer.
This “curb appeal” translates directly to the bottom line: Researchers tracked grocery
shopper’s movements by plotting the position of their cell phones as they moved
about a store. They found that when people lingered just 1 percent longer, sales rose
by 1.3 percent.
Of course, grocers know a lot of tricks after years of observing shoppers. For
example, they call the area just inside a supermarket’s entrance the “decompression
zone”: People tend to slow down and take stock of their surroundings when they enter
the store, so store designers use this space to promote bargains rather than to sell.
Similarly, Walmart’s “greeters” help customers to settle into their shopping experience. Once they get a serious start, the first thing shoppers encounter is the produce
section. Fruits and vegetables can easily be damaged, so it would be more logical
to buy these items at the end of a shopping trip. But fresh, wholesome food makes
people feel good (and righteous) so they’re less guilty when they throw the chips and
cookies in the cart later.14
Context effects (what’s going on in the person’s physical environment) can
strongly influence our perceptions—even if we’re not necessarily aware of these factors. In one study, researchers asked shoppers how much pleasure they felt five minutes after they entered a store. Sure enough, those who enjoyed their experience spent
more time and money.15
Because marketers recognize that a store’s physical design is an important part
of the retailing mix, store designers pay a lot of attention to atmospherics, the
“conscious designing of space and its various dimensions to evoke certain effects
in buyers.”16 These dimensions include colors, scents, and sounds. For example,
stores with red interiors tend to make people tense, whereas a blue decor imparts a
calmer feeling.17
In addition to visual stimuli, all sorts of sensory cues influence us in retail
settings.18 For example, patrons of country-and-western bars drink more when the
jukebox music is slower. According to a researcher, “Hard drinkers prefer listening
to slower-paced, wailing, lonesome, self-pitying music.”19 Another study found that

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diners who listened to loud, fast music ate more food. In
contrast, those who listened to Mozart or Brahms ate less
and more slowly. The researchers concluded that diners who
choose soothing music at mealtimes can increase weight loss
by at least five pounds a month!20

In-Store Decision Making
Despite all their efforts to “pre-sell” consumers through
advertising, marketers increasingly recognize that the store
environment exerts a strong influence on many purchases.
When a shopper suddenly decides to buy something in
the store, one of two different processes explains why:
1. They engage in unplanned buying when they are
unfamiliar with a store’s layout or they are under time
pressure. Or, if a person sees an item on a store shelf, this
might be a reminder that they need it. About one-third of
all unplanned buying occurs because a shopper recognizes
a new need while in the store.21
2. They engage in impulse buying when they experience a
sudden, irresistible urge.

Bass Pro Shops use a landscape theme to connect shoppers with
nature.
Source: Stuart Abraham/Alamy Stock Photo.

Retailers typically place so-called impulse items, such
as candy and gum, near the checkout to cater to these urges.
Similarly, many supermarkets install wider aisles to encourage browsing, and the widest tend to feature products with
the highest profit margins. They stack low mark-up items that
shoppers purchase regularly in narrower aisles to allow shopping carts to speed through. Starbucks encourages impulse
purchasing when it charges customers who want to download
songs they hear over the store’s speakers directly onto their
iPhones.23 Each week the Dollar Tree chain designates an
To boost the entertainment value of shopping (and to lure online
impulse item like a pen or candy bar as “drive items” that
shoppers back to brick-and-mortar stores), some retailers create
cashiers push at checkout. As the company’s CEO explained,
activity stores that let consumers participate in the production
“It’s just that one last chance to get another item in their
of the products or services they buy there. The Build-A-Bear
shopping bag.”24
Workshop chain, lets its little customers dress bear bodies in
costumes.22
This in-store influence is even stronger when we shop
Source: Patrick Hatt/Shutterstock.
for food: Analysts estimate that shoppers decide on about two
out of every three supermarket purchases while they walk
through the aisles.25 Research evidence indicates that consumers use mental budgets
for grocery trips that are typically composed of both an itemized portion and in-store
slack. This means they typically decide beforehand on an amount they plan to spend,
but then they have an additional amount in mind (slack) they are willing to spend on
unplanned purchases—if they come across any they really want to have.26 Here are
some “tricks of the trade”:

•
•

Sell sweets at eye level, midway along aisles, where shoppers’ attention lingers
longest.
Use the ends of aisles to generate big revenues—endcap displays account for
45 percent of soft drink sales.

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The placement of items in a grocery store aisle can impact sales dramatically.
Source: Patti McConville/Alamy Stock Photo.

Buying, Having, Being
How Big is Your Basket?
Almost one in three U.S. households
shops on a budget. How do they
track their in-store spending to
stay within those budgets? A study
of budget shoppers in grocery
stores found that a majority
(57.4 percent) of these shoppers
use mental computation
strategies to keep track of their
spending.27 Yet people use different
strategies to mentally calculate their
basket size. For example, some
round down (or up) for each item
(making them easier to add), while
others try to combine “compatible
prices” (adding together a $1.42
item with a $3.58 item to make $5).
The authors found that the prices of
items in the store can affect which
strategy shoppers use, as can the
motivations of the shopper. The
more budget-motivated shoppers
attempt to add items together as
precisely as possible, without using
any shortcuts. They end up with a
far less accurate estimate of their
basket size than those who are less
motivated (and thus use effective
shortcuts).

•
•
•
•

Use freestanding displays toward the rear of the supermarket and on the left side
of aisles. Shoppers tend to move through a store in a counterclockwise direction
and they are more likely to choose items from shelves to their left.
Sprinkle the same product throughout the store, rather than grouping it in one spot
to boost sales through repetitive exposure.
Group ingredients for a meal in one spot.
Post health-related information on kiosks and shelf tags to link groceries to good
health in shoppers’ minds, even though only 23 percent of them say they always
look for nutritional information on labels.28

POP Goes the Retailer: Point-of-Purchase Stimuli
Well-designed in-store displays boost impulse purchases by as much as 10 percent.
That explains why U.S. companies spend about $19 billion each year on point-ofpurchase (POP) stimuli.29 A POP can be an elaborate product display or demonstration, a coupon-dispensing machine, or an employee who gives out free samples of a
new cookie in the grocery aisle.
The importance of POP in shopper decision making explains why product packages increasingly play a key role in the marketing mix as they evolve from the functional to the fantastic:

•
•
•

In the past 100 years, Pepsi changed the look of its can, and before that its bottles,
only 10 times. Now the company switches designs every few weeks. It’s also testing cans that spray an aroma when you open one to match the flavor of the drink,
such as a wild cherry scent misting from a Wild Cherry Pepsi can.
Coors Light bottles sport labels that turn blue when the beer is chilled to the right
temperature.
Huggies’ Henry the Hippo hand soap bottles have a light that flashes for 20 seconds to show children how long they should wash their hands.

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229

The Salesperson: A Lead Role in the Play
The salesperson is one of the most important players in the retailing
drama.30 As we saw way back in Chapter 1, exchange theory stresses
that every interaction involves a trade of value. Each participant
gives something to the other and hopes to receive something in
return.31 A (competent) salesperson offers a lot of value because
their expert advice makes the shopper’s choice easier.
A buyer–seller situation is like many other dyadic encounters
(two-person groups); it’s a relationship in which both parties must
reach some agreement about the roles of each participant during a
process of identity negotiation.32 Some of the factors that help to
define a salesperson’s role (and effectiveness) are their age, appearance, educational level, and motivation to sell.33
More effective salespersons usually know their customers’ traits
and preferences better than do ineffective salespersons, and they
adapt their approach to meet the needs of each specific customer.34
The ability to be adaptable is especially vital when customers and
salespeople have different interaction styles.35 We each vary in the
degree of assertiveness we bring to interactions. At one extreme,
nonassertive people believe it’s not socially acceptable to complain,
and sales situations may intimidate them. Assertive people are more
likely to stand up for themselves in a firm but nonthreatening way.
Aggressives may resort to rudeness and threats if they don’t get their
way (we’ve all run into these folks).36

Impulse buys often are triggered by environmental cues.
Source: impulse-buyer-cartoon, Chris Madden Cartoons.

Are You Satisfied?
Our overall reactions to a product after we’ve bought it—what researchers call
consumer satisfaction/dissatisfaction (CSD)—obviously play a big role in our
future behavior. It’s a lot easier to sell something once than to sell it again if it bombed
the first time. We evaluate the things we buy as we use them and integrate them into
our daily consumption activities.40
What exactly do consumers look for in products? That’s easy: They want quality
and value!41 However, these terms have slippery meanings that are hard for us to
pin down. We infer quality when we rely on cues as diverse as brand name, price,
product warranties, and even our estimate of how much money a company invests in
its advertising.42
Satisfaction is more than a reaction to how well a product or service performs.
According to the expectancy disconfirmation model, we form beliefs about product
performance based on our prior experience with the product or communications about
the product that imply a certain level of quality.43 When something performs the
way we thought it would, we may not think much about it. If it fails to live up to our
expectations, this may create negative feelings. However, if performance happens to
exceed our expectations, we’re happy campers.
This perspective underscores how important it is to manage expectations.
We often trace a customer’s dissatisfaction to their erroneous expectations of the
company’s ability to deliver a product or service. No company is perfect. It’s just not
realistic to think that everything will always turn out perfectly (although some firms
don’t even come close!). For a while the hotel chain Holiday Inn adopted the slogan
“No surprises” to assure guests of flawless service. Inevitably, there were surprises
(no operator to answer the phone, an unmade bed) and the company had to drop its
promise of perfection.

Buying, Having, Being
Waiting on a Line, Not Online
The psychological dimension of
time—how we experience it—is
an important factor in queuing
theory, the mathematical study of
waiting lines. As we all know, our
experience when we wait has a big
effect on our evaluations of what we
get at the end of the wait. Although
we assume that something must be
pretty good if we must wait for it,
the negative feelings that long waits
arouse can quickly turn people off.37
On the other hand, recent research
shows that consumers tend to buy
more if they must wait longer in
line. Apparently, they reason that a
bigger purchase compensates for
the extra time they had to spend
waiting.38 And, we know that
waiting seems even longer when we
don’t know how long the wait will
be. Audi recently launched a service
that displays the “time to green” on
the car’s dashboard to tell a driver
when a red light will change!39

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Buying, Having, Being

Example of a Design Thinking Success

Love the Shirt – But Is It
Contaminated?
Shopping in the real world
inevitably brings us into contact
with other people, consumers,
and salespeople. Even before
the COVID-19 pandemic made
us more conscious and cautious
about what we touch, researchers
documented a phenomenon called
contamination. Here is the gist
of the phenomenon: when we
see someone touch a product, or
even get close to a product, that
closeness spreads to the product
and the product feels “dirty.” Certain
physical cues—like a product that
is out of place or that has a slightly
ripped label—can prime the notion
that other shoppers have been
through this aisle and touched
that product. And because of this
contamination, consumers are less
likely to buy that product.
Even the way a product is made
can make us more likely to find
it dirty and want to clean it. One
study found that when we believe
a product is a counterfeit, we are
more likely to disinfect it before we
use or touch it. We may even avoid
touching or using it because it triggers moral disgust.44 This term
describes how people react to what
they view as unethical or socially
unacceptable, a feeling that can literally make some people experience
physical symptoms, like nausea.45
Note: Contamination works both ways—some
rabid sports fans are willing to pay huge sums
for parts of a uniform that a favorite athlete
wore in a game (even used, sweaty socks!).
In 2020, a fan set a record when they bought
a jersey that quarterback Tom Brady wore in a
Tampa Bay Buccaneers football game—for the
modest sum of $480,000.46

Figure 8.4 Design Thinking Influences Customer Satisfaction
The design-thinking perspective can boost customer satisfaction with product usage simply
by tweaking product elements. In this case, a traditional hot sauce bottle gets a makeover to
make it easier to pour.

Dissonance
Dissonance theory can help to explain why evaluations of a product tend to increase
after we buy the product. The cognitive element, “I made a stupid decision,” is dissonant with the element, “I am not a stupid person,” so we tend to find even more reasons
to like something after it becomes ours. A classic study at a horse race demonstrated
this post-purchase dissonance. Bettors evaluated their chosen horse more highly and
were more confident of its success after they placed a bet than before. Because the bettor financially commits to the choice, they reduce dissonance by elevating the attractiveness of the chosen alternative relative to the ones not chosen. One implication of
this phenomenon is that consumers actively seek support for their decisions so they
can justify them; therefore, marketers should supply their customers with additional
reinforcement after they purchase to bolster these decisions.

OBJECTIVE 8- 2
Describe how the
virtualization of
shopping increases
our reliance on
digital assets.

E-Commerce and the
Digital World

Today, and especially due to the COVID-19 pandemic,
a lot of our shopping experiences have moved online.
Indeed, with global e-commerce sales pegged at about
$5.5 trillion per year, about three-quarters of all transactions occur this way—and
the proportion continues to climb post-COVID.47 Note that buying online certainly
doesn’t promise a better experience—after all, industry analysts estimate a cart
abandonment rate of about 70 percent; 7 out of 10 online purchases just don’t
happen, as shoppers get frustrated by hard-to-navigate sites, slow load times, and
changing prices!48

Chapter 8 • Buying, Using, and Disposing

From Bricks to Clicks
As more and more websites pop up to sell everything from refrigerator magnets to
Mack trucks, marketers continue to debate how the online world affects their business.
Many lose sleep as they wonder whether e-commerce will replace traditional retailing,
work in concert with it, or perhaps even fade away to become another fad your kids
will laugh about someday (okay, that’s not real likely). Still, the rising availability of
comparison-shopping phone apps does threaten the existence of many retailers as
consumers engage in what they call showrooming. This means that a shopper visits
a store like Best Buy to explore options for big-ticket items like TVs or appliances,
and then they find a cheaper price for the specific model online.

Shopping Apps and In-Store Tech
The global app economy exceeded $7 trillion in 2021.49 More than one-third of U.S.
shoppers have downloaded at least one food or beverage app. Already, Americans
spend about 2 hours and 15 minutes per day (yes, day) on apps, which adds up to more
than a month per year!50 Mobile shopping apps on smartphones provide imaginative
new ways for retailers to guide shoppers through the experience, as they do everything
for you: locate merchandise, identify the nearest restroom in a mall, or scout out sales.
Some help you remember where you parked your car; others provide reward points
when you visit certain stores.
In one twist, a recent study found that consumers chose relatively fewer food
“vices” when they purchased online rather than in the store. Apparently, this is because
the digital format shows only symbolic versions of products (e.g., a package photo),
while brick-and-mortar stores allow people to see and touch the physical products. The
more symbolic presentation mode decreases the products’ vividness, which in turn
diminishes consumers’ desire to seek instant gratification and ultimately leads them
to purchase fewer vices.51
The apps also promise to provide a solution to the major hassles that drive
consumers away from brick-and-mortar stores, especially long checkout times and
incompetent sales associates. One survey reported that nearly 3 in 10 store visits
ended with an average of $132 unspent because shoppers gave up in frustration. The
study also found that more than 40 percent of shoppers who received guidance from
a retail associate armed with a handheld mobile computer reported an improved
shopping experience. To rub salt into the wound, more than half of store employees
agreed that because use of online shopping tools is escalating, their customers are
more knowledgeable about their products than the salespeople are!52 Note: Don’t
confuse the efficiency of shopping apps with the time shoppers spend on their
phones while they shop! A study found that when consumers spend more time
talking, texting, or browsing while in a store, they spend longer in the store and
these distractions lead to more purchases!53
In addition, major retailers like Macy’s and Target deploy beacons in their stores.
These devices communicate with smartphone apps indoors through a Bluetooth signal.
They can share a coupon with a shopper’s phone as they browse in the aisles or reward
consumers with points even for just entering the store.
And, the augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) platforms we’ve already
discussed promise to turn the shopping experience into an interactive playground.
AR apps allow the shopper to access additional information from product packages.
For example, a woman who buys a Maybelline cosmetic product could hold her
phone over the box to bring up a model who shares tips about how to apply makeup.
Headsets like the Oculus Rift can provide a totally immersive experience as shoppers

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How beacon technology works

Retailers strategically
place beacons around
their stores.

The beacons connect to
a customer’s Bluetooth-enabled
smartphone app.

It sends a signal to
the phone and the
app is opened.

The retailer can communicate
with shoppers in real time
as they navigate the store.

Figure 8.5 Beacon Technology

can browse a three-dimensional “store” just by putting one on. Schick launched a
VR roller-coaster ride along a yellow lubrication strip, which weaves around a man
shaving before diving into his bristles to showcase the new product’s ability to give a
smooth, close shave.54 The future is here!

Digital Currencies
Is cash obsolete? In the past few years, we’ve seen a firestorm of activity to promote
various kinds of virtual currency and encourage consumers to switch from cash and
credit cards to digital wallets, which are electronic devices that allow an individual
to make e-commerce transactions. A lot of this activity is propelled by the spread of
near-field communication (NFC) technology that allows devices near to one another
(like a smartphone and an NFC terminal in a store) to establish radio communication.
In addition, P2P (peer-to-peer) payment systems, such as Google Pay Send, PayPal,
and Venmo, empower ordinary citizens to transact business with one another. This is
a corner of the sharing economy that allows consumers to give and receive payments
for products and services such as one-of-a kind jewelry on Etsy or rides home from
the bar via Uber.
The Bitcoin system uses peer-to-peer technology to operate with no central
authority or banks; it’s the most prominent form of cryptocurrency that relies
upon a revolutionary encryption technique called the blockchain rather than banks
to regulate the generation of units of currency and verify the transfer of funds. A
blockchain ensures that cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin aren’t saved in a file that can
be hacked; it’s like a global spreadsheet that uses a large and spread-out network to
verify transactions.
The blockchain is not a trivial feature—it means that the data are transparent to
the public but also that there is no single institution responsible for keeping financial
records. Because the information is distributed across the internet, a single company,
bank, or even government has no control over what goes on. Every 10 minutes, the

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system verifies and stores transactions in a block that is linked to the preceding block, which creates a chain. Each block must refer to the preceding
block to be valid.
This structure permanently timestamps and stores exchanges of value,
which prevents anyone from altering the ledger. Like the World Wide Web
of information, it’s the World Wide Ledger of value—a distributed ledger
that everyone can download and run on their personal computer. Some big
companies, including Dell, Expedia, PayPal, and Microsoft, already work
with partners to process bitcoin payments.55

Online Commerce: Raising the Bar
For marketers, the growth of online commerce is a sword that cuts both ways.
On the one hand, they reach customers around the world even if they’re
physically located 100 miles from nowhere. On the other hand, they now
compete not only with the store across the street but also with thousands of
websites that span the globe. Also, when consumers obtain products directly
from the manufacturer or wholesaler, this eliminates the intermediary—the
loyal, store-based retailers that carry the firm’s products and sell them at a
marked-up price.56 In addition, as we discussed in Chapter 2, there are huge
issues relating to data security and privacy yet to be resolved.
So, what makes e-commerce sites successful? Some e-tailers take
advantage of technology to provide extra value to their customers that their
land-locked rivals can’t. Warby Parker allows buyers to virtually try on
sunglasses in real time. They can adjust the fit and choose different styles,
frames, lenses, and colors to find the perfect look.57 Other fashion sites,
such as Net-a-Porter and Gilt Groupe, directly connect buyers and sellers so
that designers can be nimbler and react quickly to changing consumer tastes.
Indeed, the high-fashion site Moda Operandi bills itself as a pretailer; it
provides exclusive styles by prodding manufacturers to produce runway
pieces they wouldn’t otherwise make because store buyers weren’t sure
anyone would pay the money for them.58
More generally, online shoppers value these aspects of a website:

•
•
•
•
•

The ability to click an item to create a pop-up window with more
details about the product, including price, size, colors, and inventory
availability.
The ability to click an item and add it to your cart without leaving the
page you’re on.
The ability to “feel” merchandise through better imagery, more product
descriptions, and details.
The ability to enter all data related to your purchase on one page, rather
than going through several checkout pages.
The ability to mix and match product images on one page to determine
whether they look good together.62

The marketing world is abuzz about the potential
of NFTs (non-fungible tokens). A good or
commodity is fungible if its individual units are
interchangeable and indistinguishable (like when
you get change for a $20 bill). In contrast, an
NFT is a digital certificate of ownership for a
one-of-a-kind cryptographic asset that cannot
be interchanged with another item. NFTs are
kept in a blockchain, which is a digital ledger
that tracks who sells or receives the item. This
emerging technology allows consumers to own
and trade digital assets like photos, videos, and
digital artwork just as they do with physical ones.
If you buy an NFT, the ownership information gets
distributed across the entire network, so anyone
with access to the blockchain can see it. However,
only the owner can access the NFT with their
unique cryptographic key.59 Although NFTs are still
in their early days, some investors are jumping into
this new digital domain big time—one NFT artwork
sold for $91.8 million!60 The world’s first digital-only
dress (shown above) on the blockchain sold for
“only” $9,500.61
Source: THE FABRICANT.

Liquid Consumption
We usually think about consumption as “solid”—we “own” something we bought
until we choose not to, and the item is a tangible asset we can see, touch, or taste.
But in today’s changing market that often values speed, flexibility, and convenience,

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Sephora offers cosmetics shoppers the
opportunity to “try on” beauty products
virtually.
Source: Perch.

consumption tends to be more liquid. No, that doesn’t mean we’re ordering craft beers
online! Researchers define liquid consumption in terms of three core attributes:
1. Ephemeral – People can have a liquid relationship to products and brands, in which
they value those objects only in certain contexts and for limited lengths of time.
2. Access-based – Liquid products are “accessed” rather than owned outright. This
allows consumers to seek more variety and temporarily consume products that
they normally could not own.
3. Dematerialized – Liquid products use fewer or no materials in order to deliver
their desired functionality. Examples include digital goods and services, like cloud
services.
If your data is “in the cloud,” you’re
engaging in liquid consumption
(no, not drinking at a bar).
Source: Zoonar GmbH/Alamy Stock Photo.

Chapter 8 •

OBJECTIVE 8- 3
Summarize how
the growth of a
“sharing economy”
changes the way
consumers think
about using and
owning.

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235

New Ways to Have and Use:
Ownership and the Sharing
Economy

A funny thing is happening when people buy products:
They no longer buy them. Instead, we’re witnessing the
rise of the sharing economy, or what is sometimes called
collaborative consumption. This is a new economic model that leverages peer-topeer (P2P) or shared access to goods and services, facilitated by online communitybased platforms. In the sharing economy, model people rent or borrow what they
need rather than buying it. Collaborative consumption communities typically offer a
website that allows individuals to list their services and a ratings system that allows
both buyers and sellers to rate their experiences.
Folks, this movement is huge: The accounting firm PwC estimates that revenues
linked to the sharing economy could reach $335 billion by 2025, as people worldwide pay for the privilege of riding in other people’s cars, staying in their homes,
using their power tools, and performing other tasks that used to be delivered only by
professionals.63
Need to use a car? Go to Zipcar and rent one by the hour. How about a camera,
a power drill, or a blender? Go to SnapGoods and rent one of those too. Park your
pet with a dog sitter rather than an impersonal kennel at Dog Vacay. You can even get
a low interest loan from other individuals at Lending Club. The sharing economy is
revolutionizing industries including taxis (Uber and Lyft), hospitality (Airbnb), used
books (Bookmooch), and even errand running (TaskRabbit).64
What is fueling this revolution? It’s primarily due to the technology that
dramatically lowers transaction costs so that it’s much easier to share assets and
track them across large numbers of people. Online payment systems make it easy to
exchange money. Social networks create communities and build trust among strangers
who can access each other’s histories. Sellers can make money from assets they don’t
use much; think about how many hours a typical
owner uses an electric drill compared to how much
it costs to buy one. Many of us use our cars only
a few hours per week, but we still pay a monthly
loan, maintenance, parking fees, and so on; car
owners who use RelayRides to rent their vehicles
on average make $250 a month and some make more
than $1,000.
However, it’s not just ease of use that explains
the rise of the sharing economy. We also can point
to a change in attitudes toward ownership and preferences for liquid consumption, especially among
younger consumers. A global survey that talked to
more than 10,000 respondents reported that onethird of millennials already belong to a sharing service or expect to join one soon.
Many people believe overconsumption is putting our planet at risk, and half say they could hapAs a major player in the sharing economy, Zipcar is changing how many
pily live without most of the items they own. This
urban dwellers think about transportation.
is consistent with discussions we’ve had in prior
Source: Islemount Images/Alamy Stock Photo.

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chapters about the weak relationship researchers find between owning more “stuff”
and happiness.65 In addition, many people appreciate the intimacy of exchanging
items with “real people” rather than getting them from big companies. Many seem
more than willing to do things with total strangers our mothers used to warn us against:
They stay in their homes, get in their cars, and even wear their clothes.66 That’s one
reason the notion of doing business with other consumers rather than with companies
goes by the name P2P (peer-to-peer) commerce.
P2P commerce increases the range of options for consumers. For instance,
Airbnb’s entry into the Texas market has reduced the overall income generated by
traditional hotels. Lower-end hotels, and those not catering to business travelers, have
been the most heavily impacted. A lot of this lost revenue comes from major events
(e.g., SXSW) that typically see hotel prices skyrocket because of short supply. Yet
these surges are less pronounced in cities after Airbnb enters the market. Researchers
argue that the key in the growth of P2P options like Airbnb’s services is their greater
flexibility over traditional options.67

The Thrill of Thrifting
From secondhand clothing to refurbished electronics, the secondary market,
places, or online platforms where people sell used goods, is growing exponentially.68
Consumers turn to the secondary market to find cheaper products than brand-new ones
in the primary market. Indeed, a refurbished iPhone can cost a fraction of a new one.
Thrifting—where people replace some of their purchases of brand-new products with
items they find in these venues—is a popular activity for many.
Also, environmentally savvy consumers turn to the secondary market to ensure
that goods continue to get good use instead of being discarded. The secondary market
is an essential component of the reduce-reuse-recycle-refurbish cycle of the circular
economy we discussed in Chapter 2. In addition, many people find that thrifting is a
fun and exciting form of shopping. A key indicator of the popularity of thrifting is the
rise of social media fashion influencers not only demonstrating their talents in thrifting
but also communicating the importance of making sustainable consumption choices,
a topic we turn to next.69

OBJECTIVE 8- 4
Explain how the
climate change crisis
requires us to think
differently about
buying, using, and
disposing to limit
our environmental
footprint.

The Climate Crisis
Product Disposal

Green issues don’t end at the cash register. There is also the
matter of what we do with our things when we’re done with
them. Today more than ever, product disposal, or how we
get rid of a product once we’re done with it, is an important
element of consumer behavior.
Because we form strong attachments to some products,
it can be painful to get rid of them. Our possessions anchor our identities; our past lives
on in our things.70 Some Japanese people ritually “retire” worn-out sewing needles,
chopsticks, and even computer chips when they burn them in a ceremony to thank
them for years of good service.71
And here in the United States, recent research shows that when an everyday
product—even something as mundane as cups or aluminum cans—is linked to a
consumer’s identity, it is less likely to be trashed and more likely to be recycled.
For example, a person who is a big Coca-Cola fan is more likely to recycle a Coke
can than a Pepsi can.72 The reason is that trashing a product that is linked to the self

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is perceived as a threat to our identity because it is symbolically
like trashing a part of the self. Research shows that even a simple
gesture like putting a person’s name on a paper cup makes it
more likely to get recycled rather than buried in a garbage can!73
We all must get rid of our “stuff” at some point. Indeed,
we may well acquire a new product even though the old one
still works—that’s one of the hallmarks of our materialistic
society. Some reasons to replace an item include a desire
for new features, a change in the individual’s environment
(e.g., a refrigerator is the wrong color for a freshly painted
kitchen), or a change in the person’s role or self-image.74

The Crisis of Food Waste
While millions of people suffer from food insecurity, many
These watches are made from recycled Nespresso coffeemaker
millions of pounds of food are avoidably wasted (i.e., thrown
cartridges.
away) every year. Food waste can occur across the production
Source: Courtesy of Blancier Handmade Watches.
and distribution of food, but consumers also play an important
role in the process. Some of the researchers in the Transformative Consumer Research
(TCR) movement we discussed in Chapter 2 refer to the “squander sequence” as the
waste that occurs from how consumers use or misuse food products at the preacquisition/
purchasing, acquisition, consumption, and disposition stages.75 Table 8.1 identifies
possible problems and solutions during this process.

Recycling and the Underground Economy
How do people decide whether to discard products or recycle them?
Because we discard two billion tons of trash per year (and more in the
United States than any other country), this is an important question.

People are more likely to throw away (rather than recycle) products that are
“defective” in some way because they view such products as less useful or
valuable—even though these products still function the same as “prettier”
options.76 Millions of pounds of “ugly fruit” and other imperfect food products wind
up in the trash for this reason. In fact, American consumers throw ­away half of
all produce due to aesthetic standards—that’s 60 million tons of perfectly edible
fruits and vegetables that wind up in the trash.77 In addition, Americans discard
38 percent of the bread and grain products they purchase, and they pour
20 percent of their milk down the sink. To make matters worse, food waste winds
up in landfills where it decomposes and emits methane, a potent greenhouse gas.
Source: Kellog Garden Products.

In the week after Christmas alone, American
consumers return almost 10 percent of the gifts
they bought online. The Postal Service even
labels January 5 National Returns Day. Returns
generate over four billion pounds of landfill waste
each year. That’s because, believe it or not, it’s
more economical for many returns to get trashed
instead of being returned to store inventories.78

Source: Zavalnyuk Sergey/123RF.

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TABLE 8.1    Some Factors That Relate to Food Waste
Preacquisition/purchasing:
Product damage during handling—dented cans, etc., that repel customers
Inaccurate expiration dates
Oversized/unnecessary packaging
Consumer acquisition:
Susceptibility to promotions for unneeded items / impulse buying
Limited nutritional knowledge
Individualistic values
Consumption:
Desire for variety
Serveware (e.g., unnecessarily large servings due to bigger plates)
Overcooking (e.g., “good mother” identity)
Disposition:
Household norms and habits (e.g., smaller households waste more food)
Food conservation malpractice (e.g., “freezer burn”)
Ability to repurpose uneaten food (e.g., leftovers for pets)
Source: Adapted from Lauren G. Block et al., “The Squander Sequence: Understanding Food Waste at Each Stage of
the Consumer Decision-Making Process,” Journal of Public Policy & Marketing 35, no. 2 (2016): 292–304.

One study reported that the perceived effort involved in recycling was the best
predictor of whether people would go to the trouble. This pragmatic dimension
outweighed general attitudes toward recycling and the environment in predicting
one’s intention to recycle.79
During lateral cycling, one consumer exchanges something they own for
something the other person owns. Reusing other people’s things is especially important
in our throwaway society because, as one researcher put it, “there is no longer an
‘away’ to throw things to.”80 Although traditional marketers don’t pay much attention
to used-product sellers, factors such as concern about the environment, demands for
quality, and cost and fashion consciousness make these “secondary” markets more
important.81

Patagonia sponsors a Common Threads Recycling Program.
Source: Used with permission from Patagonia.

The underground economy in the form of flea markets and other
used-product sales formats is a significant component of the
overall consumer marketplace.
Source: Simon leigh/Alamy Stock Photo.

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The underground economy describes any economic
activity that is not reported to government authorities and
therefore is not taxed. In fact, economic estimates of this
underground economy range from 3 to 30 percent of
the gross national product of the United States and up to
70 percent of the gross domestic product of other countries.
By one estimate, the value of the underground economy in
the U.S. alone in 2021 was more than $2.5 trillion.82 There are
more than 3,500 flea markets—including at least a dozen huge
operations, such as the 60-acre Orange County Marketplace
in California—that operate nationwide to produce upward of
$10 billion in gross sales.83
OBJECTIVE 8- 5
Identify the
maladaptive
consumer behaviors
that can occur in
the purchasing and
using phases.

The Dark Side of
Buying and Using

The new trend of recommerce (a play on the term e-commerce)
shows that many consumers want to squeeze more value out
of their possessions by selling or trading them.84 This focus has
given birth to the swishing movement, where people organize
parties to exchange clothing or other personal possessions with
others.85

As fun and exciting as shopping
and buying can be, there may also
Source: View Apart/Shutterstock.
be some undesirable consequences.
Maladaptive consumption refers
to substance-related addictions, like alcohol, tobacco, or opioids, as well as behavioral problems like gambling, overeating, or overusing technology or social media.
This dark side of consumer behavior is problematic from a health standpoint, as these
behaviors are mentally and physically hurtful. It is also problematic from an economic
standpoint, as these behaviors are financially costly, and from a social standpoint, as
they can hurt your relationships with others.86
For example, drug and alcohol abuse is soaring in the U.S., where researchers
estimate that almost 21 million Americans are addicted to at least one substance.87 But
even that huge problem is in a sense just the tip of the iceberg because people can be
addicted to other products and behaviors as well. Some people even become overly
dependent on everyday products like ChapStick!88 Let’s take a closer look at other forms
of addiction that relate to consumer behavior.

Addictive and Compulsive Behavior
Some consumers take the expression “born to shop” quite literally. They shop because
they are compelled to do so rather than because shopping is a pleasurable or functional task. Compulsive shopping refers to repetitive and often excessive shopping
performed as an antidote to tension, anxiety, depression, or boredom.89
“Shopaholics” turn to shopping much the way addicted people turn to drugs or
alcohol.90 One man diagnosed with compulsive shopping disorder (CSD) bought more
than 2,000 wrenches and never used any of them. Some researchers argue that compulsive shopping may be related to low self-esteem. It affects an estimated 2 to 16 percent
of the adult U.S. population.91 In some cases, the consumer has little or no control
over their consumption, much like a drug addict. Even the act of shopping itself is an
addicting experience for some people. Three common elements characterize many
negative or destructive consumer behaviors:92
1. The behavior is not done by choice.
2. The gratification derived from the behavior is short-lived.
3. The person experiences strong feelings of regret or guilt afterward.

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Gambling
Gambling is an example of a consumption addiction that touches every segment of
consumer society. Whether it takes the form of casino gambling, playing the “slots,”
betting on sports events with friends or through a bookie, or even buying lottery
tickets, excessive gambling can be destructive. Taken to extremes, gambling can result
in lowered self-esteem, debt, divorce, and neglected children.
According to one psychologist, gamblers exhibit a classic addictive cycle: They
experience a “high” while in action and depression when they stop gambling, which
leads them back to the thrill of the action. Unlike drug addicts, however, money is
the substance that hard-core gamblers abuse. We can probably expect the problem to
grow as the movement to legalize online gambling in some U.S. states picks up steam
(it’s already is legal in six states).93 The industry estimates that revenues from online
gambling will exceed $100 billion by 2026.94
Researchers interviewed 30 gamblers to compare the experiences of online versus
offline gambling. They found sharp contrasts: Those who enjoy casino gambling have
a strong sense of connection to fellow gamblers, so it’s very much a social experience.
Online gamblers, on the other hand, enjoy the anonymity of the internet. Casino
gamblers get turned on by the sensual experiences and excitement of the casino,
whereas online gamblers gravitate more to the feeling of safety and control they get
because they stay at home. Casino gamblers talked about the friendly atmosphere,
whereas those who stayed online reported behaviors that a real casino wouldn’t
tolerate, such as taunts and bullying.95

Hoarding
Just as it may be hard for some people to resist the urge to shop, it can be difficult
for others to part with the stuff they own. Hoarding is the acquisition of possessions
without disposing of them. A recent study based on in-depth interviews with seven
Canadian hoarders and a detailed analysis of the documentary TV series Hoarding:
Buried Alive revealed what people experience when they hoard:96
1. When buying – Hoarders describe new purchases as both pleasurable and painful
but seem not to consider the amount of time it often takes to acquire new products.
2. When using – Hoarders develop strong attachments to products, view them in
terms of their potential value, and have rules for how the objects should be handled.
Yet they also report feeling embarrassed and helpless in the face of their condition.
3. When disposing – When they do dispose of objects, they do so in a very systematic
way (e.g., asking others to dispose for them) and with a need to reframe what they
are doing to make it less emotionally impactful.

Tech and Social Media Addiction
Are you addicted to your Instagram feed? Do you sleep with your phone? We all
know that our devices are very addictive: They consume our time, attention, and
money. Internet addiction refers to the compulsive overuse of digital experiences to
the detriment of the individual. Experts estimate that as many as 5 to 10 percent of
Americans meet the criteria for social media addiction today.97
Perhaps these stats are not that surprising: After all, tech products are designed to
be habit forming.98 In fact, the web design industry even has a name for the practice
of creating user interfaces that are intentionally designed to trick or deceive the user:
dark design.99
So how do designers make these devices so attractive to us? For one, they often
try to maximize personal relevance, which we know from Chapter 5 is essential to
generating involvement. Our feeds are created by algorithms based on what we find

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interesting and relevant, so we just keep scrolling, looking for more, and this promotes
addictive usage.
In addition, designers rely upon time-honored techniques to make the interfaces
alluring. Tech toys rely on auditory, visual, or haptic notifications that continuously cue
us to look, check, unlock, like, reply, scroll, etc. Here are a few popular techniques:100

•
•

•

Wavy dots: Those three dots in a speech bubble you see when someone is typing
create suspense about what the person might be saying.
The slot machine effect: The pull-to-refresh and infinite scrolling mechanism on
our newsfeeds is like a slot-machine. As we saw in Chapter 4, this unpredictable
feedback loop motivates us to keep pulling the lever in hopes of obtaining the
reward. When we refresh our newsfeeds, the slight wait time builds up our
anticipation and then releases a hit of “feel-good” dopamine once the latest posts
populate our screens. Similarly, people who use dating apps like Tinder are betting
on unpredictable outcomes, which makes the process more exciting.
We crave “likes”: People crave social acceptance, and the “like” button provides
social validation. We can quantify the number of likes we receive; as they mount
up, the increasing social approval keeps us coming back for more.

CHAPTER SUMMARY
Now that you have finished reading this chapter, you should
be able to:

2. Describe how the virtualization of shopping
increases our reliance on digital assets.

1. Explain the factors that influence consumers’
shopping experience during each phase of the
purchasing process.

Mobile shopping apps on smartphones provide
imaginative new ways for retailers to guide customers
through the shopping experience: These apps can locate
merchandise, identify the nearest restroom in a mall, or
scout out sales. Virtual currencies encourage consumers
to switch from cash and credit cards to digital wallets,
which are electronic devices that allow an individual
to make e-commerce transactions. A lot of this activity
is propelled by the spread of near-field communication
(NFC) technology that allows devices near to one
another (like a smartphone and an NFC terminal in a
store) to establish radio communication. In addition,
P2P (peer-to-peer) payment systems, such as Google
Pay Send, PayPal, and Venmo, empower ordinary
citizens to transact business with one another. In today’s
changing market that often values speed, flexibility, and
convenience, consumption tends to be more liquid; it is
(1) ephemeral, (2) access-based, and (3) dematerialized.

Many factors affect a purchase. These include the
consumer’s antecedent state (e.g., their mood, time
pressure, or disposition toward shopping). Time is an
important resource that often determines how much
effort and search will go into a decision. Our moods are
influenced by the degree of pleasure and arousal a store
environment creates.
The shopping experience is a pivotal part of the
purchase decision. In many cases, retailing is like
theater: Consumers’ evaluation of stores and products
may depend on the type of “performance” they witness.
The actors (i.e., salespeople), the setting (i.e., the store
environment), and the props (i.e., store displays) influence
this evaluation. Several factors, such as perceived
convenience, sophistication, and expertise of salespeople,
determine store image, which you can think of as similar
to a brand personality. With increasing competition from
nonstore alternatives, it has never been more important
for stores to create a positive shopping experience. Online
shopping is becoming increasingly common, and this new
way to acquire products has both good (e.g., convenience)
and bad (e.g., security) aspects.

3. Summarize how the growth of a “sharing
economy” changes the way consumers think
about using and owning.
In the rapidly growing sharing economy, people rent
what they need rather than buy it. New technologies make this process much easier, and online networks allow us to form bonds of trust with strangers.

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In addition, many consumers no longer place a premium
on owning products and prefer to “borrow” them only
for the specific times when they need them.
4. Explain how the climate change crisis requires
us to think differently about buying, using, and
disposing to limit our environmental footprint.
Today more than ever, product disposal is an important
element of consumer behavior. Waste from unused food,
textiles, electronics, and other products is clogging our
landfills and polluting our oceans. Many consumers
and organizations address these issues by encouraging
various forms of recycling, where products are reused
rather than discarded.
5. Identify the maladaptive consumer behaviors that
can occur in the purchasing and using phases.
Maladaptive consumption refers to substance-related
addictions, like alcohol, tobacco, or opioids, as well

as behavioral problems like gambling, overeating,
or overusing technology or social media. This dark
side of consumer behavior is problematic from a
health standpoint, as these behaviors are mentally
and physically harmful. It is also problematic from
an economic standpoint, as these behaviors are also
financially costly, and from a social standpoint, as
they can hurt your relationships with others. In recent
years, addiction to technology and social media has
increased, as well as hoarding, an addictive behavior
where consumers feel compelled not to discard used
items. Concern about the environment and waste makes
the issue of product disposal key in many categories. In
addition to understanding whether and how consumers
recycle, newer recommerce models, such as swishing,
are emerging that enable people to share more of their
used goods with one another rather than disposing
of them.

KEY TERMS
Activity stores, 227
Atmospherics, 226
Beacons, 231
Being space, 226
Bitcoin, 232
Blockchain, 232
Collaborative consumption, 235
Contamination, 230
Cryptocurrency, 232
Customer journey, 224
Dark design, 240
Design thinking, 224
Digital wallets, 232
Dyadic encounters, 229
Expectancy disconfirmation
model, 229
Gemba, 224
Hedonic motivation, 223

Hoarding, 240
Identity negotiation, 229
Impulse buying, 227
Lateral cycling, 238
Liquid consumption, 234
Maladaptive consumption, 239
Mental computation strategies, 228
Mobile shopping apps, 231
Moral disgust, 230
Near-field communication (NFC), 232
NFTs (non-fungible tokens), 233
P2P (peer-to-peer) commerce, 236
P2P (peer-to-peer) payment
systems, 232
Point-of-purchase (POP) stimuli, 228
Pop-up stores, 226
Pretailer, 233
Product disposal, 236

Queuing theory, 229
Recommerce, 239
Retail theming, 225
Secondary market, 236
Sharing economy, 235
Shopping orientation, 223
Showrooming, 231
Social shopping, 223
Squander sequence, 237
Swishing, 239
Thrifting, 236
Total quality management
(TQM), 224
Underground economy, 239
Unplanned buying, 227
Utilitarian motivation, 223
Virtual reality (VR), 231

REVIEW
8-1 What are the two dimensions that determine whether
we will react positively or negatively to a purchase
environment?
8-2 List three separate motivations for shopping and give
an example of each.
8-3 What are some important pros and cons of
e-commerce?

8-4 List three factors that help to determine store image.
8-5 What is the difference between unplanned buying and
impulse buying?
8-6 How do business models in the sharing economy
differ from traditional purchase processes?
8-7 What is the difference between recycling and lateral
cycling?

Chapter 8 • Buying, Using, and Disposing

243

CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CHALLENGE
DISCUSS

8-8 Are pop-up stores simply a fad, or are they a retailing
concept that’s here to stay?
8-9 Think about exceptionally good and bad salespeople
you have encountered as a shopper. What qualities
seem to differentiate them from others?
8-10 The chapter noted that as many as 70 percent of
people who shop online abandon their carts before
they get to the checkout page. What are the major
“pain points” you’ve encountered when you purchase
online, and how might you reduce them or eliminate
them altogether?
8-11 Consumers who participate in the sharing economy
seem willing to interact with total strangers. Despite
safety and privacy concerns, what is the long-term
outlook for this change in the way we think about
interacting with people whom we don’t know? How
can businesses help to diminish worries some people
may have about these practices?
8-12 Several men’s clothing retailers nationwide now
provide free booze to their male clientele to encourage
them to hang out in their stores.101 Is it ethical to
encourage customers to get wasted before they shop?
8-13 Some retailers work hard to cultivate a certain look or
image, and they may even choose employees who fit
this look. Abercrombie & Fitch, for example, seems
to link itself to a clean-cut, all-American image.
At one point a lawsuit claimed that Abercrombie
& Fitch systematically “refuses to hire qualified
minority applicants as brand representatives to work
on the sales floor and discourages applications from
minority applicants” (Abercrombie replied that it has
“zero tolerance for discrimination”).102 We know
that the Hooters restaurant chain is notorious for its
attractive female waitresses. Should a retailer have
the right to recruit employees who are consistent with
its image even if this means excluding certain types
of people (e.g., non-Caucasians, men) from the sales
floor? What are some positive and negative aspects
of a policy that requires employees who interact with
customers to wear a uniform?
8-14 The store environment is heating up as more and more
companies put their promotional dollars into point-ofpurchase efforts. Some stores confront shoppers with
videos at the checkout counter, computer monitors
attached to their shopping carts, and ads stenciled
on the floors. We’re also increasingly exposed to
ads in nonshopping environments. For example, a
health club in New York was forced to remove TV

monitors that showed advertising on the Health Club
Media Network after exercisers claimed that the
programming interfered with their workouts. Do you
feel that these innovations are overly intrusive? At what
point might shoppers rebel and demand some peace
and quiet when they shop? Do you see any market
potential in the future for stores that “countermarket”
by promising a “hands-off” shopping environment?
8-15 Courts often prohibit special-interest groups from
distributing literature in shopping malls. Mall
managements claim that these centers are private
property. However, these groups argue that the mall
is the modern-day version of the town square and as
such is a public forum. Find some recent court cases
involving this free-speech issue and examine the
arguments pro and con. What is the status of the mall as
a public forum? Do you agree with this concept?
8-16 Marketers use “tricks” to minimize psychological
waiting time. These techniques range from altering
customers’ perceptions of a line’s length to providing
distractions that divert attention from waiting.103
One hotel chain received excessive complaints
about the wait for elevators, so it installed mirrors
near the elevator banks. People’s natural tendency
to check their appearance reduced complaints, even
though the actual waiting time was unchanged.
Airline passengers often complain about the wait
to claim their baggage. In one airport, passengers
would walk one minute from the plane to the baggage
carousel and then wait seven minutes for their luggage. When the airport changed the layout so that the
walk to the carousel took six minutes and bags arrived
two minutes after that, complaints disappeared.104
Restaurant chains are scrambling to put the
“fast” back into fast food, especially for drivethrough lanes, which now account for 65 percent of
revenues. In a study that ranked the speed of 25 fastfood chains, cars spent an average of 203.6 seconds
from the menu board to departure. Wendy’s was
clocked the fastest at 150.3 seconds. To speed things
up and eliminate spills, McDonald’s created a salad
that comes in a container to fit into car cup holders.
Arby’s is working on a “high viscosity” version of its
special sauce that’s less likely to spill. Burger King
is testing see-through bags so customers can quickly
check their orders before speeding off.105
What are your waiting line “pain points?” How
can companies change their processes to make these
situations easier or more enjoyable for you?

244

Section 3

• Buying and Having: Choosing and Using Products

8-17 People have more leisure time than ever. Why do
they feel so rushed, and how can marketers address
this problem?

8-18 Is the customer always right? Why or why not?

APPLY

8-19 Conduct naturalistic observation at a local mall. Sit
in a central location and observe the activities of mall
employees and patrons. Keep a log of the nonretailing
activity you observe (e.g., special performances, exhibits, socializing, and so on). Does this activity enhance
or detract from business the mall conducts? As malls
become more like high-tech game rooms, how valid is
the criticism that shopping areas only encourage more
loitering by teenage boys, who don’t spend a lot in
stores and simply scare away other customers?
8-20 Select three competing clothing stores in your area
and conduct a store image study for them. Ask a
group of consumers to rate each store on a set of
attributes and plot these ratings on the same graph.
Based on your findings, are there any areas of competitive advantage or disadvantage you could bring
to the attention of store management?
8-21 Create a customer journey map by recording in precise detail each step you personally took when you
interacted with a physical store or an e-commerce
website. What are the potential “pain points” in
this journey that might interface with a successful
transaction?
8-22 Many retailers believe that when they pile a lot of
stuff around their store, this cluttered look encourages
shoppers to hunt for items and eventually buy more.
Dollar General recently raised the height of its shelves
to more than six feet; JCPenney transformed empty
walls into jewelry and accessory displays; Old Navy
added lanes lined with items like water bottles, candy,
and lunchboxes. Best Buy is even testing the impact
of filling aisles with bulky items like Segways and
bicycles to compensate for the smaller space that thin
TVs and compact speakers take up. Notably, Walmart
recently did an abrupt about-face: The company only
recently remodeled its stores by eliminating the
pallets of items it used to stack in the centers of aisles,
and it reduced overall inventory by about 9 percent.
Customers loved the leaner, cleaner look. Only one
problem: They bought less stuff. As a senior Walmart
executive commented, “They loved the experience.

They just bought less. And that generally is not a good
long-term strategy.” Now, Walmart is adding inventory
back in and is once again piling stacks of merchandise
in aisles.106 What’s your take on these store-stocking
strategies? Visit several “big-box” stores in your
area, such as Walmart, Target, Best Buy, Costco,
and so on. If possible, interview shoppers about their
experiences. Do they have trouble navigating the
store? Do they enjoy the clutter? Does it feel like a
“treasure hunt” when they must pick their way around
piles and pallets? If you were designing a store, how
would you craft a stocking strategy that would make
it easy to shop there?
8-23 Identify three people who own electric coffeemakers.
Then, “go to the gemba” by observing them as they
prepare coffee in the appliance at home. Based on these
experiences, what recommendations might you make
to the designer of a new coffeemaker model that would
improve customers’ experiences with the product?
8-24 Interview three consumers who have used a sharing
economy service, such as Zipcar, Airbnb, Snapgoods,
and others. How would you characterize their experiences compared with more traditional models?
8-25 The chapter emphasizes the importance of design
thinking to create products that are easy and fun for
people to use. Find an example of a product you own
that is not user-friendly. How might you redesign it?
8-26 Even subtle labelling and packaging cues can make us
more or less likely to throw away a partially consumed
product. Recent research shows that changing the
visual features of a product’s packaging can help cut
back on (or encourage) waste.107 Researchers studied
whether consumers were more likely to hold on to and
finish disposable water bottles based on the placement
of the bottle’s label. When labels were placed higher
on a water bottle, consumers held onto them because
the bottles appeared less empty. In contrast, when
labels were placed lower on a water bottle, consumers
were more likely to throw them away or leave them
behind because the bottle seemed emptier. Can you
replicate this finding with a group of friends?

DIGGING IN WITH DATA

See “Data Case 2: Evolving Trends in Fitness and French Fries” in Appendix A for an opportunity to work with real
consumer data and apply this chapter’s concepts to real world problems.

Chapter 8 • Buying, Using, and Disposing

CASE STUDY

245

RH — Revolutionizing Physical Retailing108

With consumers able to order virtually anything via the
internet, traditional retailers must offer “something extra”
to motivate shoppers to make the trip to their stores. Highend design retailer RH believes it has found the formula for
getting people not only to visit but also to spend considerable
time and money in its brick-and-mortar stores.
Stephen Gordon started Restoration Hardware (now
RH) after restoring his own Victorian home into a bed and
breakfast. After a frustrating but successful search for quality furnishings and accessories, he decided to make these
items available to others who fix up historic homes.109 He
opened his first store in 1980; it offered hard-to-find and
rather expensive items, many with a nostalgic appeal. One
product based on Gordon’s past was a replica of a chair his
third-grade teacher had used!110
Today, RH is a luxury brand that offers lighting, décor,
home furnishings, bathware, and a variety of other products
clearly targeted to an upper-income clientele. Visit one of
its 67 galleries and you can pick up a nice taper-arm sofa
for about $11,800 or perhaps a crystal chandelier for only
$51,425! You can also find its famous decorative drawer
pulls, cashmere throws, and even some plush toys in the Baby
& Child collection.111
Creating a fun shopping experience was a goal of RH’s
founder from the beginning, leading to offerings like Moon
Pies, glass marbles, and the metal Slinky toy from the
1940s.112 That entertaining shopping experience continues
today with RH’s current brick-and-mortar strategy. Although
the company is growing, RH has actually decreased its total
number of stores but “doubled down” on the remaining ones
by revamping them into big, beautiful galleries located in
renovated historical buildings.113 These gargantuan stores—
one as large as 90,000 square feet—are filled with natural
light and include cafés where you can enjoy a latte or perhaps
a Bellini cocktail while you decide just which Moroccan
rug is right for you.114 Two of the locations even have wine
vaults!115 No babysitter? No problem—childcare will also
be provided.116 In the new store design, the restaurants,
bars, and other food services can amount to a third of the
floorspace.117
Although originally designed to enhance the shopping
experience, the restaurants have turned out to be a good
business venture on their own. In its first full year of operation, the 3 Arts Club café in RH’s Chicago gallery exceeded
$5 million in revenue and had a line forming around the block

on weekends; it was recently the ninth most Instagrammed
café in the city. Not bad for a restaurant with no exterior
signage, a limited all-day menu, and a location in the middle
of a furniture store!118 At last count, RH had 14 restaurants,
including RH Yountville, part of a five-building compound in
the heart of California’s Napa Valley.119
Restaurants, wine cellars, lattes—is this just another
form of “retailtainment”? While RH’s approach does help
draw customers into its galleries and entertain them while
they are there, the company’s plan is more strategic than that.
RH has a fundamentally different view of its retail spaces—
not as stores but rather as galleries or showrooms, where
customers can get inspiration and style guidance.120 Current
CEO Gary Friedman’s vision is to “reinvent physical retail”
with a broader set of services and these elaborate new stores.
RH’s focus on the service experience is similar to that found
in an Apple store, where customers can see, touch, and try
out all the latest Apple products.121 One retail consultant
calls these RH showrooms a kind of “giant 3D real-time catalog.”122 While customers are waiting for a table at the café or
enjoying their dinner, Friedman hopes they’ll get inspired to
redecorate their home. Like the furniture in the restaurant?
No problem—it’s all for sale.123
RH continues to evolve, moving its concept into new
formats. Its new gallery in England is its grandest yet,
located at the historic Aynho Park, a 17th-century, 73-acre
estate in the English countryside.124 Also on the horizon
are RH Residences—fully furnished luxury homes, and
travelers will be able to experience the RH brand through
guesthouses planned for New York City and Aspen.125 Need
a ride to one of those places? Ride in style on RH One or
RH Two—12-seat Gulfstream jets available for charter.126
Or, for an even more luxurious experience, try RH Three:
A revamped vintage yacht you can book for traveling to the
Mediterranean or Caribbean.127
RH’s gallery strategy is a bold approach to bringing
customers into its brick-and-mortar locations. But the
company’s expansion into private jet travel, yachts, and
hospitality shows that its ambitions are not limited to
physical retail. According to CEO Friedman, “Our strategy
is to move the brand beyond curating and selling product to
conceptualizing and selling spaces, by building an ecosystem
of Products, Places, Services and Spaces that establishes the
RH brand as a global thought leader, taste and place maker.”128
For RH, it appears that the revolution has just begun.

246

Section 3

• Buying and Having: Choosing and Using Products

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

CS 8-1 In this chapter, you learned about some retailers that
convert their whole store into a “being space.” How
does this concept apply to the RH strategy and how
might it affect its sales?
CS 8-2 In this chapter, you learned that context effects and,
more specifically, atmospherics can affect consumers’

behavior in a store. Look over some of RH’s lavish
galleries at rh.com/galleries. How might the gallery
atmospherics lead to more purchases of RH products
and services?
CS 8-3 What elements of RH’s approach could be appropriate for retailers that are at price levels below the highend prestige level of a retailer such as RH?

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Jacob Jacoby, Carol K. Berning, and Thomas F. Dietvorst, “What About
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248

Section 3

• Buying and Having: Choosing and Using Products

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78. Block, L. G., Keller, P. A., Vallen, B., Williamson, S., Birau, M. M., Grinstein,
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80. Allan J. Magrath, “If Used Product Sellers Ever Get Organized, Watch Out,”
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86. Derek N. Hassay and Malcolm C. Smith, “Compulsive Buying: An Examination
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87. Nancy M. Ridgway, Monika Kukar-Kinney, and Kent B. Monroe, “An
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88. Curtis L. Taylor, “Guys Who Buy, Buy, Buy,” Newsday, October 6, 2006; Jim
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92. June Cotte and Kathryn A. LaTour, “Blackjack in the Kitchen: Understanding
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2009): 742–58.
93. Samantha N. N. Cross, Gail Leizerovici, and Dante M. Pirouz, “Hoarding:
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94. Werner Geyser, “The Real Social Media Addiction Stats for 2022,” Influencer
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95. Pierre Berthon, Leyland Pitt, and Colin Campbell. “Addictive De-Vices:
A Public Policy Analysis of Sources and Solutions to Digital Addiction,”
Journal of Public Policy & Marketing 38, no. 4 (October 2019): 451–68,
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96. “The Rise of Dark Web Design: How Sites Manipulate You into Clicking,” The
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April 2, 2009, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB123862311574879951.html.
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SB107119486923223100.
David H. Maister, “The Psychology of Waiting Lines,” in John A. Czepiel,
Michael R. Solomon, and Carol F. Surprenant, eds., The Service Encounter:
Managing Employee/Customer Interaction in Service Businesses (Lexington,
MA: Lexington Books, 1985): 113–24.
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.wsj.com/articles/SB95860274298267678.
Quoted in Stephanie Clifford, “Stuff Piled in the Aisle? It’s There to Get
You to Spend More,” New York Times, April 7, 2011, www.nytimes.com/
2011/04/08/business/08clutter.html?_r=1&hp=&adxnnl=1&adxnnlx=
1302264052-gF+9E6s92AG9nsm5jbyIpg.
Rong Huang, Darren W. Dahl, Shenyu Li, and Qiong Zhou (2019), “The Effect
of Packaging Perceptual Cues on Consumer Disposal Behavior of Partially
Consumed Products,” Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, 4(4),
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“RH Reports Fourth Quarter and Fiscal 2017 Financial Results,” Business Wire,
March 27, 2018, https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20180327006304/
en/RH-Reports-Fourth-Quarter-Fiscal-2017-Financial.
Dinah Eng, “The Nuts and Bolts of Restoration Hardware,” Fortune, December
29, 2014, http://fortune.com/2014/12/29/the-nuts-and-bolts-of-restorationhardware/.
“Restoration Hardware, Inc. — Company History,” Company-histories.com,
http://www.company-histories.com/Restoration-Hardware-Inc-CompanyHistory.html, accessed August 2, 2022.
RH, https://rh.com, accessed August 2, 2022.
“Restoration Hardware, Inc. — Company History,” Company-histories.com,
http://www.company-histories.com/Restoration-Hardware-Inc-CompanyHistory.html, accessed July 30, 2022.
Maxwell Ryan, “Why the Huge Catalog? And How Restoration Hardware
Is Becoming the Ikea of Luxury Furnishings,” Apartment Therapy, May 19,
2014, http://www.apartmenttherapy.com/why-the-huge-catalog-and-howrestoration-hardware-is-becoming-the-ikea-of-luxury-furnishings-203731,
accessed August 2, 2022.
RH New York, https://rh.com/NewYork, accessed August 2, 2022; Maxwell
Ryan, “Why the Huge Catalog? And How Restoration Hardware Is Becoming
the Ikea of Luxury Furnishings,” Apartment Therapy, May 19, 2014, http://
www.apartmenttherapy.com/why-the-huge-catalog-and-how-restorationhardware-is-becoming-the-ikea-of-luxury-furnishings-203731, accessed
August 2, 2022; “Moroccan Rug,” RH, https://rh.com/search/results.
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“Our Restaurants,” RH, https://rh.com/restaurants, accessed August 2, 2022.
Maxwell Ryan, “Why the Huge Catalog? And How Restoration Hardware
Is Becoming the Ikea of Luxury Furnishings,” Apartment Therapy, May 19,
2014, http://www.apartmenttherapy.com/why-the-huge-catalog-and-howrestoration-hardware-is-becoming-the-ikea-of-luxury-furnishings-203731,
accessed August 2, 2022.
Warren Shoulberg, “The Ultimate Restoration Project: How RH Proved
Critics Wrong with Real Retailing,” Forbes, June 13, 2018, https://www
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Marcia Layton Turner, “Is Brick-and-Mortar Obsolete?” Forbes, January 31, 2017,
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-mortar-obsolete/#3bf5f83d37ce.
“Restoration Hardware Holdings’ (RH) CEO Gary Friedman on Q4 2017
Results – Earnings Call Transcript,” Seeking Alpha, March 27, 2018, https://

Chapter 8 • Buying, Using, and Disposing

seekingalpha.com/article/4159406-restoration-hardware-holdings-rh-ceogary-friedman-q4-2017-results-earnings-call-transcript?page=3.
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122. Pamela N. Danziger, “RH Broke $1 Billion in Third Quarter 2021, Bringing
Year-to-Date Revenues Level with 2020,” Forbes, December 10, 2021,
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Shareholder Letter,” RH, https://ir.rh.com/static-files/3fcf60ce-4899-415da855-4d209dccfda4, accessed August 2, 2022.
123. “3 Bold Travel Ideas You Should Book as Soon as Possible,” Wall Street
Journal (Eastern Ed.), November 29, 2021, https://www.wsj.com/articles/
travel-ideas-costa-rica-11638191502.

249

124. “3 Bold Travel Ideas You Should Book as Soon as Possible,” Wall Street Journal
(Eastern Ed.), November 29, 2021, https://www.wsj.com/articles/travel-ideascosta-rica-11638191502.; Pamela N. Danziger, “RH Broke $1 Billion in Third
Quarter 2021, Bringing Year-to-Date Revenues Level with 2020,” Forbes,
December 10, 2021, https://www.forbes.com/sites/pamdanziger/2021/12/10/
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125. “Investor Relations,” RH, https://ir.rh.com/, accessed August 2, 2022.

Section

4

Being: Using Products to
Create and Communicate
Identity
Our consumption choices express some aspect of our identity.

Chapter 9 explores how our views about ourselves affect what we do, want, and buy. Chapter
10 goes on to consider how our unique personalities, lifestyles, and values also guide us as
consumers. Chapter 11 focuses on the social facet of our identify by looking at the groups with
which we identify and their impact on our identity and our consumption choices.

Chapters Ahead
Chapter 9

Identity and the Self

Chapter 10

Personality, Values, and
Lifestyles

Chapter 11

Social and Cultural Identity

251

9

Identity and the Self

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES When you finish reading this chapter, you should be able to:
9-1 Explain how the self-concept strongly influences
consumer behavior.

9-4 Recognize the many sociocultural factors that
contribute to gender identity.

9-2 Describe how our consumption choices are
expressions of our identities and extensions of our
selves.

9-5 Discuss how our bodies are an important
component of our identities.

9-3 Summarize how consumers are finding new ways
to express identity via their consumption choices.

S

Source: Bagus Production/Shutterstock

hould she, or shouldn’t she? Shaquana has been dancing around this question for months. Several of her friends
decided to get tattoos, and although they complained about
how painful the process was, they were leaning heavily on her to get
one as well. Until now, Shaquana hasn’t been too keen to follow along
with the pack. But then, her mother suddenly recovered from a nasty
COVID-19 infection, and she felt it was time to express gratitude for
that. After she does some research on popular designs, Shaquana is
happy to learn that spiritual images like mandala, hamsa, and lotus
designs are big right now. As one tattoo artist explained, “They are
deeply associated with healing, balance, growth, rebirth, and positive
energies, therefore many people associate with them.”1 After a lot of
thought, she designs a tat for the side of her neck that incorporates
her mother’s likeness within a lotus mandala. Yes, the inking hurt for
a while—but it’s worth it because now her body carries a permanent reminder of her
love for her mother.

OBJECTIVE 9-1
Explain how the
self-concept
strongly influences
consumer behavior.

The Self

Are you what you buy? We choose many products, from
cars to water bottles, because we want to highlight or hide
some aspect of the self—whether we want to feel successful
or attractive or even to connect with a loved one as Shaquana did. In this chapter,
we’ll focus on how consumers’ feelings about themselves shape their consumption
practices, particularly as they strive to fulfill their society’s expectations about how a
person should look and act.

252

Chapter 9 • Identity and the Self

253

The Self-Concept and Self-Esteem
The self-concept summarizes the beliefs a person holds about their own attributes and
how they evaluate the self on these qualities. Although your overall self-concept may
be positive, there certainly are parts of it you evaluate more positively than others.
The self-concept is a complex and malleable structure. Some parts
are stable, but each of us modifies some elements of it as we make our
way through life—and particularly as we discover new ideas, social
groups we admire, and, yes, images we receive from the culture around
us that validate certain types of people over others.
Each element that contributes to our self-concept is an identity.
One way to define identity is “any category label with which a
consumer self-associates that is amenable to a clear picture of what
a person in that category looks like, thinks, feels and does.” Some of
these identities are stable (e.g., mother, African American), whereas
other identities are more temporary and likely to change (e.g., Katy
Kat [fan of singer Katy Perry], college student, Prius driver).2 A person
who sees herself as environmentally responsible, for example, is more
likely than someone who doesn’t think much about the environment
to drive a Prius hybrid vehicle. “Green” products are more likely to
get that person’s attention because “being green” is an identity that
contributes to her self-concept.
Self-esteem refers to the positivity of a person’s self-concept.
People with low self-esteem expect that they will not perform very
well, and they will try to avoid embarrassment, failure, or rejection.
When Sara Lee developed a new line of snack cakes, for example,
researchers found that consumers low in self-esteem preferred portioncontrolled snack items because they felt they lacked self-control.3 In
Some products promise to give our self-esteem
contrast, a more recent study found that individuals who are made to
a boost.
feel powerful spend more money on themselves (“because I’m worth
Source: Orbit and all affiliated designs are owned by and used courtesy
it!”), whereas those who experience a feeling of powerlessness spend
of the Wm. Wrigley Jr. Company or its affiliates.
4
more on others than on themselves.
When consumers compare some aspect of themselves to an ideal, this judgment
influences their self-esteem. They might ask, “Am I as good-looking as I would like
to be?” or “Do I make as much money as I should?” The ideal self is a person’s
conception of how they would like to be, whereas the actual self refers to our more
realistic appraisal of the qualities we do and don’t have. We choose some products
because we think they are consistent with our actual self, whereas we buy others to
help us reach an ideal standard.
In addition to our real and ideal selves, a third form of the self sometimes
influences what we choose to buy and use: our avoidance selves.5 This term refers
to the type of person we don’t want to be. Sometimes our desire to distance ourselves
from undesirable types can be an even bigger driver as we go out of our way not to
buy products we associate with that category. For example, kids may work hard
to avoid clothing or other items that make them look like a “nerd.”

The Self and Others
Have you ever obsessed over just the “right outfit” to wear on a special date or to an
important job interview? We often engage in a process of impression management
in which we work hard to “manage” what others think of us; we strategically choose
clothing and other products that will show us off to others in a good light.6

254

Section 4

• Being: Using Products to Create and Communicate Identity

The dating app Tinder helpfully provides a feature called Smart Photos to boost
your chances: Using an algorithm, the feature analyzes which of your profile pictures
performs best and ranks them for you according to which photos may get more people
to swipe right.

The Looking-Glass Self
Sociologists call the process of imagining others’ reactions “taking the role of the
other,” or the looking-glass self.7 According to this view, our desire to define ourselves
operates as a sort of psychological sonar: We take readings of our own identity when
we “bounce” signals off others and try to project their impression of us.
Like the distorted mirrors in a funhouse, our appraisal of who we are varies
depending on whose perspective we consider and how accurately we predict their
evaluations of us. Essentially, we continually ask ourselves the question: “Who am I in
this situation?” Those around us greatly influence how we answer this query because
we also ask, “Who do other people think I am?” We tend to pattern our behavior on
the perceived expectations of others, as a form of self-fulfilling prophecy. When we
act how we assume others expect us to act, we often confirm these perceptions. So, if
we believe, for example, that our friends think of us as the “clown” in the group, we
may go out of our way to clown around when we’re with them.

Social Comparison

Buying, Having, Being
Ha! You Could Have Won!
A study showed that brands benefit
when they encourage envy in
consumers who are high in selfesteem. But it turns out that this
tactic backfires for consumers
who are low in self-esteem.9 The
researchers created envy by letting
participants witness someone
who won two front-row tickets to
an upcoming NHL game—when
they could have been the winners
of those tickets instead (now,
that’s mean!). Lower self-esteem
consumers who witnessed this
display of cheer and celebration
were less interested in the NHL
game, whereas higher self-esteem
consumers were even more
interested in going to the game.
Consumers with lower self-esteem
are turned off by brands and
products when they feel envy toward
others who have them, whereas
consumers with higher self-esteem
want brands and products more
when they envy others who
have them.

Exposure to ads can trigger a process of social comparison, in which the person tries
to evaluate their appearance by comparing it to the people depicted in these artificial
images.8 This is a basic human tendency, and many marketers tap into our need for
benchmarks when they supply idealized images of happy, attractive people who just
happen to use their products. We also witness the power of social comparison when
we play games that provide leaderboards and badges, not to mention the “FOMO” that
may result when we see all those obnoxiously glamorous or cool social media posts
from others who (supposedly) live picture-perfect lives.

Self-Construal
Self-construal describes the degree to which we think of our self as independent from
others versus feeling interdependent with them. People who grow up in Western cultures
(Western Europe or North America) tend to focus on the independent self, thinking
of themselves in terms of unique personal traits and attributes and de-emphasizing
others (independent self-construal), whereas people who grow up in Eastern cultures
(Asia) tend to focus on the interdependent self, defining their identities largely by
their relationships with others.10 Thus, people in Western cultures often learn that it’s
a good thing to express your individuality. In contrast, a well-known Japanese proverb
warns, “The nail that sticks out gets hammered down.”11
People can have both independent and interdependent aspects of the self, but,
at a baseline level, some of us are more naturally independent and others are more
interdependent. These differences in self construal also vary across ethnocultural
backgrounds within American society. For example, whites tend to be more
independent and less interdependent in their self-construals than Asian Americans
and Hispanic Americans.
Our level of self-construal affects how we make buying decisions. Independent
self-construal people are motivated by independence (i.e., self-determination) and
differentiation (i.e., distinctiveness), whereas interdependent people tend to focus on
aspects of self shared with some subset of others. For instance, a study that compared
people’s choices of wine for a group table found that interdependent consumers tend

Chapter 9 • Identity and the Self

to balance their own personal preference and those of the group, regardless of the size
of the group they are choosing wine for. But independent consumers make choices
that balance self and others’ preferences only when they are in small groups. When
they are in larger groups, they give priority to their own preferences.12

Self-Consciousness
Have you ever walked into a class in the middle of a lecture? If you were convinced
that all eyes were on you as you awkwardly searched for a seat, you can understand
the feeling of self-consciousness. In contrast, sometimes we behave with shockingly
little self-consciousness. For example, we may do things in a stadium, at a riot, or at
a fraternity party that we would never do if we were highly conscious of our behavior
(and add insult to injury when we post these escapades online!).13
Certain cues in the environment, such as walking in front of a mirror, are likely to
promote self-consciousness. That feeling in turn may influence behavior. For example,
one pair of researchers is looking at whether grocery shoppers who push a cart with
an attached mirror will buy more produce and healthy foods because their heightened
self-consciousness makes them more weight conscious.14
Some people seem to be more sensitive in general to the image they communicate
to others. A heightened concern about the nature of one’s public “image” also results
in more attention to the social appropriateness of products and consumption activities.
On the other hand, we all know people who act as if they’re oblivious to the impression
they make (they seem to “march to the beat of a different drummer”).
Consumers who score high on a scale of public self-consciousness express
more interest in clothing and use more cosmetics than consumers who score lower.15
In one study, highly self-conscious subjects expressed greater willingness to buy
personal products, such as a douche or a gas-prevention remedy, that are somewhat
embarrassing to buy but may avoid awkward public incidents later.16
Similarly, high self-monitors are more attuned to how they present themselves in
their social environments, and their estimates of how others will perceive their product
choices influence what they choose to buy.17 A scale to measure self-monitoring asks
consumers how much they agree with statements such as, “I guess I put on a show
to impress or entertain others” or “I would probably make a good actor.” Perhaps
not surprisingly, publicly visible types, such as college football players and fashion
models, tend to score higher on these dimensions.18

The Malleable Self
In a way, each of us really is several different people—for example, your family
members may not recognize the “you” who turns into a “party animal” on Saturday
night! We have as many selves as we do different social roles. Depending upon the
situation, we act differently, use different products and services, and even vary in terms
of how much we like the aspect of ourselves we put on display. A person may require
a different set of products to play each of their roles: They may choose a sedate,
understated fragrance when they play their professional self but splash on something
more provocative on Saturday night as they head out to a club.

Role Identities: Do You Know Your Lines?
That famous marketer William Shakespeare wrote, “All the world’s a stage, and all
the men and women merely players.”19 OK, he was actually a playwright—and a
very astute judge of human behavior! The dramaturgical perspective on consumer
behavior views people as actors who play different roles. We each play many roles,

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and each role has its own script, props, and costumes.20 The
self has different components, or role identities, and only
some of these are active at any given time. Some identities
(e.g., husband, boss, student) are more central to the self
than others, but other identities (e.g., dancer, gearhead,
or advocate for the homeless) may dominate in specific
situations.21
Indeed, some roles may conflict with one another.
For example, one study of Iranian young people who live
in the United Kingdom described what the authors termed
the torn self, where respondents struggle with retaining an
authentic culture while still enjoying Western freedom (and
dealing with assumptions of others who believe they might
be terrorists).22
A marketer may want to ensure that the appropriate role identity
If each person potentially has many social selves, how
is active before pitching products that customers need to play a
do
we
decide which self to “activate” at any point in time?
particular role. One obvious way to do this is to place advertising
The
sociological
tradition of symbolic interactionism
messages in contexts in which people are likely to be well-aware
stresses that relationships with other people play a large
of that role identity; for example, when fortified-drink and energybar companies hand out free product samples to runners at
part to form the self.23 According to this perspective, we
a marathon.
exist in a symbolic environment. We assign meaning to any
Source: Joel Carillet/iStock/Getty Images.
situation or object when we interpret the symbols in this environment. As members
of society, individuals learn to agree on shared meanings. Thus, we “know” that a red
light means stop, the “golden arches” mean fast food, and Queen Bey is Beyoncé’s
nickname. That knowledge is important to understand consumer behavior because
it implies that our possessions play a key role as we evaluate ourselves and decide
“who we are.”24

Because there are so many facets to each of us, consumers must balance their multiple
identities. Research shows that cues in our environment can prime certain facets of our
identity, such as being a student, a friend, a sibling, a parent, or as we will see in Chapter 11,
our identification with an ethnic/racial group.25
Source: Ira L. Black/Corbis via Getty Images

Chapter 9 • Identity and the Self

Creating Our Self as We Consume
Way back in 1890, the famous psychologist William James wrote, “A man’s self is
the sum total of all that he can call his.” And that was before iPhones, skinny jeans,
and e-Bikes!
Self-image congruence models suggest that we choose products when their
attributes match some aspect of the self.26 And when we choose a product that we
think is aesthetically pleasing, this choice makes us feel better about ourselves.27
Indeed, research that included brain wave measures, such as functional magnetic
resonance imaging (fMRI), showed that when a person has a close relationship with
a brand, this activates the insula, the part of the brain that is responsible for such
domains as addiction and interpersonal love.28
Consumption choices are very personal, and when we allow a customer to customize
a product or service, they naturally tend to think of the purchase as being more in line
with their image of themselves. This in turn influences how people perceive the product
itself and specifically that product’s attributes. A recent study found that, whether it
was a T-shirt, a Korean meal, or a vacation package, consumers perceive customized
products more positively because they allow more alignment with their self-image. The
researchers call this effect self-image-consistent product perceptions.
The choices we make in terms of what brands we buy, what we consume, or what
we do are more valuable to us when they link to an identity we desire. This process is
called self-signaling; it’s a message to ourselves that our choices sync with how we
want to think about ourselves. Brands are useful for self-signaling, as consumers use
brands to signal and communicate aspects of their identity.29
These emotional connections even make people defensive of their favorite brands
if they come across negative information about them. A comment by a respondent (a
32-year-old male) in one study who describes his feelings about his car nicely illustrates
this bond: “My BMW is my wingman, my twin. I would never diss it for another car
because that would be like dissing my twin brother or worse, dissing myself.”30
Congruence models assume a process of cognitive matching between product
attributes and consumers’ self-image.31 Over time we tend to form relationships with
products that resemble the bonds we create with other people: These include love,
unrequited love (we yearn for it but can’t have it), respect, and perhaps even fear or
hate (“Why is my computer out to get me?”).32 Researchers even report that after a
“breakup” with a brand, people tend to develop strong negative feelings and will go
to great lengths to discredit the brand by engaging in acts like bad-mouthing and even
vandalism.33
Research largely supports the idea of congruence between product usage and
self-image. One of the earliest studies to examine this process found that car owners’
ratings of themselves tended to match their perceptions of their cars: Pontiac drivers
saw themselves as more active and flashy than did Volkswagen drivers.34 Indeed, a
German study found that observers were able to match photos of male and female
drivers to pictures of the cars they drove almost 70 percent of the time.35 Researchers
also report congruity between consumers and their most preferred brands of beer,
soap, toothpaste, and cigarettes relative to their least preferred brands, as well as
between consumers’ self-images and their favorite stores.36 Some specific attributes
useful to describe matches between consumers and products include rugged/delicate,
excitable/calm, rational/emotional, and formal/informal.37
We are attached to an object to the extent we rely on it to maintain our selfconcept.38 Objects act as a security blanket when they reinforce our identities,
especially in unfamiliar situations. For example, students who decorate their dorm
rooms with personal items are less likely to drop out of college. This coping process
may protect the self from being diluted in a strange environment.39 When a pair of

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researchers asked children of various ages to create “who am I?” collages, for which
they chose pictures that represented their selves, older kids between middle childhood
and early adolescence inserted more photos of branded merchandise. Also, as they
aged, their feelings about these objects evolved from concrete relationships (e.g.,
“I own it”) to more sophisticated, abstract relationships (e.g., “It is like me”).40

We Consume to Express Our Identities
We’ve already seen that people
often strategically choose products
that they believe will cause others
to think about them in a certain
way. Consumers actively assemble
consumption practices, products,
and brands to express themselves as
part of their identity projects; the
active creation and communication of how a person defines
and communicates their identity to the world. As we saw in
Chapter 5, these consumption constellations can be made up of
brands, experiences, or practices. The brands and products we
associate ourselves with help determine our own self-concept
and social identity.41 Yes, it turns out there may be some truth
to the old saying, “You are what you . . . drive, wear, eat, etc.”
OBJECTIVE 9-2
Describe how
our consumption
choices are
expressions of
our identities and
extensions of
our selves.

Our consumption choices are expressions of our identities and
extensions of our selves.
Source: Asier Romero/Shutterstock.

The Extended Self
As we noted previously, many of the props and settings consumers use to define their
social roles become parts of their identities. Those external objects that we consider a
part of us constitute the extended self. In some cultures, people literally incorporate
objects into the self: they lick new possessions, take the names of conquered enemies
(or in some cases eat them), or bury the dead with their possessions.42
As Figure 9.1 shows, we describe four levels of the extended self, ranging from
personal objects to places and things that allow people to feel as though they are rooted
in their larger social environments:43
1. Individual level—Consumers include many of their personal possessions in selfdefinition. These products can include jewelry, cars, clothing, as well as expressions of our digital identity as we will see later in this chapter. The saying “You
are what you wear” reflects the belief that one’s things are a part of one’s identity
whether in real or virtual worlds.
2. Family level—This part of the extended self includes a
consumer’s residence and the furnishings in it. We can think of
the house as a symbolic body for the family, and the place where
we live often is a central aspect of who we are.
3. Community level—It is common for consumers to describe
themselves in terms of the neighborhood or town from which
Individual
Family
Community
Group
they come. For farm families or other residents with close ties to
a community, this sense of belonging is particularly important.
4. Group level—We regard our attachments to even larger social
groups as a part of the self; we’ll consider some of these
consumer subcultures in later chapters. A consumer also may
feel that landmarks, monuments, or sports teams are a part of
Figure 9.1 Levels of the Extended Self
the extended self.
Source: Matsabe/Shutterstock.

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259

One study found that people may view their shoes as
magical emblems of self, Cinderella-like vehicles for selftransformation. Based on data collected from consumers, the
researcher concluded that (like their sister Carrie) women
tend to be more attuned to the symbolic implications of shoes
than men. A common theme that emerged was that a pair of
shoes obtained when younger—whether a first pair of leather
shoes, a first pair of high heels, or a first pair of cowboy
boots—had a big impact even later in life. These experiences
were like those that occur in well-known fairy tales and
stories; think of Dorothy’s red shoes in The Wizard of Oz,
Karen’s magical red shoes in Hans Christian Anderson’s
The Red Shoes, and Cinderella’s glass slippers.44
Many material objects—ranging from personal possessions
You don’t have to be Carrie of Sex and the City fame to
and pets to national monuments or landmarks—help to form
acknowledge that many people feel a strong bond to their
a consumer’s identity. Just about everyone can name a valued
footwear. The singer Mariah Carey posted a photo of her huge
possession that has a lot of the self “wrapped up” in it, whether
shoe closet on Instagram and labeled it, “Always my favorite
room in the house . . . #shoes #shoes #moreshoes.” 45
it is a beloved photograph, a trophy, an old shirt, a car, or a cat.
Source: Ariwasabi/Shutterstock.
Indeed, usually we can construct a pretty accurate “biography”
of someone when we simply catalog the items they display in
their bedroom or office (try it if you don’t believe us).
A study illustrates that the product/self-bond doesn’t even have to be that strong
Buying, Having, Being
to influence a consumer’s self-concept. Researchers approached women in a shopping
mall and gave them one of two shopping bags to walk around with for an hour. Women
Secret Pleasures
who received a bag from Victoria’s Secret later reported to the researchers that they felt
A recent study suggests that conmore sensual and glamorous. In another experiment, MBA students were asked to take
suming a product in secret makes
notes for six weeks using a pen embossed with the MIT logo; they reported feeling
it more attractive.47 Researchers
46
asked women to imagine eating
smarter at the end of the term. In these situations, we see how easily an everyday
cookies, chocolate, and apple chips
object like a shopping bag or a pen can become part of a person’s extended self.
in secret as they hid from others.
They found that the respondents
consistently enjoyed the products
more when they ate them this way.
The women also reported thinking
about these “guilty pleasures” more
as they became preoccupied with
their secret habit.

To assert our consumer identity, we sometimes claim a
space for it. Recent ethnographic research that focused
on women who knit reveals that consumers use physical
spaces intentionally to assert their identity.48 Knitting is
usually associated with the domestic space of the home,
and the researchers found that women who knit claim
space for their activity in the home, as if it were a small
territory (e.g., a knitting nook) where they can express
their pride and commitment to this identity. Interestingly
the researchers also found that the women also made a
point of practicing their craft in commercial and public
venues (e.g., knitting while attending a baseball game) to
destabilize, at least temporarily, the negative stereotypes
that are often associated with knitting. Get out there and
show your knitted colors!
Source: Pixel-Shot/Shutterstock

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OBJECTIVE 9-3
Summarize how
consumers are
finding new ways to
express identity via
their consumption
choices.

New Ways to Express Identity

As we’ve seen, people are quick to use the “evidence” they
gather about a person’s appearance, behavior, utterances, etc.,
to assign someone to a particular social category (Aspiring
Executive, Emo Girl, Jock, etc.), so it’s not surprising that
we often try to present ourselves in the best light possible.
But there’s a lot more going on here than just trying to make a good impression. Let’s
review some of the ways that people strategically use brands as part of this process.

Buying, Having, Being
What Would You Save
in a Fire?
We know that many products are
central to our self-identities—that’s
why one of the first acts of institutions that want to repress individuality and encourage group identity,
such as prisons or the military, is to
confiscate personal possessions.52
It also helps us to understand
why victims of burglaries and natural
disasters commonly report feelings
of alienation, depression, or of being
“violated.” A study of post-disaster
conditions—in which consumers
may have lost literally everything
but the clothes on their backs
following a fire, hurricane, flood, or
earthquake—highlights the dramatic
impact of product loss. Some
people are reluctant to undergo the
process of re-creating their identities
by acquiring new possessions.
Interviews with disaster victims
reveal that some hesitate to invest
the self in new possessions and so
become more detached about what
they buy. This comment from a
woman in her 50s is representative
of this attitude: “I had so much
love tied up in my things. I can’t
go through that kind of loss again.
What I’m buying now won’t be as
important to me.”53

Compensatory Consumption
Some people have a much clearer picture of their self-concept than do others: They
are very clear and confident about their identity. Researchers call this self-concept
clarity. Interestingly, consumers whose self-concept is unclearly defined, inconsistent,
and unstable are more likely to retain service or product subscriptions that allow them
to express (or allow others to infer) a desirable identity. For instance, people with low
self-concept clarity prefer to stick to subscription systems like clothing, meals, or
exercise regimens because the subscriptions provide them with the stability they do
not naturally have. They’re also less likely to acquire new subscriptions that signal a
new identity, even one that may be desirable, because they want to maintain stability.49
Compensatory consumption is a way for consumers to respond to threats to
their self-esteem by consuming products that link to that aspect of the self-concept.
Our use of consumption information to define the self is especially important when
we have yet to completely form a social identity, such as when we play a new role in
life. Think, for example, of the insecurity many of us felt when we first started college
or reentered the dating market after leaving a long-term relationship.
Symbolic self-completion theory suggests that people who have an incomplete
self-definition tend to complete this identity when they acquire and display symbols
they associate with that role. For example, in a study that hits close to home, professors
at a major university who were relatively unsuccessful (as measured by indicators
such as the number of articles they published) were more likely to hang a lot of
awards, diplomas, etc., on their office walls than their colleagues who were more
accomplished.50
Recent research finds that this process is beneficial only when we aren’t explicitly
aware of the connection between the “compensatory” product and the original threat
to our self. To strengthen the participants’ intelligence, the researchers asked them
to write about a time when they questioned their own intelligence. They then had
participants play a game like Scrabble. To make the connection between the game and
smartness explicit, they presented the game as “the smartest mind game” (versus not
having any such slogan). When the connection to smarts was explicit, the participants
tended to ruminate on the self-threat, and they were less interested in playing the game.
In other words, the explicitness removed the need for compensatory consumption.51

Anti-Consumption as Self-Defining
Has anyone ever made fun of you because on a certain day you happen to look a
lot like a
(fill in the blank: geek, nerd, druggie, etc.)? Sometimes consumers
(especially adolescents) go out of their way not to get labeled as belonging to some
social group that peers find undesirable. That’s why in some cases it is just as defining
to avoid certain products, practices, or brands as it is to seek them out. Other than the
“coolness factor,” consumers might voluntarily reduce or limit material consumption

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to affirm their identity through nonmaterial aspects of life. Or
they may avoid brands that they feel are too “corporate” to
signal their desire for a more just world. In other words, some
anti-consumption acts, like boycotting or avoiding products,
are emancipating.

Embodied Cognition
To what extent do the products we buy to influence others
as we pursue our identity projects also define ourselves?
Social scientists who study relationships between thoughts
and behaviors talk about the theory of embodied cognition.
A simple way to explain this perspective is that “states of
the body modify states of the mind.”54 In other words, our
Is it true that “you are what you wear?” One pair of researchers
behavior and observations of what we do and buy shape our
used the term enclothed cognition in their work that showed how
thoughts rather than vice versa. One of the most powerful
the symbolic meaning of clothing changes how people behave.
examples is the idea that our body language changes how
In one study, they asked respondents to wear a lab coat, which
we see ourselves. In one of the most widely viewed TED
people associate with attentiveness and precise work. Indeed, they
found that subjects who wore the lab coat displayed enhanced
talks ever, a social psychologist discusses how power posing
performance on tasks that required them to pay close attention.
(standing in a confident way even if you don’t feel confident)
But they also introduced a twist: When respondents were told the
affects brain activity and potentially “fools” you into being
garment was in fact a painter’s coat rather than a doctor’s lab coat,
55
more assertive.
the effects went away. In other words, the respondents interpreted
The embodied cognition approach is consistent with
the symbolic meaning of the clothing and then altered their behavior
accordingly.57 It’s tempting to point out that a study your humble
consumer behavior research that demonstrates how changes
first author conducted more than 40 years ago on the “dress for
in self-concept can arise from usage of brands that convey
success” phenomenon found similar results for students in job
different meanings. For example, findings from a study may
interview settings. Male job candidates who wore professional attire
help you to improve your golf game by taking advantage of
acted more assertively and confidently during the interviews and on
the placebo effect we discussed in Chapter 5. All the subjects
average even asked for higher starting salaries!58
used the same putter, but in one experimental condition, they
Source: Ground Picture/Shutterstock.
were led to believe that it was specifically made to enhance
performance. These golfers played better—though they took
credit for their performance rather than “thanking” the putter! The researchers concluded that superior scores resulted because using a brand the subjects thought would give them an edge lowered their anxiety about doing
well on the task and raised their self-esteem regarding their golf game.56
The self-fulfilling prophecy at work!

Our Digital Selves
Given how much time we spend on social media, in virtual reality worlds,
or on gaming platforms, it makes sense that we also express our identities
in the digital environments where so much of our lives take place today. Our
digital selves represent our identity in these worlds, whether expressed via
our social media profiles, Instagram photos, or by Bitmojis or avatars.59
On social media, we use brands to express both actual and ideal selves.
A study that analyzed Facebook users’ profile pages, as well as diaries,
focus groups, and in-depth interviews with those users, found that over half
of the 84 participants reported strategically presenting an ideal digital self
rather than their IRL (in real life) self.60
New virtual makeover technologies make it even easier for each of
us to involve the digital self as we choose products to adorn our physical
selves.61 Some cutting-edge retailers are starting to roll out interactive

The digital environment makes it easy to create
and communicate our ideal selves. Indeed, some
fashion designers, including Michael Kors,
Zac Posen, Alexander McQueen, Calvin Klein,
and Diane von Furstenberg, already are creating
collections for Bitmoji. People can buy a “real”
dress and get the same one for their digital self.62
Source: The Fabricant.

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Virtual makeover technologies such
as smart dressing rooms that use
augmented reality (AR) to help the
shopper to envision what an item will
actually look like on their body will
transform the shopping experience.
Source: Yoshikazu Tsuno/AFP/Getty Images.

dressing rooms or augmented reality website applications that allow the customer to
“see” what a pair of sunglasses, a sapphire ring, or a sweater would look like on their
own bodies. The online glasses merchant Warby Parker allows consumers to upload
a picture of themselves to try on frames virtually. Other apps such as Perfect 365 and
Face Tune let you touch up your photo so you can remove a pimple, a wrinkle, or
even a few pounds before you post it on Instagram or Facebook for others to admire.63

Our constant exposure to social media accelerates the well-known phenomenon of FOMO
(fear of missing out). Some critics have voiced concern about how platforms like Instagram
(which Facebook owns) “raise the bar” of appearance for teens who are bombarded by
images of perfect, beautiful bodies. Indeed, Facebook’s own research found that about onethird of teen girls they surveyed agreed that when they felt bad about their bodies, these
feelings were worse when they used Instagram. According to a former Facebook manager,
“As these young women begin to consume this eating disorder content, they get more and
more depressed. It makes them use the app more. And so, they end up in this feedback cycle
where they hate their bodies more and more.”64
Source: © Mark Anderson/Andertoons.com.

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When you choose an item, the computer screen or dressing room mirror superimposes it on your reflection so that you can see how it would look on your body
without having to go to the trouble of trying it on.65 Exciting stuff, but in a way this
fancy technology just simulates the “primping” process many shoppers undergo when
they prance in front of a mirror and try to imagine how a garment will look on them—
and whether others will approve or not. One important advantage to this new type of
shopping—it reduces the risk we associate with taking the plunge on a new hairstyle,
garment, or personal care product because we can see what we’ll look like without
having to commit to the new product first.
Cell phones have spawned yet another way for teens to share intimate details
about themselves online. The phenomenon of sexting, in which people post nude or
seminude photos of themselves online, is growing. Researchers estimate that between
20–60 percent of teens currently do it. Interestingly, teens themselves believe that
90 percent of their peers engage in this activity, which indicates that many young
people view this as “normal” behavior today.66
OBJECTIVE 9-4
Recognize the
many sociocultural
factors that contribute to gender
identity.

Gender and Consumer Behavior
Whereas sex refers to a biological difference, gender identity
is shaped by a variety of sociocultural factors. Gender is a
complex topic because it is a culturally embedded, politically
charged phenomenon as well as a biological label.67

Gender Socialization and Gender Roles
People often conform to their culture’s expectations about how those of their gender
should act, dress, or speak; we refer to these sets of expectations as gender roles. As
we’ll see, however, these expectations are in flux as our culture grapples with new
definitions of gender.
Children pick up on the concept of gender roles at an earlier age than researchers
previously believed—by as young as age one in some cases. By the age of three, most
U.S. children categorize driving a truck as masculine and cooking and cleaning as
feminine.68 Even characters that cartoons portray as helpless are more likely to wear
frilly or ruffled dresses.69 Many commercial sources, such as girls’ dolls, boys’ toy
guns, and all those ubiquitous cartoons provide lessons in gender socialization for
both girls and boys.
But things are changing as gender roles become much more fluid.70 Even Facebook
lets users choose among 58 defined genders—along with a write-in option—that range
from “gender fluid” to “intersex” and simply “neither.”71 So, it’s not surprising that in
popular culture and the media, we are starting to see different images of motherhood
and fatherhood. But there is still plenty of patriarchal masculinity, a viewpoint that
advocates the superiority of masculinity over femininity, or the authority of men over
women. For instance, ads often depict men, and particularly fathers, in their traditional
roles of protectors and breadwinners.72 Recently, however, we are witnessing more
balanced representations of gender roles with men depicted as involved fathers who
are caring and responsive to their children.73

Gender Differences in Consumer Behavior
Researchers have long documented gender differences in what we like to buy, wear,
drive, eat, and so on. These distinctions stem from sociocultural factors as well as
evolutionary and biological factors (the ability to bear children).

Although Cinderella, Ariel, and other
princesses still offer a tried-and-true
formula for girls that involves being
“rescued” by a man, other heroines
teach a different lesson. Katniss from
The Hunger Games, the Black Widow
of The Avengers, Anna and Elsa
of Frozen, Tris from Divergent, and
Wonder Woman compete for girls’
loyalty. The appeal of Katniss explains
why Hasbro has done so well with the
Nerf Rebelle Heartbreaker Exclusive
Golden Edge Bow, a petunia-colored
weapon with gold and white trim that
shoots colorful foam darts. A similar
product line, Zing’s Air Huntress bows
and sling shots, carries the slogan:
“Ready. Aim. Girl Power.” There’s even
a Barbie version of a Katniss doll,
complete with bow and arrow.74

Source: Janson_G/369 images/Pixabay.

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Although it can be tough to generalize, researchers
typically find that males tend to be more self-oriented,
whereas females are more other-oriented and more sensitive
to cues in the environment.75 A recent set of studies compared
the responses of males and females in a “pay-what-you-want”
setting. Males’ decisions tended to focus exclusively on the
economic benefits of paying less for the items. In contrast,
females approach the payment decisions with a communal
orientation; their motivation centers on obtaining a good
outcome for others as well as for themselves.76
These differences reflect either an agentic orientation
or a communal orientation. Agentic orientation emphasizes
instrumentality and independence, whereas communal
orientation values inclusiveness and interdependence. In
In traditional settings, little boys are encouraged to “win” as they
traditional settings, little boys are encouraged to “win” as
compete against other boys (e.g., playing “war”), while little girls,
they compete against other boys (e.g., playing “war”), while
in contrast, are encouraged to “get along” with one another and
little girls, in contrast, are encouraged to “get along” with one
build social ties (e.g., “playing house” with dolls).
another and build social ties (e.g., “playing house” with dolls).
Source: KlavdiyaV/Shutterstock.
Gender also affects how we process information: For
example, females find ads that are visually harmonious (i.e., a balanced or symmetrical arrangement of design elements) more attractive.77 But in many ways, gender is
a lot more complex than preferences for different kinds of images—and it’s getting
more so as cultural conversations abound about how to think about gender and what
it means to be “male,” “female,” or even whether gender is relevant at a time when so
many people question their own gender identity.

Beware of Gender Stereotypes in Advertising and Products
The way in which marketers promote brand personalities often links to traditional
thinking about males versus females. Our exposure to products that are marketed
according to gender stereotypes literally starts at birth—think of newborn babies
swathed in either pink or blue blankets. There are many sex-typed products like
this; they feature shapes and colors our culture associates with one gender or the
other, even if the product itself is pretty much gender-neutral. For example, the
following products, used by both men and women, are marketed
to men: Powerful Yogurt (nicknamed “brogurt”), Bounce Pure
Sport Fabric Softener Sheets, Kleenex Mansize, and Dr. Pepper
Ten (slogan: “No girls allowed”). And there are many “female”
examples of this: Bic for Her pens (in pastel colors), Sleep Pretty
in Pink (earplugs for women), Go Girl energy drinks (in a pink
can), and Chick beer (now defunct!).78
You would have to be living under a rock not to see the
many advertisements that invoke gender to sell a brand. Our
culture’s traditional stereotype of the ideal male is a tough,
aggressive, muscular man who enjoys “manly” sports. A study
that tracked advertising in eight male magazines with primarily
male readerships (ranging from Maxim to Golf Digest) reported
that most contain ads that can contribute to “hyper-masculinity”
because of heavy emphasis on violence, dangerousness, and
callous attitudes toward women and sex.79 Another study that
tried to answer the question of why women are more likely to
embrace sustainable behaviors than men found that men associate
Frito-Lay launched a new Cracker Jill mascot to
green behavior with femininity, so going green threatens their
accompany its Cracker Jack brand.
masculinity.80
Source: Frito-Lay North America, Inc. A Division Of Pepsico.

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A male sex-typed message from an Australian beer brand.
Source: Philip Game/Alamy Stock Photo.

Androgyny and Gender-Bending Products
In contrast to sex-typed products, an androgynous product is neither
specifically masculine nor feminine—and, indeed, it may include
characteristics we associate with both traditional gender categories.
Androgyny can open new markets, if marketers expand their reach
by appealing to people of other gender identities who don’t typically
buy what they sell. Some companies that sell exclusively to one gender
may decide to test the waters with the other gender when they promote
gender-bending products, which are traditionally sex-typed items
adapted to the opposite gender, such as the recent profusion of merchants
like Kahr, Walther, and Taurus that sell pink guns for women (“pink it
and shrink it!”). Here are some other gender benders:81

•

•
•

During World War II, the U.S. Government invented
a character it named Rosie the Riveter to inspire
women to contribute to the war effort by working in
factories—not a part of the female gender stereotype
at the time. An updated version promotes COVID-19
vaccinations.
Source: Vaccine Vaccinated Rosie The Riveter Vaccinator Painting
by Tony Rubino, United States.

Although makeup for men isn’t a new trend in the U.S. (yet), over 3 million
British males regularly wear cosmetics products like “manscara” and
“guyliner”—and only 2 percent of 18- to 24-year-old men define themselves as
totally masculine. Manny Gutierrez, Maybelline’s first male brand ambassador,
helped to encourage this practice. A store in London called A Wanted Man
offers a brow bar, while Quiff and Co. sells wigs and hairpieces. The online
retailer MMUK Man opened its first brick-and-mortar store to sell a male
clientele concealers, mascaras, and other products.82
Old Spice has long been known as the brand Dad keeps in his medicine
cabinet, but young women who like the scent and the relatively low price
are tuning into the deodorant as well. This resurgence is a bit ironic because
the first product the company introduced in 1937 was a women’s fragrance.
Febreze is an odor-neutralizing line of products that Procter & Gamble
(P&G) markets to women for housecleaning. However, P&G finds that a
lot of men spray it on their clothes to delay doing laundry. And in Vietnam,
where the product is called Ambi Pur, men who ride motor scooters use it as
a deodorizing spray for their helmets.83

Toward Greater Gender Fluidity
Marketers must be aware and respectful of current debates about gender identity. They need to stay tuned in, as the meaning of gender continues to evolve.
In the U.S., as in parts of Asia and Europe, many young consumers seem to

Androgyny refers to the possession of both
masculine and feminine traits.
Source: Independent Photo Agency/Alamy Stock Photo

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Men as well as women receive mixed
messages in advertising. Many brands
are moving away from the traditional
“man’s man” depiction to depict
changing beliefs about manhood.84
One study examined how U.S. men
pursue masculine identities through
their everyday consumption. The
researchers suggest that men try to
make sense out of three different
models of masculinity that they call
breadwinner, rebel, and man-ofaction hero. On the one hand, the
breadwinner model draws from the
U.S. myth of success and celebrates
respectability, civic virtues, pursuit
of material success, and organized
achievement. The rebel model, on
the other hand, emphasizes rebellion,
independence, adventure, and
potency. The man-of-action hero is a
synthesis that draws from the best of
the other two models.85
Source: Dove Men+Care AD, Unilever.

display a more fluid approach to gender. About 8 in 10 say that gender doesn’t define
a person as it used to, and half say they know someone who uses gender-neutral
pronouns. These new consumers tend to reject strict male/female categories when
they shop—less than half say they always buy clothes designed for their own gender.
Startup companies like Older Brother sell unisex clothing, and MeUndies makes
underwear for men and women including bright pink men’s boxers and camo-print
women’s bikinis.86
Consumer stereotypes and archaic views of sexual orientation must also be
updated because a larger proportion of consumers identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual,
transgender, queer, or other ( LGBTQ+). According to Gallup, the proportion of
American adults who self-identify as something other than heterosexual has increased
to a new high of 7.1 percent. That percentage has doubled since Gallup first started
measuring it in 2012.87
Despite the growing visibility of the LGBTQ+ community in our culture,
misconceptions and stereotypes still abound. For instance, a recent meta-analysis
found that, in contrast to prior beliefs, sexual orientation affects very little of the
variation in consumer behavior—and any minor consumer behavior differences
between homosexuals and heterosexuals decrease even further with age.88 So the
stereotype of a stylish and extremely wealthy gay consumer must be questioned, and
the stereotype that homosexual consumers spend more or prefer pricier products (like
the fashionistas we saw on TV shows like Queer Eye) simply do not hold.

The Quest for Gender Justice and Equality
Despite some progress toward gender equality in the marketplace, the world of
marketing continues to perpetuate many flawed and unjust gender roles.89 And
the stressors that the COVID-19 pandemic put on working families have brought
gender inequality to the forefront.90 Many women left the workforce to focus on their
families, and some worry that these developments may have slowed the progress that
generations of women’s rights activists had made.
Around the world, progress toward gender justice is slow and access to the
marketplace is lagging.91 OXFAM International reports these sobering global statistics:

•
•

On average, women are paid 24 percent less than men for comparable work.
Nearly two-thirds of the world’s 781 million illiterate adults are women.

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There are 153 countries with laws that
discriminate against women economically,
including 18 countries where husbands can
legally prevent their wives from working.
Worldwide, one in three women and girls will
experience abuse or violence in their lifetime.

OBJECTIVE 9-5
Discuss how
our bodies are
an important
component of
our identities.

The Body

A person’s physical
appearance is a large
part of their self-concept.
Body image refers to a
consumer’s subjective evaluation of their physical
self. Our evaluations don’t necessarily correspond
to what those around us see. A man may think of himself as being more muscular than
he really is, or a woman may feel she’s heavier than what the scale indicates. Whether
these perceptions are accurate is almost a moot point because our body insecurities
weigh us down whether they’re justified or not.92
Some marketers exploit consumers’ tendencies to distort their body images when
they prey on our insecurities about appearance. They try to create a gap between the
real and the ideal physical selves and consequently motivate a person to purchase
products and services they think will narrow that gap.
Social media also impacts how we feel about our bodies—as anyone who ruefully
scrolls through images of “ripped” people on Instagram or other platforms can tell
you. A recent study of Facebook users reported that one-half of them felt more selfconscious about their body image after they looked at photos of themselves and others
on the site.94 Another study reported a similar effect in brick-and-mortar stores: When
women walk into a store that has attractive salespeople, they feel less positive about
their own appearance.95 So much for “retail therapy”!

Ideals of Beauty and Stereotypes
Our satisfaction with the physical image we present to others often depends on how
closely we think the image corresponds to the ideal our culture values. An ideal of
beauty is a particular model, or exemplar, of appearance. Ideals of beauty for both
men and women may include physical features (e.g., a well-rounded derrière for
women or a well-defined six-pack for men) as well as clothing styles, cosmetics,
hairstyles, skin tone (pale versus tan), and body type (petite, athletic, voluptuous, and
so on). Our desires to match up to these ideals—for better or worse—drive a lot of
our purchase decisions.

Marketing and Advertising Contribute to a
Society’s Ideals of Beauty
Advertising and other forms of mass media play a significant role in determining
which forms of beauty we consider desirable at any point in time. An ideal of beauty
functions as a sort of cultural yardstick. Consumers compare themselves to some
standard (often one the fashion media advocate at that time), and they are dissatisfied
with their appearance to the extent that they don’t match up to it. This may lower
their own self-esteem or, in some cases, possibly diminish the effectiveness of an ad
because of negative feelings a highly attractive model arouses.96

Many major marketers have embraced
Gay Pride.
Source: Bryan Bedder/Stringer/Getty Images.

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In a series of Dove ads in China, pregnant bellies are painted with questions from unborn
girls. “If you knew I would grow to be a flat-nosed girl, would you still welcome me?” asks
one. “If you knew I’d grow up to weigh 140 jin [154 lbs.], would I still be your baby?” asks
another. The third: “I’ll soon come to the world, but if I grow to only have an A bra cup, will
you tease me?” Many Chinese women worry that if they don’t meet cultural beauty ideals,
they’ll be labeled a “leftover woman” or a “spinster,” terms for women who reach the age of
26 and are still single.93
Source: Phil Date/Shutterstock.

Our culture communicates these standards—subtly and not so subtly—virtually
everywhere we turn: on magazine covers, in department store windows, on TV shows.
Feminists argue that fashion dolls, such as the ubiquitous Barbie, reinforce an unnatural
ideal of thinness. When we extrapolate the dimensions of these dolls to average female
body sizes, indeed they are unnaturally long and thin.97 If the traditional Barbie doll were
a real woman, her dimensions would be 38–18–34! Mattel conducted “plastic surgery”
on Barbie to give her a less pronounced bust and slimmer hips, and the company now
sells an even more realistic Barbie featuring wider hips and a smaller bust.98
Whether the ideals of beauty are shaped by advertising and affect society or
shaped by society and reflected in advertising is an age-old debate. The “Hemline
Index” for example has been a popular “theory” since the 1920s. It states that when
shorter skirts for women are in style, we can expect good economic times while longer
hemlines signal a downturn. Sure enough, the flappers of the 1920s wore knee-length
skirts that were considered daring at the time. But the stock market crash pushed
hemlines back down. Miniskirts heralded an economic boom in the 1960s, but then
the oil crisis of the 1970s was paired with longer smock dresses and tunics. Today
this “index” no longer seems to predict much (if it ever did) due to the widely variable
styles that different segments of consumers prefer in our more complicated society.99
Still, this perspective hints at important underlying relationships between our
ideals of beauty and what’s going on in the world around us (e.g., androgynous styles
and fluid gender identities). Indeed, a recent historical content analysis of Brazilian
print ads in a popular magazine (Veja) from the past 50 years suggests that advertising

Chapter 9 • Identity and the Self

Axe, the men’s fragrance, hair, and body care brand, promotes the newly minted concept of
“bathsculinity” as it tries to chop away at harmful masculine stereotypes. Axe defines this
term as “qualities or attributes regarded as characteristic of young men who take pride in
their appearance and feel confident in expressing their most attractive selves, inside and
outside of the bathroom.” To spread the message, the Unilever brand partnered with actor
and comedian Lil Rel Howery of Get Out and Bird Box fame on a series of 15-second spots
for YouTube. In the ads, Howery is taking a bubble bath in a room filled with candles, and
he’s usually holding a bottle of Axe body wash.
Source: AXE.

responds to changes in society rather than vice versa.100 The researchers’ analysis
suggests that societal developments (such as when women began working) led to
changes in female stereotypes in print ads.
Images of impossibly thin and flawlessly beautiful women continue to bombard
young girls and women from the magazine rack, the TV, the movies, and digital media.
The editors and artistic directors who disseminate these beauty ideals have a great deal
of power because they help to determine the yardsticks the rest of us use to decide
whether we make the grade.
The irony is that these media standards are almost impossible to attain because
most of the svelte models we see literally do not exist in real life. Their bodies and
faces are carefully edited and photoshopped to remove wrinkles, trim waistlines,
and even elongate necks. Advertisers in France are now legally required to inform
consumers when a model’s figure has been digitally altered to look slimmer.101
In the U.S., the CVS chain took a bold step when the company declared that
“We will not digitally alter or change a person’s shape, size, proportion, skin, or eye
color or enhance or alter lines, wrinkles, or other individual characteristics. We want
our beauty aisle to be a place where our customers can always come to feel good,
while representing and celebrating the authenticity and diversity of the communities
we serve.” CVS puts a “CVS Beauty Mark” label on images that have not been
significantly retouched.102
Advertisers also contribute to shaping our beliefs about males’ ideal appearance.
Not surprisingly, a study of men who appear in advertisements found that most sport
the strong and muscular physique of the “macho” male stereotype.103 More than
40 percent of boys in middle school and high school say they exercise regularly
to increase muscle mass. Perhaps more troubling, 38 percent say they use protein
supplements, and nearly 6 percent admit they have experimented with steroids.104 This
obsession is so common that it has its own unique label: bigorexia.105

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Beyond Ageism and Sexism

A haircare line called Beauty & Pin-Ups selected
Katie Meade, a woman with Down syndrome,
as the face of its beauty campaign to challenge
conventional stereotypes of female beauty.
Source: Rachel Mummey/Barcroft Images/Barcroft Media/
Getty Images.

Norms of beauty are continually changing. Female social media influencers
are resisting and defying previously ageist and sexist fashion and beauty
ideals.106 For example, surveys show that a significantly lower proportion
of girls aged 16 to 24 shave their armpits and legs as compared to about five
years ago. Sales of shaving and hair removal products are down as well.
The desire for a “natural” look no doubt is inspired by celebrities, including
Lizzo, Paris Jackson, Mo’nique, Mary J. Blige, and Kate Middleton, who
proudly display body hair, scars, tattoos, and birthmarks, and even movements like “girlswillbeboys” that encourage women to shave their heads.107
But things still are very much in flux. For instance, the trend toward
more naturalness, including physical appearance, led some analysts to
predict that the “no make-up movement” would reduce cosmetic use. Yet
researchers who analyzed trends in the number of tweets with “#nomakeup”
and compared them to market sales of “all available facial cosmetic
products” found no such evidence.108
To find out more, the researchers conducted an experiment in which
they showed participants the image of a woman with a caption that implied
that she used makeup, didn’t use makeup, or didn’t mention it at all. Then
they asked them to rate how attractive the model was and how much effort
they thought she exerted to look good.
The findings revealed that people attribute attractiveness a person
achieves with low effort to “natural” beauty, which means that someone
who is attractive without make-up is considered more attractive than if they
have make-up on, and vice versa. So, in the end, the researchers concluded
that calls to look more natural in fact increase artificial beauty practices
because people perceive that they should try to create the appearance of
naturalness. It’s the age-old formula: Working hard to make it look like you
don’t have to work at all. . .

Negative Consequences of Impossible Body Ideals
For several years, Dove’s Campaign for Real Beauty has drawn attention to unrealistic beauty ideals by featuring women with imperfect bodies in its advertising. One
ad read, “Let’s face it, firming the thighs of a size 8 supermodel wouldn’t have been
much of a challenge.” Unilever initiated the campaign after its research showed that
many women didn’t believe its products worked because the women who used them
in its ads didn’t look realistic.109 When the company asked 3,200 women around the
world to describe their looks, most summed themselves up as “average.”
Continuous exposure to all these media images can result in body image
distortions. These psychological disorders cause the patient to believe that their body
literally is bigger or smaller than others see it. Researchers link a distorted body image
to eating disorders, including anorexia and bulimia. These disorders may involve binge
eating (usually in private), in which a person may consume more than 5,000 calories
at one time. The binge is followed by induced vomiting, abuse of laxatives, fasting,
or overly strenuous exercise—a “purging” process that reasserts the person’s sense
of control.
Most eating disorders occur among white, upper-middle-class teens and collegeage women. In addition, a person’s peers may encourage binge eating; Groups such
as athletic teams, cheerleading squads, and sororities may reinforce this practice. In
one study of a college sorority, members’ popularity within the group increased the
more they binged.110 Eating disorders affect 9 percent of the U.S. population. These

Chapter 9 • Identity and the Self

conditions are second only to opioid overdose in terms of the deaths they cause—
about one fatality every 52 minutes.111
At least 400 websites attract young people with “ana” and “mia,” nicknames for
anorexia and bulimia. These “communities” focus on what they call thinspiration
as they offer tips on crash dieting, bingeing, vomiting, and hiding weight loss from
concerned parents.
Group dieting is a growing problem as consumers patronize blog rings devoted
to excessive weight loss—especially when they challenge female college students to
lose as much weight as possible before events such as spring break. In one typical post,
a woman confessed to eating “one cracker, one strawberry and a little bit of soup” in
a 24-hour period, whereas another recounted a lunch of a slice of mango and a stick
of gum. These sites, often adorned with photos of ultrathin celebrities and slogans
such as “Diet Coke Is Life” appeal to followers of an underground movement called
pro-ana (pro-anorexia) who sometimes identify themselves in public when they wear
red bracelets, as one blog proclaims.112

Body Positivity: Enter the Fatshionistas
The growing popularity of “full-figured” women has drawn attention to the endangered
self-esteem of larger women. In a study that focused on fatshionistas—plus-size
consumers who want more options from mainstream fashion marketers—the
researchers identified a blog post that sums up the alienation many of these women feel:
For many of us who were fat as children and teens, clothes shopping was
nothing short of tortuous. Even if our parents were supportive, the selection of
“husky” or “half-sizes” for kids was the absolute pits. When that sort of experience is reinforced as a child, we often take it into adulthood. . . . We simply have
been socialized not to expect better than to be treated as fashion afterthoughts.

Buying, Having, Being
Vanity Sizing
It’s not surprising that standards
are changing; the typical woman’s
body is no longer as “petite” as it
used to be. The most purchased
dress today is a size 14; it was a
size 8 in 1985! The size and shape
of the “average” U.S. consumer
is dramatically different from what
it was 60 years ago; essentially
the fashion industry is selling
clothing to super-thin women who
don’t exist (at least not many of
them do). The U.S. government
estimates that two-thirds of U.S.
adults are overweight or obese.
Nevertheless, apparel companies
still develop clothing lines based
on a 1941 military study that set
sizing standards based on a small
sample of mostly white, young (and
presumably physically fit) female
soldiers. Indeed, even the sizes we
wear send messages about body
ideals. Clothing manufacturers often
offer vanity sizing, where they
deliberately assign smaller sizes to
garments. Women prefer to buy
the smaller size, even if the label is
inaccurate. Those who have low
self-esteem related to appearance
think of themselves more positively
and believe they are thinner when
they wear vanity sizes.113

We are living in changing times, when our culture is sending mixed messages about ideal body types.
Source: Left: Staras/Shutterstock; Right: Iurii Racenkov/Shutterstock

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The researchers investigated the triggers that mobilize these women to try to change
the market to make it friendlier to shoppers who don’t conform to a pencil-thin ideal
of beauty. They found that these consumers can indeed advocate for change, especially
when they create a common community of like-minded people (the “Fat Acceptance
Movement”) who can rally behind others who have successfully challenged the
status quo.114
Plus-size clothes have been available for almost a century, ever since a Lithuanian
immigrant, Lena Bryant (her name was later misspelled as “Lane” on a business
form), transformed a maternity-wear business into a line for stout women in the 1920s.
Today, mass-market stores and upscale designers like Elie Tahari have turned their
attention to the larger woman. Alpine Butterfly sells vibrant, fashionable swimwear
in sizes large to 5XL, while Swimsuits for All launched its first “fatkini” collection.
These new brands are starting to take a bigger share of the $20 billion swimwear
industry, with about $6.7 billion in revenues as of 2022.115

Body Decoration and Mutilation
People in every culture adorn or alter their bodies in some way. Decorating the physical self serves many purposes:116

•

To separate group members from nonmembers—One Native American tribe,
the Chinook, pressed the head of a newborn between two boards for a year, which
permanently altered its shape. In our society, teens go out of their way to adopt
distinctive hair and clothing styles that will separate them from adults.
To place the individual in the social organization—Many cultures engage in
puberty rites during which a boy symbolically becomes a man. Some young men
in part of Ghana paint their bodies with white stripes to resemble skeletons to
symbolize the death of their child status. In Western cultures, this rite may involve
some form of mild self-mutilation or engaging in dangerous activities.
To place the person in a gender category—The Tchikrin, American Indians
of South America, insert a string of beads in a boy’s lip to enlarge it. Western
women wear lipstick to enhance femininity. At the turn of the 20th century,
small lips were fashionable because they represented women’s submissive role
at that time.117 Today, big red lips are considered by many to be provocative,
sexy, and desirable.
To enhance sex-role identification—We can compare
the modern use of high heels, which podiatrists agree
are a prime cause of knee and hip problems, backaches,
and fatigue, with the traditional Asian practice of foot
binding to enhance femininity. As one doctor observed,
“When [women] get home, they can’t get their highheeled shoes off fast enough. But every doctor in the
world could yell from now until Doomsday, and women
would still wear them.”118
To indicate desired social conduct—The Suya of South
America wear ear ornaments to emphasize the importance
placed on listening and obedience in their culture.
To indicate high status or rank—The Hidates, American Indians of North America, wear feather ornaments
that indicate how many people they have killed. In our
A Russian artist takes body decoration to a new extreme: He
society, some people wear glasses with clear lenses, even
describes himself as a platypus—and indeed his lips extend more
though they do not have eye problems, to enhance their
than two inches from his face.
perceived status.
Source: News Dog Media.

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To provide a sense of security—Consumers often wear lucky charms, amulets,
and rabbits’ feet to protect them from the “evil eye.” Some modern women wear
a “mugger whistle” around their necks for a similar reason.

Body Modification
Because many consumers experience a gap between their real and ideal physical
selves, they often go to great lengths to change aspects of their appearance. From
Spanx to bras, cosmetics to plastic surgery, tanning salons to diet drinks, a multitude
of products and services promise to alter aspects of the physical self. One of the latest
trends: Beard transplants for men!119
It is difficult to overstate the importance of the physical self-concept (and
consumers’ desires to improve their appearances) to many marketing activities. To
rub salt into the wound, there is evidence that exposure to these messages increases the
desire to conform to a cultural ideal (such as thinness for women) but also decreases
a person’s belief that they can attain this ideal. One recent study reported that when
women in a weight-loss program were repeatedly exposed to images of a thin model,
they saw their dieting goals as less attainable and consumed more unhealthy snacks.120

Cosmetic Surgery
Consumers increasingly choose to have cosmetic surgery to change a poor body
image or simply to enhance appearance—more and more young people elect to have
procedures they believe will make them look better in their selfies!121 Even teens
as young as 13 are lining up to get Botox injections. Most young patients elect to
have the treatment to address perceived imperfections, such as a too-gummy smile
or a too-square jaw. Some teenagers mistakenly think that Botox now can prevent
wrinkles later.122
South Korea, which boasts the highest rate of cosmetic surgery of any country,
is attracting hordes of Chinese consumers who flock there for double eyelid surgery
or more radical facial restructuring that often involves painful procedures to alter
their faces into a V-shape that results in the delicate features their culture values. The
Korean government even provides funding to promote the country’s medical tourism
business. This term describes a rapidly growing sector of the global economy that
encourages consumers to travel to other countries for surgical procedures that might
be unavailable, more dangerous, or more expensive where they live.124
U.S. doctors perform about 1.7 million cosmetic procedures per year. The top five
are breast augmentation, liposuction, nose reshaping, eyelid surgery, and tummy tucks.
And 40 percent of breast reduction operations are performed on males.
As cosmetic surgery becomes increasingly acceptable (even expected in some circles), consumers and the medical profession expand the scope of body parts they want to
alter. Perhaps spurred by fashions such as low-rise jeans and spandex workout gear that
call attention to the derrière, for example, buttock augmentation surgery is gaining popularity even though it’s a dangerous operation. It typically costs about $20,000, so clearly
it’s not intended for the bottom of the market.125 In this procedure, fat is liposuctioned
from the patient’s flanks, tummy, and lower back and injected into their derrière. One
recipient observed, “It’s like moving money from your checking to savings account.”126
Recent research suggests that mannequins (like on the next page) can have
unintended influences on how consumers evaluate products displayed by those
mannequins.127 When consumers feel worse about their own body and overall
appearance, they are more likely to feel threatened by the beauty standard they see on
store mannequins, which leads them to evaluate the displayed product more negatively.
Interestingly, this negative halo effect disappeared when the mannequin’s beauty was
reduced (e.g., marking its face, removing its hair, or removing its head).

273

Buying, Having, Being
Should We Glorify Obesity?
There is no doubt that continuous exposure to images of models
who are underweight and without
imperfections can be detrimental
to people’s physical and mental
health. These concerns lead policy
makers and some in the fashion
industry to take steps to minimize
marketers’ use of such images.
Many consumer advocate groups
have lauded the move toward more
variety in body sizes in advertising
as beneficial for promoting a healthy
body image in society.
But the use of larger models
in ads may also have some
unintended consequences. Just
as the continuous exposure
to thin models can lead to the
development of eating disorders
because consumers wanted to
become thinner, new research
shows that exposure to larger body
types increases acceptance of
larger body types—but can also
lead consumers to eat more and
reduce their motivation to engage in
a healthier lifestyle.123
In one study, researchers
changed the size of the female
model featured in an ad and then
observed how many chocolates the
study participants ate. The ad with
the tagline “For Normal Women” led
participants to eat roughly 1.5 more
of the 7 chocolates offered than the
ad with the tagline “For Plus-Size
Women.” The authors explain that
seeing a larger body labeled as
normal aroused less concern about
overeating.

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Tattoos
Over 46 percent of Americans have at least one tattoo.128 The most popular
ink site for women: the ankle.129 Tattoos are iconic markers of one’s individuality, and they are full of personal and cultural meanings—as our friend
Shaquana discovered.130
Historically, people associated tattoos with social outcasts. For example,
authorities in 6th-century Japan tattooed the faces and arms of criminals to
identify them, and these markings served the same purpose in 19th-century
prisons and 20th-century concentration camps. Marginal groups, such as
bikers or Japanese yakuza (gang members), often use these emblems to
express group identity and solidarity.
Tattoos offer consumers an opportunity to mark their uniqueness but
also sometimes to signal belongingness to a particular group. Although it
can be tricky to interpret the visuals in a tattoo because they often intermix
personal and public symbols and meanings, body art is part of a process of
self-transformation as people work and rework the maps of their body.131

The Mechanized Body
The line that divides humans from machines is starting to blur. Self-driving
cars threaten to replace truck drivers. IBM’s Watson beats chess masters
and veteran Jeopardy game show contestants. Movies and TV shows like
Blade Runner, Westworld, and Humans that focus on the civil rights of
Women are confronted with a culture of enhanced
synths, replicants, and androids are center stage in popular culture. Alexa
physiques fueled by beauty pageants, plastic
and Siri are our new guardian angels. Where does the person stop and the
surgery, and artificial images of models that have
machine start?
been PhotoShopped to alter the person’s natural
Get ready for the invasion of wearable computing. Whether we wear
features.
devices
on our wrist, like the Apple Watch, or woven into our clothing, our
Source: Ellen Clark/Alamy Stock Photo.
digital interactions will increasingly become attached to our
bodies—and perhaps even inserted into our bodies as companies offer ways to implant computer chips into our wrists.
A small Wisconsin company made headlines when it
gave employees the option to implant a microchip in their
arms that allows them to log on to their computers, throw
away their corporate badges, and even make purchases from
vending machines in the building. Although this was largely
a publicity stunt (that worked quite well!), some analysts
believe the day when many of us will be chipped may not
be that far off. After all, pet owners have been chipping their
dogs for years to ensure that they don’t get lost—why not do
the same to ourselves?
A tiny implantable device can potentially simplify many
daily activities: Imagine not having to carry a passport, a
As the Internet of Things connects us to more of our devices,
driver’s license, or credit cards. A swipe of the arm would
some people are pushing the envelope as they explore new ways
start your car, pass you through airport security, and regulate
to integrate their bodies with technology. These biohackers come
the heat in your home.132 Of course, using a fake ID to get
in all shapes and sizes. Some wear a headband that electrically
stimulates the brain to improve cognition. Some meticulously
into bars might be a bit trickier. . .
track and record everything they eat and dabble in supplements
The fusion between the physical body and technology
that purport to improve mental and physical performance. A few
leads some analysts to compare the modern consumer to a
hardy souls even have a light-up implant surgically inserted into
cyborg.133 For sci-fi buffs, this term evokes the Cylons in
their arms to monitor biometric data that changes color when
the TV series Battlestar Galactica. More generally, it refers
levels are abnormal.
to a person who lives a technologically enhanced existence
Source: Courtesy of John A. Rogers, The University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

Chapter 9 • Identity and the Self

and who often possesses special abilities because she or he is linked to other parts
of a larger system (like the internet, perhaps).134 Followers of The Singularity
movement believe that we are headed toward a new era, where human intelligence
will merge with computer intelligence to create a human/machine hybrid civilization.
They predict that the wall separating humans and computers will fall, perhaps even
in our lifetimes.
We’re far from there now, but it’s hard to ignore the steady advance of work on
the Internet of Things (IoT). It looks like the IoT will be a tidal wave that will soon
wash over many industry verticals. Current examples include a person with a heart
monitor implant, a farm animal with a biochip transponder, a smart thermostat that
adjusts the temperature in a home and even raises and lowers the blinds to maintain
equilibrium, or an automobile that has built-in sensors to alert the driver when tire
pressure is low.135
There are obvious privacy concerns as connected products pick up steam, but
advocates argue they offer numerous benefits as well. These attachable computers
will be cheaper, provide greater accuracy because sensors are closer to our bodies, and
be more convenient because we won’t have to carry around additional hardware.136
Already numerous wearables with big health implications are available or under
development:137

•
•
•
•
•
•

Sensing for sleep disorders by tracking breath, heart rate, and motion
Detecting possible onset of Alzheimer’s by monitoring a person’s gait via a GPS
embedded in their shoes
Tracking ingestion of medication via sensors that are activated by stomach fluid
Measuring blood sugar via a contact lens with a chip that can track activity in a
patient’s tears
Measuring whether the wearer is sweating, along with the strength of the odor and
odor type via a Japanese device that connects to an app on a smartphone through
Bluetooth. The wearer gets notified if it’s time to change that shirt.138
And finally, how about a smart condom? The i.Con is fitted with a nano-chip
that tracks movement and calories burned. Users can opt to share performance
information data online. No, you can’t make this stuff up.139

The Quantified Self
Consumers are keeping track of their bodies’ performance as
never before. They obsess about food intake, calories burned,
steps walked, and on and on. Many of us want to measure
whatever we can—and if possible, compare our outcomes
to others in a new twist on the process of social comparison
we’ve already discussed.
A thriving industry caters to this yearning to self-quantify.
Numerous startups are betting that consumers will sign up
to create better, brighter, augmented versions of themselves.
Companies hawk apps and other devices that measure how
much individuals sleep, eat, walk, and spend.141
For all the help these gadgets provide in monitoring our
sleep, food intake, and exercise, the quantified self can also
be problematic. Researchers have shown that so much measuring and tracking reduces our enjoyment of those activities
and our motivation to engage in them.142 Put away that Fitbit
and go for a run, gadget free!

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Buying, Having, Being
The Genetic Data Trap
Mapping of the human genome
has created a whole new type of
data: genetic data. Over 30 million
customers have already taken a
DNA test. Most take the test to find
information about their ancestry.
Many of these genetic datasets
are owned by private companies
and governments. It is tempting
for companies to start digging into
these genetic data for marketing
purposes: Imagine identifying and
targeting consumers with similar
needs in terms of health or nutrition.
But potential misuses of this
type of data have raised the
alarm—there are serious ethical
and moral challenges facing this
new business.140 Not only does
it threaten consumer autonomy
and privacy, but it might also lead
to misinformation and misguided
“genetic-based recommendations.”
Some governments have moved
fast to prevent such misuse. Under
current European law, one must
explicitly consent to the processing
of such data, yet consumers might
easily approve mining of their data
without reading the legal terms and
services. Once such consent is
provided, virtually every marketing
application becomes possible
despite the strict sharing restrictions
in place.

Saudi Arabia is the first country to grant citizenship to a robot
(named Sophia).
Source: Anton Gvozdikov/Shutterstock.

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CHAPTER SUMMARY
Now that you have finished reading this chapter, you should
be able to:

people now express identity via their digital selves, or the
form they take when they interact in online environments.

1. Explain how the self-concept strongly influences
consumer behavior.

4. Recognize the many sociocultural factors that
contribute to gender identity.

Consumers’ self-concepts are reflections of their
attitudes toward themselves. Whether these attitudes
are positive or negative, they will help to guide many
purchase decisions; we can use products to bolster selfesteem or to “reward” the self.

Gender roles, or a society’s conceptions of masculinity
and femininity, exert a powerful influence on our
expectations about the brands we should consume.
Advertising and products that are sex-typed play
an important role because they portray idealized
expectations of gender identity. Definitions of gender
are currently in flux as many people question whether
the traditional male/female dichotomy applies to them.

2. Describe how our consumption choices are
expressions of our identities and extensions of
our selves.
We choose many products because we think that they
are like our personalities. The symbolic interactionist
perspective on the self implies that each of us has many
selves, and we require a different set of products as
props to play each role. We view many things other
than the body as part of who we are. People use valued
objects, cars, homes, and even attachments to sports
teams or national monuments to define the self when
they incorporate these into the extended self.
3. Summarize how consumers are finding new
ways to express identity via their consumption
choices.
We often engage in impression management—a
conscious effort to influence what others think about
us. The brands we choose play an important part in that
process. But consumers also rely upon the brand they
choose to bolster their self-concepts, especially when
some aspect of identity is threatened. In addition, many

5. Discuss how our bodies are an important component of our identities.
A person’s conception of their body also provides
vital feedback to self-image. A culture communicates
specific ideals of beauty, and consumers go to great
lengths to attain these. Many consumer activities
involve manipulating the body, whether through dieting,
cosmetic surgery, piercing, or tattooing. Sometimes
these activities are carried to an extreme because people
try too hard to live up to cultural ideals. One common
manifestation of this is eating disorders, where people
become so obsessed with thinness that they engage in
damaging eating behaviors, like anorexia or bulimia.
Body decoration or mutilation may serve
such functions as separating group members from
nonmembers, marking the individual’s status or rank
within a social organization or within a gender category,
or even providing a sense of security or good luck.

KEY TERMS
Actual self, 253
Agentic orientation, 264
Androgyny, 265
Anti-consumption, 261
Avoidance selves, 253
Bigorexia, 269
Biohackers, 274
Body image, 267
Body image distortions, 270
Chipped, 274
Communal orientation, 264
Compensatory consumption, 260
Cyborg, 274

Digital selves, 261
Dramaturgical perspective, 255
Embodied cognition, 261
Enclothed cognition, 261
Extended self, 258
Fatshionistas, 271
FOMO (fear of missing out), 263
Gender-bending products, 265
Gender identity, 263
Gender roles, 263
Gender socialization, 263
Genetic data, 275
Group dieting, 271

Ideal of beauty, 267
Ideal self, 253
Identity, 253
Identity projects, 258
Impression management, 253
Independent self, 254
Interdependent self, 254
LGBTQ+, 266
Looking-glass self, 254
Medical tourism, 273
Patriarchal masculinity, 263
Power posing, 261
Public self-consciousness, 255

Chapter 9 • Identity and the Self

Quantified self, 275
Role identities, 256
Self-concept, 253
Self-concept clarity, 260
Self-construal, 254
Self-esteem, 253
Self-fulfilling prophecy, 254

Self-monitors, 255
Self-signaling, 257
Self-image congruence models, 257
Sexting, 263
Sex-typed products, 264
Social comparison, 254
Symbolic interactionism, 256

277

Symbolic self-completion theory, 260
The Singularity movement, 275
Thinspiration, 271
Torn self, 256
Vanity sizing, 271
Virtual makeover, 261
Wearable computing, 274

REVIEW
9-1 List three dimensions that describe the self-concept.
9-2 Compare and contrast the real versus the ideal self.
List three products for which a person is likely to
use each type of self as a reference point when they
consider a purchase.

9-4 What does the “looking-glass self” mean? How do
feelings about the self influence what we buy?
9-5 How do Eastern and Western cultures differ in how
people think about the self?
9-6 How did tattoos originate?

9-3 Have ideals of beauty in the United States changed
during the past 50 years? If so, how?

CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CHALLENGE
DISCUSS

9-7 As wearable computing takes off, so too will the
possibility of “chipping” people so that they can
directly interact with their devices without having
to go through an interface like a smartphone. What
ethical problems might this practice pose? Do the
potential benefits outweigh the risks?
9-8 At the end of the day, are you what you buy?
9-9 Shopping for back-to-school “basics” used to
mean T-shirts, jeans, socks, and some notebooks.
Now, many parents have a new item to add to the
list: tattoos. About 45 percent of parents polled
say that hair highlights, teeth whitening, and
even tattoos are among the items they will buy
their kids to go back to school. 143 What (if any)
age is appropriate for kids to get these grownup
modifications?
9-10 Restaurant chains that attract diners with buxom
servers in short shorts have become so popular
the industry has a name for this category:
breastaurants. The largest eatery of this kind is
Hooters, which boasts more than $1 billion in
sales annually. Other category members include
Twin Peaks, Mugs N Jugs, and Tilted Kilt.144 Is it
ethical to hire women as waitresses because they
have certain physical characteristics? Is it ethical
to exclude others (including men) from these jobs
if they don’t?

9-11 One consequence of the continual evolution of sex
roles is that men are concerned as never before with
their appearance. Men spend $7.7 billion on grooming products globally each year. A wave of male
cleansers, moisturizers, sunscreens, depilatories, and
body sprays has washed up on U.S. shores, largely
from European marketers. L’Oréal Paris reports that
men’s skincare products are now its fastest-growing
sector. In Europe, 24 percent of men younger than
age 30 use skincare products—and 80 percent of
young Korean men do. Even cosmetics products, like
foundation and eyeliner, are catching on in some segments, though men aren’t comfortable owning up to
using them. In fact, a British makeup product looks
like a ballpoint pen so men can apply it secretly at
the office.145 How widespread is this phenomenon?
Do you see men in your age group focusing on these
interests? Should marketers change how they think
of male sex roles today?
9-12 Some activists object to Axe’s male-focused
marketing because they claim it demeans women.
In contrast, Dove’s “Natural Beauty” campaign
gets kudos because it promotes more realistic
expectations for girls. Guess what? The same
company—Unilever—owns both Axe and Dove. Is
it hypocritical for a big company to sponsor positive
messages about women in one of its divisions while
it sends a different message in another?

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9-13 The clothing chain H&M features computergenerated models on its website. The company
drew criticism for presenting only picture-perfect
people; for example, the Norwegian Broadcasting
Corporation accused the chain of “creating unrealistic
physical ideals.” A company spokesperson defended
the move by explaining that these unreal bodies
would ensure that the garments remain the focus
of online shoppers’ attention. In contrast, the teenoriented magazine Seventeen pledged to always
feature “real girls” in its pages. This change was in
response to an online petition that gathered nearly
85,000 signatures in just four days. The 14-year-old
reader who posted the petition stated, “For the sake
of all the struggling girls all over America, who read
Seventeen and think these fake images are what they
should be, I’m stepping up. I know how hurtful these
Photoshopped images can be.”146 What do you think
of this argument—does the use of only “perfect”
bodies create a problem for real shoppers?
9-14 Many people feel that a preoccupation with physical
appearance diverts consumers from discovering
true happiness (i.e., “you can’t judge a book by its
cover”). On the other hand, recent research finds that
a heightened interest in appearance can improve the
mental health of elderly people; putting on make-up
can slow the progress of dementia by helping
sufferers keep their brains active.147 Numerous

organizations provide wigs to chemotherapy patients
who lose their hair to bolster their self-esteem. Is a
focus on looks ultimately a positive or a negative
force? How can marketers encourage a “healthy”
interest in appearance?
9-15 An important debate has existed for years about
whether gender stereotypes in advertising influence
and perpetuate existing values and norms around
stereotyping at large, or whether advertising
depictions simply reflect the values of society, without
having much direct influence on them. Which way
do you think this process works: Does advertising
simply respond to ongoing changes in society, or
is it instrumental in creating those changes? Are
advertisers to blame for unrealistic images of people
that motivate them to conform to these ideals?
9-16 There is a tendency to become preoccupied with
documenting the moment—the more pictures
people take, the less they say they enjoy the actual
experience.148 What’s your take? Are we overly
concerned with posting what we do as opposed to
just experiencing things in the moment?
9-17 The chapter references a study that found when a
larger body is labeled as “normal” size, people who
see it become less concerned about overeating. What
do you think? Will our culture’s new focus on body
positivity ironically come back to bite us, as more
people decide it’s OK to overeat?

APPLY

9-18 If our possessions do indeed come to be a part of us,
how do we bring ourselves to part with these precious
items? Researchers find that people often take steps to
distance themselves from a favored object before they
get rid of it. Strategies they identified include taking
pictures and videos of the objects; moving them into
an out-of-the way location, such as a garage or an attic;
or washing, ironing, and wrapping the item. Interview
people you know who have disposed of a product that
was important to them—for example, a well-used car
or a favorite sweatshirt that finally had too many holes
to keep. What steps did they take to “divest” themselves
of this attachment (such as removing personal items
from a car before selling it and so on)?149
9-19 Construct a “consumption biography” of a friend or
family member. Make a list of or photograph their
favorite possessions and see whether you or others
can describe this person’s personality just from the
information provided by this catalog.

9-20 Interview victims of burglaries, or people who
have lost personal property in floods, hurricanes,
or other natural disasters. How do they go about
reconstructing their possessions, and what effect
did the loss appear to have on them? Similarly, poll
your class: If their house or apartment were on fire
and they could take only one possession with them
as they evacuate, what would it be?
9-21 Watch a set of ads on TV that feature men and
women. Try to imagine the characters with reversed
roles (i.e., the male roles played by women and vice
versa). Can you see any differences in assumptions
about sex-typed behavior?
9-22 How do people you know feel about their cars? Interview some of them about the “relationships” they
have. Do they decorate their cars? Do they have nicknames for them? And check out a video on YouTube
called “I Love My Car” to really see how deep these
relationships can go.

Chapter 9 • Identity and the Self

9-23 Many advertisers routinely purchase stock
photography when they need an image of a certain
kind of person to insert in an ad. Many photos
of women reflect common stereotypes, ranging
from the crisp businesswoman who wears a suit
and glasses and holds a briefcase to the smiling
mother who pours milk into cereal bowls for her
kids at breakfast. Sheryl Sandberg, the former
Facebook executive who is an advocate for women
in business, started an organization called Lean In
to promote leadership for women. Lean In has now
partnered with Getty Images, one of the biggest
stock photography companies, to offer an image
collection that represents women differently. The
new collection depicts women as surgeons, painters,
bakers, soldiers, and hunters. There are girls riding
skateboards and women lifting weights.150 Look

279

through a sample of current magazines and collect
images of women. To what extent do they represent
a range of roles? Categorize these images according
to the type of product advertised and the situation
the photo depicts (e.g., multitasking woman holding
a tablet and a baby, happy homemaker, and so on).
Based on what you find, what messages do our media
give us about gender roles today?
9-24 Young girls in our society are under tremendous
pressure to express their sexualized identity—to
wear tight clothing, post sexy images, or engage
in inappropriate behaviors like watching porn or
sexting. This emphasis can trigger a range of negative
emotions, and it can even lead to anxiety, depression,
eating disorders, PTSD, or in some cases suicide.151
Do you agree with these research findings? How can
marketers help to reduce these issues?

DIGGING IN WITH DATA

See “Data Case 3: Cats, Kibble, and Commercials” in Appendix A for an opportunity to work with real consumer
data and apply this chapter’s concepts to real world problems.

CASE STUDY

Retailer Torrid: Empowering Women of all Sizes

For years, Hollywood and the advertising media have perpetuated
a stereotypical image of women. As a result, many consumers
have the unrealistic expectation that women should be pore-less,
hipless, silken-haired, high-cheek boned, size 0, 20-year-old
goddesses. But is this beauty myth finally changing? Fashion
retailer Torrid believes that it should. As a direct-to-consumer
apparel and intimates brand in North America, Torrid aims to
provide “an unparalleled fit and experience, empowering curvy
women to love the way they look and feel.”152
It’s no secret that we are growing as a population—not just
in quantity but also in our individual body sizes. According
to the Center for Disease Control (CDC), approximately
36.9 percent of American adults aged 20 and older were obese
based on 2015–2016 data—which is twice the rate of just
three decades ago.153 Today, the typical American woman
wears a large to extra-large pant size, or between a size
18–20 in most apparel brands. However, regular sizes (known
as “straight” sizes in the industry) run only up to size 12,
sometimes size 10.154 Apparel manufacturers have responded
with “plus” sizes, which can begin at size 14 but even that is
subject to interpretation by individual manufacturers.155 All
companies and brands are free to make up their own size

guidelines. As a result, some throw sizes 14 and up—or even
as low as size 10—into the plus-size mix. Other brands stop
making sizes over a 12 or 14 altogether.156 There’s also tall
plus, petite plus, and juniors plus—all of which have special
size requirements of their own.157 In total, the women’s plussize market accounts for almost 19 percent of the entire U.S.
women’s apparel sales, which was worth $113.8 billion for the
12 months ending May 2021, according to the NPD Group.158
This expanding market is full of opportunities for brands
that cater to plus-size customers. For now, options are limited
for larger women. “More diverse options are what’s lacking,”
said Lauren Chan, founder of Henning, a plus-size women’s
apparel brand.159 “The options for straight sizes are epic.
There’s a never-ending way a straight-size person can express
themselves. In the plus-size market, we get one tone, so we
end up shopping in piecemeal: One thing from one brand and
another from another, wherever we can find things that fit.
We need more brands that can make us feel like ourselves.
That’s what excites customers. It makes them brand loyal.”160
Torrid is among the more high-profile recent entrants
in the ever-expanding plus-size market. Based in City of
Industry, CA, Torrid operates 608 stores nationwide. 161

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It started out as a division of Hot Topic, which was acquired
by Sycamore Partners in 2013. Torrid, which was spun off
as its own entity in 2015, calls itself a direct-to-consumer
company as opposed to a specialty retailer, generating
70 percent of its sales online in 2020.162 It posted net sales
of $974 million in the pandemic year of 2020, compared with
$1.04 billion in 2019. First-quarter sales jumped 109 percent
year-over-year to $325.8 million.163
The brand has a history of producing ad campaigns that
highlight all women’s bodies in intimate wear, celebrating
beauty of all sizes in a category known for Victoria’s Secret
models. In 2017, the brand’s #TheseCurves campaign on
social media featured real Torrid fans instead of professional
models.164 Torrid asked loyal customers to share photos of
themselves in the brand’s products on social channels and to
explain “what makes #TheseCurves all yours” for a chance
to star in the ads. Torrid enlisted influencers and social media
personalities to extend the contest’s reach, encourage usergenerated content, and spur a conversation online about body
positivity and embracing differences.
Other fashion brands and traditional retailers are taking
notice. Michael Kors and Comme des Garçons have added
plus sizes in their high-fashion lines, and now H&M and Target
offer specific collections for plus-size women. Nordstrom
is integrating plus sizes with straight sizes, adding larger
mannequins, and showcasing plus-size models on its website.
Even Walmart is getting in on the game with plans to acquire
ModCloth, one of the pioneers in size-inclusive fashion.
There is no sign that the population is slimming down,
and as our bodies grow, the market for plus-size fashions
grows as well. Attitudes are slowly changing, with more
positive media attention and more balanced ways in which

plus-size consumers view themselves. Perhaps success
cannot be declared until the market is no longer considered
something “different,” as Alexandra Waldman, founder of
Universal Standard notes: “If we are still talking about a plussize market 10 years from now, we will have failed.”
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

CS 9-1 Explain the success that Torrid and similar brands
have experienced in relation to self-concept, selfesteem, and self-consciousness. How can the plussize industry leverage what we know about consumer
behavior to address self-esteem issues? Be sure to
address the unique challenges facing plus-size brands
in today’s marketplace.
CS 9-2 Discuss the real-world changes that appear to be
occurring with respect to media images of women.
What are the reasons for this? Find two recent articles
or examples that illustrate these changes.
CS 9-3 How do you reconcile the greater degree of acceptance
of plus-size women with the parallel emphasis our
society continues to place on thinness (as evidenced
by the billions we spend on diet products, exercise,
and so on)? Given the health problems associated
with obesity (heart disease, diabetes, and so on),
should the industry continue to encourage this
acceptance? What role is social media playing?
CS 9-4 Visit the website of Torrid or one of its competitors,
and discuss how the brand positions itself to support
its customers’ positive self-image. What is the brand’s
strategy to support a customer’s body image?

NOTES
1. Quoted in Carolyn Steber, “7 Major Tattoo Trends You’re about to See
Everywhere,” Bustle, February 11, 2022, https://www.bustle.com/style/
tattoo-trends-2022#:~:text=Nic%20El%2C%20the%20owner%20of,them%
2C%E2%80%9D%20he%20tells%20Bustle., accessed May 27, 2022.
2. Americus Reed, Mark R. Forehand, Stefano Puntoni, and Luk Warlop,
“Identity-Based Consumer Behavior,” International Journal of Research in
Marketing 29, no. 4 (2012): 310–21.
3. Emily Yoffe, “You Are What You Buy,” Newsweek, June 4, 1990: 59.
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Chapter 9 • Identity and the Self

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282

Section 4

• Being: Using Products to Create and Communicate Identity

56. Aaron M. Garvey, Frank Germann, and Lisa E. Bolton, “Performance Brand
Placebos: How Brands Improve Performance and Consumers Take the Credit,”
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57. Adam Hajo and Adam D. Galinsky, “Enclothed Cognition,” Journal of
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59. Hope Jensen Schau and Mary C. Gilly, “We Are What We Post? SelfPresentation in Personal Web Space,” Journal of Consumer Research 30, no.
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60. Candice R. Hollenbeck and Andrew M. Kaikati, “Consumers’ Use of Brands
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61. Miranda Mazariegos, “Looking Good in the Metaverse. Fashion Brands Bet
on Digital Clothing,” NPR, February 16, 2022, https://www.npr.org/2022/
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62. Steven Kurutz, “Even If You Can’t Afford Designer Clothes, Your Bitmoji
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63. Hilary Stout, “Mirror, Mirror in the App: What’s the Fairest Shade and Shadow
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67. Susan Dobscha and Jacob Ostberg, “ Introduction to the Special Issue
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Global Identity among Males and Females: The Case of Price Sensitivity,”
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77. Kristina Nickel, Ulrich R. Orth, and Minu Kumar, “Designing for the Genders:
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78. Brad Tuttle, “12 Products Marketed to One Gender for No Good Reason,”
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84. Barbara B. Stern, “Masculinism(s) and the Male Image: What Does It Mean to
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of Heroic Masculinity in Everyday Consumption,” Journal of Consumer
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88. Martin Eisend and Erik Hermann, “Sexual Orientation and Consumption:
Why and When do Homosexuals and Heterosexuals Consume Differently?”
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89. Wendy Hein, Laurel Steinfield, Nacima Ourahmoune, Catherine Coleman,
Linda Tuncay Zayer, and Jon Littlefield, “Gender Justice and the Market:
A Transformative Consumer Research Perspective,” Journal of Public Policy
& Marketing 35, no. 2 (2016): 223–36.
90. Catherine Coleman, Eileen Fischer, and Linda Tuncay Zayer, “A Research
Agenda for (Gender) Troubled Times: Striving for a Better Tomorrow,” Journal
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93. Ibid.
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Service Providers: Approach or Avoid?,” Journal of Consumer Research 42,
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Who Loathe Them: The Implications of Negative Affect for Spokesperson
Effectiveness,” Journal of Advertising 30 (Fall 2001): 51–63.
97. Elaine L. Pedersen and Nancy L. Markee, “Fashion Dolls: Communicators of
Ideals of Beauty and Fashion,” paper presented at the International Conference
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Institutional Viewpoint,” Journal of the Association for Consumer Research 6,
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You,” BBC News, September 30, 2017, www.bbc.com/news/world-europe
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102. Julia Horowitz, “CVS Will Stop Airbrushing Photos It Uses to Sell Beauty
Products,” CNN, January 15, 2018.

Chapter 9 • Identity and the Self

103. Richard H. Kolbe and Paul J. Albanese, “Man to Man: A Content Analysis of
Sole-Male Images in Male-Audience Magazines,” Journal of Advertising 25
(Winter 1996): 1–20.
104. Douglas Quenqua, “Muscular Body Image Lures Boys into Gym, and Obsession,”
New York Times, November 19, 2012, www.nytimes.com/2012/11/19/health/
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105. Alex Hawgood, “What Is ‘Bigorexia’? A Social Media Diet of Perfect Bodies Is
Spurring Some Teenage Boys to Form Muscle Dysmorphia,” New York Times,
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106. Ela Veresiu and Marie-Agnès Parmentier, “Advanced Style Influencers:
Confronting Gendered Ageism in Fashion and Beauty Markets,” Journal of
the Association for Consumer Research 6, no. 2 (2021): 263–73.
107. Izabella Zaydenberg, “15 Female Celebrities Who Proudly Flaunted Their
Body Hair,” Cafe Mom, September 18, 2017, https://cafemom.com/lifestyle/
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108. Rosanna K. Smith, Elham Yazdani, Pengyuan Wang, Saber Soleymani, and Lan
Anh N. Ton, “The Cost of Looking Natural: Why the No-Makeup Movement
May Fail to Discourage Cosmetic Use,” Journal of the Academy of Marketing
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109. Christian S. Crandall, “Social Contagion of Binge Eating,” Journal of
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Pro-Anorexia?” HealthyPlace.com, May 13, 2016, https://www.healthyplace
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112. Erin White, “Dove ‘Firms’ with Zaftig Models: Unilever Brand Launches
European Ads Employing Non-Supermodel Bodies,” Wall Street Journal, April
21, 2004: B3.
113. Nilüfer Z. Aydinoğlu and Aradhna Krishna, “Imagining Thin: Why Vanity
Sizing Works,” Journal of Consumer Psychology 22, no. 4 (2012): 565–572.
114. Stephanie Clifford, “High Fashion, No Airbrushing,” New York Times, October
19, 2012, www.nytimes.com/2012/10/20/business/rent-the-runway-uses-realwomen-to-market-high-fashion.html?ref=todayspaper&_r=0.
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IBISWorld, April 27, 2021, https://www.ibisworld.com/industry-statistics/
market-size/plus-size-womens-clothing-stores-united-states/#:~:text=The%20
market%20size%2C%20measured%20by,is%20%246.7bn%20in%202022,
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116. Ruth P. Rubinstein, “Color, Circumcision, Tattoos, and Scars,” in Michael
R. Solomon, ed., The Psychology of Fashion (Lexington, MA: Lexington
Books, 1985): 243–54; Peter H. Bloch and Marsha L. Richins, “You Look
‘Mahvelous’: The Pursuit of Beauty and Marketing Concept,” Psychology &
Marketing 9 (January 1992): 3–16.
117. Sondra Farganis, “Lip Service: The Evolution of Pouting, Pursing, and Painting
Lips Red,” Health, November 1988: 48–51.
118. Michelle Hancock, “High Heels: The Agony and the Ecstasy,” The Telegraph,
April 1, 1986, http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=2209&dat=19860401
&id=xp4rAAAAIBAJ&sjid=NfwFAAAAIBAJ&pg=6255,163038.
119. Andrew Adam Newman, “Baby-Faced Men Opt for Beard Transplants,” New
York Times, October 1, 2015, https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/02/fashion/
mens-style/baby-faced-men-opt-for-beard-transplants.html?smprod=nytcoreiphone&smid=nytcore-iphone-share&_r=0, accessed May 27, 2022.
120. Anne-Kathrin Klesse, Caroline Goukens, Kelly Geyskens, and Ko de Ruyter,
“Repeated Exposure to the Thin Ideal and Implications for the Self: Two
Weight Loss Program Studies,” International Journal of Research in Marketing
29, no. 4 (2013): 355–62.
121. John W. Schouten, “Selves in Transition: Symbolic Consumption in Personal
Rites of Passage and Identity Reconstruction,” Journal of Consumer Research
17 (March 1991): 412–25; “Selfie Culture Is Fuelling Plastic Surgery,”
Canvas8, February 24, 2017.
122. Catherine Saint Louis, “This Teenage Girl Uses Botox. No, She’s Not
Alone,” New York Times, August 11, 2010, www.nytimes.com/2010/08/12/
fashion/12SKIN.html?_r=1&scp=2&sq=botox&st=cse.
123. Lily Lin and Brent McFerran, “The (Ironic) Dove Effect: Use of Acceptance
Cues for Larger Body Types Increases Unhealthy Behaviors,” Journal of Public
Policy & Marketing 35, no. 1 (2016): 76–90.
124. Alexandra Stevenson, “Plastic Surgery Tourism Brings Chinese to South
Korea,” New York Times, December 23, 2014, www.nytimes.com/2014/12/24/
business/international/plastic-surgery-tourism-brings-chinese-to-south-korea
.html?ref=international&_r=0.
125. “New Statistics Reflect the Changing Face of Plastic Surgery,” American
Society of Plastic Surgeons, February 25, 2016, www.plasticsurgery.org/news/
press-releases/new-statistics-reflect-the-changing-face-of-plastic-surgery.
126. Quoted in Abby Ellin, “Brazilian Butt Lifts Surge, Despite Risks,” New
York Times, August 19, 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/19/style/

127.
128.
129.
130.
131.
132.

133.

134.
135.
136.

137.
138.
139.
140.
141.

142.
143.
144.

145.

146.

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brazillian-butt-lift-bbl-how-much-risks.html?referringSource=articleShare,
accessed May 26, 2022.
Jennifer J. Argo and Darren W. Dahl, “Standards of Beauty: The Impact of
Mannequins in the Retail Context,” Journal of Consumer Research 44, no. 5
(2018): 974–90.
“Tattoo Artists Industry in the US - Market Research Report,” IBISWorld, July
30, 2021, https://www.ibisworld.com/united-states/market-research-reports/
tattoo-artists-industry/, accessed May 26, 2022.
Dana Blanton, “Fox News Poll: Tattoos Aren’t Just for Rebels Anymore,” Fox
News, March 14, 2014, www.foxnews.com/us/2014/03/14/fox-news-polltattoos-arent-just-for-rebels-anymore/.
Allison Hawn, “Who Invented Tattoos? Ancient History Reveals the
Controversial Truth,” Inverse, https://www.inverse.com/culture/tattoo-historycolonialism, accessed May 27, 2022.
Dominique Roux and Russell Belk, “The Body as (Another) Place: Producing
Embodied Heterotopias Through Tattooing,” Journal of Consumer Research
46, no. 3 (October 2019): 483–507, https://doi.org/10.1093/jcr/ucy081.
Jefferson Graham, “You Will Get Chipped — Eventually,” USA Today,
August 9, 2017, www.usatoday.com/story/tech/2017/08/09/you-get-chippedeventually/547336001/; Duncan Graham-Rowe, “Clubbers Choose Chip
Implants to Jump Queues,” New Scientist, May 21, 2004, www.newscientist
.com/article/dn5022-clubbers-choose-chip-implants-to-jump-queues/;
David Kravets, “Tracking School Children with RFID Tags? It’s All about
the Benjamins,” Wired, September 7, 2012, www.wired.com/2012/09/rfidchip-student-monitoring/.
Cf. Rachel Ashman, Julia Wolny, and Michael R. Solomon, “Consuming SelfRegulation in a Technological World,” in Michael R. Solomon and Tina M.
Lowery, eds., The Routledge Companion to Consumer Behavior (London, UK:
Taylor & Francis, 2018).
Quoted in Ray Kurzweil, “17 Definitions of the Technological
Singularity,” Singularity, June 25, 2016, www.singularityweblog.com/
17-definitions-of-the-technological-singularity/.
http://Internetofthingsagenda.techtarget.com/definition/thing-in-the-Internetof-Things.
Nick Bilton, “Wearable Technology That Feels Like Skin,” New
York Times, October 8, 2014, www.nytimes.com/2014/10/09/fashion/
wearable-technology-that-feels-like-skin.html?smid=nytcore-iphoneshare&smprod=nytcore-iphone&_r=0.
Adapted from a presentation by Prof. Thanigavelan Jambulingam, Saint
Joseph’s University, January 22, 2015; mc10.com, www.mc10inc.com/
consumer-products/sports/checklight/.
“The Kunkun Device Monitors Bad Body Odour,” Canvas8, July 18, 2017,
www.canvas8.com/signals/2017/07/18/kunkun-smell.html.
Caitlin Petrakovitz, “Sex Wearable is Coming to Track Your Performance
and Judge You,” CNET March 2, 2017), https://www.cnet.com/tech/mobile/
icon-smart-condom-ring/, accessed November 18, 2022.
Remi Daviet, Gideon Nave, and Jerry Wind, “Genetic Data: Potential Uses and
Misuses in Marketing,” Journal of Marketing 86, no. 1 (2022): 7–26.
Rachel Ashman, Julia Wolny, and Michael R. Solomon, “Consuming SelfRegulation in a Technological World,” in Michael R. Solomon and Tina M.
Lowery, eds., The Routledge Companion to Consumer Behavior (London:
Taylor & Francis, 2018).
Jordan Etkin, “The Hidden Cost of Personal Quantification,” Journal of
Consumer Research 42, no. 6 (2016): 967–84, https://www.jstor.org/stable/
26570266.
Parija Kavilanz, “Back-to-School Checklist: Whiter Teeth & Tattoos,” CNN
Money, September 2, 2010, http://money.cnn.com/2010/09/02/news/economy/
americanexpress_backtoschool_spending_trends/index.htm.
Mark J. Miller, “It’s Official: ‘Breastaurant’ Trademarked by Texas Sports Bar,”
Brandchannel, April 12, 2013, www.brandchannel.com/home/post/2013/04/12/
Breastaurant-Trademark-041213.aspx; Patrick Dorrian, “‘Breastaurant’ Chain
Must Face Servers’ Sexual Harassment Suit,” Daily Labor Report, July 16,
2021, https://news.bloomberglaw.com/daily-labor-report/breastaurant-chainmust-face-servers-sexual-harassment-suit, accessed April 17, 2022.
“Cosmetics for Men Market in 2022: Industry Size, Key Major Challenges,
Drivers, Growth Opportunities Analysis Forecast 2022-2028 with Top
Countries Data,” MarketWatch, May 25, 2022, https://www.marketwatch
.com/press-release/cosmetics-for-men-market-in-2022-industry-size-keymajor-challenges-drivers-growth-opportunities-analysis-forecast-20222028-with-top-countries-data-new-report-spread-across-111-pages-2022-0525#:~:text=The%20Global%20Cosmetics%20for%20Men%20market%20
is%20anticipated%20to%20rise,rise%20over%20the%20projected%20
horizon, accessed May 27, 2022; Jack Neff, “A Lipstick Index for Men?
Philips’ Norelco Posits That Guys Are Growing Beards to Protest Recession,”
AdAge, April 2, 2009, www.adage.com.
Quoted in Lauren Indvik, Mashable, July 3, 2012, http://mashable.com/2012/
07/03/seventeen-real-girls-petition/?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=
email&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+Mashable+%28Mashable%29.

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147. Koh Tadokoro, Toru Yamashita, Junko Sato, Yoshio Omote, Mami Takemoto,
Ryuta Morihara, Koichiro Nishiura, Tomiko Tani, and Koji Abe, “Chronic
Beneficial Effect of Makeup Therapy on Cognitive Function of Dementia
and Facial Appearance Analyzed by Artificial Intelligence Software,”
J Alzheimers Dis 2022;85(3):1189–1194, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih
.gov/34924394/#affiliation-1, accessed November 18, 2022.
148. Gia Nardini, Richard J. Lutz, and Robyn A. LeBoeuf, “How and When
Taking Pictures Undermines the Enjoyment of Experiences,” Psychology and
Marketing 36, no. 5 (2019): 520–29.
149. Jesse Chandler and Norbert Schwarz, “Use Does Not Wear Ragged the
Fabric of Friendship: Thinking of Objects as Alive Makes People Less
Willing to Replace Them,” Journal of Consumer Psychology 20, no. 2
(2010): 138–45.
150. Claire Cain Miller, “LeanIn.org and Getty Aim to Change Women’s Portrayal
in Stock Photos,” New York Times (February 9, 2014), www.nytimes
.com/2014/02/10/business/leaninorg-and-getty-aim-to-change-womensportrayal-in-stock-photos.html?_r=1.
151. Sarah Sheppard, “The Sexualization of Young Girls and Mental Health
Problems,” Verywell Mind, February 3, 2022, https://www.verywellmind.com/
damaging-effects-of-sexualizing-girls-4778062, accessed May 26, 2022.
152. “Investors,” Torrid, https://investors.torrid.com/overview/default.aspx.
153. “Obesity Rate by State 2022,” World Population Review, https://
worldpopulationreview.com/state-rankings/obesity-rate-by-state.
154. “What Is the Average Waist Size for Women,” Healthline, https://www.healthline
.com/health/average-waist-size-for-women#:~:text=The%20average%20
waist%20size%20of,waist%20size%20was%2037.4%20inches%20.

155. Kellie Ell, “The Growing Plus-Size Market Faces Itty-Bitty Assortments and
Lack of Options,” Women’s Wear Daily, August 6, 2021, https://wwd.com/
fashion-news/fashion-features/the-growing-plus-size-market-faces-ittybittyassortments-and-lack-of-options-1234881354/.
156. “U.S. Women’s Plus Size Apparel Market – Statistics & Facts,” Statista,
January 12, 2022, https://www.statista.com/topics/4834/women-s-plus-sizeapparel-market-in-the-us/#:~:text=Plus%2Dsize%20apparel%20
retail&text=The%20average%20rate%20of%20women,19%20percent%20
as%20of%202021.
157. Ibid.
158. Ibid.
159. Ibid.
160. Ibid.
161. Marianne Wilson, “Exclusive: Torrid CEO Sees Plenty of Room for
Growth,” Chain Store Age, July 2, 2021, https://chainstoreage.com/
exclusive-torrid-ceo-sees-plenty-room-growth.
162. Marianne Wilson, “Exclusive: Torrid CEO Sees Plenty of Room for
Growth,” Chain Store Age, July 2, 2021, https://chainstoreage.com/
exclusive-torrid-ceo-sees-plenty-room-growth.
163. Daphne Howland, “Torrid Braces for Rising Costs and Ongoing Pandemic
Uncertainty after Mixed Q3,” Retail Dive, December 9, 2021, https://www
.retaildive.com/news/torrid-braces-for-rising-costs-and-ongoing-pandemicuncertainty-after-mixed/611250/.
164. “How 2 Plus Size Mega-Brands Are Winning Over Customers,” PR Couture,
https://www.prcouture.com/how-plus-size-mega-brands-are-winningover-their-customers/.

Personality, Values, and
Lifestyles

10

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES When you finish reading this chapter, you should be able to:
10-1 Explain how our personality influences the way
we process marketing communications, make
decisions, and respond to social influences.
10-2 Describe how our behavior is shaped by our values
and attitudes toward money, things, and time.

10-3 Explain how our lifestyle is related to and
informed by our consumer behavior.
10-4 Describe the many ways brands become
meaningful to consumers.

J

ackie and Hank, executives in a high-powered Los Angeles
advertising agency, are exchanging ideas about how they are
going to spend the big bonus everyone in the firm is getting for
landing a new account. They can’t help but snicker at their friend Rosa
in accounting, who avidly surfs the internet for information about a stateof-the-art home theater system she plans to install in her condo. What
a couch potato! Hank, who fancies himself a bit of a daredevil, plans
to blow his bonus on a thrill-seeking trip to Colorado, where a week of
outrageous bungee jumping awaits him (assuming he lives to tell about it,
but that uncertainty is half the fun). Jackie replies, “Been there, done that.
Believe it or not, I’m staying put right here—heading over to Santa Monica
to catch some waves.” Seems that the surfing bug has bitten her since
she stumbled onto Jetty Girl, an online resource for women who surf.1
Jackie and Hank marvel at how different they are from Rosa, who’s
content to spend her downtime watching sappy old movies or (shudder!)
reading books. All three make about the same salary, and Jackie and Rosa were sorority
sisters at Pepperdine. How can their tastes be so different? Oh well, they figure, that’s
why they make chocolate and vanilla ice cream.

OBJECTIVE 10-1
Explain how our
personality influences the way we
process marketing
communications,
make decisions,
and respond to
social influences.

Source: Alfgar/Shutterstock.

Personality
Jackie and Hank are typical of many people who search for
new (and even risky) ways to spend their leisure time. This
desire translates into big business for the “adventure travel”
industry, which provides white-knuckle experiences. In the
old days, the California beach culture relegated women to
the status of landlocked “Gidgets,” who sat on shore while

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their boyfriends rode the surf. Now (inspired by the female surfers in the movie
Blue Crush and then by Bethany Hamilton, the woman documented in the movie
Soul Surfer who lost her left arm to a shark but still returned to the sport), women
fuel the sport’s resurgence in popularity. Roxy rides the wave with its collections of
women’s surf apparel; it even includes a feature on its website that lets users design
their own bikinis.2
Just what makes Jackie and Hank so different from their more sedate friend
Rosa? One answer may lie in the concept of personality, which refers to our unique
psychological makeup and describes the consistent pattern in which we respond to
our environment. Of course, we may sometimes not appear all that consistent; we
may be wild and crazy at times and serious and responsible at others, so we can think
of personality simply as the baseline for how we are wired. But keep in mind that
genetics isn’t everything; our behavior is driven both by our inherited personality
traits and situational factors that encourage or discourage us to say, act, or buy
certain things.3
Although we may undergo dramatic changes as we grow up, measures of personality stay relatively stable in adulthood.4 Studies of thousands of people’s scores on
the widely used measurement instrument the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory (MMPI) confirm that our personalities tend to stabilize by the age of 30.
For example, most of us become less interested in thrill seeking as we focus more on
self-discipline. Get your kicks while you can!5

How Can We Measure Personality?
There are many methods and philosophies behind the measurement of personalities.
Let’s do a quick review of some of the major approaches.

The Psychiatric Perspective: Consumer Behavior
on the Couch
The famous psychologist Sigmund Freud proposed that much of one’s adult personality
stems from a fundamental conflict between a person’s desire to gratify their physical
needs and the necessity to function as a responsible member of society. This struggle
plays out in the mind among three systems. The id is about immediate gratification;
it is the “party animal” of the mind. It operates according to the pleasure principle;
that is, our basic desire to maximize pleasure and avoid pain guides our behavior. The
id is selfish and illogical. It directs a person’s psychic energy toward pleasurable acts
without any regard for consequences.
The superego is the counterweight to the id. This system is essentially the
person’s conscience. It internalizes society’s rules (especially as parents teach them
to us) and tries to prevent the id from seeking selfish gratification. Finally, the ego is
the system that mediates between the id and the superego. It’s basically a referee in
the fight between temptation and virtue. The ego tries to balance these opposing forces
according to the reality principle, which means it finds ways to gratify the id that
the outside world will find acceptable. (Hint: This is where Freudian theory primarily
applies to marketing.) These conflicts occur on an unconscious level, so people are
not necessarily aware of the underlying reasons for their behavior.
How is Freud’s work relevant to consumer behavior? It highlights the potential
importance of unconscious motives that guide our purchases. The implication is
that consumers cannot necessarily tell us their true motivation when they choose
products, even if we can devise a sensitive way to ask them directly. The Freudian
perspective also raises the possibility that the ego relies on the symbolism in products

Chapter 10 • Personality, Values, and Lifestyles

to compromise between the demands of the id and the prohibitions of the superego.
People channel their unacceptable desire into acceptable outlets when they use
products that signify these underlying desires. This is the connection between product
symbolism and motivation: The product stands for, or represents, a consumer’s true
goal, which is socially unacceptable or unattainable. By acquiring the product, the
person vicariously experiences the forbidden fruit.

Neo-Freudian Theories
Freud’s work had a huge influence on subsequent theories of personality. This
movement—sometimes called Neo-Freudian (meaning following from or being
influenced by Freud)—puts greater emphasis on how individuals handle their
relationships with others as opposed to unresolved childhood conflicts.
Most importantly, Carl Jung developed his own method of psychotherapy
called analytical psychology. Jung believed that the cumulative experiences of past
generations shape who we are today. He proposed that we each share a collective
unconscious, a storehouse of memories we inherit from our ancestors. For example,
Jung would argue that many people are afraid of the dark because their distant
ancestors had good reason to fear it. These shared memories create archetypes, or
universally recognized ideas and behavior patterns. Archetypes involve themes—such
as birth, death, or the devil—that appear frequently in myths, stories, and dreams.
We’ll return to this idea later in the chapter.

Motivational Research
In the 1950s, motivational research borrowed Freudian ideas to understand the deeper
meanings of products and advertisements. This technique relied upon depth interviews
with consumers to probe deeply into their motivations. A depth interview might take
several hours, and it’s based on the assumption that the respondent cannot immediately
articulate their latent or underlying motives. A carefully trained interviewer can derive
these only after extensive questioning and interpretation.
Ernest Dichter, a psychoanalyst who trained with Freud’s disciples in Vienna
in the early part of the 20th century, pioneered this line of motivational research.
Dichter conducted in-depth interview studies on more than 230 different products,
and actual marketing campaigns incorporated many of his findings.6 For example,
Esso (now Exxon in the United States) for many years reminded consumers to “Put
a tiger in your tank” after Dichter found that people responded well to this powerful
animal symbolism containing vaguely sexual undertones. Some critics reacted to the
motivational studies that ad agencies conducted in much the same way they did to
the subliminal perception studies we debunked in Chapter 3.
Notwithstanding its critics, motivational research can guide the development
of marketing communications that appeal to deep-seated needs. The insights from
deep interviews with consumers can still be valuable to advertisers who want to
create copy that will resonate with customers. The approach remains popular in
creative agencies to generate exploratory insights that inform more rigorous research
approaches.
The Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation Technique (ZMET) is a widely used
adaptation of the motivational perspective. It’s a market research tool based on our
tendency to think about something in terms of the images and metaphors that represent
its underlying qualities. In a ZMET application, respondents are asked to collect
images that represent their thoughts and feelings about a product, service, or brand
rather than images that are literal representations of that product, service, or brand. For
example, if the product in question is a car, respondents might choose photos of wild

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For many years, Esso (now Exxon/Mobile) used the tagline “Put a tiger in your tank” due
to the findings of a motivational research study. The research claimed that consumers
respond to products that might satisfy subconscious urges, like the desire to feel powerful
or act aggressively, and the Esso team concluded that a tiger would appeal to consumers’
underlying desire to control a wild animal.7
Source: Retro AdArchives/Alamy Stock Photo.

animals (jaguars, tigers) or images that connote speed. When research participants
choose images that indirectly relate to the product, they activate an analogical style
of reasoning that, it is assumed, can reveal latent feelings, thoughts, and motivations.
The objective is to prompt a set of rich metaphors from the participant’s experiences
that connect with a product’s underlying characteristics and how these do or do not
relate to the person’s underlying needs. Many major marketers, such as Coca Cola,
Procter & Gamble, and Walt Disney, have used this technique to dig deeper into their
customers’ motivations.

Chapter 10 • Personality, Values, and Lifestyles

289

Trait Theory
Popular online matchmaking services such as match.com and eharmony.com offer
to create your “personality profile” and then hook you up with other members
whose profiles are similar. This approach to personality focuses on the quantitative
measurement of personality traits, which are the identifiable characteristics that
define a person.

The Big Five Personality Traits
The most widely recognized approach to measuring personality traits is the so-called
Big Five Inventory. This is a set of five dimensions that form the basis of personality:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Openness to experience
Conscientiousness
Extroversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism

Table 10.1 describes these dimensions and provides examples of consumer
behavior related to each dimension. Research on personality traits shows that
characteristics like extroversion do in fact inform the way we act. A study that tracked
96 individuals found that the social interactions, activities, moods, and language use
of the participants over the two days of the studies were consistent with the definitions
of the Big Five traits, except for openness to experience.8
What are some crucial personality traits? Consumer researchers have looked at
many as they try to establish linkages between personality traits like introversion/
extroversion (whether people are shy or outgoing) and product choices. They have

TABLE 10.1   Description

of the Big Five Inventory of Personality Dimensions and
Consumer Behavior Examples

Openness to
experience

Description
(sample item to measure)

Examples of Consumer Behavior related to the
Dimension

The degree to which a person is open to new ways of
doing things

Individuals who are very open to experience tend to
engage in more creative activities, but they also may
engage in more risky ones, like drug experimentation.

(e.g., I have an active imagination.)
Conscientiousness

The level of organization and structure a person needs
(e.g., I am always prepared.)

Extroversion

How well a person tolerates stimulation from people
(e.g., I talk to a lot of different people at parties.)

Agreeableness

The degree to which a person feels sympathy,
kindness, and consideration toward other people

Conscientious individuals are more likely to engage in
healthy behaviors, like eating fruits and vegetables.9
Extroverts are more likely to use car share services;
extroverts are more likely to engage in gambling and to do
so more intensely.10
Agreeable individuals engage in more environmentally
friendly behavior and donate more money to charity.11

(e.g., I take time out for others.)
Neuroticism
(emotional instability)

How well a person copes with stress
(e.g., I get upset easily.)

Neuroticism is associated with problematic digital
behaviors, such as social media, smartphone, and online
gaming addiction.12

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also developed measures for aspects of personality that are
directly related to consumer behavior, such as “need for
uniqueness,” which relates to our desire to be different from
others, and “susceptibility to interpersonal influence,” which
reflects the likelihood that other people will influence our
behavior.
As shown in Table 10.2, personality affects how we
process information, how we relate to other people, how we
shop, etc. For instance, during the COVID-19 pandemic,
personality was a key determinant of both preparedness
behaviors (such as buying masks) and prevention behaviors
(such as wearing masks).13
One important personality trait is whether we believe that
humans and general phenomena are changeable versus fixed.
Home and office storage products appeal to people who like to be
For example, do we believe we have the capacity to increase
well-organized.
our intelligence or exert more self-control? Or do we think
Source: Courtesy of The Container Store.
our fate is already determined despite whatever efforts we
make? Entity theorists view things as fixed and unchanging, while incremental
theorists view things as more flexible and dynamic. During the pandemic, incremental
theorists were more likely to prepare well and practice COVID-19 prevention measures
because these personalities tend to have more confidence in their ability to change
their circumstances.
Some other personality traits that impact consumer behavior include:

TABLE 10.2   The
Personality Trait

Influence of Personality Traits on Facets of Consumer Behavior
Influence on Consumer Behavior

Traits that Affect How We Process Information
Need for cognition
(enjoyment of thinking)

People who enjoy thinking respond better to words than pictures and are more motivated to spend time processing
the words and reading the “fine print.”

Need for affect (enjoyment
of processing feelings)

People who enjoy feelings respond better to pictures than words. They are more likely to engage in compulsive
behavior, and pictures may encourage impulse buying.

Need for control

The need to personally exert control over one’s surrounding environment and life outcomes acts as a barrier to new
product acceptance. But framing new products as potentially enhancing one’s sense of control increases acceptance
of new products for those with a high need for control.

Traits that Affect Whether and How We Respond to other People’s Influence
Need for uniqueness

People who want to “stand out from the crowd” tend to be opinion leaders; they are more likely to be sources
of information about brands and products for other people. They also are more responsive to scarcity appeals in
advertising.14

Susceptibility to
interpersonal influence

People who are easily influenced by others are more likely to prefer wines that offer social benefits, such as prestige.

Traits that Affect Our Consumption Decisions
Willingness to spend
money

Spendthrifts save less money and carry more debt than tightwads, so they are higher users of credit cards and are
more likely to buy hedonic items than tightwads are.

Risk aversion

People who are risk averse do not like uncertainty and prefer options that are sure to options that are risky.15

Impulsiveness

People who are impulsive are more likely to experience pleasure than guilt when overeating.

Chapter 10 • Personality, Values, and Lifestyles

Need for Touch
There are many types of personality traits that refer to our natural variance in cognitive
needs: Need for cognition, need for affect, and need for control, as explained in
Table 10.2. Need for touch is one type of need that captures an individual’s preference
for using the haptic system, or the sense of touch, to transmit and understand
information.17 People who have a high need for touch prefer to touch and hold things
to assess them.18 Need for touch includes a facet that is autotelic, which reflects the
fun, pleasurable aspect of touch (such as feeling how soft a towel is), and a facet that
is instrumental, which reflects the usefulness aspect of touch—that is, its ability to
provide information (such as how ripe an avocado is).
A recent qualitative study of shoppers during the COVID-19 pandemic found that
individuals with a high need for touch were more anxious during shopping because
they lost the ability to touch the products before they bought them. The study also
revealed that the pandemic was especially hard on those with a high autotelic need to
touch because all the haptic opportunities they usually enjoyed during shopping were
no longer there, so shopping was no longer fun and just turned into stressful work.19

Need for Perfection
Are you a perfectionist? Just as people differ in need for touch, people can differ in
need for perfection.20 A recent study found that being a perfectionist has its downside
when it comes to making decisions. Although perfectionists do better at medium levels
of decision difficulty, perfectionists often make inferior decisions when facing difficult
tasks. The reason is that perfectionists are driven by dichotomous thinking, a type
of black-and-white cognitive thinking style. So, when faced with a difficult decision,
perfectionists tend to give up once they realize that a perfect outcome is no longer
possible, and this leads them to make inferior decisions.

Reactance
Reactance is an individual predisposition to resist and oppose any influence perceived
as a restriction on one’s autonomy.21 Some people are naturally high in psychological
reactance; they do not like to be told what to do, and they do not like anyone
influencing them. Reactance is usually activated when we feel that our freedom is
threatened or when we perceive that someone or something is trying to influence us
to do something against our will. Reactance motivates us to protect our own beliefs
and views and sometimes to do the opposite of what we’re being asked to do (just ask
any parent of teens about this).22
Is reactance a bad thing? Well, if you’re a parent, you’ll know that it can be
annoying when your child is always wanting to do the opposite of what you’re trying
to get them to do. For advertisers also, reactance is a major barrier because high
reactance individuals are wired to discount and counterargue any attempt at persuasion.
High trait reactance makes consumers more resistant to advertising messages.23
But research shows that reactance also can have many benefits. For instance,
because high reactance makes people more resistant to authority, teens who are
high in reactance are more immune to the influence of media and peer pressure.24
Recent research shows that high reactance teens are more solidly anchored in their
own values—for instance, in their religiosity (degree of religious observance and
beliefs)—and this helps them feel better about themselves.25

Frugality
A trait relevant to how we shop is frugality. Frugal people deny short-term
purchasing whims; they choose instead to resourcefully use what they already own.

291

Buying, Having, Being
Do You Have FOMO or
JOMO?
We’ve talked about FOMO (fear of
missing out). Extroverts are more
likely to get upset if they are not
included or cannot participate in
social events. But have you heard
of JOMO (joy of missing out)?16
If you are an introvert, you can
probably relate to the bliss and joy
of not having to engage in those
very social events that will give
extroverts FOMO!

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Buying, Having, Being
The Business of Personality
Tests
Personality tests are big business.
When you apply for a job, it is quite
possible your potential employer
will ask you to take a test. The
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator®,
which is based on Jung’s work, is a
widely used commercial personality
test and perhaps the best known
with its 4-letter combinations. The
respondent’s preferences within
each of four dimensions determine
to which of 16 four-letter types they
are assigned.27
Jung believed each of us has
“inborn predispositions” along
these dimensions that then interact
with the environment to shape
personality. There are many other
personality tests. For instance, the
Hogan Inventory is just a modified
version of the Big Five Inventory
and yet it costs companies upward
of $30 per test. Although many
businesses, universities, and even
the military rely on these so-called
personality brokers, the scientific
validity of these commercial
personality tests is questionable.
Their money-making ability,
however, is proven!

For example, this personality type tends to favor cost-saving measures, such as
limiting time in the shower to save water and bringing leftovers from home to have
for lunch at work.26
OBJECTIVE 10-2
Describe how our
behavior is shaped
by our values and
attitudes toward
money, things,
and time.

Values

A value reflects what is important to us or what we consider
good or bad. For example, one of the most universal values
among humans is the importance of family. As we saw in
Chapter 3, we learn these beliefs through the socialization
process: Socialization agents, including parents, friends, and
teachers, impart these beliefs to us.
We’ve seen that our goals and priorities guide our consumption choices.
Sometimes called cultural values by researchers, our general values, such as security
or happiness, translate into consumption-specific values, such as convenient shopping
or prompt service, and product-specific values, such as ease of use or durability.28

Belief Systems
Because values drive much of consumer behavior (at least in a general sense), we
might say that virtually all consumer research ultimately relates to identifying and
measuring values. But it’s easier said than done! Two people can exhibit the same
behaviors (e.g., vegetarianism), but their underlying belief system may be quite
different (e.g., animal activism versus health concerns). The extent to which people
share a belief system is a function of individual, social, and cultural forces. Advocates
of a belief system often seek out others with similar beliefs so that social networks
overlap; as a result, believers tend to be exposed to information that supports their
beliefs (e.g., tree-huggers rarely hang out with loggers).29
Some values are universal. Who does not desire health, wisdom, or world peace?
What sets cultures apart is the relative importance, or ranking, of these universal
values. This set of rankings constitutes a culture’s value system.30 For example, one
study found that North Americans have more favorable attitudes toward advertising
messages that focus on self-reliance, self-improvement, and the achievement of
personal goals as opposed to themes stressing family integrity, collective goals,
and the feeling of harmony with others. Korean consumers exhibited the reverse
pattern.31
We characterize every culture in terms of its members’ endorsement of a value
system. Not every individual will endorse these values equally; in some cases, values
may even seem to contradict one another (e.g., U.S. Americans appear to value both
conformity and individuality and try to find some accommodation between the
two). Nonetheless, it is usually possible to identify a general set of core values that
uniquely define a culture. For example, core values such as freedom, youthfulness,
achievement, materialism, and optimism characterize U.S. culture.32 Note: Although
the pandemic and related events put a dent in Americans’ optimism about the future,
overall U.S. consumers remain more optimistic than people in most other countries.33
As we can see in Figure 10.1, when it comes to understanding the relationship
between values and consumer behavior, we can think about values related to our
approach to things, values related to our approach to time, values related to our
approach to money, and values related to our approach to politics. In this section, we
will discuss each set.

Chapter 10 • Personality, Values, and Lifestyles

TIME

MONEY

THINGS

Timestyles

Frugality

Materialism

Psychological time

Spending vs. saving
orientation

Minimalism

Four dimensions of time:
social, temporal orientation,
planning orientation,
polychronic orientation

Figure 10.1 Values Related to Consumer Behavior

Values Related to Things
During World War II, members of “cargo cults” in the South Pacific literally worshiped
cargo they salvaged from crashed aircraft or that washed ashore from ships. They
believed that their ancestors piloted the ships and planes that passed near their islands,
so they tried to attract them to their villages. They went so far as to construct fake
planes from straw to lure the real ones overhead!34
We may not worship products to that extent, but many of us certainly work
hard to attain our vision of the good life, which abounds in material comforts. Most
young people can’t imagine a life without cell phones, music streaming, and other
creature comforts. Materialism refers to the importance people attach to worldly
possessions.35
Materialists are more likely to value possessions for their status and appearancerelated meanings, whereas those who do not emphasize this value tend to prize
products that connect them to other people or that provide them with pleasure
when they use them.36 As a result, high materialists prefer expensive products that
they publicly consume. A study that compared specific items that low versus high
materialists value found that people who were non-materialists cherished items with
personal significance, such as a mother’s wedding gown, picture albums, a rocking
chair from childhood, or a garden. In contrast, high materialists preferred prestige
goods, such as jewelry, china, or a vacation home.
Materialistic people also appear to link more of their self-identity to products.
One study found that when people who score high on this value fear the prospect
of dying, they form even stronger connections to brands.37 Another study reported
that consumers who are “love-smitten” with their possessions tend to use these
relationships to compensate for loneliness and a lack of affiliation with social
networks.38 Yet another found that materialists tend to value a product before they
buy it because they believe it will make them happy, but their satisfaction with it
diminishes after the purchase when they realize this didn’t happen.39 In fact, the
conclusion is that materialism is about values and desire, not about behavior itself.
So, you could be materialistic just for wanting to have lots of stuff, not necessarily
because you have lots of stuff.

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Materialism usually develops through the socialization process out of day-to-day
activities during childhood.40 Some parents reinforce their children’s materialistic
views by rewarding them with material items. Just like some of the maladaptive
consumer behaviors we studied in Chapter 8, materialism gets reinforced over one’s
adult life because buying more things is usually a coping mechanism to deal with
discomfort. To become less materialistic, you must learn to cope with unpleasant states
in a different way than with material rewards.
Materialism remains a strong value in the U.S., but the types of products that
consumers covet is shifting beyond traditional luxury goods and high-profile designer
names. As we’ve seen during and after the pandemic, values certainly evolve over
time as priorities change and people start to question what is really important. Many
people are reprioritizing as they spend more time “nesting” at home and focus a bit
more on spending quality time with family and friends, picking up new hobbies, etc.,
rather than on acquiring the latest “shiny new object.”41
But even before the pandemic, we were starting to see a shift away from objects
to experiences. This movement is consistent with research that shows experiential
purchases provide greater happiness and satisfaction because they allow us to connect
with others and form a bigger part of our social identities. And values about the
environment are increasingly prominent in people’s minds. Green-minded consumers
are more likely to engage in recycling efforts, to decrease car usage, and to rely more
on public transport. As we saw in Chapter 2, consumers in the U.S. increasingly value
sustainability and reward companies that are environmentally friendly. That helps to
explain why the Chipotle restaurant chain is so popular among young consumers.
The company promotes sustainable agriculture practices and the humane treatment
of animals it uses for meat.42
How do we get these ideas that material possessions are
a prerequisite to a good life? Of course, materialistic values
start with what we learn from our parents. But according
to cultivation theory, another powerful source of influence
is cumulative exposure to television and the lifestyles we
observe on (mostly) fictional shows.43 The affluent characters
we see on TV in “reality shows” such as Keeping Up with
the Kardashians, in movies, and in the pages of Vogue or
GQ have a big impact on what we expect to encounter IRL.
Exhibit A: The popular bumper sticker that reads “He Who
Dies with the Most Toys Wins.” New research supports the
idea that children adopt materialistic values not only from
what their parents do but also from the TV shows their
parents watch.44
The quest for simplicity has ignited the Tiny House Movement,
where home buyers downscale their lives (and their mortgage
payments) by moving into houses that range from only 100
to 400 square feet (the average “normal” house is about
2,600 square feet). A few hardy souls even commit to living off
the grid, without access to creature comforts such as electricity
and indoor plumbing.47 Many others don’t go quite that far, but
they work hard to declutter their homes by vigorously cleaning
out closets, mending or recycling old clothes, and making sure
that their “stuff” is neatly stored. Decluttering has become an
obsession for many, and an art form that followers revere for its
Zen-like flavor.48
Source: Alexander Tolstoy/Alamy Stock Photo.

Toward More Simplicity
Of late one important trend that runs counter to materialism
is minimalism. This label describes a simple lifestyle,
with an emphasis on getting rid of things you don’t need.
Minimalists try to lead a simple life with the least number of
possessions they need.45 Some take a vow to stop shopping
for an extended period, and others give away much of what
they own. The pandemic prompted many people to adopt a
fresh start mindset—the belief that people can restart or
reset something in their lives, despite any past or current
obstacles.46

Chapter 10 • Personality, Values, and Lifestyles

Values Related to Money
Do you run through money like water, or do you stick to a budget? Each of us
has a different orientation toward saving versus spending.49 Compared with those
with a spending orientation, individuals with a saving orientation are naturally
motivated to exercise self-control to save money and to monitor spending in a
regular and consistent manner. Saving-oriented people are also, not surprisingly,
more responsive to efforts and campaigns to encourage healthy spending habits.
Researchers measured this tendency to spend versus save by asking participants in a
study to imagine that they won $100 and to ask them how much of that amount they
would save.50 Their research suggests that it is not enough to teach people financial
literacy because some people are inherently driven to be more of a saver or more of
a spender.
We all know tightwads who hate to part with even a penny (and who experience
emotional pain when they hand over their cash) and spendthrifts who enjoy nothing
more than buying everything in sight. Research on this issue finds that, in the U.S.,
tightwads outnumber spendthrifts. Men are more likely than women to be tightwads,
as are older people and those with more education. How do we tell a tightwad from
someone who’s just being frugal? One of the researchers puts it this way: “The
evidence suggests that frugality is driven by a pleasure of saving, as compared with
tightwaddism, which is driven by a pain of paying.”51
Money has complex psychological meanings; we equate it with success or failure,
social acceptability, security, love, freedom, and, yes, even sex appeal.52 There are
therapists who specialize in treating money-related disorders, and they report that some
people even feel guilty about their success and deliberately make bad investments to
reduce this feeling! Some other clinical conditions include atephobia (fear of being
ruined), harpaxophobia (fear of becoming a victim of robbers), peniaphobia (fear of
poverty), and aurophobia (fear of gold).53
A study explored some interesting links between our need for acceptance and
feelings about cash. In one case, participants were led to believe that a group had either
rejected them or accepted them. They then completed measures that reflected their
desire for money. Those whom the group rejected scored higher on these measures,
meaning they desired more money in the face of rejection. At another stage, subjects
counted either real money or pieces of paper and then experienced physical pain.
Those who counted money reported they felt less pain than did those who just counted
paper!54
Not surprisingly, we also tend to make poorer financial decisions when we
are stressed. Research based on surveys and interviews of teenagers identified a
phenomenon called lifestyle-based depletion, a feeling that one cannot keep up
with the responsibilities and expectations placed upon them.55 They found that this
depletion creates high stress and reduces our ability to exercise self-control on, among
other things, purchase decisions. This research shows that the stress and anxiety
placed upon teenagers has real financial consequences. Lifestyle-based depletion is
especially prevalent amongst non-white teens, teenage girls, and teens with weak
parental relationships.

Values Related to Time
Time is one of our most precious resources. We talk about “making time” or “spending
time,” and we frequently remind others that “time is money.” Common sense tells us
that we think more about what we want to buy when we have the luxury to take our
time. Even a normally meticulous shopper who never buys before they compare prices

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might sprint through the mall at 9:00 p.m. on Christmas Eve to scoop up anything
left on the shelves if they need a last-minute gift. The same logic applies to online
marketing: Open rates (the percentage of people who open an email message from
a marketer) vary throughout the day. The peak time for high open rates: Mid-day on
weekdays (presumably when all those people at work take a lunch break).56
Many consumers believe they are more pressed for time than ever before;
marketers label this feeling time poverty. The problem appears to be more perception
than fact. The reality is that we simply have more options for spending our time, so
we feel pressured by the weight of all these choices. In 1965, the average U.S. woman
spent about 32 hours per week on housework; the time today is about half of that. Of
course, there are plenty of husbands who share these burdens more: The average U.S.
man spent just more than 4 hours per week on household tasks and that number has
more than doubled. Women report feeling more rushed than men, though even they
have more leisure time now than they did in the 1960s (about 30 hours of free time
in a typical week).57

Timestyles
Time is an economic variable; it is a resource that we must divide among our activities.
Depending on our approach to time, we may allocate our time differently; we all know
people who seem to play all the time, and others who are workaholics. An individual’s
priorities determine their timestyle.
A study examined how the timestyles of a group of U.S. women influenced
their consumption choices.58 The researchers identified four dimensions of time: (1)
The social dimension refers to individuals’ categorization of time as either “time for
me” or “time with/for others”; (2) the temporal orientation dimension depicts the
relative significance individuals attach to past, present, or future; (3) the planning
orientation dimension alludes to different time management styles varying on a continuum from analytic to spontaneous; and (4) the polychronic orientation dimension
distinguishes between people who prefer to do one thing at a time from those who
have multitasking timestyles. After they interviewed and observed these women, the
researchers identified a set of five metaphors that they say capture the participants’
perspectives on time:

•
•
•
•
•

Time is a pressure cooker. These women are usually analytical in their planning,
other-oriented, and monochronic in their timestyles. They treat shopping in a
methodical manner, and they often feel under pressure and in conflict.
Time is a map. These women are usually analytical planners; they exhibit a future
temporal orientation and a polychronic timestyle. They often engage in extensiveinformation search and comparison shop.
Time is a mirror. Women in this group are also analytical planners and have a
polychronic orientation. However, they have a past temporal orientation. Because
of their risk averseness in time use, these women are usually loyal to products and
services they know and trust. They prefer convenience-oriented products.
Time is a river. These women are usually spontaneous in their planning orientation
and have a present focus. They go on unplanned, short, and frequent shopping
trips.
Time is a feast. These women are analytical planners with a present temporal
orientation. They view time as something they consume to pursue sensory
pleasure and gratification, and for this reason they value hedonic consumption
and variety-seeking.

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297

Psychological Time and Deceleration
“Time flies when you’re having fun,” but other situations (like some classes—but
certainly not consumer behavior courses) seem to last forever. Our experience of time
is subjective; our immediate priorities and needs determine how quickly time flies. It’s
important for marketers to understand psychological time because we’re more likely
to be in a consuming mood at certain times than we are at others.
Many of the decisions and choices we make as consumers are driven by how
we approach time. Some experiences may feel rushed; others may feel like a drag.
Our own practices when we engage in activities, like sports or other hobbies, affect
whether we feel time passing slowly or quickly.59
In a fast-paced world, some people desperately seek slowness so they can savor
and relish the moment. The Slow Food movement that favors long, lingering meals
over fast food experiences is a prominent example. People are increasingly seeking
experiences that disconnect them from their always-on-the-go lives. One solution
that is gaining increasing popularity is long walks along the large networks of ancient
pilgrim routes that stretch across Europe. A recent ethnography of people who took
the Camino de Santiago pilgrimage in Spain found that consumers seek out such
experiences to find deceleration. The travelers slowed down the experience of time by
decreasing the traveled distance, the use of technology, and the number of experienced
episodes.60

How Can We Understand Values?
Just as there are many ways to approach personality, there are
many ways to understand consumers’ values.
Psychological approaches usually involve measures in
which people report or rate the importance of certain beliefs.
For instance, the psychologist Milton Rokeach developed
the Rokeach Value Survey, which included a set of terminal
values, or desired end states, and a set of instrumental
values, or actions we need to take to achieve our terminal
values. 61 For instance, if a consumer is focused on
wellness as an end goal rather than on mainstream medical
approaches to sickness, this focus will influence many of
their behaviors, from food choices to the use of alternative
medical practitioners, as well as their opinions on political
and social issues.62
A world of beauty is a terminal value in Rokeach’s Value Survey.

The Means–End Chain Model

Source: yanikap/Shutterstock.

The means–end chain model assumes that people link specific product attributes
(indirectly) to terminal values. That is, we choose among alternative means to attain
some end state that we value, such as freedom or safety. Thus, we value products to
the extent that they provide the means to some end we desire. This is the logic behind
the ZMET methodology we discussed earlier in the chapter. It involves a technique
researchers call laddering to uncover consumers’ associations between specific attributes and these general consequences. Using this approach, they help consumers
climb up the “ladder” of abstraction that connects functional product attributes with
desired end states.63 Based on consumer feedback, they then create hierarchical value
maps that show how specific product attributes get linked to end states.

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Syndicated Surveys
One of the advantages of quantitative approaches to measure values is that it makes
comparisons easier—whether across groups, countries, or over time. Several
companies track changes in values through large-scale surveys. They sell the results
of these studies to marketers, who receive regular updates on changes and trends.
This approach originated in the mid-1960s when Playtex was concerned about
sagging girdle sales (pun intended). The company commissioned the market research
firm of Yankelovich, Skelly & White to see why sales had dropped. Their research linked
the decline to a shift in values regarding appearance and naturalness. Playtex went on to
design lighter, less restrictive garments, while Yankelovich went on to track the impact
of these types of changes in a range of industries. Gradually, the firm developed the
idea of one big study to track U.S. attitudes. In 1970, it introduced the Yankelovich
Monitor™, which is based on two-hour interviews with 4,000 respondents.64
Today, many other syndicated surveys also track changes in values. Advertising
agencies perform some of these so that they can stay on top of important cultural
trends and help shape the messages they craft for clients. These services include the
VALS2™ survey, GlobalScan (operated by the advertising agency Backer Spielvogel
Bates), New Wave (the Ogilvy & Mather advertising agency), and the Lifestyles Study
conducted by the DDB World Communications Group.

OBJECTIVE 10-3
Explain how our
lifestyle is related
to and informed
by our consumer
behavior.

Lifestyles and Consumer
Identity

Are you an e-sports fan, or is the idea of getting your kicks
by watching other people play video games a bit strange?
Maybe Amazon knows something you don’t; the company
paid almost $1 billion to acquire the Twitch website where many of these contests
occur.65 Although still under the radar for many of us, electronic sports, or competitive
video gaming, has become a major “athletic” activity. Millions of people watch

E-sports attract millions of fans around the world.
Source: Rachanon Khatiyon / 123RF.

Chapter 10 • Personality, Values, and Lifestyles

e-sports on television. In fact, e-sports already draw more viewers globally than the
National Football League’s regular season. League of Legends (LoL) currently is the
most popular title in e-sports, but leagues based on other games, including Dota 2,
Overwatch, and Fortnite are gaining fast. Some e-sport contestants are celebrities
with their own fan base and merchandise. The sport is especially hot in South Korea,
where a couple is as likely to go on a date to a game club as to the movies. One live
tournament there drew 100,000 spectators.66 Take that, Super Bowl.
E-sports fans who choose to spend hours watching their heroes play videogames
make choices: How to spend their time and how to spend their money. Each of us
makes similar choices every day and often two quite similar people in terms of basic
categories—such as gender, age, income, and place of residence—still prefer to spend
their time and money in markedly different ways. We often see this strong variation
among students at the same university, even though many of them come from similar
backgrounds. A “typical” college student (if there is such a thing) may dress much
like his or her friends, hang out in the same places, and like the same foods, yet still
indulge a passion for marathon running, stamp collecting, or acid jazz. According to
The Urban Dictionary, some of the undergraduates at your school may fall into one
of these stereotypical categories:67

•

•

Metro: You just can’t walk past a Banana Republic store without making a
purchase. You own 20 pairs of shoes, half a dozen pairs of sunglasses, just as many
watches, and you carry a man-purse. You see a stylist instead of a barber because
barbers don’t do highlights. You can make lamb shanks and risotto for dinner and
Eggs Benedict for breakfast . . . all from scratch. You shave more than just your
face. You also exfoliate and moisturize.
Emo: You’re into soft-core punk music that integrates high-pitched, overwrought
lyrics and inaudible guitar riffs. You wear tight wool sweaters, tighter jeans, itchy
scarves (even in the summer), ripped chucks with your favorite band’s signature,
black square-rimmed glasses, and ebony greasy unwashed hair that is required to
cover at least three-fifths of the face at an angle.

In traditional societies, class, caste, village, or family largely dictate a
person’s consumption options. In a modern consumer society, however, each of
us is free (at least within our budgets) to select the set of products, services, and
activities that define our self and, in turn, create a social identity we communicate
to others. Lifestyle defines a pattern of consumption that reflects how a person
chooses to spend time and money. These choices play a key role in defining
consumer identity.68
Whether Beliebers (fans of Justin Bieber), Little Monsters (fans of Lady Gaga),
Claymates (fans of Clay Aiken), or Maggots, Parrotheads, RihannaNavy, Juggalos,
Katy-Cats, Swifties, Barbies, Bruce Tramps, Arnold’s Army, Whovians, Dead Heads,
Big Easy Mafia, or many other groups whose members share a passion for a celebrity
or activity, each lifestyle subculture exhibits its own unique set of norms, vocabulary,
and product insignias. These subcultures often form around fictional characters
and events, and they help to define the extended self (see Chapter 6). Numerous
lifestyles thrive on their collective worship of mythical and not-so-mythical worlds
and characters from the music group Phish to Hello Kitty.
Marketers also think about lifestyle in terms of how much time we have available
to do what we’d like and what we choose to do with that leisure time. According
to the latest government data available, for example, Americans ages 20 to 24

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Figure 10.2 How U.S. Consumers Allocate Their Time
Courtesy of The Hartman Group, Inc.

on average spend just about 10 hours per day on personal care (including sleep),
4.2 hours working, 0.64 hour purchasing products, about 1 hour on educational
activities, and about 6 minutes on phone calls and email. It’s not clear where posting
on Instagram fits here!69 Figure 10.2 shows how U.S. consumers more generally
allocate their time.
A lifestyle marketing perspective recognizes that people sort themselves
into groups based on the things they like to do, how they like to spend their leisure time, and how they choose to spend their disposable income.70 The growing number of niche magazines and websites that cater to specialized interests
reflects the spectrum of choices available to us in today’s society. The downside
of this is obvious to the newspaper industry; many major papers have already had
to shut down their print editions because people consume most of their information online.
A goal of lifestyle marketing is to allow consumers to pursue their chosen ways to
enjoy their lives and express their social identities. For this reason, a key aspect of this
strategy is to focus on people who use products in desirable social settings. The desire
to associate a product with a social situation is a long-standing one for advertisers,

Chapter 10 • Personality, Values, and Lifestyles

whether they include the product in a round of golf, a family barbecue, or a night at
a glamorous club.71

From What to Why: Psychographics
When Cadillac introduced its Escalade SUV, critics scoffed at the bizarre pairing of
this old-line luxury brand with a truck. However, consumers quickly associated the
vehicle with the hip-hop lifestyle. Artists such as Jennifer Lopez, Outkast, and Jay Z
referred to it in songs, and Jermaine Dupri proclaimed, “Gotta have me an Escalade.”
Three years later, Cadillac rolled out its 18-foot Escalade EXT pickup with a sticker
price of $50,000.
The Escalade brand manager describes the target customer for luxury pickups as
a slightly earthier version of the SUV buyer. She says that although the two drivers
may own $2 million homes next door to each other, the typical luxury SUV driver is
about 50, has an MBA from Harvard, belongs to a golf club, maintains connections
with his college friends, and works hard at keeping up with the Joneses. In contrast,
the luxury pickup driver is roughly five years younger. He might have inherited his
father’s construction business, and he’s been working since he was 18 years old. He
may or may not have attended college, and unlike the SUV driver, he is still connected
to his high school friends.72
Psychographics involves the “use of psychological, sociological, and anthropological factors . . . to determine how the market is segmented by the propensity of
groups within the market—and their reasons—to make a particular decision about a
product, person, ideology, or otherwise hold an attitude or use a medium.”73 Marketers
use many psychographic variables to segment consumers, but all of these dimensions
go beyond surface characteristics to investigate consumers’ motivations for purchasing and using products.
Demographics allow us to describe who buys, but psychographics tells us why
they do. A classic example involves a popular Canadian advertising campaign
for Molson Export beer that included insights from psychographic findings. The
company’s research showed that Molson’s target customers tend to be like boys
who never grew up, who were uncertain about the future, and who were intimidated
by women’s newfound freedoms. Accordingly, the ads featured a group of men,
“Fred and the boys,” whose get-togethers emphasized male companionship,
protection against change, and the reassuring message that the beer “keeps on
tasting great.”74

How We Perform a Psychographic Analysis
Psychographic studies take several different forms:

•
•
•
•

A lifestyle profile looks for items that differentiate between users and nonusers of
a product.
A product-specific profile identifies a target group and then profiles these consumers
on product-relevant dimensions.
A general lifestyle segmentation study places a large sample of respondents into
homogenous groups based on similarities of their overall preferences.
A product-specific segmentation study tailors questions to a product category. For
example, if a researcher wants to conduct research for a stomach medicine, she
might rephrase the item, “I worry too much” as “I get stomach problems if I worry
too much.” This allows her to discriminate among users of competing brands more
finely.75

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Personas

Buying, Having, Being
The Dark Side of
Psychographic Profiling
Is psychographics a four-letter
word? Lately it seems so, as
journalists and others link the
term to “dirty tricks” that political
campaigns employ. The revelation
that the Trump presidential
campaign employed a firm to
help it persuade voters by illegally
accessing their Facebook “likes”
was a prominent misuse of
psychographics. The firm allegedly
used a model a psychology
professor developed that claimed
to predict users’ personality types
based upon the “likes” that more
than 50 million users recorded.
Given enough data, these profiles
were better able to describe a user’s
personality than were that person’s
colleagues, friends, or even their
spouse.78

Marketers often find it useful to develop products that appeal to different lifestyle
subcultures. When marketers combine personality variables with knowledge of
lifestyle preferences, they have a powerful lens they can focus on consumer segments.
It’s common to create a fictional profile of a “core customer” who inspires product
design and communications decisions.
Marketers refer to these profiles as buyer personas (some call them avatars
instead). Essentially you write a “story” about your ideal customer based on market
research and real data about your existing customers.76 The ideal customer character
helps you to connect with the type of person you hope to reach because it gives you
a more concrete way to think about your customers.
For example, Chip Wilson, who founded the popular clothing company Lululemon,
relied on a “muse” he made up: A 32-year-old professional single woman he named
Ocean who makes $100,000 a year. He described Ocean as “engaged, has her own
condo, is traveling, fashionable, has an hour and a half to work out a day.” This ideal
user, according to Wilson, appeals to all women: “If you’re 20 years old or you’re
graduating from university, you can’t wait to be that woman. If you’re 42 years old
with a couple children, you wish you had that time back.”
Lululemon added a male “muse” when the company moved into menswear: Duke is
35 and an “athletic opportunist” who surfs in the summer and snowboards in the winter.
When Wilson got involved in a new company, Kit and Ace, he sure enough helped to
come up with two new muses: “Kit, a 29-year-old single woman who ‘is looking to buy
her first apartment but is still renting. She works in the creative area, like in graphic design
or fashion, and loves to bike on weekends,’ and Ace, a 32-year-old similarly groovy guy,
who drinks strong coffee, ‘likes to go to breweries and hangs out with his friends. He does
CrossFit once a week and spins three times a week, loves brunch on the weekends.’”77
Sound like anyone you know? (Hint: Definitely not your humble authors!)

Marketers often invent a buyer persona
to represent their core customer.
Source: Flight Media and ESB Basic/Shutterstock.

AIOs
Most contemporary psychographic research attempts to group consumers according to
some combination of three categories of variables: Activities, interests, and opinions;
we call them AIOs for short. Using data from large samples, marketers create profiles
of customers who resemble each other in their activities and patterns of product
usage.79 Table 10.3 lists commonly used AIO dimensions.

Chapter 10 • Personality, Values, and Lifestyles

TABLE 10.3    AIO

303

Dimensions

Activities

Interests

Opinions

Demographics

Work

Family

Themselves

Age

Hobbies

Home

Social issues

Education

Social events

Job

Politics

Income

Vacation

Community

Business

Occupation

Entertainment

Recreation

Economics

Family size

Club membership

Fashion

Education

Dwelling

Community

Food

Products

Geography

Shopping

Media

Future

City size

Sports

Achievements

Culture

Stage in life cycle

Source: William D. Wells and Douglas J. Tigert, “Activities, Interests, and Opinions,” Journal of Advertising Research
11 (August 1971): 27–35. © 1971 by The Advertising Research Foundation. Used with permission.

To group consumers into AIO categories, researchers typically
give respondents a long list of statements and ask them to indicate how
much they agree with each one. Then researchers can “boil down”
a person’s lifestyle by discovering how they spend time, what they
find interesting and important, and how they view themselves and the
world around them.
Typically, the first step in conducting a psychographic analysis
is to determine which lifestyle segments yield the bulk of customers
for a particular product. This strategy reflects the 80/20 rule we first
discussed in Chapter 1. This rule reminds us that, in many cases, only
one or a few lifestyle segments account for most sales.80
Psychographic techniques help marketers to identify their heavy
users. Then marketers can better understand how these users relate to
the brand and the benefits they derive from it. For instance, marketers
at the beginning of the walking-shoe craze assumed that all purchasers
were basically burned-out joggers. Subsequent psychographic
research showed that there were several different groups of “walkers,”
ranging from those who walk to get to work to those who walk for fun.
This realization resulted in shoes that manufacturers aimed at different
segments, from Footjoy Joy-Walkers to Nike Healthwalkers.
Marketers use the results of these studies to:

•
•

Define the target market—This information allows the marketer
to go beyond simple demographic or product usage descriptions
(e.g., middle-aged men or frequent users).
Create a new view of the market—Sometimes marketers create
their strategies with a “typical” customer in mind. This stereotype
may not be correct because the actual customer may not match
these assumptions. For example, marketers of a face cream for
women were surprised to find that older, widowed women were

The makers of the popular Sigg water bottle, which is
available in many designs, choose from about 3,000
different concepts each year with specific customers in
mind. These include the Whole Foods Woman, who lives
in a city, practices yoga, and buys organic produce, and
the Geek Chic Guy, who listens to Radiohead and wears
vintage Converse sneakers.
Source: Winston Wong/Alamy Stock Photo.

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•
•

•
•

their heavy users rather than the younger, sociable women to whom they were
pitching their appeals.
Position the product—Psychographic information can allow the marketer to
emphasize features of the product that fit in with a person’s lifestyle.
Better communicate product attributes—The artist or copywriter obtains a
much richer mental image of the target consumer than they can simply by looking
at dry statistics. For example, early research that the Schlitz beer brand conducted
found that heavy beer drinkers tended to feel that life’s pleasures were few and far
between. In response, the brewer developed commercials with the tagline, “You
only go around once, so reach for all the gusto you can.”81
Develop product strategy—Understanding how a product fits, or does not fit, into
consumers’ lifestyles allows the marketer to identify new product opportunities,
chart media strategies, and create environments most consistent and harmonious
with these consumption patterns.
Market social and political issues—A psychographic study of men aged 18 to
24 who drink and drive highlights the potential for this perspective to help in
the eradication of harmful behaviors. Researchers divided this segment into four
groups: “good timers,” “well adjusted,” “nerds,” and “problem kids.” They found
that one group in particular—“good timers”—was more likely to believe that it
is fun to be drunk, that the chances of having an accident while driving drunk are
low, and that drinking increases one’s appeal to the opposite sex. Because the study
showed that this group is also the most likely to drink at rock concerts and parties,
is most likely to watch MTV, and tends to listen to album-oriented rock radio
stations, reaching “good timers” with a prevention campaign became easier.82

Marketers constantly search for new insights so they can identify and reach
groups of consumers united by common lifestyles. To meet this need, many research
companies and advertising agencies develop their own lifestyle segmentation
typologies. Respondents answer a battery of
questions that allow the researchers to cluster
INNOVATORS
them into a set of distinct lifestyle groups. The
High Resources
questions usually include a mixture of AIOs
High Innovation
plus other items relating to feelings about
Primary Motivation
specific brands, favorite celebrities, and media
Ideals
Self-Expression
Achievement
preferences. Companies that want to learn more
about their customers and potential customers
then buy one or more of these systems for
their own use.
THINKERS
ACHIEVERS
EXPERIENCERS
The best-known lifestyle segmentation
system is one we already mentioned: The
Values and Lifestyles System (VALS2™)
that SRI International developed. The current
VALS2™ system uses a battery of 39 items (35
psychological and 4 demographic) to divide
BELIEVERS
STRIVERS
MAKERS
U.S. adults into groups, each with distinctive
characteristics. As Figure 10.3 shows, the
typology arranges groups vertically by their
resources (including such factors as income,
Low Resources
education, energy levels, and eagerness to buy)
Low Innovation
and horizontally by self-orientation.
STRUGGLERS
Three self-orientations constitute the horizontal dimension. Consumers with an ideals
Figure 10.3 Values and Lifestyles System VALS2™

Chapter 10 • Personality, Values, and Lifestyles

305

orientation rely on a belief system to make purchase decisions, and they are not concerned with the views of others. People with an achievement orientation are more
competitive; they consider what their peers will think about their decisions and how
these choices will reflect on them. Finally, those with a self-expression orientation are
more concerned with the emotional aspects of purchases and the satisfaction they will
personally receive from products and services. The following identifies characteristics
of the VALS2™ groups.

•

Innovators—The top VALS2™ group. They are successful consumers with many
resources. This group is concerned with social issues and is open to change.

The next three groups also have sufficient resources but differ in their outlooks
on life:83

•
•
•

Thinkers—They are satisfied, reflective, and comfortable.
Achievers—They are career-oriented and prefer predictability to risk or
self-discovery.
Experiencers—They are impulsive, young, and enjoy offbeat or risky experiences.
The next four groups have fewer resources:

•
•
•
•

Believers—They have strong principles and favor proven brands.
Strivers—They are like achievers but have fewer resources. They are concerned
about the approval of others.
Makers—They are action-oriented and tend to focus their energies on selfsufficiency. They are often found working on their cars, canning their own
vegetables, or building their own houses.
Strugglers—They are at the bottom of the economic ladder. They are
most concerned with meeting the needs of the moment and have limited
ability to acquire anything beyond the basic goods they need for survival.

If you want to see what VALS2™ type you are, go to www.strategic
businessinsights.com/vals/presurvey.shtml.

OBJECTIVE 10-4
Describe the many
ways brands
become meaningful
to consumers.

The Roles Brands Play in
Our Lives

As we saw in Chapter 4, brands convey strong
symbolic meanings and associations. We adopt
brands and incorporate the brand meanings based on how the brands fit our
personality, align with our values, and contribute to our lifestyles. Brands
matter because of what they mean!

The Brand Personality
In 1886, a momentous event occurred in marketing history: The Quaker
Oats man first appeared on boxes of hot cereal. Quakers had a reputation
in 19th-century America for being shrewd but fair, and peddlers sometimes
dressed as members of this religious group to cash in on their credibility.
When the cereal company decided to “borrow” this imagery for its packages,
it hoped customers might make the same association.84

Quaker Oats was one of the first companies to
create a distinct personality for its brand.
Source: FoodPhotography/Alamy Stock Photo.

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Today, thousands of brands also borrow personality traits of individuals or groups
to convey an image they want customers to form of them. A brand personality is the
set of traits people attribute to a product as if it were a person.85
It might seem weird to think about an object having a personality, but in fact we
often think about brands in terms of personality dimensions. Consumers commonly
compare and contrast brands on a range of familiar characteristics, including these:86

•
•
•
•
•

Old-fashioned, wholesome, traditional
Surprising, lively, “with it”
Serious, intelligent, efficient
Glamorous, romantic, sexy
Rugged, outdoorsy, tough, athletic

Indeed, consumers appear to have little trouble assigning personality qualities
to all sorts of inanimate products, from personal care products to more mundane,
functional ones—even kitchen appliances. Whirlpool’s research showed that people
saw its products as more feminine than they saw those of competing brands. When
respondents were asked to imagine the appliance as a person, many of them pictured
a modern, family-oriented woman living in the suburbs—attractive but not flashy. In
contrast, they envisioned the company’s Kitchen Aid brand as a modern professional
woman who was glamorous, wealthy, and enjoyed classical music and the theater.87

How Do We Get to “Know” a Brand?
Just as we rely on all sorts of cues—including facial features, body type, clothing,
home decoration, and so on—to infer a human being’s personality, the same is true
when we try to figure out brand personality. A product’s design is an obvious cue
(Apple is “sleek,” IKEA is “practical”). Packaging is another, as we saw in Chapter 3:
Shapes and colors link to meanings.
Another important cue is a brand name: Although Shakespeare wrote, “a rose
by any other name would smell as sweet,” in reality a name matters. That’s why you
buy dried plums rather than prunes and order Chilean sea bass instead of Patagonian
toothfish and mahi-mahi instead of dolphinfish (unrelated to the marine mammal but
In a lot of cases, the objective is very
simple but also crucial: Break through
the clutter and get noticed. Today that
sometimes means a name that borders
on the vulgar, but it gets our attention.
Hapi Food cereal (that offers laxative
properties) switched its name to Holy
Crap cereal after a customer used that
term to describe the product’s benefits.
You can buy a Kickass Cupcake and
wash it down with wines called Sassy
Bitch or Fat Bastard. The HVLS Fan
Company (short for high volume, low
speed) was moving sluggishly until the
owner changed the name to Big Ass
Fans.88
Source: Picture by Alex Slitz.

Chapter 10 • Personality, Values, and Lifestyles

307

certain to throw off consumers!). Companies typically pay professional “namers” up
to $75,000 to come up with a good one that makes a memorable statement about brand
personality and, of course, millions more to put the marketing muscle behind it that
makes the name a household word.

The Meaning Transfer Model
We easily judge brands based on a lot of cues, ranging from
their package color to the celebrity who pitches them on TV.
But just where do these associations come from?
Consumers absorb brands’ meanings through a meaning
transfer process.89 Brands themselves gather cultural
meaning by borrowing from cultural systems, such as the
advertising and fashion industries, which we will discuss in
more depth in Chapter 14.
In turn, when consumers bring brands into their lifestyles,
they take possession of those meanings.90 For example,
a TikTok influencer like Victoria Lyn (with more than
5 million followers) might cultivate a “brand personality”
that is one part “girl next door” and one part “natural beauty
enthusiast.”91 When she endorses a skincare product like Bliss
in a quirky, homemade video, those qualities may transfer onto
Intensive fitness programs like CrossFit foster a strong sense
the brand. Bliss certainly hopes so; that’s why the company
of community that contributes to a brand’s meaning.
probably sent samples to her to try (that’s the usual strategy,
Source: ESB Basic/Shutterstock.
anyway). The magic (aka meaning transfer) happens when
consumers interpret the brand meanings communicated through ads, websites, celebrity
endorsements, etc., and invite those meanings into their lives when they use the brand.92

Buying, Having, Being

Brand Resonance
Of course, not all brands matter to us in a significant way. The lucky few that manage
to become a vital part of our lives benefit from the much deeper and long-term
relationships they form with loyal users—think about the usual suspects like Nike,
Apple, Lululemon, Chick-Fil-A . . . you get the idea.
Marketers who can create brand resonance cement a bond with the consumer
that is very difficult to break.93 This bond occurs when a brand truly speaks to some
aspect of a consumer’s individual life or the culture in which they live. There are
multiple ways to do this—the crucial thing is to find some way if possible! Table 10.4
summarizes different types of resonance.

Archetypes (Again)
Earlier in the chapter, we talked about Carl Jung’s work on archetypes. It turns out
that advertisers do in fact often refer to Jung’s theories when they set about to create
a vivid brand personality. For example, some of the archetypes Jung and his followers
identified include the “old wise man” and the “earth mother.”95 These images appear
frequently in marketing messages that feature characters such as wizards, revered
teachers, or even Mother Nature. Our culture’s current infatuation with stories such
as Harry Potter and The Lord of the Rings speaks to the power of these images—to
say nothing of the “wizard” who helps you repair your laptop.
Young & Rubicam (Y&R), a major advertising agency, uses the archetype approach
in its BrandAsset® Archetypes model, as depicted in Figure 10.4. The model proposes
healthy relationships among archetypes as well as unhealthy ones. A healthy personality

Beware of “Pretender
Brands”!
Creating true brand resonance is
not as easy to pull off as it might
appear. One reason is that many
consumers (particularly younger
ones) have a sensitive “BS detector”
that alerts them when a brand
doesn’t live up to its claims or is
somehow inauthentic.
When this happens, the strategy
may backfire as consumers rebel.
They may create websites to attack
the brand or post parodies that
make fun of it on TikTok. One set of
researchers terms this phenomenon
a Doppelgänger brand image
(one that looks like the original but is
in fact a critique of it). For example,
many consumers were immensely
loyal to the Snapple brand until
Quaker purchased it. These loyalists
felt that Quaker had stripped the
brand of its offbeat, grassroots
sensibility; one shock jock renamed
it “Crapple” on his radio show.94

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TABLE 10.4    Types

of Brand Resonance

Resonance Type

Impact

Brand Example

Interdependency

Facilitates habits, rituals, and routines that entwine the brand’s meanings seamlessly into the
consumer’s everyday life

Starbucks

Intimacy

Has “insiders” who know details of its history, including significant product development particulars,
myths about product creators, and obscure “brand trivia” or facts

Nike Air Jordan

Personal co-creation

Encourages consumers to create their own stories about it and how it impacts their lives

Mary Kay

Emotional vibrancy

Elicits strong emotional reactions, such as happiness or excitement

Disney

Cultural bedrock

Links to core cultural values

Apple

Currency value

Evokes a “hot” meaning that defines a major trend in popular culture

Uber

Role resonance

Emblematic of a social role

Birkenstocks

Category resonance

A benchmark customers use to evaluate other brands

Harley-Davidson

Adapted from Susan G. Fournier, Michael R. Solomon, and Basil G. Englis, “Brand Resonance,” Handbook on Brand and Experience Management, ed. B. H. Schmitt and
D. L. Rogers (Cheltenham, UK and Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar, 2009), 35–57.

is one in which the Archetypes overwhelm their corresponding Shadows; a sick
personality results when one or more Shadows prevail. When a brand’s Shadows
dominate, this cues the agency to take action to guide the brand to a healthier
personality, much as one would try to counsel a psychologically ill person.96

Spokescharacters

One common way to “humanize” a brand
ironically is to associate it with a nonhuman. We tend to anthropomorphize
cartoon characters, animals, and other
figures when we give them human
qualities. Chester Cheetah’s edginess
has helped to create a distinctive brand
personality for the Cheetos brand.

Source: Chester Cheetah, Frito-Lay North America, Inc.

Companies often rely on spokescharacters to make their brand seem more humanlike. Another advantage is that these mythical creatures can help companies when
they face a trust crisis because a well-liked spokescharacter can help to reassure
consumers if a brand encounters a problem.
We may think about a cartoon character or mythical creation as if it were
a person and even assume that it has human feelings and a personality. Again,
consider familiar spokescharacters, such as Chester Cheetah from Cheetos, the
Keebler Elves, and the Michelin Man. Many of the most recognizable figures in
popular culture are spokescharacters for long-standing brands, such as the Jolly
Green Giant, Mr. Peanut, and the GEICO gecko.99
These personalities periodically get a makeover to keep their meanings current.
For example, Bayer recast Speedy Alka-Seltzer: In the 1950s and later, he was an
all-around good guy who was ready to help with any sort of indigestion. Today, he
appears as a “wingman” for men in their 20s and 30s who tend to “overindulge”
on food and drink. (Do you know anyone who fits this description?) The creative
director on the campaign explained that the goal is to introduce Speedy as “the
good-times enabler who shows up whenever guys are being guys.”100
Anthropomorphized brands especially speak to consumers experiencing social
rejection because these brands allow consumers to displace their feelings onto the
brand. How about a one-night stand with a shampoo? In a recent study, subjects
were asked to read an advertising message either in a “relationship” condition or
“fling” condition. The participants in the “relationship” condition read, “Hello,
I am Modi, a new member of the L’Oréal family. I look like my family members
but I am younger than all of them. Bring me home, and I will always be with you.”
Then they read a tagline that stressed the partner role: “Together with a Partner like Me,

Chapter 10 • Personality, Values, and Lifestyles

ARCHETYPE CHARACTERISTICS
Magician - thought

Sage - peace

wise,
visionary,
mentoring

logical,
analytical,
insightful

dignified,
authoritative,
inspirational

optimistic,
innocent,
pure

organized,
systematic,
controlled

Matriarch - order

Patriarch - belief

Angel - dreams

THOUGHT
stable,
genuine,
nurturing

Mother Earth - body

SUBSTANCE

EMOTIONS

mysterious,
sensual,
tempting

Enchantress - soul

ENERGY
relaxed,
comforting,
sociable

Queen - being

Warrior - ego

glamorous,
dramatic,
involved
confident,
powerful,
heroic

witty,
resilient,
daring

joyous,
free-spirited,
agile

Actress - feelings

Troubadour - joy

Jester - spirit

SHADOW CHARACTERISTICS
Sorcerer

Hermit

repressive, Dictator
close-minded,
unforgiving
abandoned,
vulnerable,
frightened

stingy,
messy,
crotchety

Hag

Shadow Mother

isolated,
lonely,
irrelevant

hollow,
dark,
cowardly

bloated,
immobile,
selfabsorbed

Slave

cold,
vain,
selfish

oppressed,
tormented,
despondent

Destroyer

wounded,
jealous,
tragic
angry,
aggressive,
destructive

tricky,
phony,
scheming

silly,
dimwitted,
goofy

Trickster

Figure 10.4 Brandasset Valuator® Archetypes

Source: Adapted from BrandAsset® Consulting: A Young & Rubicam Brands Company.

Idiot

Orphan

Shadow Witch

Addict

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Buying, Having, Being
Our Robot Will Be Right
With You
Will your next sales consultant be a
robot? Companies increasingly rely
on physical robots and virtual chatbots that resemble or mimic human
beings to connect with their customers.97 A recent meta-analysis of
studies that examined how people
interact with service robots (that
are specifically designed to interact
with customers) found that certain
robot design features and characteristics trigger feelings of anthropomorphism, or the attribution of
humanlike qualities to animals or
objects. In particular, robots that are
deemed more intelligent and more
useful also are perceived as more
humanlike.
In addition, many companies
choose to humanize their customer
service chatbots by giving them
names and crafting distinctive
avatars. But a realistic chatbot isn’t
always the answer. One study found
that chatbot anthropomorphism can
hurt customer satisfaction, overall
firm evaluation, and subsequent
purchase intentions if customers enter a chatbot-led service
interaction in an angry emotional
state—like when they call to complain about a bad experience.98 The
researchers explain that the negative effect of anthropomorphized
chatbots is that their efficacy does
not meet the high expectations that
consumers have when they encounter a humanlike chatbot.

Enjoy Our Life Forever.” The participants in the “fling” condition read the identical
advertising message except for the last sentence, which read, “Bring me home, and
I will be with you tonight,” and a tagline that emphasized a fling role: “Try Me, Enjoy
Our Moment Tonight.”101 Overall, subjects were more likely to prefer a brand that
offered a “commitment” rather than a “fling.”

Congruence between Consumer and Brand
We saw in Chapter 6 that consumers tend to prefer brands with personalities that match
their own. For example, a recent study found that narcissists—consumers who are selfobsessed and, frequently, arrogant—are more inclined toward arrogant brands, or
brands that communicate the message they are superior to others.102 In the study, the
researchers manipulated whether a brand in the ad was anthropomorphized or not and
whether the brand was arrogant or not, and they asked how likely participants would
be to purchase the product. So-called arrogant brands are typically poorly received by
consumers (e.g., lower purchase intentions). Yet narcissists respond well to arrogant
brands, at least when they are anthropomorphized, because they feel self-congruent
with them. Self-congruity occurs when a consumer sees their self-concept reflected
in a brand.

Lifestyle Brands and Lifestyle Brand Constellations
The designer Ralph Lauren has crafted a classic lifestyle brand that people around the
world associate with American style. He built his Polo empire on an image that evokes
country homes and sheepdogs. At the company’s elegant flagship store in Manhattan
that is a refurbished mansion, one business journalist wrote, “While men who look
like lawyers search for your size shirt and ladies who belong at deb parties suggest
complementary bags and shoes, you experience the ultimate in lifestyle advertising.”
Not bad for a guy born in the Bronx to a Jewish housepainter; his original name was
Ralph Lifshitz. Now the Lauren empire is expanding beyond clothing, fragrances,
and home accessories to restaurants in Paris, Chicago, and New York. You can eat the
American Dream while you wear it.103 Similarly, the luxury sports carmaker Aston
Martin is building a luxury condo in Miami, while the furniture and accessories store
West Elm is opening boutique hotels.104
We get a clearer picture of how people use products to define lifestyles when
we see how consumers make choices in a variety of product categories. A lifestyle
marketing perspective implies that we must look at patterns of behavior to understand
consumers. As one study noted, “All goods carry meaning, but none by itself . . . .
The meaning is in the relations between all the goods, just as music is in the relations
marked out by the sounds and not in any one note.”105
Indeed, many products and services do seem to “go together,” usually because
the same types of people tend to select them. In many cases, products do not seem
to “make sense” if companion products don’t accompany them (e.g., fast food and
paper plates, or a suit and tie) or are incongruous in the presence of other products that
have a different personality (e.g., a Chippendale chair in a high-tech office or discount
cigarettes paired with a solid gold lighter).
Therefore, an important part of lifestyle marketing is to identify the set of products
and services that consumers associate with a specific lifestyle. In fact, research evidence
suggests that even a relatively unattractive product becomes more appealing when
consumers link it with other products that they do like.106 Furthermore, when people
consume multiple products that are labeled with the same brand, they actually like
them more: They believe that these items were deliberately developed to go together.107

Chapter 10 • Personality, Values, and Lifestyles

The meshing of objects from many different categories to express a single lifestyle
idea is at the heart of many consumption decisions, including coordinating an outfit
for a big date (shoes, garments, accessories, fragrance), decorating a room (tables,
carpet, wallpaper, artwork), and designing a restaurant (menu, ambience, waitperson
uniforms). Many people today evaluate products not just in terms of function but also
in terms of how well their design coordinates with other objects and furnishings.
Marketers who understand these cross-category relationships may pursue
co-branding strategies where they team up with other companies to promote two or
more items. Some marketers even match up their spokescharacters in ads; the Pillsbury
Doughboy appeared in a commercial with the Sprint Guy to pitch cell phones, the
lonely Maytag repairman was in an ad for the Chevrolet Impala, and the Taco Bell
Chihuahua (now retired) showed up in a commercial for GEICO insurance.108
Product complementarity occurs when the symbolic meanings of different
products relate to one another.109 Consumers use these sets of products we call a
consumption constellation to define, communicate, and perform social roles.110 For
example, we identified the U.S. “yuppie” of the 1980s by such products as a Rolex
watch, a BMW automobile, a Gucci briefcase, a squash racket, fresh pesto, white wine,
and brie cheese. Fast forward to today, where we associate “hipsters” with long beards,
vinyl records, bowler hats, craft roasted coffee, and fake glasses.111 Researchers find
that even children think in terms of consumption constellations, and as they get older,
they tend to include more specific brands in these cognitive structures.112
A constellation perspective is very valuable because if we know some of a
consumer’s preferences, we can more easily predict what they will like in other
product categories as well. For example, the music service Spotify now allows music
lovers to “shop the look” of their favorite artists by buying makeup straight from the
streaming platform.113 Remember, companies may sell products, but consumers buy
identities that are composed of items in many different categories!
Today researchers increasingly turn to huge datasets they obtain from our social
media activity to identify consumption constellations. Remember that many of our
values regarding politics and social issues, religion, and so on are intertwined with
our brand preferences. For example, one research team used AI to analyze 50 million
images from Google Street View to find out whether the vehicles parked in people’s
driveways correlate with a neighborhood’s voting behavior, income levels, and so on.
Sure enough, Republican voting districts are likely to have a heavy concentration of
extended-cab pickup trucks, while Democratic districts have sedans. New York is the
city that boasts the most expensive cars, while El Paso has the highest percentage of
Hummers, and San Francisco has the highest percentage of foreign cars. In terms of
the emissions that different models give off, the greenest city in America is Burlington, Vermont, while Casper, Wyoming, has the largest per-capita carbon footprint.114
Another study examined the TV shows that people like on Facebook and broke down
these preferences by zip code, voting behavior, and other variables.115 Among the findings:

•
•

The Duck Dynasty reality show is most popular in rural areas. The correlation
between fandom and the percentage of people who voted for President Trump was
the highest for this show. Fans were also likely to follow Fast n’ Loud, The Voice,
and Pawn Stars, and very unlikely to follow Game of Thrones, South Park, and
It’s Always Sunny in Philadelphia.
The Daily Show on Comedy Central is most popular in cities and other more
liberal-leaning areas along the coasts. Its highest popularity is in San Francisco,
and it’s the least popular in Alabama. In contrast to Duck Dynasty areas, fans of
The Daily Show are also likely to follow Game of Thrones and Modern Family,
and very unlikely to watch 16 and Pregnant or Teen Mom.

311

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•

Fox’s musical-drama series Empire tells the story of a hip-hop music company. The
show is most popular in “The Black Belt” (a portion of the southern U.S. that includes
a higher-than-average percentage of African Americans) but is also a big hit among
Native Americans. These fans also like Love & Hip Hop, 106 & Park, and Real
Housewives of Atlanta. They avoid MythBusters, Deadliest Catch, and Pawn Stars.

Selling Authenticity
Keep it real! Today one of the most important criteria for many consumers—especially
younger ones—is authenticity, or being trustworthy and genuine. In one survey of
American shoppers, 94 percent of respondents said they would be more loyal to brands
that practice transparency in terms of where they source their raw materials, while
56 percent claim that brand transparency would make them “loyal for life.”116
Consumers today often want to know just where the things they buy came from.
The J. Peterman Company clothing catalogs tell stories about the apparel they sell,
and upscale grocery stores such as Whole Foods provide great detail about the specific
farms where produce and meat were raised. So, product authenticity increasingly has
become a determinant attribute. Researchers tell us that although authenticity can be
a hard concept to pin down, it seems to be composed of three attributes: Heritage,
sincerity, and commitment to quality.117
That explains why many companies like to tout their “authentic” story; for
example, New Balance describes its Maine factory like this: “Built in 1945, the Depot
Street building is the workplace of almost 400 associates. Each pair of shoes they
produce is a proud work of craftsmanship that carries a little bit of the long history
that is the town and its people.”118
One of the biggest authenticity success stories is Chobani Greek yogurt.
This attribute has been key to Chobani’s success in positioning itself as
an alternative to mainstream yogurt brands. Consumers love the rags-toriches story about an entrepreneur who bought an old Kraft Foods plant in
New York State and created a brand-new product that is less fattening than
other alternatives. That story has been repeated thousands of times by the
media, resulting in free advertising worth more than $3 million. Indeed,
people loved the story so much that many of them learned to like the yogurt
despite the taste, which is sourer than they’re used to. Greek yogurt now
accounts for more than a third of all yogurt sales in the United States.
Archrival Yoplait (owned by mega-company General Mills) countered
with various attempts to sell its own version of Greek yogurt, but consumers
weren’t having it. Now, General Mills is taking a different tack: Yoplait scoured
its French history and discovered its own story: For centuries (or so the story
goes), French farmers have made yogurt by putting milk, fruit, and cultures
into glass jars and then setting them aside. So, Yoplait tweaked its recipe
and began buying glass jars for its new brand of Oui yogurt. According to a
company executive, “the simplicity of this idea, that this is a French method,
coming from a French brand, with a French name, that’s authenticity.”119

Brand Storytelling
General Mills used the back story of French
farmers who bottle their homemade yogurt in
glass jars to emphasize the “authenticity” of the
new Oui brand.
Source: Image courtesy of Yoplait USA.

It’s increasingly common for marketers to think carefully about bringing
their brands to life as they embrace the communications approach known as
brand storytelling. Brand storytelling is based on a long tradition of brand
narrative research, which has documented the immersive power of stories
and the ability for readers of the stories to engage with and participate in
the story by “filling in the blanks.”

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313

As we saw in Chapter 6, narratives are persuasive when they transport the
reader into the narrative world (through a process of narrative transportation). A
brand storytelling perspective lets the consumer engage with and navigate the brand’s
transmedia world.120 This term refers to the complex web of places where consumers
can engage with brands: The brand’s website, its store, whether physical or in the
metaverse, the communities of fans of the brand, social media where conversations
about the brand may be happening, etc.
The popularity of podcasts like NPR Guy Raz’s How I Built This and the
proliferation of companies that open their doors for consumers to see how products are
made show how much we love to get the backstory, a behind-the-scenes experience
of the brand’s history.121 This approach encourages consumers to learn as much as
they can about the brand’s “inside story.”
When a brand is an underdog, its brand biography, the history of its origins
or founders, is especially compelling, as it includes details about a brand’s humble
origins and how it defied the odds to succeed. Such a story resonates with consumers
because they can identify with these struggles. Thus, Google, HP, and Apple like to
talk about the garages in which they started. The label on a Nantucket Nectars bottle
describes how the company started “with only a blender and a dream.”122

CHAPTER SUMMARY
Now that you have finished reading this chapter, you should
be able to:
1. Explain how our personality influences the way
we process marketing communications, make
decisions, and respond to social influences.
The concept of personality refers to a person’s
unique psychological makeup and how it consistently
influences the way a person responds to his or her
environment. Marketing strategies based on personality
differences have met with mixed success, partly because
of the way researchers have measured and applied these
differences in personality traits to consumption contexts.
Some analysts try to understand underlying differences
in small samples of consumers by employing techniques
based on Freudian psychology and variations of this
perspective, whereas others have tried to assess these
dimensions more objectively in large samples using
sophisticated quantitative techniques.
2. Describe how our behavior is shaped by our
values and attitudes toward money, things, and
time.
Products take on meaning because a person thinks the
products will help him or her to achieve some goal that
is linked to a value, such as individuality or freedom.
A set of core values characterizes each culture, to
which most of its members adhere. Our lifestyles
are influenced by how we feel about and prioritize
important resources. Money has complex psychological

meanings; we equate it with success or failure, social
acceptability, security, love, or freedom. Time is also
an economic variable, or a resource that we must divide
among our activities. Similarly, our basic beliefs about
the way the world should operate relative to how we feel
about political and social causes tend to be related to the
brands we prefer.
3. Explain how our lifestyle is related to and
informed by our consumer behavior.
A consumer’s lifestyle refers to the ways they choose
to spend time and money and how their consumption
choices reflect these values and tastes. Lifestyle research
is useful to track societal consumption preferences and
to position specific products and services to different
segments. When marketers segment based on lifestyle
differences, they often group consumers in terms of their
AIOs (activities, interests, and opinions). We associate
interrelated sets of products and activities with social
roles to form consumption constellations. People often
purchase a product or service because they associate it
with a constellation that, in turn, they link to a lifestyle
they find desirable. Psychographic techniques classify
consumers in terms of psychological, subjective
variables in addition to observable characteristics
(demographics). Marketers have developed systems
to identify consumer “types” and to differentiate them
in terms of their brand or product preferences, media
usage, leisure time activities, and attitudes toward broad
issues, such as politics and religion.

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4. Describe the many ways brands become meaningful to consumers.
Brands play an important role in our lives. As consumers
integrate brands into their lifestyles, they absorb the
meanings that these brand convey and the stories the
brands tell. Brands with strong resonance create especially
strong bonds with consumers. A brand personality is the
set of traits people attribute to a product as if it were a

person. Consumers assign personality qualities to all
sorts of inanimate products. Like our relationships with
other people, these designations can change over time;
therefore, marketers need to be vigilant about maintaining
the brand personality they want consumers to perceive.
Forging a desirable brand personality often is key to
building brand loyalty.

KEY TERMS
Agreeableness, 289
AIOs, 302
Anthropomorphism, 310
Archetypes, 287
Arrogant brands, 310
Authenticity, 312
Autotelic, 291
Backstory, 313
Belief system, 292
Big Five Inventory, 289
Brand biography, 313
Brand narrative, 312
Brand personality, 306
Brand resonance, 307
Brand storytelling, 312
Buyer personas, 302
Co-branding strategies, 311
Conscientiousness, 289
Consumption constellation, 311
Core values, 292
Cultivation theory, 294
Deceleration, 297
Decluttering, 294
Dichotomous thinking, 291
Doppelgänger brand image, 307
Ego, 286
Entity theorists, 290
Extroversion, 289

E-sports, 298
Fresh start mindset, 294
Frugality, 291
Haptic system, 291
Id, 286
Incremental theorists, 290
Instrumental, 291
Instrumental values, 297
JOMO (joy of missing out), 291
Laddering, 297
Lifestyle, 299
Lifestyle-based depletion, 295
Lifestyle brand, 310
Lifestyle marketing perspective, 300
Lifestyle segmentation
typologies, 304
Living off the grid, 294
Materialism, 293
Meaning transfer process, 307
Means–end chain model, 297
Minimalism, 294
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory (MMPI), 286
Motivational research, 287
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator®, 292
Need for perfection, 291
Need for touch, 291
Neuroticism, 289

Open rates, 296
Openness to experience, 289
Personality, 286
Personality traits, 289
Pleasure principle, 286
Product complementarity, 311
Psychographics, 301
Psychological time, 297
Reality principle, 286
Reactance, 291
Religiosity, 291
Saving orientation, 295
Self-congruity, 310
Service robots, 310
Spending orientation, 295
Superego, 286
Terminal values, 297
Time poverty, 296
Timestyle, 296
Tiny House Movement, 294
Transmedia world, 313
Value, 292
Value system, 292
Values and Lifestyles System
(VALS2™), 304
Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation
Technique (ZMET), 287

REVIEW
10-1 How does Freud’s work on the unconscious mind
relate to marketing practice?

10-3 What is the basic philosophy behind a lifestyle
marketing strategy?

10-2 Core values evolve over time. What do you think
are the three to five core values that best describe
Americans today?

10-4 How can marketers stay on top of changes in lifestyle
trends?

Chapter 10 • Personality, Values, and Lifestyles

315

CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CHALLENGE
DISCUSS

10-5 One way to clearly see the impact of shifting cultural
values on consumption is to look at the increasing
emphasis on the importance of health and wellness.
In recent years, top-performing new food/beverage
products featured items with natural or organic
ingredients, such as Chobani yogurt and Nature’s
Pride bread.123 Where is this trend going? Is it just
temporary, or does it reflect a more permanent change
in how Americans look at what they eat and drink?
10-6 Is there such a thing as personality? If so, how
might you integrate knowledge about consumers’
personality traits into a marketing strategy?

10-7 Is it accurate to claim that sustainability is now a core
value for Americans? Why or why not?
10-8 The chapter discusses how Facebook data has been
illegally used to develop consumer profiles that can
help organizations to tailor messages that will appeal
to them. Do improper uses of data as well as data
breaches that make us vulnerable to hackers merit
additional regulation of social media by government
agencies (that might themselves make use of these
data for “security” purposes)? What is the proper
tradeoff between freedom of information and
consumers’ privacy?

APPLY

10-9 Identify some of your favorite brands. If each “came
to life” as a person, what kind of person would they
be? Describe the brand personality of each—on what
basis do you infer these traits?
10-10 Interview a set of consumers about their favorite
brands and the things they “can’t live without.” Based
upon the discussion of brand resonance in the chapter,
see whether you can identify the type of attachment
that’s operating for each consumer-brand connection.
10-11 Using media that target college students, construct a
consumption constellation for this social role. What
set of products, activities, and interests tends to
appear in advertisements depicting “typical” college
students? How realistic is this constellation?

10-12 Extreme sports. YouTube. Pinterest. Veganism. Can
you predict what will be “hot” in the near future?
Identify a lifestyle trend that is just surfacing in your
universe. Describe this trend in detail and justify your
prediction. What specific styles or products relate to
this trend?
10-13 Collect a sample of ads that appeal to consumers’
values. What value is being communicated in each
ad, and how is this done? Is this an effective approach
to designing a marketing communication?
10-14 Identify three distinct “taste cultures” within
your school. Can you generate a “consumption
constellation” for each (clothing, music, leisure
activities, etc.)?

DIGGING IN WITH DATA

See “Data Case 3: Cats, Kibble, and Commercials” in Appendix A for an opportunity to work with real consumer
data and apply this chapter’s concepts to real world problems.

CASE STUDY

Beyoncé’s Beyhive—Honeybees and Killer Bees
in Love with their Queen

All over the world, diehard Beyoncé fans proudly claim
membership in the Beyhive. This group represents one of
the most dedicated fan bases anywhere. Beyoncé Knowles
became famous as part of the R&B group Destiny’s Child.
In 2003, she launched as a solo artist, beginning a wildly
successful career in both music and business. She is the

most-nominated female artist in Grammy history with
28 wins and 79 nominations.124 She has also been featured
in several movies, numerous TV shows, and magazines. In
September 2018, Beyoncé appeared on the cover of Vogue
for the fourth time.125 She shared the story of her pregnancy
with twins along with her thoughts on body acceptance and

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• Being: Using Products to Create and Communicate Identity

her legacy. It was a first for the magazine, in that it ceded
complete editorial control over to the subject.126
In June of 2022, Beyoncé released her new single
“Break My Soul.” Heralded as the post-pandemic anthem,
the dance track is being likened to a clarion call for the Great
Resignation as people quit their jobs after COVID lockdowns.
Her seventh album, Renaissance, arrived in full on July 28,
2022, a 16-song LP that marks the superstar singer’s first
album release since 2016’s Lemonade.127 The Beyhive was
all a buzz once again.
In addition to her music and concert sales, Beyoncé
has leveraged her fame for lucrative celebrity endorsements
with L’Oréal, Pepsi, Tommy Hilfiger, McDonald’s, Samsung,
American Express, Nintendo, H&M, Toyota, and others.128
An early foray into fashion with her mother Tina Knowles,
House of Deréon, was unsuccessful, but her latest, Ivy
Park, is a big success. Ivy Park is an “athleisure” clothing
line, appropriate for Beyoncé, who is known for her
extensive workout regimen. The label was launched with
an inspirational video about the virtues of self-discipline,
which the star created. The week it launched, Ivy Park was
the top-selling brand at Nordstrom. Other ventures include
WTRMLN WTR, cold-pressed watermelon juice that the
singer drinks while on tour, available for $40 for a 12-pack.
In 2019, Beyoncé signed a $60 million contract with Netflix
to provide content to the streaming service, starting with her
performance at 2018 Coachella.129 Beyoncé’s net worth, as
of August 2021, was an estimated $440 million. According
to Forbes, she is ranked 73rd place on its list of America’s
Wealthiest Self-Made Women.130
Like any good celebrity, Beyoncé gives credit to her
fans. And her fans are particularly passionate. Known as
the Beyhive (pronounced “beehive”), this group is both the
promoter and defender of all things Beyoncé. The grassroots
movement even has its own taxonomy, with Worker Bees
who serve as amateur journalists, HoneyBees who focus on
praising the artist, and Yellow Jackets, the seasonal Beyoncé
fans (that hard-core fans disdain).131 But most dangerous are
the Killer Bees, who attack online anyone who dares to diss
the Queen Bee.
The Beyhive lives on the internet in a series of forums and
social media sites. On these sites, fans can share what they
love about Beyoncé, photos of concerts or artist “sightings,”
and rumors about upcoming events or albums. But they also
use the internet to put down anyone who is perceived to have
said something negative about their queen. Targets of this ire
have included journalist Piers Morgan, rapper Azealia Banks
and talk show host Wendy Williams.132
This level of passion may be connected to the personal
nature of Beyoncé’s music, much of which focuses on
empowering women and helping them to feel fearless. This

deep connection can be uplifting, especially if you feel
marginalized, but it can also breed an extreme kind of loyalty.
According to one expert, “Beyoncé connects so deeply and
personally with her fans because she is not afraid to show her
vulnerability to her fans.” “She has been explicitly rejected
her entire career from losing on Star Search to designers
rejecting opportunities to dress Destiny’s Child, to criticism
of the evolution of themes in her music. She allows fans to
see her develop personally and become the woman of her own
dreams. She reminds her fans that pouring into themselves
is always an option, despite rejection, disappointment,
and trauma.”
Against the backdrop of sharing so much of herself,
it is no surprise that her fans are willing to come to her
defense. From a marketing standpoint, this fanaticism (we
get the word fan from fanatic) can be highly beneficial.
Many consumers will express their feelings for a brand in
terms of love, and this is easier to do when the brand is a
person. That strong feeling enables a transfer of the feelings
about one product to another the brand offers. An analysis of
Ivy Park clothing sales at Nordstrom showed that about 40
percent of the people who bought at least one item from the
new clothing line had also purchased Beyoncé’s music.133
Effective marketing messages create a logical tie between
products. Beyoncé’s Beyhive is a strong reminder of the
power of a “hive” (fan base) to support a honey of a brand
today.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

CS 10-1 How would you describe the consumer identity
of the Beyhive—the Beyoncé fans? Are there
particular personality or lifestyle characteristics
that members of the Beyhive share?
CS 10-2	How would you describe Beyoncé’s brand
personality? How has it changed or evolved
over the expanse of her solo career? How does it
compare with other celebrity brand personalities
with which you’re familiar?
CS 10-3	If you were hired as Beyoncé’s brand manager,
what types of products and services would you
suggest she consider endorsing? How would these
products appeal to the members of the Beyhive
community? Develop a list of specific marketing
and promotional tactics that might be used to reach
the Beyhive target market.
CS 10-4	What are some of the potential downsides of
aligning yourself with a brand personality like
Beyoncé? Is there any harm in being a member of
the Beyhive? Explain.

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317

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318

Section 4

• Being: Using Products to Create and Communicate Identity

45. Paige Smith, “Minimalist Living Tips: 8 Essential Rules for Living with
Less,” Elbow Room, September 28, 2016, https://www.clutter.com/blog/
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46. Linda L. Price, Robin A. Coulter, Yuliya Strizhakova, and Ainslie E. Schultz,
“The Fresh Start Mindset: Transforming Consumers’ Lives,” Journal of
Consumer Research 45, no. 1 (2018): 21–48.
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48. Elizabeth Larkin, “How to Declutter Every Room in Your Home,” The
Spruce, December 6, 2017, www.thespruce.com/decluttering-your-entirehome-2648002; Marie Kondo, The Life-Changing Magic of Tidying Up: The
Japanese Art of Decluttering and Organizing (Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press,
2014); “What Is the Tiny House Movement?” The Tiny Life, http://thetinylife
.com/what-is-the-tiny-house-movement/.
49. Daniel Carlos Brannon and Muhanad Shakir Manshad, “Personal saving
orientation is associated with higher likelihood of paying with cash versus
credit: The role of financial power signaling, Personality and Individual
Differences, 190 (2022).
50. Utpal Dholakia, Leona Tam, Sunyee Yoon, and Nancy Wong, “The Ant and
the Grasshopper: Understanding Personal Saving Orientation of Consumers,”
Journal of Consumer Research 43, no. 1 (2016): 134–55.
51. Quoted in Philip Jackman, “What Makes a Tightwad? Study Finds That People
Who Are Stingy Report Feeling Emotional Pain When Spending Money,” The
Globe & Mail, March 19, 2008, www.theglobeandmail.com; http://webuser
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52. José F. Medina, Joel Saegert, and Alicia Gresham, “Comparison of MexicanAmerican and Anglo-American Attitudes Toward Money,” Journal of
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53. Kirk Johnson, “Sit Down. Breathe Deeply. This Is Really Scary Stuff,” New
York Times, April 16, 1995: F5; cf. also Matthew J. Bernthal, David Crockett,
and Randall L. Rose, “Credit Cards as Lifestyle Facilitators,” Journal of
Consumer Research 32 (June 2005): 130–45.
54. Xinyue Zhou, Kathleen D. Vohs, and Roy F. Baumeister, “The Symbolic Power
of Money: Reminders of Money Alter Social Distress and Physical Pain,”
Psychological Science 20, no. 6 (2009): 700–06.
55. Detra Y. Montoya and Maura L. Scott, “The Effect of Lifestyle-Based Depletion
on Teen Consumer Behavior,” Journal of Public Policy & Marketing 32, no. 1
(2013): 82–96.
56. Seray Keskin, “What’s the Best Time to Send Email? Here’s What the Data
Says (2022),” Drip, May 24, 2022, https://www.drip.com/blog/best-time-tosend-email, accessed June 6, 2022.
57. Sharon Jayson, “Men vs. Women: How Much Time Spent on Kids, Job,
Chores?” USA TODAY, March 14, 2013, www.usatoday.com/story/
news/nation/2013/03/14/men-women-work-time/1983271/; Vivian Giang,
“How Everything We Tell Ourselves about How Busy We Are Is a Lie,” Fast
Company, September 5, 2014, www.fastcompany.com/3035253/the-future-ofwork/how-everything-we-tell-ourselves-about-how-busy-we-are-is-a-lie.
58. June S. Cotte, S. Ratneshwar, and David Glen Mick, “The Times of Their
Lives: Phenomenological and Metaphorical Characteristics of Consumer
Timestyles,” Journal of Consumer Research 31 (September 2004): 333–45.
59. Niklas Woermann and Joonas Rokka, “Timeflow: How Consumption Practices
Shape Consumers’ Temporal Experiences,” Journal of Consumer Research 41,
no. 6 (2015): 1486–1508.
60. Katharina C. Husemann and Giana M. Eckhardt (2019),“Consumer
Deceleration,” Journal of Consumer Research, 45 (6), 1142–63.
61. Milton Rokeach, Understanding Human Values (New York: Free Press, 1979);
see also J. Michael Munson and Edward McQuarrie, “Shortening the Rokeach
Value Survey for Use in Consumer Research,” in Michael J. Houston, ed.,
Advances in Consumer Research 15 (Provo, UT: Association for Consumer
Research, 1988), 381–86.
62. Craig J. Thompson and Maura Troester, “Consumer Value Systems in the Age
of Postmodern Fragmentation: The Case of the Natural Health Microculture,”
Journal of Consumer Research 28 (March 2002): 550–71.
63. Thomas J. Reynolds and Jonathan Gutman, “Laddering Theory, Method,
Analysis, and Interpretation,” Journal of Advertising Research (February–
March 1988): 11–34; Beth Walker, Richard Celsi, and Jerry Olson, “Exploring
the Structural Characteristics of Consumers’ Knowledge,” in Advances in
Consumer Research 14, ed. Melanie Wallendorf and Paul Anderson (Provo,
UT: Association for Consumer Research, 1986), 17–21; Tania Modesto Veludode-Oliveira, Ana Akemi Ikeda, and Marcos Cortez Campomar, “Laddering
in the Practice of Marketing Research: Barriers and Solutions,” Qualitative
Market Research: An International Journal 9, no. 3 (2006): 297–306. For
a critique of this technique, cf. Elin Brandi Sørenson and Søren Askegaard,
“Laddering: How (Not) to Do Things with Words,” Qualitative Market
Research: An International Journal 10, no. 1 (2007): 63–77.
64. “25 Years of Attitude,” Marketing Tools (November–December 1995): 38–39.

65. Karyne Levy, “Here’s Why Amazon Just Paid Nearly $1 Billion for a Site
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66. Brett Molina, “Why Watch Other People Play Video Games? What
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www.usatoday.com/story/tech/news/2018/01/12/more-people-watchesports-than-x-dont-get-here-basics/1017054001/; Paul Mozur,
“For South Korea, E-Sports Is National Pastime,” New York Times,
October 19, 2014, www.nytimes.com/2014/10/20/technology/
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68. Benjamin D. Zablocki and Rosabeth Moss Kanter, “The Differentiation of
Life-Styles,” Annual Review of Sociology (1976): 269–97; Mary Twe Douglas
and Baron C. Isherwood, The World of Goods (New York: Basic Books, 1979).
69. “Average Hours per Day Spent in Selected Activities by Age,” Bureau of Labor
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70. Benjamin D. Zablocki and Rosabeth M. Kanter, “The Differentiation of LifeStyles,” Annual Review of Sociology Vol. 2: 269–298 (August 1976), https://
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71. William Leiss, Stephen Kline, and Sut Jhally, Social Communication in
Advertising (Toronto, ON: Methuen, 1986).
72. Danny Hakim, “Cadillac, Too, Shifting Focus to Trucks,” New York Times,
December 21, 2001, www.nytimes.com/2001/12/21/business/cadillac-tooshifting-focus-to-trucks.html.
73. See Lewis Alpert and Ronald Gatty, “Product Positioning by Behavioral Life
Styles,” Journal of Marketing 33 (April 1969): 65–69; Emanuel H. Demby,
“Psychographics Revisited: The Birth of a Technique,” Marketing News,
January 2, 1989: 21; William D. Wells, “Backward Segmentation,” in Insights
into Consumer Behavior, ed. Johan Arndt (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1968),
85–100.
74. Ian Pearson, “Social Studies: Psychographics in Advertising,” Canadian
Business, December 1985: 67.
75. Rebecca Piirto Heath, “Psychographics: Qu’est-Ce Que C’est?” Marketing
Tools (November–December 1995).
76. “Buyer Personas: What They Are and Why You Need Them,” Raka Creative,
www.rakacreative.com/blog/inbound-marketing/what-is-a-buyer-persona/.
77. Quoted in Amy Wallace, “Chip Wilson, Lululemon Guru, Is Moving On,”
New York Times Magazine, February 2, 2015, www.nytimes.com/2015/02/08/
magazine/lululemons-guru-is-moving-on.html?smid=nytcore-iphone-share&
smprod=nytcore-iphone&_r=0.
78. Keith Collins and Gabriel J.X. Dance, “What ‘Likes’ Say About You,” New York
Times, March 21, 2018, B5.
79. Alfred S. Boote, “Psychographics: Mind over Matter,” American Demographics
(April 1980): 26–29; William D. Wells, “Psychographics: A Critical Review,”
Journal of Marketing Research 12 (May 1975): 196–213.
80. Joseph T. Plummer, “The Concept and Application of Life Style Segmentation,”
Journal of Marketing 38 (January 1974): 33–37.
81. Berkeley Rice, “The Selling of Lifestyles,” Psychology Today (March 1988): 46.
82. John L. Lastovicka, John P. Murry, Erich A. Joachimsthaler, Gurav Bhalla,
and Jim Scheurich, “A Lifestyle Typology to Model Young Male Drinking and
Driving,” Journal of Consumer Research 14 (September 1987): 257–63.
83. www.strategicbusinessinsights.com/vals/presurvey.shtml; Martha Farnsworth
Riche, “VALS 2,” American Demographics (July 1989): 25. Additional
information provided by William D. Guns, Director, Business Intelligence
Center, SBI Consulting, Inc., personal communication, May 1997.
84. Thomas Hine, “Why We Buy: The Silent Persuasion of Boxes, Bottles, Cans,
and Tubes,” Worth (May 1995): 78–83.
85. Jennifer Aaker, Kathleen D. Vohs, and Cassie Mogilner, “Nonprofits Are Seen
as Warm and For-Profits as Competent: Firm Stereotypes Matter,” Journal of
Consumer Research 37, no. 2 (August 2010): 224–37.
86. Jennifer L. Aaker, “Dimensions of Brand Personality,” Journal of Marketing
Research 34 (August 1997): 347–57.
87. Tim Triplett, “Brand Personality Must Be Managed or It Will Assume a Life
of Its Own,” Marketing News (May 9, 1994): 9.
88. John Grossman, “Risqué Names Reap Rewards for Some Companies,” New York
Times, April 23, 2014, www.nytimes.com/2014/04/24/business/smallbusiness/
risque-names-reap-rewards-for-some-companies.html.
89. Grant McCracken, “Culture and Consumption: A Theoretical Account of the
Structure and Movement of the Cultural Meaning of Consumer Goods,” Journal
of Consumer Research 13 (1986): 71–84, https://doi.org/10.1086/209048.
90. Rajeev Batra, “Creating Brand Meaning: A Review and Research Agenda,”
Journal of Consumer Psychology 29, no. 3 (2019): 535–46.
91. https://www.tiktok.com/foryou?is_copy_url= 0&is_from_webapp= v1&
item_id=6955146070842281221&lang=en#/@victorialyn/video/
6955146070842281221, accessed June 6, 2022.

Chapter 10 • Personality, Values, and Lifestyles

92. Edward F. McQuarrie and Barbara J. Philips, Visual Branding: A Rhetorical
and Historical Analysis (Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar, 2016).
93. Susan G. Fournier, Michael R. Solomon, and Basil G. Englis, “Brand
Resonance,” Handbook on Brand and Experience Management, ed.
B. H. Schmitt and D. L. Rogers (Cheltenham, UK, and Northampton, MA:
2009, Edward Elgar), 35–57.
94. Craig J. Thompson, Aric Rindfleisch, and Zeynep Arsel, “Emotional Branding
and the Strategic Value of the Doppelganger Brand Image,” Journal of
Marketing 70, no. 1 (2006): 50.
95. See Carl G. Jung, “The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious,” in
Collected Works, vol. 9, part 1, ed. H. Read, M. Fordham, and G. Adler
(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1959).
96. This material was contributed by Rebecca H. Holman, senior vice president
and director, Consumer Knowledge Structures, The Knowledge Group, Young
& Rubicam Brands.
97. Markus Blut, Cheng Wang, Nancy V. Wünderlich, and Christian Brock,
“Understanding Anthropomorphism in Service Provision: A Meta-Analysis
of Physical Robots, Chatbots, and Other AI,” Journal of the Academy of
Marketing Science 49, no. 4 (2021): 632–58.
98. Cammy Crolic, Felipe Thomaz, Rhonda Hadi, and Andrew T. Stephen, “Blame
the Bot: Anthropomorphism and Anger in Customer–Chatbot Interactions,”
Journal of Marketing 86, no. 1 (2022): 132–48.
99. Yongjun Sung and Spencer F. Tinkham, “Brand Personality Structures in the
United States and Korea: Common and Culture-Specific Factors,” Journal
of Consumer Psychology 15, no. 4 (2005): 334–50; Beverly T. Venable,
Gregory M. Rose, Victoria D. Bush, and Faye W. Gilbert, “The Role of Brand
Personality in Charitable Giving: An Assessment and Validation,” Journal of
the Academy of Marketing Science 33 (July 2005): 295–312.
100. Quoted in Stuart Elliott, “A 1950s Brand Mascot Fights 21st-Century
Indigestion,” New York Times, March 5, 2008, https://www.nytimes.com/2008/03
/05/business/05adco.html.
101. Rocky Peng Chen, Echo Wen Wan, and Eric Levy, “The Effect of Social
Exclusion on Consumer Preference for Anthropomorphized Brands,” Journal
of Consumer Psychology 27, no. 1 (2017): 23–34
102. Norah Awad and Nara Youn, “You Reflect Me: Narcissistic Consumers
Prefer Anthropomorphized Arrogant Brands,” Journal of the Association for
Consumer Research 3, no. 4 (2018): 540–54.
103. https://www.ralphlauren.com, accessed June 7, 2022.
104. Janet Morriseey, “Brands Expand into New Niches with Care, but Not without
Risk,” New York Times, May 28, 2017, www.nytimes.com/2017/05/28/business/
media/expand-brands-niches-risk.html?_r=0; Amy Zipkin, “Familiar Names at
the Store Want You to Stay with Them, Too,” New York Times, March 6, 2017,
www.nytimes.com/2017/03/06/business/familiar-names-at-the-store-wantyou-to-stay-with-them-too.html.
105. Mary Douglas and Baron C. Isherwood, The World of Goods: Towards an
Anthropology of Consumption (1979), London: Routledge.
106. Christopher K. Hsee and France Leclerc, “Will Products Look More Attractive
When Presented Separately or Together?” Journal of Consumer Research 25
(September 1998): 175–86.
107. Ryan Rahinel and Joseph P. Redden, “Brands as Product Coordinators:
Matching Brands Make Joint Consumption Experiences More Enjoyable,”
Journal of Consumer Research 39, no. 6 (2013): 1290–99.
108. Brian Steinberg, “Whose Ad Is This Anyway? Agencies Use Brand Icons
to Promote Other Products; Cheaper Than Zeta-Jones,” Wall Street Journal,
December 4, 2003, www.wsj.com.
109. Michael R. Solomon, “The Role of Products as Social Stimuli: A Symbolic
Interactionism Perspective,” Journal of Consumer Research 10 (December
1983): 319–29.
110. Michael R. Solomon and Henry Assael, “The Forest or the Trees? A Gestalt
Approach to Symbolic Consumption,” Marketing and Semiotics: New
Directions in the Study of Signs for Sale, ed. Jean Umiker-Sebeok (Berlin:
Mouton de Gruyter, 1988), 189–218; Michael R. Solomon, “Mapping Product
Constellations: A Social Categorization Approach to Symbolic Consumption,”
Psychology & Marketing 5, no. 3 (1988).
111. Alexandra Sakellariou, “12 Things Hipsters Buy That Are Actually Cool
(12 That Aren’t),” TheRichest.com, July 15, 2018, https://www.therichest.
com/gadgets-and-tech/12-things-hipsters-buy-that-are-actually-cool-12-thatarent/, accessed June 7, 2022.
112. Lan Nguyen Chaplin and Tina M. Lowrey, “The Development of ConsumerBased Consumption Constellations in Children,” Journal of Consumer
Research 36, no. 5 (2010): 757–77.
113. “Fans Can Shop Artists’ Looks Straight From Spotify,” Canvas8, November
29, 2017, www.canvas8.com/signals/2017/11/29/spotify-makeup.html.

319

114. Steve Lohrdec, “How Do You Vote? 50 Million Google Images Give a Clue,” New
York Times, December 31, 2017, www.nytimes.com/2017/12/31/technology/
google-images-voters.html.
115. Josh Katz, “‘Duck Dynasty’ vs. ‘Modern Family’: 50 Maps of the U.S.
Cultural Divide,” New York Times, December 27, 2016, www.nytimes.
com/interactive/2016/12/26/upshot/duck-dynasty-vs-modern-familytelevision-maps.html?_r=0.
116. Nicole Audrey, “Consumers Prefer ‘Honest’ Brands – And Are Willing
to Pay Extra for Them,” NBC News, September 8, 2016, www.nbcnews
.com/business/consumer/consumers-prefer-honest-brands-are-willing-payextra-them-n644916.
117. Julie Napoli, Sonia J. Dickinson, Michael B. Beverland, and Francis Farrelly,
“Measuring Consumer-Based Brand Authenticity,” Journal of Business
Research 67, no. 6 (2014): 1090–98.
118. George E. Newman and Ravi Dhar, “Authenticity Is Contagious: Brand Essence
and the Original Source of Production,” Journal of Marketing Research 51, no.
3 (June 2014): 371–86; Quoted in Matthew Hutson, “Quenching Consumers’
Thirst for ‘Authentic’ Brands,” New York Times, December 27, 2014, www
.nytimes.com/2014/12/28/business/quenching-consumers-thirst-for-authenticbrands.html.
119. Quoted in Charles Duhigg, “Yoplait Learns to Manufacture Authenticity
to Go with Its Yogurt,” New York Times, June 26, 2017, www.nytimes
.com/2017/06/26/business/yoplait-learns-to-manufacture-authenticity-to-gowith-its-yogurt.html.
120. Stéphanie Feiereisen, Dina Rasolofoarison, Cristel A. Russell, and Hope Jensen
Schau, “One Brand, Many Trajectories: Narrative Navigation in Transmedia,”
Journal of Consumer Research 48, no. 4 (2021): 651–81, https://doi.
org/10.1093/jcr/ucaa046.
121. Vanisha Narsey and Cristel A. Russell, “Behind the Revealed Brand: Exploring
the Brand Backstory Experience,” in Research in Consumer Behavior, ed.
Russell W. Belk, Lisa Peñaloza, and Linda Price (Emerald Group Publishing,
2013).
122. Neeru Paharia, Anat Keinan, Jill Avery, and Juliet B. Schor, “The Underdog
Effect: The Marketing of Disadvantage and Determination through Brand
Biography,” Journal of Consumer Research 37, no. 5 (February 2011): 775–90.
123. Abbey Sharp, “13 Healthy Food Trends That Are Going Mainstream in
2018,” Greatist.com, January 8, 2018, https://greatist.com/eat/healthyfood-trends-going-mainstream.
124. Elise Brisco, “Bow Down! Beyoncé Is Now the Most-Winning
Female Singer in Grammys History,” USA Today, March
1 4 , 2 0 2 1 , h t t p s : / / w w w. u s a t o d a y. c o m / s t o r y / e n t e r t a i n m e n t /
music/2021/03/14/beyonce-makes-grammy-awards-history/4670948001/.
125. Barclay Palmer, “What Are the Brands and Businesses of Beyoncé?,”
Investopedia, November 14, 2021, https://www.investopedia.com/articles/
i n s i g h t s / 0 6 2 5 1 6 / b r a n d - a n d - bu s i n e s s - b ey o n c - k n ow l e s - p e p - t w x
.asp#:~:text=Beyonc%C3%A9’s%20ventures%20include%20records%2C%20
a,company%20is%20called%20Parkwood%20Entertainment.
126. Ibid.
127. Lisa Respers France, “Beyoncé Drops ‘Break My Soul’ and It’s the
Dance Track You Need,” CNN, June 21, 2022, https://www.cnn.
com/2022/06/21/entertainment/beyonce-break-my-soul-release.
128. Ana Gonzalez, “Beyhive Is Buzzing: Beyoncé Fans Upset after Her
Newest Album ‘Renaissance’ Reportedly Leaked 2 Days before Release,”
Houston Life, July 29, 2022, https://www.click2houston.com/news/
local/2022/07/28/beyhive-is-buzzing-beyonce-fans-upset-after-her-newestalbum-renaissance-reportedly-leaked-2-days-before-release/.
129. Gil Kaufman, “Beyonce Is Your Disco Space Queen in Vogue Shoot
Teasing ‘Renaissance’ Album,” Billboard, June 16, 2022, https://www
.billboard.com/music/rb-hip-hop/beyonce-cover-shoot-renaissance-britishvogue-1235088662/.
130. Barclay Palmer, “What Are the Brands and Businesses of Beyoncé?,”
Investopedia, November 14, 2021, https://www.investopedia.com/articles/
i n s i g h t s / 0 6 2 5 1 6 / b r a n d - a n d - bu s i n e s s - b ey o n c - k n ow l e s - p e p - t w x
.asp#:~:text=Beyonc%C3%A9’s%20ventures%20include%20records%2C%20
a,company%20is%20called%20Parkwood%20Entertainment.
131. Alyssa Bereznak, “Inside The BeyHive,” The Ringer, June 3,2016, https://www.
theringer.com/2016/6/3/16042806/beyonce-beyhive-online-fan-forumb7c7226ac16d.
132. “16 Times the Beyhive Attacked to Defend Beyonce,” Us Weekly, June 6,
2019, https://www.usmagazine.com/entertainment/pictures/12-times-thebeyhive-attacked-to-defend-beyonce-w206014/.
133. Hugh McIntyre, “Beyoncé’s New Health Kick Could Be Big Business
for Her,” Forbes, October 17, 2016, https://www.forbes.com/sites/
hughmcintyre/2016/10/17/beyonces-planning-on-making-money-from-beinghealthy/?sh=b1fed9c32f83.

11

Social and
Cultural Identity

Consumer identity derives from “we” as well as “I.”

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES When you finish reading this chapter, you should be able to:
11-1 Explain how the dynamics of social identity
influence our daily lives and consumer behavior.

11-4 Summarize how our ethnicity and race shape our
identity and often guide our consumption choices.

11-2 Describe how our family can shape our identity
and often guide our consumption choices.

11-5 Explain how our religious and political beliefs
affect how we think and often guide our
consumption choices.

11-3 Discuss how age-related life events shape
our identity and often guide our consumption
choices.

M

Source: Evok20/Shutterstock.

320

11-6 Describe how “birds of a feather flock together”
in place-based subcultures.

aria wakes up early on Saturday morning and braces herself for a
long day of errands and chores. As usual, her mother is at work
and expects Maria to do the shopping and help prepare dinner for
the big family gathering tonight. Of course, her older brother Orlando would
never be asked to do the grocery shopping or help in the kitchen; these are
women’s jobs.
Family gatherings are a lot of work. Maria wishes that her mother would
use prepared foods occasionally, especially on a Saturday when Maria has an
errand or two of her own to do. But no, her mother insists on preparing most
of her food from scratch. She rarely uses any convenience products to ensure
that the meals she serves are of the highest quality.
Resigned, Maria watches a telenovela (soap opera) on Univision while she
dresses, and then she heads down to the carnicería (small grocery store) to
buy a newspaper—almost 40 different Spanish newspapers are published in
her area, and she likes to pick up new ones occasionally. Then Maria buys the
grocery items her mother wants. The list is full of well-known brand names that
she gets all the time, such as Casera and Goya, so she’s able to finish quickly.
As she’s getting ready to meet her friends at the mercado (shopping center)
before the whole crowd arrives, she downloads the latest Latin single by Cardi B.
Maria smiles to herself: Los Angeles is a great place to live, and what
could be better than spending a lively, fun evening with la familia?
Just as is the case for Maria, our identity and the consumption choices
we make as a result are rooted in our larger social and cultural environments.
We’ll look at some of the social and cultural linkages that play a big role in defining who
we are and what we value.

Chapter 11 • Social and Cultural Identity

OBJECTIVE 11-1
Explain how the
dynamics of social
identity influence
our daily lives and
consumer behavior.

The Dynamics of Social Identity
Facets of Social and Cultural Identity

E

IC

NI C
TH

RELIGION/P
OL I
T

ACE
I TY/R

/
NS S
UP

F

In Chapter 9, we discussed the elements of our personal
identity. In Chapter 10, we focused on factors related to
our personality, values, and
lifestyles. In this chapter, we focus on the larger social
and cultural environments that affect our identity and
the consumption choices we make as a result. The social
and cultural linkages that play a big role in defining who
GEN
AGE E R A
we are and what we value include our family, our age
LY
I
GR T I O
M
O
A
groups and generations, our race/ethnicity, our religion
and politics, and where we live. Each of these identity
layers shape who we are and how we express ourselves
with the consumption choices we make.
Facets of Our
As Figure 11.1 shows, we often think of ourselves
Social Identity
and our identity through the lens of the groups and
subcultures to which we belong. A subculture is a group
whose members share significant beliefs and common
preferences.
S

PLACES

The Dynamics of Identity
Before we dive into the characteristics of the different
groups that shape our social identity, it’s useful to review
some of the theoretical processes that underlie the impact
of identity on consumer behavior.
Figure 11.1 Facets of Our Social Identity
Each of us has a social identity comprised of unique
Source: Matsabe/Shutterstock.
identity-relevant behaviors, attitudes, and beliefs related
to the groups from which we derive our sense of self. For instance, Maria might think
of herself as Latina (and thus a member of an ethnic subculture), as a daughter (and
thus a member of a family), but maybe she is also an athlete (and thus a member of a
team). Each of these social identities is also tied to an emotion profile, which, when
activated, can influence which emotions we think are appropriate to exhibit or to use
in our decision-making. For example, participants in a study who identified as environmentalists agreed that emotions including disgust, hope, and guilt were useful to
enact that identity, while athletes pointed to feelings such as pride, hope, and anger.1
Our social identity is shaped by the tension between autonomy and affiliation as
we relate to these different groups.2 On one end, most of us value autonomy—that is,
the ability to make decisions on our own, free from external influences.3 On the other
end, our identity is also shaped by the groups to which we belong and with which we
want to have affiliation. Most people want to express their uniqueness as a person,
but they also value the different parts of their social identities that connect them with
others who have similar ones.
Facets of our identities are not always equally top of mind. Some are latent
and we may not think about them until a situation activates them. Imagine walking into a room where you are the only one of your age group; everyone else is
visibly much older (or much younger). This experience would probably make you
more conscious about the age facet of your identity. Similarly, walking into a room
where you are the only one with your skin color would likely activate your ethnic/
racial identity.

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Salient Identity Cues
At its core, social identity involves comparing ourselves with others and making consumption decisions accordingly. Consumers often use external cues and signals to
determine the extent to which they belong to different social identities or how they
compare with others on a given trait or attribute, such as conservatism or intelligence.4
Of course, we know that these perceptions are often biased. For instance, we
might “think” that everyone in our Consumer Behavior class is extremely smart,
and this perception affects how we think about our relative standing in comparison.
Remember the FOMO that lurks in the background—a lot depends upon just whom
you choose to compare yourself with.
Certain identity mindsets can be activated when an identity cue, such as the
language an ad uses or the type of family that a commercial portrays, is made salient,
or noticeable. When one facet of an identity is salient, it has a great impact on our
thoughts and behaviors, including the consumption choices we make. In line with the
meaning transfer process we’ve discussed, the symbols we encounter in marketing
messages can activate certain identities. For example, a flag can activate feelings of
patriotism, or a sense of pride in one’s country.
Some individuals exhibit stronger responses to symbols because the identity
they activate is salient to them. For example, advertising researchers found that the
patriotism-activation effect of the flag generally is stronger among white Americans
than among Americans of color. But the concept of social identity priming reminds
us that identities we hold can become salient. Indeed, another study found that
when participants read an article about the U.S. losing global leadership before
they were presented with a patriotic ad (e.g., a beer or car ad with taglines like
“Our Country, Our Car”), their patriotism was activated regardless of their racial
group.5 This demonstrates that it is the salience of the national identity that affects
the reaction to the patriotic ad: For white Americans, this identity was already
salient; for Americans of color, this identity was not already salient, but it was easy
to activate to make it so.

Threats to Social Identity
Sometimes our social identity is threatened. Perhaps we read a blog post that casts our
university in a negative light, we hear negative information about our country’s foreign
policy, or someone teases us for belonging to a particular social group.
People respond to a social identity threat according to their self-construal, or
the degree to which they perceive themselves as independent versus interdependent,
which we discussed in Chapter 9.6 Those with more independent self-construal
will, under threat, have a stronger desire to restore their self-worth and thus will
distance themselves from the threatened identity. Those with more interdependent
self-construal will, under threat, have a stronger desire to belong to the group and thus
will associate more with both the threatened social identity.
Indeed, when our need for autonomy is greater than our need for affiliation, we tend
to go against the grain. But this also depends on whether we use a convergent versus
divergent style of thinking. A convergent style of thinking reflects a preference for
more alignment between one’s identity and one’s choices. For instance, if someone’s
local identity is activated, they would prefer local brands, whereas if someone’s global
identity is salient, they would prefer global brands.7 A divergent thinking style would
lead to opposite effects: Prompting local identity would engage a preference for the
global brand and vice versa.
And, of course, people want affiliation, but they may also have a strong need to
be different. As we saw in Chapter 5, we all have different needs that don’t necessarily

Chapter 11 • Social and Cultural Identity

sync with one another. The need to be unique might conflict with the need to signal
group identification.
Yet researchers find that we can have our cake and eat it too: We can signal
that we’re part of a group but still convey a unique identity within the group. On
the one hand, a desire to conform to a valued social identity leads people to pick
brands and products that effectively signal their association with the group. On the
other, a desire for uniqueness leads people to pick options within that brand/product
category (e.g., colors, shapes, designs) that are less popular (i.e., more unique).8
This is an important lesson for marketers: It is important to provide consumers with
a host of customization options within different products and brands, since even
for group identity-linked brands, consumers still often have a desire to differentiate
themselves.

Are You with Me or Not?
Do you think group identities don’t matter? Years of research on the minimal group
paradigm demonstrate just how flimsy a connection can be and still make a difference.
In a typical study, researchers divide participants into groups based on an arbitrary
distinction, such as the starting letter of their last names. Even with a meaningless
classification like this, members of each group believe that their group is superior to
the others.9 Just imagine how powerful these identities can be when the distinction
really makes a difference! That’s one reason we tend to have an ingroup bias, or a
bias toward things, or brands, that represent our ingroup and thereby satisfy our desire
to connect with what feels like “home.”
The complex dynamics within and across social identities are also affected by a
person’s social dominance orientation, or the extent to which a person wants their
ingroup to be superior to—and exercise power over—outgroups. This is reflected in
a preference for group hierarchies, such that certain groups are inherently superior
to others.10
Consumers identify more closely with companies that allow them to pursue the
social identities important to them. Organizations can try to boost identity synergy
by aligning their appeals to the facets of identities that their target customers might
have.11 Identity synergy is more common when consumers feel like a company
(1) values and supports consumers’ membership with important social identities,
(2) has similar values to those of consumers’ other social identities, and (3) affirms
through positive feedback that consumers are in fact members of valued identity
groups. For instance, a loyal Patagonia customer may feel that their purchases contribute to saving the environment, a cause they sympathize with strongly.

“There’s No Place Like Home”
Of course, as we travel the globe, our sense of identity might change. Not counting
the COVID years, more than 1.1 billion tourists travel internationally each year, so
more people than ever are leaving the familiarity of their home culture to live, even if
for a short period, in a different cultural environment.12 Our travels may activate our
sense of cultural distinctiveness, or seeing ourselves as separate from the immediate
cultural environment. If you’ve ever travelled to a different part of the world (especially
by yourself), you know how lonely this can feel!
When people experience this feeling of separation, they seek out people—and
brands and products—that represent identities to which they can relate and satisfy
their desire to feel closer to home.13 When a tourist encounters another tourist who’s
wearing a hat or T-shirt from a location even somewhat close to them at home, they
may feel a bond (and probably one they wouldn’t feel if they were at home and passed
by the same stranger!).

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Intersectionality
Every consumer possesses multiple social identities, and these social identity
structures—such as race, class, and gender—interact in fostering life experiences,
especially experiences of privilege and oppression. Intersectionality describes the
ways in which these competing identities combine to form unique experiences. For
example, a black woman may consume and interact with the marketplace in a way that
bears little resemblance to the ways in which white women or black men experience
it.14 Or we may see that values and priorities shift for each ensuing generation or that
people of different ages within the same subculture may be influenced more by their
peers within an age cohort than by others.

The Societal Consequences of Identity-Based Treatment
Our experience of the marketplace affects our sense of identity. As we discussed in
Chapter 2, we need to be more aware of the many inequalities in terms of access and
how people are treated in the market. Indeed, there is a lot of evidence that these
inequal experiences have negative repercussions in consumers’ sense of identity.
For instance, a study of bank loan officers found that they treated consumers
differently as a function of their race and ethnicity. The researchers hired mystery
shoppers to visit different banks to state their interest in a business loan. After each
visit, the mystery shopper would fill out a questionnaire before going to the next
location. Researchers measured which pieces of information (and how much) were
given to mystery shoppers and which information the loan officer requested. They
also measured how polite loan officers were to the mystery shoppers.15 Their study
revealed a clear pattern that bank loan officers provided less important information,
asked for more information, and were less encouraging and helpful to the minority
consumers than to white consumers. This kind of restricted choice in turn leads
minority consumers to have lower self-esteem and lower self-autonomy.
OBJECTIVE 11-2
Describe how our
family can shape
our identity and
often guide our
consumption
choices.

The Family
The Meaning of Family

Family members mutually construct a family identity that
defines the household for both members and outsiders.16
Family rituals, narratives (stories the members tell about the
family), and everyday interactions help families maintain their structure, maintain
their family character (day-to-day characteristics of family life), and clarify members’
relationships to one another.
In this family network, consumption practices, or activities that involve
consuming a product, play an essential role in structuring and defining the family as
a unit as well as smaller groups within the family: siblings, couples, and parent-child
pairs. For instance, a family may have a nightly ritual to watch a television show
together. A mother-son pair may have a weekly date to go out for ice cream every
Saturday afternoon. Family identity is enacted through these consumption activities
that become predictable ceremonies that define their relationship.

Going Nuclear? The Structure of the Household Evolves
The extended family used to be the most common family unit. It consists of three
generations who live together, and it often includes grandparents, aunts, uncles,
and cousins. Like the Cleavers of Leave It to Beaver and other TV families of the

Chapter 11 • Social and Cultural Identity

1950s, the nuclear family—a mother, a father, and one or
more children (perhaps with a sheepdog thrown in for good
measure)—largely replaced the extended family, at least in
U.S. society.
However, we’ve witnessed many changes since the
days of Beaver Cleaver.18 Although many people continue
to base their image of the typical family on old TV shows,
demographic data tell us that this “ideal” image of the family
is no longer realistic. More recent TV shows depict a more
nuanced and complicated story: Man with a Plan is about
a working husband who switches roles with his wife to
stay home with the kids; a reboot of Full House features a
Cuban-American single mom who battles PTSD from her
military service; and Fuller House focuses on a character
who shares her house with her sister and a friend, who help
raise her three sons.19
The U.S. Census Bureau regards any occupied housing
unit as a household regardless of the relationships among
the people who live there. Thus, one person living alone,
three roommates, or two lovers (whether straight or gay)
constitute a household, which is literally whom a house
holds. The family unit continues to evolve, and marketers
need to challenge their cherished assumptions:20

•

•

•
•

325

Consumption objects are essential to capture the common
meanings and experiences that seal a family or its subgroups
together. Consumption practices around these objects are often
convergent; they hold the family together. For instance, the family
couch or the kitchen table hold special significance in a family unit
as they symbolize togetherness.17
Source: Shutterstock.

Nearly half of all women between the ages of 25 and 29 have never been married,
up from about a quarter of that age group in 1986. In 1950, the median age of
first marriages was 23 for men and 20 for women. One reason for this drop is that
it’s expensive to raise a kid today (as if we didn’t know that): The government
estimates that it will cost the average middle-class couple $241,080 to raise a
child to age 18. And that doesn’t even count college costs. The percentage of
women of childbearing age and their partners who define
themselves as voluntarily childless is on the rise; in one
recent survey, 44 percent of respondents between the ages
of 18 to 49 agreed that it is unlikely they will ever have
children due to medical issues, financial problems, or the
desire to focus on their careers or other activities.21
So-called DINKs (double income, no kids) couples are
better educated on average than are two-income couples
with children. According to the U.S. Census Bureau,
30 percent of childless couples consist of two college graduates, compared with 17 percent of those with kids. Many
childless couples feel snubbed by a child-oriented society.
In recent years, they formed networking organizations such
as Childfree by Choice to support this lifestyle decision.22
The number of couples who cohabitate (live together
As family living arrangements change, homebuilders need to
without being married) continues to increase: Among
come up with new footprints that can accommodate boomerang
children, aging parents, and single people. Lennar, one of the
people ages 18 to 44, more have lived with a partner than
largest homebuilders in the country, calls its solution “Next
have lived with a person they married (59 percent versus
23
Gen—The Home within a Home.” These layouts typically include
50 percent).
a separate one-bedroom apartment with its own entrance and
Circumstances such as divorce, the need for a breadwinner
garage, along with plenty of open space for the generations to
to live in a different place, and military service make
spend time together.27
it more common for family networks to be scattered
Source: San/ZUMA Press, Inc./Alamy Stock Photo

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•

•

geographically, so parents, children, and extended family members need to work
harder (and rely more on digital platforms like Zoom) to maintain their connections
with one another—even after COVID. Overall, the rate of divorces in America has
been declining for many years (except for a higher divorce rate among people aged
50+), but as of 2022, it still hovered at about 44 percent, so obviously single-parent
households are common these days.24
Children are more likely to live at home after graduating from college than they
are to find their own places. Demographers call these returnees boomerang kids
(you throw them out . . . they keep coming back). In today’s shrinking job market,
many young people are forced to redefine the assumption that college graduation
automatically means living on their own. That was especially true for those who
had the “good luck” to graduate during the pandemic: Between February and
March 2020 alone, about 2.6 million young American adults moved home with
their parents, and by the middle of 2020, the majority of people between the ages
of 18 and 29 lived with at least one parent. As we recover from the pandemic, at
least some of these young adults are moving out again, but just under 50 percent
of them are still living with a parent.25
Many adults care for their own parents as well as for their children. In fact,
Americans on average spend 17 years caring for children and 18 years assisting
aged parents. Some label middle-aged people the sandwich generation because
they must support both the generation above them and the one below them. In the
U.S., about one-in-seven middle-aged adults (15 percent) is providing financial
support to both an aging parent and a child.26

The Family Life Cycle

At websites like The Bump, women
find tools such as an ovulation
calculator and lists of baby names.
The Knot offers a range of weddingrelated services when those babies
grow up and get hitched. As people
move through these life stages,
we observe significant changes in
expenditures in leisure, food, durables,
and services, even after we adjust the
figures to reflect changes in income.30

Source: © 2007–2022 XO Group Inc. Reproduced
by Permission. All Rights Reserved.

Given the fluidity of the family, it is useful to think about its life cycle. The family life
cycle (FLC) combines trends in family composition with the changes the composition
makes to consumption. A family’s needs and expenditures change over time, as the
structure of the family changes and as preferences and needs for products and activities
change based on the members’ ages.
The FLC is a kind of life course model that accounts for life event experiences
that create physical, social, and emotional demands and circumstances to which
people must adapt (lockdown, anyone?). A life-cycle approach to the study of the
family assumes that pivotal events alter role relationships and trigger new stages of
life that alter our priorities and the resulting consumption choices we make. In addition
to the birth of a first child, other pivotal events include the departure of the last child
from the house, the death of a spouse, retirement of the principal wage earner, and
divorce. The three primary factors that affect the FLC are:
1. Ages of the household members
2. Presence or absence of children in the home
3. Ages of children if present
Indeed, the family life cycle changes as a function of sociocultural trends, such as
the changing role of women, childless and delayed-child marriages, and single-parent
households. We can attribute some of these changes to variations in functional needs,
whereas others reflect deeper motivations as we transition from one role to another.
For example, researchers find that new mothers undergo profound changes in selfconcept during pregnancy and after delivery; these changes influence the types of
products they consume to reflect their new identities.28 The COVID pandemic also
placed extra stressors on parents, especially women, who had to reduce their work
hours or leave the workforce altogether to care for young children.29

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Chapter 11 • Social and Cultural Identity

Parenting and Consumer Behavior
In Chapter 4, we discussed how people learn to be consumers, and as
we well know, this process starts when we are young. Our parent’s
own consumer behaviors and beliefs influence the way we interact
with products and the marketplace. For example, parents often
reward their kids with products and punish them by taking things
away. This material parenting shapes children’s behavior and
can in fact shape materialism, which we discussed in Chapter 10.
One study found that kids whose parents use products to reward or
punish their behavior are more likely to be materialistic as adults.31

RESTRICTIVE
Authoritarian
Authoritative

WARM

HOSTILE
Neglecting

Indulgent

Parenting Styles
If we think about two important dimensions of parenting, we can
identify different parenting styles. The first dimension is emotional: Is the parent hot or cold? The second is behavioral: Is the
parent a disciplinarian or fairly permissive? As Figure 11.2 shows,
when we combine these two dimensions, we can identify four distinct parenting styles:32

•
•
•
•

PERMISSIVE

Figure 11.2 Four Types of Parenting Styles

Source: Jessica Mikeska, Robert L. Harrison, Les Carlson (2017), “A metaanalysis of parental style and consumer socialization of children” Journal
of Consumer Psychology, 27 (2), 245–256.

Authoritative parents have both restrictive and warm interactions with children.
They balance children’s rights and responsibilities, encourage self-expression, and
attempt to enrich their children’s educational and cultural opportunities. They
communicate effectively with their children and expect them to act maturely and
in accordance with family rules but also allow a certain degree of autonomy.
Neglecting parents are permissive but also display hostile tendencies. They offer
little guidance for children’s development and limited monitoring of children’s
activities. They neither seek nor use parental power and control and, as a result,
communication is generally strained and minimized.
Indulgent parents are lenient, compliant, accepting, affirmative, and nonpunitive in dealings with children. They tend to be relatively warmer as well as more
permissive. They give children adult rights without concomitant responsibilities
while maintaining an open communication environment.33
Authoritarian parents are restrictive and display relatively more hostility. They
tend to control children, discourage verbal interactions with children, and endorse
adult supremacy. They view children as having few rights, although they may give
adult responsibilities to them.

Parenting styles, of course, help determine the consumer activity of children. It’s
a no-brainer that kids represent a huge market for toys, apparel, and even electronics;
already more than half of kids aged 8 to 12 have their own cellphone, and there are
numerous tablets designed for them as well.34 However, children also play a big
role in many other household purchases. Researchers estimate that children directly
influence about $453 billion worth of family purchases in a year. They report that on
average children weigh in with a purchase request every two minutes when they shop
with parents.35 Ouch! So how do parents respond to their children’s consumer desires?
Parental yielding occurs when a parental decision maker “surrenders” to a child’s
request.36 Yielding drives many product selections because about 90 percent of these
requests are for a specific brand. In recognition of this influence, Mrs. Butterworth’s
Syrup created a $6 million campaign to target kids directly with humorous ads that
show the lengths to which adults will go to get the syrup bottle to talk to them. An
executive who worked on the campaign explained, “We needed to create the nag factor
[where kids demand that their parents buy the product].”37

Buying, Having, Being
Meet Your Digital Nanny
The Internet of Things gives parents
a whole new set of options to
entertain and monitor their kids. But
devices that interact with babies,
kids, or adolescents in real time
also raise red flags. Mattel had
to cancel plans to sell an artificial
intelligence device called Aristotle
after lawmakers and parents
raised concerns about privacy and
children’s development. According
to the company, the product used
Amazon’s Alexa technology to
soothe a crying baby, teach ABCs,
reinforce good manners, play
interactive games, automatically
reorder baby products, and help
kids with homework. Some groups
argued that kids shouldn’t be
encouraged to form bonds with
data-collecting devices.38

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Parenting Teen Consumers
As children get into their teens, parenting takes on a whole different form. Adolescence is a difficult phase of life, a transition when autonomy motivations get stronger,
and affiliation often shifts from family to other groups (like the “cool kids” at school).
Still, parenting styles continue to influence how teenagers behave as consumers.39
A meta-analysis of studies that summed up research across about 200,000 child
respondents found that parental restrictiveness had the most positive impact on
subsequent positive marketplace behaviors. For example, teenagers whose parents are
more restrictive are more likely to display healthy and safe behaviors—for example,
eating healthy and wearing seatbelts and helmets. They are more likely to resist
temptations and to resist bad influences. In turn, this has positive consequences in
terms of self-esteem, body image, and social confidence.

The Extended Family: Pets
As of 2022, 70 percent of U.S. households own a pet, and Americans spend more than
$100 billion per year on pet food, toys, and other supplies.40 Many of us assume that
pets share our emotions; perhaps that helps explain why more than three-quarters of
domestic cats and dogs receive presents on holidays and birthdays.41
In addition to keeping us company and doing clever tricks, animal companions
serve an important identity role.42 As is the case with brands, consumers often choose
a pet based on their own personality characteristics, and they tend to treat pets as family
members. A growing body of research shows the therapeutic role that pets play in alleviating loneliness and combating
post-traumatic stress. Companion animals also facilitate social
interaction as pet owners engage with other pet owners and
socialize around their animals.
Pets may also become central to consumers’ identity
projects. For instance, a study of dog agility devotees shows
how casual enthusiasts can become serious hobbyists, dedicating major parts of their time and money to the hobby.
Because of the importance of their role in a person’s life or a
family’s life, losing a pet is a stressful experience.
Here are a few examples of pet-smart marketing that
illustrate just how seriously we take our furry friends:43

•

Kennels look a lot more like canine spas. At some of
them, dogs can hike, swim, listen to music, watch TV, and
PetSmart, the largest U.S. pet-store chain, opened a chain of
even get a pedicure—complete with nail polish. Heated
PetsHotels, where furry guests lounge on hypoallergenic lambskin
tile floors and high-tech ventilation systems are common.
blankets and snack on lactose-free, fat-free ice cream. The suites
At the Barkley Pet Hotels in several cities, your pet will
feature raised dog beds and a television that plays videos, such
find indoor dog pools and cabanas, and even room service
as Lady and the Tramp and 101 Dalmatians.
Source: Colleen Michaels/Shutterstock
for those late-night kibble parties.44
Companies that make human products, such as Gucci, Juicy Couture,
Harley-Davidson, IKEA, Lands’ End, Paul Mitchell, and Ralph Lauren, also sell
products for pets, ranging from shampoos to nail polish to gold-plated bowls.
Harley-Davidson started its pet collection after it noticed that customers at rallies
and other events bring along their dogs; some ride shotgun in the motorcycles’
saddle bags or side cars. Customers can buy denim and leather jackets for their
pets, as well as riding goggles, bandanas, spiked leather collars, and even squeaky
toys shaped like oil cans.45

•

Chapter 11 • Social and Cultural Identity

•
•

329

Stoned pets? Pet owners who want to “mellow out” their
dogs can choose from an abundance of CBD products,
like Premium Care Hemp Calming Chews—try the duck
flavor.46
What happens when our four-legged companion goes to
the great kennel in the sky? One trend is to freeze-dry
the departed pet rather than bury it or cremate it. The
bereaved say that turning furry friends into perma-pets
helps them deal with loss and maintains a connection to
their former companions. Once dried, the animal’s body
doesn’t decay, so it can continue to occupy that special
place on the couch.47

OBJECTIVE 11-3
Discuss how agerelated life events
shape our identity
and often guide
our consumption
choices.

Age and
Generations

Our pets often play a central role in family identity.

Source: Courtesy The Dog Agency. www.thedogagency.com. All Rights Reserved.

Each life stage brings with it certain needs and priorities.
Marketers often target products and services that allow us
to express the priorities and needs we encounter at such
stages.48 Nowhere are these age-specific consumer behavior
patterns more obvious than in transitional periods, where we divest ourselves of an old
identity (“Mom, that outfit makes me look like a child—I’m a big girl now!”). We’ll
focus here on teens and tweens, and then discuss those who transition from active life
to retirement.

Teenagers
In 1956, the label teenager entered the general U.S. vocabulary when Frankie Lymon
and the Teenagers became a popular music act. Believe it or not, the concept of a teenager is a new idea. Throughout most of history, a person simply made the transition
from child to adult. It was common for kids in their teens to be married and start their
own families (of course, life expectancies were much shorter as well).
The magazine Seventeen was first published in 1944; its founders realized that
modern young women didn’t want to be little clones of Mom. Following World
War II, the teenage conflict between rebellion and conformity began to unfold
as teen culture pitted Elvis Presley, with his slicked hair and suggestive pelvis
swivels, against the wholesome Pat Boone, with his white bucks and whiter teeth.
Today, this rebellion continues to play out as pubescent consumers forsake their
Barbies for the likes of Olivia Rodrigo, Taylor Swift, Drake, or the teen heartthrob
du jour.49
The global youth market is massive. It represents about $259 billion in spending
power annually! In the U.S., parents spend on average about $4,000 to $4,500 per
year on the 25.6 million teens, and the 39 percent of teens who hold a part-time job
make an average of $460 per month to spend on top of what their parents shell out.
Much of this money goes toward “feel-good” products: apparel, cosmetics, posters,
and fast food—with the occasional nose ring thrown in. Because teens are interested
in so many different products and have the resources to obtain them, many marketers avidly court them. Popular brands among teens include Nike, Lululemon, Crocs,
Chick-fil-A, and e.l.f. cosmetics. TikTok is the most preferred social media platform,
followed by Snapchat and Instagram.50

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As anyone who has been there knows, puberty and
adolescence are both the best of times and the worst of times.
Many exciting changes happen as we leave the role of child
and prepare to assume the role of adult. These transitions
create a lot of uncertainty about the self, and the need to
belong and to find our unique identity as a person becomes
pressing. At this age, the choices of activities, friends, and
clothes are crucial. Teens constantly search for cues for the
“right” way to look and behave from their peers and from
advertising. Advertising to teens is typically action-oriented
and depicts a group of “in” teens who use the product.
Teen consumers have many needs (including some
that conflict with one another), such as experimentation,
belonging, independence, responsibility, and approval from
Teens often balance the desire to express their values and
others. Product usage is a significant medium that lets them
priorities with the need to be accepted by others.51
satisfy these needs.
Source: Arnd Wiegmann/REUTERS/Alamy Stock Photo.
Teenagers in every culture grapple with fundamental developmental issues
when they transition from childhood to adult. Throughout history, young people
have coped with insecurity, parental authority, and peer pressure (although each
generation has trouble believing it’s not the first!). Today’s teens often must cope
Buying, Having, Being
with additional family responsibilities as well, especially if they live in nontraditional
families where they have significant responsibility for shopping, cooking, and
Teens Hurting Teens
housework.
It’s hard work being a teen in the modern world. The Saatchi & Saatchi
One researcher explored the role
of ridicule as a mechanism through
advertising agency identified four basic conflicts common to all teens. As we saw in
which adolescents exchange
Chapter 5, these needs often collide, sometimes in unpleasant ways (there’s nothing
information about consumption
more venomous than a teenager who’s having a bad hair day!).
norms and values. He found
that—often beginning in middle
school—adolescents use ridicule
to ostracize, haze, or admonish
peers who violate consumption
norms. One result of this painful
process is that kids internalize their
peers’ stereotypes about groups
they want to join or avoid, and
they often significantly alter their
consumption patterns to try to align
themselves with the former and
distance themselves from the latter.
For example, one of the kids in the
study quickly exchanged a pair
of white sneakers for more stylish
black ones after his peers ridiculed
him.54

•
•
•
•

Autonomy versus belonging – Teens need to acquire independence, so they try
to break away from their families. However, they need to attach themselves to a
support structure, such as peers, to avoid being alone.
Rebellion versus conformity – Teens need to rebel against social standards of
appearance and behavior, yet they still need to fit in and be accepted by others.
They prize “in-your-face” products that cultivate a rebellious image. Teens with
the personality trait of reactance, which we studied in Chapter 10, are especially
rebellious and tend to resist all external influences.52
Idealism versus pragmatism – Teens tend to view adults as hypocrites, whereas
they see themselves as being sincere. They must struggle to reconcile their view
of how the world should be with the realities they perceive around them.
Narcissism versus intimacy – Teens tend to obsess about their appearance and
needs. However, they also feel the desire to connect with others on a meaningful
level.53

“Tweens”
We call kids ages 8 to 14 tweens because they are “between” childhood and
adolescence, and they exhibit characteristics of both age groups. Many marketers
want to appeal to these consumers; they spend about $44 billion annually!55
Tweens are keen to experiment with products that make them appear older, even
though they may not be psychologically or physically ready. Abercrombie & Fitch
crossed the line way back in 2002 when the clothing chain had to pull a line of thong
underwear for young girls after many adults protested.

Chapter 11 • Social and Cultural Identity

Since that time, however, the line between childhood and adolescence continues
to blur. In 2005, the NPD Group reported that the average age at which women began
to use beauty products was 17. By 2009, that average had dropped to 13. Today, more
than half of American 12- to 14-year-old girls use mascara, eye shadow, eye liner, and
eyebrow pencils (54 percent), and 40 percent of girls ages 6 to 8 apply a fragrance. In
addition, gender fluidity and changing perceptions of gendered consumption, which
we discussed in Chapter 9, have affected cosmetic purchases: About 7 in 10 boys ages
9 to 17 now use beauty products as well!56
Many social, economic, and media trends shape tweens’ identity. Having grown up
during the Great Recession, they are not as likely to believe in an idealized, carefree world.
They tend to be independent and gravitate to stores like Free People rather than Abercrombie
& Fitch.57 They learn about new styles from around the globe via social media, so they are
equally at home watching The Hunger Games or listening to Korean K-pop. Their idols
are “self-made” internet stars, like the Swedish video producer PewDiePie, who has the
world’s most subscribed YouTube channel, and the teenage video sensation Evan, who has
25 million followers. They follow TikTok, Instagram, and YouTube influencers, like Gigi
and Bella Hadid, Kendall, and Kylie Jenner, Zendaya, Baby Ariel, and King Bach. They
love “live chilling” on group video apps like House Party, Fam, Tribe, Airtime, and ooVoo.
Their favorite brands include Victoria’s Secret/PINK, American Eagle, and Adidas. As we
will see in more depth in chapter 12, tweens’ exposure to many influencers also shapes
their materialistic views.58
Tweens love to upload their own content on apps such as musical.ly (now
uploaded by more than 90 million people worldwide), which allows them to make
short 15-second videos lip-syncing to popular music and audio bites. Purpose matters,
and they value brands that stand for something—and, importantly, that they view as
authentic. Researchers have found that tweens respond well to social labeling—that is,
labeling people according to their behavior (for instance, caring for the environment).59
And not surprisingly, they have their own slang terms, such as dope, GOAT (greatest
of all time), salty, and lit.60

Consumers Aging Gracefully: Retirement and Beyond
Another key identity phase happens in the latter stages of consumers’ life, often as they
transition to retirement. Think about this: The United Nations says that people older
than 60 are the fastest-growing age group on Earth. There are 700 million of them now,
and there will be 2 billion by midcentury. In the United States, by 2030, 20 percent
of the population will be over the age of 65.61 By 2100, there will be 5 million of us
who are at least 100 years old.62
Few of us may be around then, but we can already see the effects of the mature
market today. Older adults (ages 65+) control more than 50 percent of discretionary
income, and their net worth is five times that of the average citizen.63 We’re living longer
and healthier because of more wholesome lifestyles (at least some of us), improved
medical diagnoses and treatment, and changing cultural expectations about appropriate
behaviors for the elderly. Many of these older people lead active, multidimensional
lives. Nearly 60 percent engage in volunteer activities, almost 20 percent ages 65 to 72
still work, and more than 14 million provide care for their grandchildren.64
This age group also often has significant spending power, as many are finished
with the financial obligations that siphon off the income of younger consumers.
Eighty percent of consumers older than age 65 own their own homes. In addition,
child-rearing costs are over. As the popular bumper sticker proudly proclaims, “We’re
Spending Our Children’s Inheritance!” Some of the important areas that stand to
benefit from the surging gray market include exercise facilities, cruises and tourism,

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cosmetic surgery and skin treatments, and “how-to” books and university courses that
offer enhanced learning opportunities.
When people retire, they often experience a consumer identity renaissance;
this refers to the redefinition process people undergo when they retire. A research
project identified two different types of identity renaissance: revived (revitalization
of previous identities) or emergent (pursuit of entirely new life projects). Even though
many retirees cope with losses (of professional identity, spouses, and so on), many
of them focus on moving forward. They engage in a host of strategies to do this,
including affiliation, where they reconnect with family members and friends (in
many cases online), and self-expression. This latter strategy may involve revisiting an
activity they never had time to adequately pursue when they were younger, learning
new skills, or perhaps moving into an urban area to reengage with cultural activities.65
Age identity expresses itself throughout the life span, and it is especially difficult
as one ages because of the challenges that aging bodies and minds may bring (“show
me again how to log in to Facebook”). Researchers of aging consumers find that most
people do not to consider themselves as old but instead consider where they stand in
terms of physical and mental ability or inability.66
In the last stages of the family life cycle, older consumers often move from
autonomy to needing more assistance in tasks like shopping. This process often
involves family and friends, as well as paid service providers, and indeed, there
is a growing marketing of services and products to help those who support older
consumers’ changing needs. But as anyone who has cared for an elderly person knows,
this transition is difficult from an identity perspective: It can be quite traumatic to
move from thinking of oneself as an independent, energetic person to accepting that
you need others’ help to accomplish everyday tasks.67

Age Cohorts
The era in which we grow up bonds us with the millions of others who come of age
during the same period. Obviously, our needs and preferences change as we grow
older—often in concert with others of our own age (even though some of us don’t
really believe we’ll ever get older!). For these reasons, we are more likely to have
things in common with others of our own age than with those younger or older.
An age cohort consists of people of similar ages who have similar experiences.
They share many common memories about cultural icons (e.g., Frank Sinatra versus
Kanye West), important historical events (e.g., the Great Recession versus the more
recent Great Resignation following the Covid Lockdown), and so on. Although there
is no universally accepted way to sort people into age cohorts, each of us seems to
have a pretty good idea what we mean when we refer to “my generation.”
Although there is consensus among analysts who describe age cohorts, the labels
and cutoff dates they use to put consumers into generational categories are subjective. The following list illustrates one rough approximation.68 Table 11.1 summarizes
some of the important distinguishing characteristics of the four most recent cohorts.

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

The Interbellum Generation – People born at the beginning of the 20th century.
They were too young for World War I and too old for World War II.
The Silent Generation – People born between the two world wars.
The War Baby Generation – People born during World War II.
The Baby Boom Generation – People born between 1946 and 1964.
Generation X – People born between 1965 and 1985.
Generation Y – People born between 1986 and 2002.
Generation Z – People born from 2003 to the early 2010s.
Generation Alpha – People born from the early 2010s to the present.

Chapter 11 • Social and Cultural Identity

TABLE 11.1    Characteristics

Born:
Context

of Four Major Age Cohorts

B

X

Y

Z

Baby Boomer
1946–1964

Gen X
1965–1985

Gen Y (Millennial)
1986–2002

Gen Z
2003–early 2010s

• Political transition
• Capitalism and

• Globalization
• Economic stability
• Emergence of

• Mobility and multiple

• Postwar

333

meritocracy
dominate

internet

realities

• Social networks
• Digital natives

Behavior

• Idealism
• Revolutionary
• Collectivist

• Materialistic
• Competitive
• Individualistic

• Globalist
• Questioning
• Oriented to self

•
•
•
•
•

Consumption

• Ideology
• Vinyl and movies

• Status
• Brands and cars
• Luxury goods

• Experience
• Festivals and travel

• Uniqueness
• “More Liquid”

Undefined identity
Communally oriented
“Communaholic”
“Dialoguer”
Realistic

(Sharing economy)

• Ethical

Adapted fromhttps://www.mckinsey.com/industries/consumer-packaged-goods/our-insights/true-gen-generation-z-and-its-implications-for-companies

Gen Z
Gen Z describes kids who were born in the late 1990s to early
2000s. This is the first generation of the 21st century and it’s the
most diverse we’ve ever experienced: 55 percent are Caucasian,
24 percent are Hispanic, 14 percent are African American, and
4 percent are Asian. Many have friends of varied race and ethnicity,
and they are accustomed to blurred gender roles, where household
responsibilities don’t split along traditional lines. And, of course,
they are “digital natives” who spend a big chunk of their time
online, so they expect brands to engage them in two-way digital
conversations.

Gen Y
A brand overhaul by Pepsi that included its new smiley-face logo
had the so-called Gen Y age group squarely in its sights. Young
people have always been Pepsi’s lifeblood, starting with its tagline
“You’re in the Pepsi Generation” that over time evolved into
“Generation Next” and “The Choice of a New Generation.” But
that blood has drained or thinned a bit over the past few years, as
young people gravitate toward energy drinks and fortified waters.
The company’s research showed that this age group—which also
goes by the labels millennials and echo boomers—is hopeful
about the future; almost all of them agree that it’s important
to maintain a positive outlook on life. Pepsi also found that
95 percent of millennials have positive associations with the word
change and that they link the word to others like new, progress,
hope, and excitement.69
Gen Yers were born between 1986 and 2002. They make up
about one quarter of the population, and they spend $170 billion

This 1962 Pepsi ad highlights the emphasis on youth power
that began to shape our culture as baby boomers came of
age in the 1960s.
Source: PEPSI-COLA, PEPSI and the Pepsi Globe are registered trademarks
of PepsiCo, Inc. Used with permission.

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Buying, Having, Being
How Much Do You Spend as
a College Student?
There are more than 21 million
college students in the United States
today, and they spend $163 billion
per year on discretionary purchases.
Of this amount, about $50 billion
goes to food purchases, $31 billion
to automotive expenses, and
greater than $18 billion to clothing
and shoes.
No surprise: College students
love gadgets. They own an average
of 6.8 devices, including laptops,
smartphones, and video game consoles. Although they spend much
of their time on social media, about
one-third say they avoid advertising
on these sites. They would rather
connect with brands by receiving
product samples and attending
sponsored events.70
A typical student spends more
than $800 on clubs, sports, and
Greek life per year, in addition to
these average expenditures:71 How
does this compare to your budget?

• Groceries: Ranges from an aver-

•
•
•
•

age of $56 per month in New
Hampshire to $430 per month
in Hawaii
Electricity: $112
Internet: $55
Rent (for a two-bedroom apartment): $1,178
Electronics purchased during
back-to-college sales in 2021:
$306.41

a year of their own and their parents’ money.72 They are “jugglers” who value being
both footloose and connected to their “peeps” 24/7. The advertising agency Saatchi
& Saatchi labels this new kind of lifestyle connexity.
Gen Yers love brands like Sony, Patagonia, Gap, Aveda, and Apple. However, a lot
of marketers have run into trouble as they try to keep up with changes in their tastes.
This can be difficult because these consumers like to “trade up and down”—that is,
they fluctuate between upscale brands and less expensive ones. That helps to explain
why both Louis Vuitton and Target make the list of their favorite brands.73 Another
issue is that apparel no longer is quite as important to this age group; youth-oriented
chains like Wet Seal and Hot Topic have gone bankrupt because tech has replaced
clothing as the hot status item. As a magazine editor observed, “Having a cool phone
to show you’re plugged in is a huge part of people’s style, a huge part of life these
days.”74
A research firm analyzed data from several million millennials and concluded that
three major forces have shaped their experience:
1. Economy: The company identified a subgroup of ambitious go-getters. Women
seem very aware of their “self-brand” and work hard to project a professional
image via clothing and home décor. Men tend to identify with a “frat boy” culture
and spend a lot of time and money on technology, gaming, and sports. However,
these millennials are a minority. Many are stuck in “economic purgatory”; they
are overeducated but underemployed and focus on economizing by living with
roommates and clipping coupons. Even this more frugal group, however, considers
technology like smartphones a must-have.
2. Globalization: Millennials are eager to experience other cultures, but they do this
in different ways. Ironically, those who are underemployed and thus less invested
in their current jobs are more likely to travel to foreign countries. Many of those
who are already on a desired career path settle for being “foodies” who like to
patronize restaurants that serve exotic cuisine so they can vicariously collect these
experiences.
3. Social media: Gen Y is constantly open to public observation because every
new post or status update reveals something about themselves. Some are what
the report terms exuberants, who are avid posters and constantly blog about
their experiences. However, most are collectors, who passively absorb others’
experiences. A smaller number, such as YouTube star PewDiePie (who has
garnered over 26 billion views on his channel), are digital gatekeepers who
curate or edit style choices from the huge number of options and then advise
their followers on what to buy.75
Unlike their parents or older siblings, Gen Yers tend to hold relatively traditional
values, and they prefer to fit in rather than rebel. Their teachers and parents often
stressed teamwork—team teaching, team grading, collaborative sports, community
service, service learning, and student juries. Violent crime among them as teenagers
was down 60 to 70 percent. Their teenage use of tobacco and alcohol was at an all-time
low, as was teen pregnancy. Five out of 10 Millennials say they trust the government,
and virtually all of them trust Mom and Dad.76
We’ve already discussed the overwhelming importance of the online world in the
lives of consumers, especially young ones. Millennials are the first generation to grow
up with computers at home in a 500-channel TV universe. They are multitaskers who
easily engage their cell phones, music downloads, and IMs (Instant Messages) at the
same time. They are totally at home in a thumb culture that communicates online and
by cell phone (more likely via text and IM than by voice).

Chapter 11 • Social and Cultural Identity

Gen X
The Gen X age subculture consists of 46 million Americans who were born between
1965 and 1985. This group got the label following publication of the best-selling novel
Generation X: Tales for an Accelerated Culture by Douglas Coupland. Some called
them slackers or baby busters because of their supposed alienation and laziness, and
these stereotypes live on in movies such as Clueless and in music groups such as
Marilyn Manson.77
Advertisers fell all over themselves to create messages that would not turn off
the worldly Generation X cohort. Many of them referenced old TV shows, such as
Gilligan’s Island, or showed commercials that featured disheveled actors in turnedaround baseball caps who tried their best to appear blasé. This approach turned off a
lot of “busters” because it implied that they had nothing else to do but sit around and
watch old television reruns. Subaru sponsored one of the first commercials of this
genre. It showed a sloppily dressed young man who described the Impreza model
as “like punk rock” as he denounced the competition as “boring and corporate.” The
commercial did not play well with its intended audience, and Subaru eventually
switched advertising agencies.
Today, Gen Xers have grown up, and in fact members of this generation are
responsible for many culture-changing products and companies, such as Google,
YouTube, and Amazon. A book that laments the bad rap Gen X has gotten sums it up:
X Saves the World: How Generation X Got the Shaft but Can Still Keep Everything
from Sucking.78

The Mature Market: Boomers & Seniors
The old woman sits alone in her dark apartment while the television blares out a soap
opera. Once every couple of days, her arthritic hands slowly and painfully open her
triple-locked door as she ventures out to the corner store to buy essentials, such as
tea, milk, and cereal—of course she always picks the least expensive items. Most of
the time she sits in her rocking chair and thinks sadly about her dead husband and the
good times they used to have together.
Is this the image you have of a typical elderly consumer? Until recently, many
marketers did. They neglected seniors in their feverish pursuit of the youth market.
But as our population ages and we live longer and healthier lives, the game is rapidly
changing. A lot of businesses are updating their old stereotype of the poor recluse. The
newer, more accurate image is of an active person who is interested in what life has to
offer, who is an enthusiastic consumer with the means and willingness to buy many
goods and services, and who maintains strong loyalty to favorite brands over the years.
The baby boomer group consists of people whose parents established families
following the end of World War II and during the 1950s when the peacetime economy
was strong and stable. As a rule, when people feel confident about how things are
going in the world, they are more likely to decide to have children, so this was a
“boom” time for delivery rooms. As teenagers in the 1960s and 1970s, the “Woodstock
generation” created a revolution in style, politics, and consumer attitudes. As they
aged, they fueled cultural events and created cultural groups as diverse as the Free
Speech movement and hippies in the 1960s to Reaganomics and yuppies in the 1980s.
Now that they are older, they continue to influence popular culture.
Many baby boomers are now in their peak earning years and starting to retire.
While there are more millennials around today, this age cohort still controls more
than half of the wealth in the country. And in some ways, many of them mirror the
behaviors of younger “Digital Natives”: Almost 7 in 10 own a smartphone, and many
make transactions using their phone or other device rather than a physical credit card.

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And about 60 percent of baby boomers are willing to pay extra for socially compliant,
sustainable products.79
As one commercial for VH1, the music video network that caters to those who are
a bit too old for MTV, once pointed out, “The generation that dropped acid to escape
reality . . . is the generation that drops antacid to cope with it.” A study found that most
boomers want to be “surprised and delighted” by brands. Offerings that especially
appeal to them include Swiffer for the home, Keurig for the palate, Amy’s Kitchen
for organic foods, Dove, and Trader Joe’s.80 And, like their younger counterparts,
many have strong feelings for familiar brands including Apple, Amazon, Coca-Cola,
and Samsung.81
Demographers distinguish between two subgroups of baby boomers: Leadingedge boomers, born between 1946 and 1955, grew up during the Vietnam War and
Civil Rights eras. Trailing-edge boomers, born between 1956 and 1964, came of age
after Vietnam and the Watergate scandal. The Great Recession had a greater impact
on trailing-edge boomers than leading-edge boomers. The relatively older group is
less burdened by expenses like college tuitions and mortgage payments, so they buy
more discretionary products and experiences.82 That helps to explain why cosmetic
surgery procedures on Americans over the age of 65 have increased by well over 1,000
percent in the last 20 years!83
Ironically, however, most marketers neglect this incredibly important group: For
example, although boomers spend 38.5 percent of consumer-packaged-goods (CPG)
dollars, Nielsen estimates that only 5 percent of advertising dollars are currently
targeted toward adults 35 to 64 years old. Nielsen’s research says that boomers
dominate 1,023 out of 1,083 CPG categories and watch 9.34 hours of video per
day—more than any other segment. They also constitute a third of all TV viewers,
online users, social media users, and Twitter users and are significantly more likely
to have broadband internet. As a Nielsen executive observed, “Marketers have this
tendency to think the Baby Boomers—getting closer to retirement—will just be calm
and peaceful as they move ahead, and that’s not true. Everything we see with our
behavioral data says these people are going to be active consumers for much longer.
They are going to be in better health, and despite the ugliness around the retirement
stuff now, they are still going to be more affluent. They are going to be an important
segment for a long time.”84
OBJECTIVE 11-4
Summarize how our
ethnicity and race
shape our identity
and often guide
our consumption
choices.

Ethnic and Racial Identities
Ethnic and Racial Identity

As we saw at the start of the chapter, the degree to which
we pay attention to our membership to a given group is a
function of that group’s salience in our mind. In the context
of race and ethnicity, this sometimes comes from the
situation we are in (are we the only Latinx person in the group?) but also from the
degree to which we identify with the group.
As Maria’s story about living a Hispanic identity in Los Angeles illustrates, ethnic
identification is the extent to which we are emotionally attached to our own ethnic
group and to which we find our membership in that group to be a significant part of
our identity.85
To understand ethnic and racial identity, it can be useful to think about how
we identity with the microculture and how we identity with the broader culture
(macroculture).86 This has important implications for consumer behavior because

Chapter 11 • Social and Cultural Identity

337

it helps us to understand why some people are so strongly influenced by specific
microcultures while others who seem like them on the surface are not. For instance:

•
•
•
•
•

Multiculturalism is a combination of high identification with the macroculture and
high identification with the microculture, but it is important to note that being a
multicultural consumer is very complex.
Alienation is at the other end of the spectrum: little identification with the macroculture and little identification with the microculture.
Cultural fusion is somewhere in the middle with partial identification with both
macroculture and microculture.
Assimilation is no identification with microculture and high identification with
the macroculture.
Self-segregation is no identification with the macroculture but high identification
with the microculture.

Regardless of our own racial or ethnic identities, many
modern consumers love to experiment with the products
(food, clothing, music, etc.) of other cultures. Especially if
we live in a place where everyone tends to come from similar
backgrounds, we may seek diversity through consumption—
good thing there’s that internet device that allows you to
order exotic merchandise from pretty much anywhere in the
world!
Researchers developed a diversity seeking scale
that measures a person’s propensity to seek out cultural
diversity in products, services, and experiences.87 The
scale includes items such as liking to live in an ethnically
diverse neighborhood and viewing travel as an opportunity
to learn about other cultures. They find that high diversity
seekers go out of their way to find diverse consumption
experiences that expose to them to other people, ideas,
and values.

Culture on wheels: Food trucks deliver tastes of different ethnic
groups.
Source: Directphoto Collection/Alamy Stock Photo

Ethnic and Racial Diversity in the U.S.
The rapidly growing diversity of U.S. culture is one of the most important drivers of
change in this century. As of 2015, the majority of babies born in America are nonCaucasian. Over the next 45 years, the Census Bureau expects the Hispanic population
to more than double; by 2060, almost one in three Americans will identify as Hispanic.
The Asian population will double during the same period.
But changes are happening to these traditional racial/ethnic categories. In line
with the old “melting pot” analogy, the number of people self-reporting more than
one race or ethnicity is also growing. That helps to explain why about 6 percent of
people who filled out the last census didn’t select one of the race categories the form
provided. 88
The Census Bureau also predicts that by 2050, people who identify themselves as
multiracial will make up almost 4 percent of the U.S. population. Among American
children, the multiracial population has increased almost 50 percent, to 4.2 million,
since 2000, making it the fastest-growing group in the country. The number of
Americans who identified as more than one race nearly doubled to 13.5 million
people between 2010 and 2020. Today, many celebrities publicly identify as biracial,
including Rihanna, Drake, Key and Peele, and Shemar Moore.

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Hispanic Americans: Para Español, Oprima el número 9
Nearly one in five Americans is Hispanic, and the U.S. is one of the largest Spanishspeaking countries. Today, 18.7 percent of the U.S. population is of Hispanic ethnicity.89 Hispanics accounted for more than half of the country’s growth in the last
decade, reaching 62.1 million by April 2020.
It's important to note that being Hispanic is an ethnicity, not a race. Whereas a
race is based largely on physical attributes (like skin color or size and shape of facial
features), ethnicity is based on traditions, language, nationality, and cultural heritage.
This makes it quite a complex identity facet. Indeed, the umbrella term Hispanic
describes people of many different backgrounds. Nearly 60 percent of Hispanic
Americans are of Mexican descent. The next largest group, Puerto Ricans, make up just
less than 10 percent of Hispanics. Other groups the Census includes in this category
are Central Americans, Dominicans, South Americans, and Cubans. This is important
because for many people, their country-of-origin is more important to their identity
than is the broad Hispanic label. A 2019 survey found that 47 percent of Hispanics most
often describe themselves by their family’s country of origin; 39 percent use the terms
Latino or Hispanic, and 14 percent most often describe themselves as American.90
Hispanics are now the nation’s second-largest consumer market after white
non-Hispanics, with $1.7 trillion in purchasing power. They also are geographically
concentrated, which makes it a bit easier for marketers to reach them. About half of
Hispanic consumers live in California and Texas. The other six states having more than
1 million Hispanics are Florida, New York, Illinois, Arizona, New Jersey, and Colorado.91
So significant is the Hispanic consumer market that Amazon launched a Spanishlanguage version of Amazon.com, perhaps based on research that
shows Hispanics are especially likely to shop online for beauty and
general household products.92 However, it’s a mistake to assume
that Hispanic Americans need to receive Spanish messages, since
only about one-third are either dependent on the Spanish language
or have a bilingual preference.93
It also may be a mistake to assume that characteristics
considered hallmarks of particular ethnic groups don’t change over
time. For example, while the primacy of family is often viewed as
central to Hispanic communities, family structures are changing.
More Hispanic Americans desire greater economic stability and
higher education levels before starting a family. In addition,
Hispanic families were greatly affected in the fallout from COVID19—a much higher share of Hispanics died from the pandemic
compared to the population average.94 Marketers must remember
that the structure and values of ethnic groups aren’t static.

African Americans

The Venezuelan designer María Carolina Josefina Pacanins
Niño created the Carolina Herrera brand in 1980. Now
headquartered in New York, today it is recognized as a
major force in fashion.
Source: Grzegorz Czapski/Alamy Stock Photo

Black Americans still face racial stigma in the marketplace; they
are often denied access to financing or treated differently based on
their skin color. One study found that Black middle-class consumers respond to and adjust to this stigma by developing strategies
of respectability to make their lives more tolerable. For instance,
they engage in normative respectability: Displaying consumption
choices that associate them with desired (i.e., often predominantly
white) social identities that are perceived as “respectable.” Or instead,
they might engage in oppositional respectability: Displaying
consumption choices that enhance or elevate their blackness.

Chapter 11 • Social and Cultural Identity

339

In this case, consumption choices are used to destigmatize race by associating black
culture with high status.
The post-pandemic enhanced focus on a company’s values is even more acute
among African Americans: They are nearly three times more likely than others to
expect the brands they use to align with their values and support social causes.
Overall, they also are younger (on average, 10 years younger than the general
population), more brand-conscious, and more plugged in to smartphones and
other devices.95
What else do we know about this important racial identity? Here are a few recent
findings:

•

•
•

They often seek the “cool” factor in the products they purchase. African Americans
say they prefer to shop at high-end department stores, and they agree they are
highly influenced by in-store advertisements and merchandising. According to
data from Nielsen, African American consumers are 20 percent more likely than
the total population to say they will “pay extra for a product that is consistent with
the image I want to convey.” Thus, it’s not that surprising to learn that African
Americans spend $60 million per year on luxury items like watches and more than
$150 million per year on women’s fragrances.96
Bucking a general trend toward online shopping, a majority of African Americans
still prefer to shop in stores—more than half say they find this relaxing, compared
with only 26 percent of the general population.
They are more likely to agree that advertising provides meaningful information
on most platforms—including mobile (42 percent higher), television (23 percent
higher), radio (21 percent higher), and the internet (18 percent higher).97

Asian Americans
Asian Americans, though much smaller in absolute numbers, are
the fastest-growing group in the United States.98 Just as Latinx
are a very diverse group, Asian Americans represent multiple
origins, languages, and dialects.99 The term Asian refers to
20 national origins, with Chinese being the largest, Filipino
being the second largest, and Japanese being third largest.
Interestingly, about three-quarters of all Asian Americans report
they are “proficient” in English; this means that they either
speak only English or at least speak it very well.100

Showing Respect: Ethnic and Racial
Symbols
A growing number of affluent Asian Americans belong in a

As we saw in Chapter 3, symbols convey important meansegment Nielsen calls the “swayable shopaholics,” who are
ings. Ethnic and racial symbols are especially laden with
the most active and impulsive buyers in the country. These
cultural connections and relevance to the groups for which
consumers prefer well-known brands and lead the nation in
their rate of online shopping. The hit movie Crazy Rich Asians
they are sacred.
brought attention to this segment as viewers watched an Asian
In the past, it was common for marketers to use
family spend (supposedly) $40 million on a wedding. Note:
racial or ethnic symbolism as shorthand to convey certain
Based on real-life calculations, this event actually would cost
product attributes. Before these actions became taboo, they
“only” $9 million!101
often employed crude and unflattering images when they
Source: Ian West/PA Images/Alamy Stock Photo
depicted African Americans as subservient or Mexicans as
bandits.102 Aunt Jemima sold pancake mix and Rastus was a grinning black chef
who pitched Cream of Wheat hot cereal. The Gold Dust Twins were black urchins
who peddled a soap powder for Lever Brothers, and Pillsbury hawked powdered

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Buying, Having, Being
Slogan Blunders
Marketing history is full of major
brands that ran into trouble when
they tried to translate their slogans
into other languages. Here are a few
of our favorites:

drink mixes via characters such as Chinese Cherry—who had buckteeth—and Injun
Orange.103
As the civil rights movement gave more power to minority groups and their rising
economic status began to command marketers’ respect, these negative stereotypes
began to disappear. Most recently, partly in response to the Black Lives Matter
movement, two long-standing brands that employed such stereotypes were given new
names: Quaker Oats retired Aunt Jemima and its oatmeal brand became Pearl Milling.
Uncle Ben’s rice became Ben’s Original. 104

• The Coca-Cola slogan “Coke

•

•
•

•

•

Adds Life” translated as “Coke
brings your ancestors back from
the dead” in Japanese.
Kentucky Fried Chicken
described its chicken as “fingerlickin’ good” to the Chinese,
who don’t think it’s polite to lick
your fingers.
A footwear ad depicted Japanese
women performing foot binding,
which only the Chinese did.
The Perdue slogan “It takes
a tough man to make a
tender chicken” translated in
Spanish as “It takes a sexually
excited man to make a chick
affectionate.”
Braniff (now defunct) promoted
the comfortable leather seats on
its airplanes with the headline
Sentado en cuero, which
translates as “Sit naked.”
Coors beer’s slogan to “get loose
with Coors” appeared in Spanish
as “get the runs with Coors.”

OBJECTIVE 11-5
Explain how our
religious and
political beliefs
affect how we think
and often guide
our consumption
choices.

People who are religious celebrate and adapt cherished
traditions and holidays through acts of consumption.105 For
instance, they mark special occasions and perform special
rituals for Christmas, Ramadan, or Passover. These cultural
ceremonies (more on this in Chapter 14) almost always
involve one or more products, whether in the form of gifts
“left by Santa Claus” under the tree, Iftar meals, or matzoh (unleavened bread) and
sweet wine to conduct a seder.
Just as we saw in our discussion of ethnic/racial groups, the way people live their
religion often depends on whether that religion is dominant in the place where they live,
whether it is in the minority, or whether it is diasporic, or recently brought in and practiced
by a small number of people. Religious consumers also often appropriate elements of
other religion’s holidays (but with the religious aspects stripped away), especially in
countries where those consumers’ religion is in the minority (for example, Christmas is
popular in Japan even though less than one percent of people there are Christians).106

Religion and Consumption
Given the important role of values in shaping our behaviors, as we discussed in
Chapter 10, it is not surprising that religion also plays an important role in consumer
behavior. Religious dietary requirements, for example, create demand for certain
products, such as kosher or halal food.
Religious beliefs shape consumption choices as they
sometimes determine what we will not buy. For instance,
religious consumers can come to view brands as “infidels,”
especially when those brands are associated with or come
to represent actors that threaten (or seem to threaten) the
consumers’ religion.107 A researcher who studied Islamic
consumers in Turkey identified that perceptions of global
brands as infidels unfold through three discourses:

Movies and plays like The Book of Mormon accelerate the
intersection between religion and popular culture.
Source: Randy Duchaine/Alamy Stock Photo.

Religious and Political Identity

1. Modesty – Brands encourage rivalry between individuals
when Islam is meant to serve as a “social glue” to make
societies and communities more cohesive.
2. Halal-haram – Global brands impose Western, nonIslamic morals on consumers. Secularism has, in their
eyes, brought about a “satanic lifestyle” devoid of the
morals that sustain their way of life.
3. Tyranny – Brands try to wipe out Islamic identity. This
discourse paints Muslim consumers as victims of infidel
brands.

Chapter 11 • Social and Cultural Identity

Marketing to Muslims
Although Muslims only comprise about one percent of the total U.S. population,
analysts estimate that this number will more than double by 2050.108 The Whole
Foods grocery store chain became the first major supermarket to run a Ramadan
marketing campaign that caters to Muslims who eat lavish meals during the month
when they fast each day.

Halal Foods
Mindful of the success of kosher certification, some Muslims recognize that halal
foods, or foods permissible under the laws of Islam, also may appeal to mainstream
consumers. The Islamic Food and Nutrition Council of America certifies halal products
with a “crescent M,” much like the circled “O” of the Orthodox Union, the largest
kosher certifier. Both kosher and halal followers forbid pork, and both require similar
rituals for butchering meat. Religious Jews don’t mix milk and meat, nor do they eat
shellfish, whereas religious Muslims don’t drink alcohol. Neither group eats birds of
prey or blood.109 Analysts predict that by 2024, Americans will purchase more than
$8 billion of halal foods per year.110
Halal as a descriptor is being used for more and more commodities, services, and
activities, including milk, water, nonprescription medicine, holidays, washing powder,
tissues, cosmetics, websites, and music. Many major companies are taking steps to
reassure consumers that all their products—not just food—are halal by having them
officially certified.

Buying, Having, Being
Using Religion to Sell
Religious sensibilities vary around
the world, and big trouble can
result if marketers are inconsiderate and reveal a lack of sensitivity
and understanding. Here are some
examples:113

• Winning entries in the Doritos/

Modest Fashion
The veil, an essential element of the Islam religion, is also often a fashion symbol.111
For either personal or religious reasons, a growing number of women—including
observant Muslims and Orthodox Jews—around the world are looking for clothing
styles that are not as revealing as many current outfits. So significant is this trend
that modest fashion is now a $250 billion global industry. Even the infamous Sports
Illustrated swimsuit issue included shots of Muslim model Halima Aden in a hijab
and burkini!112

•

Political Identity
Few will be surprised to find out that political orientation affects what we buy.
Political values are an important driver of consumer behavior because in our society
political orientation is an essential ingredient of one’s identity. Many countries around
the world have become divided along political lines. In the U.S., these differences run
deep because people are “brand loyal” to their party. Many of us feel so strongly about
our political beliefs that we avoid socializing with people who feel differently—for
example, today according to one survey, only 3.6 percent of marriages are “mixed”
between a Democrat and a Republican!117 And results from brain scans that reveal
underlying emotional responses suggest that being exposed to a prominent figure from
an opposing party may elicit strong feelings of disgust.118 American consumers take
their politics very seriously!
A recent review of a huge body of research comparing liberals and conservatives
find that they differ in, oh, so many ways.119 Several studies across Western nations
suggest that liberals tend to value openness to change and self-transcendence, while
conservatives value the status quo and stability. Indeed, recent studies confirm that
conservatives (vs. liberals) are more satisfied with the products and services they
consume because they believe in free will (i.e., that people have agency over their

341

•

Pepsi MAX “Crash the Super
Bowl” challenge got broadcast as ads during the Super
Bowl. One entry caused a
lot of controversy: “Feed the
Flock” showed a “pastor” succeeding in bringing in new
church parishioners by serving
Doritos and Pepsi MAX from
the altar—a scenario that some
Catholics interpreted as mocking the religion’s sacrament of
Holy Eucharist (formerly Holy
Communion). A petition appeal
went out to Catholic organizations urging PepsiCo not to approve the entry, which was described as “horrific blasphemy.”
The entry wasn’t chosen as a
finalist and PepsiCo removed it
from the gallery of thousands of
entries that were posted on the
contest’s website. However, the
creators of the video posted it
on YouTube, where it generated
well more than 100,000 views.
In Salt Lake City, a proposed billboard for Polygamy
Porter beer aroused the ire of
Mormons worldwide. The billboard company under contract
with the brewery refused to
erect the ad. The board, which
was going to show a picture of a
scantily clad man, cherubs, and
a six-pack of spouses, advised
drinkers to “take some home for
the wives.”
Nike committed a legendary
error when it released a pair
of athletic shoes in 1996 with
a logo on the sole that some
Muslims believed resembled
the Arabic lettering for Allah.
Muslims consider the feet unclean, and the company had
to recall 800,000 pairs of the
shoes globally.

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Megachurches are spiritual homes
to thousands of members. In the
United States, there are approximately
1,600 and each serves 2,000 or
more congregants per week (some
attract more than 20,000 to Sunday
services!).114 As a church marketing
consultant observes, “Baby boomers
think of churches like they think of
supermarkets. They want options,
choices, and convenience. Imagine
if Safeway was open only one hour a
week, had only one product, and didn’t
explain it in English.”115 Clearly, religion
is big business.
The strength of the evangelical
movement has caught the attention
of many marketers. Many companies
have launched faith-based marketing strategies, including Pfizer, Merck,
Tyson, Smucker’s, several major automakers, and even the Curves fitness
chain. Suzuki sponsored the Christian
rock band Kutless on its national tour
to promote its motorcycle and SUV
lines.116
Source: Frank E. Lockwood/MCT/Newscom.

decisions), and, therefore, they trust their own decisions and also are less likely to
complain when things go badly. Conservatives are more likely to assign group stereotypes to others and to react negatively to those who deviate from a valued norm.120
Conservatives and liberals even differ in terms of personality, as per the Big Five
Inventory we mentioned in Chapter 7. Liberals are more open to new experiences,
while conservatives tend to be higher in conscientiousness (especially the “orderliness” aspect of conscientiousness). Liberals are more compassionate but less polite,
two different facets of agreeableness (another Big Five dimension). They also differ in
terms of traits that affect information processing: Liberals have a higher tolerance for
ambiguity or uncertainty, while conservatives have a higher need for order, structure,
and closure. Liberals tend to use a more analytical thinking style and tend to have
higher levels of need for cognition. Conservatives rely more on intuitive thinking.

OBJECTIVE 11-6
Describe how
“birds of a feather
flock together”
in place-based
subcultures.

Community (Geographic and
Place-Based Subcultures)
Geodiversity

Geodemography refers to analytical techniques that
combine data on consumer expenditures and other socioeconomic factors with
geographic information about the areas in which people live to identify consumers
who share common consumption patterns. It should be obvious that where we live
activates certain identities instead of others.
For example, whether someone lives in a city—that is, their extent of urban
identification—is having an increasingly large effect on the identities people pursue,
the political issues people endorse, and the consumption activities people engage in.
City dwellers tend to score higher on scales that measure such dimensions as being
fashion forward or being individualistic.121 Many may also score high on dimensions

Chapter 11 • Social and Cultural Identity

that reflect an identity we might call “the global citizen”: A person who values
diverse viewpoints and new experiences that are not restricted to their physical place
of residence. This tendency is sometimes called cosmopolitanism.122 Of course, as
the pandemic prompted a big migration from big cities to the lower living costs of
smaller cities and suburbs, it remains to be seen what impact this hollowing out will
have on the vibrancy of big metropolitan areas.

Diversity in the U.S.
Anyone who has travelled within the United States recognizes that the country is very
diverse. There’s no mistaking the southern “Bible Belt” for the Northeast or Pacific
Northwest. Indeed, it’s common for Americans who visit other regions to feel they
no longer are in the same country! Political attitudes may be quite different, and it’s
likely there are a lot of new product labels and brands to learn (e.g., a sub sandwich in
New York is called a hoagie in Philadelphia and a grinder in Boston). So, even though
we’re all residents of the U.S., the reality is that our everyday experiences depend a
lot on just where we call home within this huge country.
Various analysts have tried to describe these place-based subcultures. One ambitious
attempt designates several distinct “American Nations” that include the following:123

•
•
•
•

New Netherland: The greater New York City area that was settled by the Dutch
and retains Dutch values, including tolerance for diversity.
Greater Appalachia: The area from southwestern Pennsylvania and West Virginia,
down through the lower Midwest, down through Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas,
and into Oklahoma and Texas. It’s characterized by a commitment to individual
liberty and a suspicion of outsiders.
El Norte: Southwestern Texas and the Mexican border regions in New Mexico,
Arizona, and California. Hispanic culture dominates and people are independent
and self-sufficient.
The Left Coast: The sliver of land that runs up the Pacific coasts of California,
Oregon, and Washington, and includes Juneau, Alaska, and coastal British
Columbia. There is a focus on utopianism and self-expression. People often clash
with people from the interior portions of their home states.

Birds of a Feather Flock Together: Grouping Consumers
by Zip Codes
Marketers who apply geodemographic techniques that use large data sets on where
people live and what they consume assume that “birds of a feather flock together”—
people who have similar needs and tastes tend to live near one another, so it should be
possible to locate “pockets” of like-minded people whom marketers can reach more
economically by direct mail and other methods. For example, a marketer who wants to
reach white, single consumers who are college educated and tend to be fiscally conservative may find that it is more efficient to mail catalogs to zip codes 20770 (Greenbelt,
MD) and 90277 (Redondo Beach, CA) than to adjoining areas in either Maryland or
California, where there are fewer consumers who exhibit these characteristics.
How can marketers tailor their efforts to recognize these geographical differences?
One popular technique is Nielsen’s PRIZM system. This system classifies every U.S.
zip code into 1 of 66 categories, ranging from the most affluent “Blue-Blood Estates”
to the least well-off “Public Assistance.” It terms a resident of southern California
“Money & Brains” if they live in Encino (zip code 91316), whereas someone living
in Sherman Oaks (zip code 91423) is a “Young Influential.”
Residents of different clusters display marked differences in their consumption
of products, from annuities to Ziploc bags. The system also ranks these groupings by

343

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TABLE 11.2    A

Comparison of Two Different Youth-Oriented
PRIZM Clusters

Segment #4: Young Digerati

Segment #25: Up-and-Comers

Tech-savvy consumers who live in trendy
urban neighborhoods filled with fitness clubs,
boutiques, and microbreweries

A transition segment for young, middle-class
singles before they marry and establish families;
primarily live in mid-size cities and includes many
recent college graduates who are into athletic
activities, technology, and nightlife

Much more likely than the average consumer to:

Much more likely than the average consumer to:

Drive a BMW
Shop at Bloomingdale’s
Eat at health food restaurants
Watches marathons and road races
Follows PAC 12 football

Drive a Volkswagen
Shop at Anthropologie
Listen to Stanley Cup (hockey) playoffs
Eat at Smoothie King

https://claritas360.claritas.com/mybestsegments/#segDetail/PZP/04
Source: Claritas PRIZM® Premier Segment Narratives 2022, chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/
https://environicsanalytics.com/docs/default-source/us---data-product-support-documents/claritas-prizm-premiersegment-narratives-ea.pdf

income, home value, and occupation (i.e., a rough index of social class) on a ZQ (zip
quality) scale.
Table 11.2 provides an idea of how dramatically different the consumption
patterns of two clusters can be. It compares consumption data for two different clusters
primarily composed of young people without kids. You can check out your own zip
code at MyBestSegments.com.124
Although consumers in two different clusters can purchase a product at an
equivalent rate, these similarities end when we take their other purchases into account.
These differences highlight the importance of going beyond simple product-category
purchase data and demographics to really understand a market (remember the
discussion of product complementarity in Chapter 10). For example, people in “Urban
Gold Coast,” “Money & Brains,” and “Blue-Blood Estates” communities buy a lot of
high-quality binoculars, but so do those in the “Grain Belt,” “New Homesteaders,” and
“Agri-Business” clusters. The difference is that the former groups use the binoculars to
watch birds and other wildlife, whereas the latter use them to help line up the animals
in their gun sights. Furthermore, whereas the bird watchers do a lot of foreign travel,
listen to classical music, and host cocktail parties, the bird hunters travel by bus, like
country music, and belong to veterans’ clubs.

CHAPTER SUMMARY
Now that you have finished reading this chapter, you should
be able to:
1. Explain how the dynamics of social identity
influence our daily lives and consumer behavior.
We often think of ourselves and our identity through the
lens of the groups and subcultures to which we belong.
Each of us has a social identity comprised of unique
identity-relevant behaviors, attitudes, and beliefs related

to the groups from which we derive our sense of self.
Our social identity is shaped by tensions of autonomy
and affiliation in how we relate to these different groups.
Most people want to express their uniqueness as a
person, but they also value the different parts of their
social identities that connect them with others who have
similar ones. Consumers identify more closely with
companies that allow them to pursue important social
identities.

Chapter 11 • Social and Cultural Identity

345

2. Describe how our family can shape our identity
and often guide our consumption choices.

net worth is five times that of the average consumer, yet
marketers often overlook this important age cohort.

Marketers must understand how families make
decisions. Spouses have different priorities and exert
varying amounts of influence in terms of effort and
power. Women who work outside the home tend to
command more power in purchasing decisions, but, on
the other hand, the significant growth in the number
of stay-at-home fathers also influences this dynamic.
Family members mutually construct a family identity
that defines the household to both members and
outsiders. Family rituals, narratives (stories the members
tell about the family), and everyday interactions help
families maintain their structure, maintain their family
character (day-to-day characteristics of family life),
and clarify members’ relationships to one another. The
extended family used to be the most common family
unit. It consists of three generations who live together,
and it often includes grandparents, aunts, uncles, and
cousins. However, demographic data tell us that this
“ideal” image of the family is no longer realistic. The
U.S. Census Bureau regards any occupied housing unit
as a household regardless of the relationships among the
people who live there.

4. Summarize how our ethnicity and race shape
our identity and often guide our consumption
choices.

3. Discuss how age-related life events shape
our identity and often guide our consumption
choices.
An age cohort consists of people of similar ages who
have similar experiences. Important cohorts today
include Gen Z (kids who were born in the late 1990s
to early 2000), Gen Y (born between 1986 and 2002),
and baby boomers (born between 1946 and 1964). Each
life stage brings with it certain needs and priorities.
Marketers often target products and services that allow
us to express the priorities and needs we encounter at
such stages. The global youth market is massive. Because
teens are interested in so many different products and
have the resources to obtain them, many marketers
avidly court them. Another key identity phase happens
in the latter stages of consumers’ lives, often as they
transition to retirement. Older adults (ages 65+) control
more than 50 percent of discretionary income, and their

A person’s ethnic origins, racial identity, and religious
background often are major components of their identity.
African Americans, Hispanic Americans, and Asian
Americans are the three most important ethnic/racial
subcultures in the United States. Key issues to reach
members of racial/ethnic subcultures are consumers’
degree of acculturation into mainstream U.S. society
and the recognition of important cultural differences
among subgroups (e.g., Puerto Ricans, Cubans, and
Mexicans).
5. Explain how our religious and political beliefs
affect how we think and often guide our consumption choices.
The quest for spirituality influences demand in product
categories including books, music, and cinema.
Although the impact of religious identification on
consumer behavior is not clear, some differences among
religious subcultures do emerge. Marketers need to
consider the sensibilities of believers carefully when
they use religious symbolism to appeal to members of
different denominations. The same is true for political
beliefs that often link in people’s minds to certain
products or services they will seek out or avoid.
6. Describe how “birds of a feather flock together”
in place-based subcultures.
Geodemography refers to analytical techniques that
combine data on consumer expenditures and other
socioeconomic factors with geographic information
about the areas in which people live to identify
consumers who share common consumption patterns.
Researchers base this approach on the common
assumption that “birds of a feather flock together.”
Marketers can increase the efficiency of their messages
when they focus on the similarities among consumers
who choose to live in the same place.

KEY TERMS
Affiliation, 321
Age cohort, 332
Authoritarian parents, 327
Authoritative parents, 327
Autonomy, 321

Baby Boomer, 335
Boomerang kids, 326
Cohabitate, 325
Connexity, 334
Consumer identity renaissance, 332

Consumption practices, 324
Convergent, 322
Cosmopolitanism, 343
Cultural distinctiveness, 323
Diasporic, 340

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DINKs, 325
Divergent, 322
Diversity seeking, 337
Echo boomers, 333
Emotion profile, 321
Ethnic identification, 336
Extended family, 324
Family identity, 324
Family life cycle (FLC), 326
Gen Y, 333
Gen Z, 333
Geodemography, 342
Halal, 341
Hispanic, 338
Household, 325

Identity mindsets, 322
Identity synergy, 323
Indulging parents, 327
Ingroup bias, 323
Intersectionality, 324
Life course model, 326
Material parenting, 327
Mature market, 331
Megachurches, 342
Millennials, 333
Minimal group paradigm, 323
Modest fashion, 341
Neglecting parents, 327
Normative respectability, 338
Nuclear family, 325

Oppositional respectability, 338
Parental yielding, 327
Political orientation, 341
PRIZM, 343
Racial stigma, 338
Respectability, 338
Sandwich generation, 326
Social dominance orientation, 323
Social identity, 321
Social identity priming, 322
Social identity threat, 322
Subculture, 321
Tweens, 330
Urban identification, 342
Voluntarily childless, 325

REVIEW
11-1 Why is it difficult to identify consumers in terms of
their ethnic subculture membership?

11-7 What is the FLC, and why is it important to
marketers?

11-2 Why are Hispanic American consumers attractive to
marketers?

11-8 What is an age cohort, and why is it of interest to
marketers?

11-3 Why are Asian Americans an attractive market segment? Why can they be difficult for marketers to reach?

11-9 How are Gen Yers different from their older brothers
and sisters?

11-4 How do religious subcultures affect consumption
decisions?

11-10 What are tweens, and why are so many marketers
interested in them?

11-5 What is a nuclear family, and how is it different from
an extended family?

11-11 What are some business categories that stand to benefit most from the increasing affluence and vitality
of the senior market?

11-6 What are boomerang kids?

CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CHALLENGE
DISCUSS

11-12 Adidas provoked outrage when the company posted
a photo of a new design, the JS Roundhouse Mids,
on its Facebook page. The shoes come with bright
orange shackles and the tagline “Got a sneaker game
so hot you lock your kicks to your ankles?” Many
users complained that this image is highly offensive
to African Americans because it evokes imagery of
slavery and chain gangs. The company claimed the
design had nothing to do with these issues, but the
damage was done.125 Do you agree with Nike? If not,
how might you have handled this differently?
11-13 The average U.S. teenager spends well more than
eight hours a day in front of a screen, whether
smartphone, PC, TV, or tablet. One study reported
increasing physical isolation among internet users;

it created a controversy and drew angry complaints
from some users who insisted that time they spent
online did not detract from their social relationships.
However, the researchers said they had now gathered
further evidence showing that internet use has lowered
the amount of time people spend socializing with
friends and even sleeping. According to the study, an
hour of time spent using the internet reduces faceto-face contact with friends, coworkers, and family
by 23.5 minutes; lowers the amount of time spent
watching television by 10 minutes; and reduces sleep
time by 8.5 minutes.126 What’s your perspective on
this issue? Does increasing use of the internet have
positive or negative implications for interpersonal
relationships in our society?

Chapter 11 • Social and Cultural Identity

11-14 More than 16 million millennial women are now
mothers, and that number grows by more than a
million every year. These new parents demand
innovations in child-rearing to match their
experiences in other realms of their lives. These
“parennials” are information-hungry; they never stop
researching the best things to buy for their children.
There are numerous resources for them to learn about
parenting, such as chat rooms like Wonder Weeks
and WebMDBaby. Many parennials, accustomed to
chronicling every great dish they order in a restaurant,
give their children YouTube channels from the first
sonogram and hashtags when they’re born.127 What
is the next “killer app” for young parennials?
11-15 Among Facebook’s various problems over the last few
years is that some of the country’s leading employers
placed recruitments ads on the platform that were
limited to particular age groups. Facebook’s ability
to target very specific profiles has raised concerns
about potential age discrimination in hiring. Some
companies argue that this strategy is permissible
because targeting older people for entry-level jobs
would be a waste of money. For example, Goldman
Sachs said that while about one-quarter of those who
click job ads are over 65, almost none go on to apply
for an analyst job. What’s your take on this issue? Is
social media’s ability to finely target very specific
consumer groups a plus or a minus?128
11-16 Several major advertisers including Corona beer have
come under fire recently for showing allegedly racist
ads that favor white people over black people. In a
Facebook ad for Dove body wash, a black woman
removes her brown shirt, and the ad then reveals a
white woman in a light shirt (Dove later apologized).
This is not a new problem: A soap ad that ran in the
early 1900s featured a white child asking a black
child, “Why doesn’t your mamma wash you with
Fairy soap?” In 2017, the skin care company Nivea
ran a deodorant ad that read, “White is purity.” White
supremacists on the internet loved it. In what some
have labeled the most racist ad ever made, a 2016
commercial for the Chinese company Qiaobi’s
laundry detergent shows an Asian woman who shoves
a detergent pod into a black man’s mouth and puts
him in a washing machine, from which he emerges as
a light-skinned Asian.129 While you would think these
ads are screened for such insulting content, apparently
many still make it through. Should advertisements
be more thoroughly screened, or are people just
overreacting to these attempts at humor? How might
the system be changed to avoid these blunders?

347

11-17 Geodemographic techniques assume that people who
live in the same neighborhood have other things in
common as well. Why do they make this assumption,
and how accurate is it?
11-18 Should members of a religious group adapt marketing
techniques that manufacturers customarily use to
increase market share for their secular products?
Why or why not?
11-19 Years ago, R. J. Reynolds announced plans to test
market a menthol cigarette called Uptown specifically
to African American consumers. According to the
company, about 70 percent of African American
smokers prefer menthol, more than twice the average
rate. After market research showed that blacks tend to
open cigarette packs from the bottom, the company
decided to pack Uptowns with the filters facing down.
Reynolds cancelled its plans after private health
groups and government officials protested. Does
a company have the right to exploit a subculture’s
special characteristics, especially to increase sales of
a harmful product such as cigarettes? What about the
argument that virtually every business that follows
the marketing concept designs a product to meet the
needs and tastes of a preselected segment?
11-20 Discuss the pros and cons of the voluntarily childless
movement.
11-21 When they identify and target newly divorced
couples, do you think marketers exploit these
couples’ situations? Are there instances in which
you think marketers may be helpful to them? Support
your answers with examples.
11-22 Born-again Christian groups have been instrumental
in organizing boycotts of products advertised on
shows they find objectionable, especially those that
they feel undermine family values. Church leaders
can encourage consumption, but, more importantly,
they can also discourage it—sometimes with
powerful effects. The Disney Corporation discovered
how effective these movements can be when the
Southern Baptist Convention voted to persuade all
its members to boycott Disney’s operations.130 The
church instituted its anti-Mickey rebellion to protest
the “Gay Days” at the theme parks and advocated a
view that Disney had a radical homosexual agenda
that it promoted through its broadcasts. Soon
other organizations joined the cause, including the
American Family Association, the General Council of
the Assemblies of God, the Congregational Holiness
Church, the Catholic League for Religious and Civil
Rights, and the Free Will Baptists. The fallout from

348

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• Being: Using Products to Create and Communicate Identity

the boycott was significant; Disney was forced to lay
off 4,000 employees.131 Do religious groups have a
right or a responsibility to dictate what advertising
a network should carry?
11-23 Religious symbolism appears in advertising, even
though some people object to this practice. For
example, a French Volkswagen ad for the relaunch
of the Golf showed a modern version of The Last
Supper with the tagline “Let us rejoice, my friends,
for a new Golf has been born.”132 A group of clergy
in France sued the company and the ad was removed
from 10,000 billboards. One of the bishops involved
in the suit said, “Advertising experts have told us
that ads aim for the sacred in order to shock, because
using sex does not work anymore.” Do you agree?
Should religion be used to market products? Do you
find this strategy effective or offensive? When and
where is this appropriate, if at all?
11-24 The chapter discussed the dramatic changes in family
structure today. The reality is that many other types
of families continue to grow rapidly as well. Indeed,
some experts argue that as traditional family living
arrangements wane, we place even greater emphasis
on siblings, close friends, and other relatives who
provide companionship and social support.133 Some
people join intentional families, groups of unrelated
people who meet regularly for meals and who spend

holidays together.134 Indeed, for some the act of
meeting together to consume homemade food plays
a central role in defining family: It is a symbolic way
to separate a family unit from other social groups
by allowing the cook(s) to personalize the meal
and express affection via the effort that went into
preparing the feast.135 What evidence do you find of
the impact of nontraditional family structures? How
will these alternative lifestyles change the way we
think about consumer behavior?
11-25 This chapter describes members of Gen Y as much
more traditional and team oriented than their older
brothers and sisters. Do you agree?
11-26 Many parents worry about the time their kids spend
online, but this activity may be good for them. A study
by the MacArthur Foundation claims that surfers gain
valuable skills to prepare them for the future. The
study also finds that concerns about online predators
are overblown; most kids socialize with friends they
know from places like school or camp.136 What’s
your take on this? Are concerns about excessive web
surfing unjustified?
11-27 What are some of the positives and negatives of
targeting college students? Identify some specific
marketing strategies you feel have either been
successful or unsuccessful. What characteristics
distinguish the successes from the failures?

APPLY

11-28 Locate current examples of marketing stimuli that
depend on an ethnic or religious stereotype to communicate a message. How effective are these appeals?
11-29 We can think of college students who live away from
home as having a substitute “family.” Whether you
live with your parents, with a spouse, or with other
students, how are decisions made in your college
residence “family”? Do some people take on the role
of mother, father, or child? Give a specific example of
a decision that had to be made and the roles members
played.
11-30 Arrange to interview two couples, one married
fewer than 5 years and one married for more than 20
years. Prepare a response form that lists five product
categories—groceries, furniture, appliances, vacations,
and automobiles—and ask each spouse to indicate,
without consulting the other, whether purchases in each
category are made by joint or unilateral decisions and

to indicate whether the unilateral decisions are made
by the husband or the wife. Compare each couple’s
responses for agreement between husbands and wives
relative to who makes the decisions and compare both
couples’ overall responses for differences relative to
the number of joint versus unilateral decisions. Report
your findings and conclusions.
11-31 To understand the power of ethnic stereotypes, conduct
your own poll. For a set of ethnic groups, ask people to
anonymously provide attributes (including personality
traits and products) most likely to characterize each
group, using the technique of free association where
they simply say what comes to mind when you mention
each group. How much agreement do you obtain across
respondents? To what extent do the characteristics
derive from or reflect negative stereotypes? Compare
the associations for an ethnic group between actual
members of that group and nonmembers.

Chapter 11 • Social and Cultural Identity

11-32 Observe the interactions between parents and
children in the cereal section of a local grocery
store (remember to take earplugs with you). Prepare
a report on the number of children who expressed
preferences, how they expressed their preferences,
and how parents responded, including the number
who purchased the child’s choice.
11-33 Select a product category and, using the life-cycle
stages this chapter describes, list the variables likely
to affect a purchase decision for the product by
consumers in each stage of the cycle.
11-34 Consider three important changes in the modern
family structure. For each, find an example of a
marketer who seems to be conscious of this change in
its product communications, retailing innovations, or
other aspects of the marketing mix. If possible, also
try to find examples of marketers who have failed to
keep up with these developments.
11-35 One study asked young people in the United States
and the Netherlands to write essays about what is
“cool” and “uncool” and to create visual collages that
represent what it means to be cool.137 The researchers
found that cool has multiple meanings to kids in
these two cultures. Some of the common dimensions
include having charisma, being in control, and being
a bit aloof. Many of the respondents also agreed that
being cool is a moving target: The harder you try to
be cool, the more uncool you are! Here are some of
their actual responses:

•
•
•
•

“Cool means being relaxed, to nonchalantly be
the boss of every situation, and to radiate that”
(Dutch female)
“Cool is the perception from others that you’ve
got ‘something’ which is macho, trendy, hip, etc.”
(Dutch male)
“Cool has something standoffish, and at the same
time, attractive.” (Dutch male)
“Being different, but not too different. Doing your
own thing, and standing out, without looking
desperate while you’re doing it.” (American male)

•

•
•

349

“When you are sitting on a terrace in summer,
you see those machos walk by, you know, with
their mobile [phones] and their sunglasses.
I always think, ‘Oh please, come back to earth!’
These guys only want to impress. That is just so
uncool.” (Dutch female)
“When a person thinks he is cool, he is absolutely
uncool.” (Dutch female)
“To be cool we have to make sure we measure up
to it. We have to create an identity for ourselves that
mirrors what we see in magazines, on TV, and with
what we hear on our stereos.” (American male)

Replicate this study in your area. Recruit a
group of teenagers to construct individual collages
that represent what they feel is “cool.” Analyze their
choices—what patterns do you see?
11-36 One pair of researchers took an in-depth look at
how 13- and 14-year-olds integrate the computer
into their lives and how they use it to express their
cyberidentities. These tweens have limited mobility
in real life (too young to drive), so they use the
computer to transport themselves to other places
and modes of being. The researchers explored the
metaphors these kids use when they think about their
computers. For some, the PC is a “fraternity house”
where they can socialize; it also can be a “carnival”
where they play games and an “external brain” that
helps with homework.138 Interview some tweens
about their online behaviors. How do they think
about their digital devices? What role do they play in
their lives?
11-37 Locate one or more consumers (perhaps family
members) who have emigrated from another country.
Interview them about how they adapted to their
host culture. What changes did they make in their
consumption practices over time?
11-38 Interview some retired people. How are they reconstructing their identities? What opportunities do their
desires present for marketers?

DIGGING IN WITH DATA

See “Data Case 3: Cats, Kibble, and Commercials” in Appendix A for an opportunity to work with real consumer
data and apply this chapter’s concepts to real world problems.

350

Section 4

• Being: Using Products to Create and Communicate Identity

CASE STUDY

Hyundai’s OKAY Campaign: Driving Toward
Diverse Markets

What do Beyoncé, South African rapper Da L.E.S, and civil
rights attorney Victor McTeer have in common? According
to a former Environmental Protection Agency administrator,
Heather McTeer Toney, they’re all Black and they all
drive electric vehicles (EVs).139 The slow yet increasing
acceptance of eco-friendly vehicles in minority communities
is a reality that many automobile manufacturers, such as GM
and Hyundai, are not only aware of but also beginning to
capitalize on.
According to a literature review on EV consumer
behaviors by the Fuels Institute/Electric Vehicle Council,
the typical owners (35 percent) are middle-aged white men
earning more than $100,000 annually, college-educated, and
with at least one other car in the household.140 Blacks still
comprise only a fraction of this market.141 Though a relatively
small percent of the total market, Hyundai nevertheless
rolled out a campaign in the fall of 2021 entitled “OKAY
Hyundai,” highlighting the convenience of an electrified
lifestyle targeted to Black customers. The expansion of the
campaign for the all-electric 2022 Hyundai is entitled “Lead
by Example,” which focuses on the important, but often
overlooked, relationships among uncles and nephews in the
Black community. It tells the story of Uncle Blake picking
up his nephew Blake from school in his EV for a guy’s night
out.142 Marshall Shepherd, a senior contributor for Forbes,
contends that EVs and hybrids in the Black community are
important climate, political, and economic issues.143
As you learned in this chapter, the growing diversity
of the U.S. population is a major driver of change and is
an important consideration for marketing strategists.
Our membership in ethnic subcultures often guides our
consumption choices and may affect the products companies
offer, where they are sold, and how promotional messages
are communicated. Hyundai has been one of the leaders
in recognizing this diversity, as we can see in the OKAY
Hyundai ad campaign.
To better understand the intersectionality of social
identity as it relates to EV and hybrid consumption in
communities of color, it may first be useful to understand
how the different types of electric vehicles are categorized.
The Bureau of Transportation Statistics (BTS) identifies
electric vehicles in this way: hybrid-electric vehicles (HEV),
plug-in-hybrid-electric vehicles (PHEV), and electric
vehicles (EV). PHEVs include plug-in hybrid and extended
range EVs but do not include neighborhood electric vehicles,
low-speed electric vehicles, or two-wheeled electric vehicles.
A hybrid electric vehicle is a vehicle powered by a combination

of battery-electric motor(s) and an internal combustion
engine.144 Black-owned all-electric vehicles accounted for
3.2 percent of the light vehicle market in 2021.145 However,
hybrid ownership increased to 5.5 percent by 2021.
Since the inception of EVs, manufacturer initiatives,
government programs, and ad campaigns have targeted a
one-dimensional segment of early adopters—the middleaged, college-educated white men earning $100,000 or more
annually, mentioned earlier in this case. However, Terry
Travis, an expert on EV, HEV, and PHEV and founder of
the non-profit EVHybridNoire, believes that communities of
color that are often hardest hit by air pollution should be
prioritized to receive the tax credits that many states offer
to incentivize buying, as well as access to EV charging
infrastructure.146 According to Travis, the positive impact
that zero-emission vehicles would have in reducing the
harmful transportation emissions in these communities can’t
be overstated. Environmental expert Naomi Davis contends
that minority communities are being left behind in the era
of electric cars due to a lack of Charging Stations. A map
of charging stations in the largest cities in the United States
shows the biggest gaps in communities of color. Electric
vehicle advocates call these gaps charging deserts.147 With
lower priced and pre-owned EV options now available,
government funds targeted to charging infrastructure
in communities of color, and increased visibility of EV
rideshare options in major U.S. cities, more minorities may
be willing to give EVs a second look.148 This is the sentiment
that Hyundai hopes to tap into with its new ad campaign.
OKAY Hyundai is Hyundai Motor Company’s first
Black American marketing campaign—using the black
slang “OKAY” to hopefully connect with potential black
customers.149 Hyundai hired Maryland-based Culture
Brands in May in an effort to “be more strategic, targeted and
authentic in how we communicate with African American
consumers,” Erik Thomas, the automaker’s senior group
manager for experiential and multicultural marketing said,
according to the New Pittsburgh Courier. “We look to
continue to connect with people on their own terms and in
relevant ways. As we increase our share of voice with the
African American market and communicate successfully, we
anticipate sales growth will follow,” Thomas added.150
The OKAY Hyundai campaign highlights two of
Hyundai’s plug-in hybrid vehicles on radio, television, and
social media. “We set out to make our marketing more inclusive
and representative, and the result is working with Culture
Brands to launch the OKAY Hyundai campaign to promote the

Chapter 11 • Social and Cultural Identity

2022 Hyundai Tucson Plug-in Hybrid and the 2022 Hyundai
Santa Fe Plug-in Hybrid in a culturally relevant way,” Angela
Zepeda, CMO, Hyundai Motor America, said in a release.
“What makes this campaign unique is its relatability which
we feel broadens Hyundai’s voice in the marketplace.”151
While Hyundai does not release its sales data by race,
it does know Black consumers currently comprise a small
percentage of hybrid or plug-in vehicle buyers. The company
is trying to change that by connecting with a Black American
market that accounted for $835 billion in spending in 2019,
according to McKinsey and Co. The move by Hyundai has
been applauded by many and comes months after black media
mogul Byron Allen fought General Motors and its CEO Mary
Barra over its significant lack of Black advertising. The
Detroit Free Press reported that Allen isn’t done either.152
For its part, General Motors announced that it will establish
40,000 charging stations in the U.S. and Canada, promising
to include some in underserved urban and rural areas.153
According to Hyundai, the campaign focuses on a lessis-more approach, and efficiency is what counts. It also points
to how the African American community acknowledges and
praises someone. “OKAY is defined as a word that is used
to express assent, agreement, or acceptance,” Eunique Jones
Gibson, CEO & Chief Creative Officer of Culture Brands

351

said in a release. “In the African American community,
placing OKAY before something is the quintessential way
things worth noticing are acknowledged. Together, it’s the
perfect nod to Hyundai and to our prospective buyers.”154
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

CS 11-1 Who is the target market for the OKAY Hyundai ad
campaign? Include specific demographic variables
and other characteristics of identity that you think
Hyundai wants to appeal to with the ad campaign.
CS 11-2 How might the early adopters of electric vehicles
respond to the Hyundai ad campaign specifically
targeted to black customers?
CS 11-3 How do economics, the environment, and even
one’s political beliefs affect the type of automobile
a consumer decides to purchase?
CS 11-4 Imagine that you are in the market for a new
vehicle and income is not your primary issue (you
have enough money to purchase whatever you
like). What type of vehicle would you consider
purchasing? What characteristics of your identity
inform your choice of vehicle to purchase?

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Chapter 11 • Social and Cultural Identity

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Ibid
Cf. Neil Howe and William Strauss, Generations: The History of America’s
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Natalie Zmuda, “Pepsi Embraces ‘Optimistic’ Millennials in New TBWA
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“McDonald’s Struggles to Woo Millennials,” Brandchannel, March 25,
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“YouTubers Are Among the Most Popular Celebrities for Gen Z. How
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Paul Taylor and George Gao, “Generation X: America’s Neglected ‘Middle
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Erin Currier, “How Generation X Could Change the American Dream,” Pew
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Gavin O’Malley, “Boomers Value Brands That Champion ‘Youthful’ Style,”
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Quoted in Sarah Mahoney, “Nielsen: Time to Recommit to Boomers,”
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Anne M. Brumbaugh and Sonya A. Grier, “Agents of Change: A Scale to
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Suzanne Gamboa, “Fewer Latino Births, More Deaths Have an Impact on
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Jack Neff, “Black Consumers Are Group Most Swayed by Brand Values and
Diversity Practices, Study Finds,” AdAge, January 18, 2021, https://adage
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Michael Chui, Brian Gregg, Sajal Kohli, and Shelley Stewart III, “A $300
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Kori Hale, “The $300 Billion Black American Consumerism Bag Breeds Big
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Padmananda Rama, “U.S. Census Show Asians Are Fastest Growing Racial Group,”
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For a discussion of Asian identity, cf. Julien Cayla and Giana M. Eckhardt,
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Abby Budiman and Neil G. Ruiz, “Key Facts about Asian Americans, a Diverse
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• Being: Using Products to Create and Communicate Identity

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Akshay R. Rao, “Red, Blue and Purple States of Mind: Segmenting the Political
Marketplace,” Journal of Consumer Psychology 27, no. 4 (2017): 521–31.
John T. Jost, “The Marketplace of Ideology: ‘Elective Affinities’ in Political
Psychology and Their Implications for Consumer Behavior,” Journal of
Consumer Psychology 27, no. 4 (2017): 502–20.
Daniel Fernandes, Nailya Ordabayeva, Kyuhong Han, Jihye Jung J, and Vikas
Mittal, “How Political Identity Shapes Customer Satisfaction,” Journal of Marketing
(February 2022), doi:10.1177/00222429211057508, accessed June 9, 2022.
Marlene Morris Towns, “Cross-Cultural Cool: Consumer Implications of
Urban Identification in the United States and Hong Kong,” Journal of Public
Policy & Marketing 32, no. 1_suppl (2013): 131–43.
Petra Riefler and Adamantios Diamantopoulos, “Consumer Cosmopolitanism:
Review and Replication of the CYMYC Scale,” Journal of Business Research
62, no. 4 (April 2009): 407–19, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/
abs/pii/S0148296308000684, accessed June 9, 2022.
Colin Woodard, American Nations: A History of the Eleven Rival Regional
Cultures of North America (New York, NY: Penguin, 2011).
www.claritas.com/MyBestSegments/Default.jsp.
Mark Memmott, “Adidas Cancels Its 'Shackle Shoes',” NPR.org (May 9, 2012),
https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2012/06/19/155348916/adidascancels-its-shackle-shoes, accessed August 19, 2022..
John Markoff, “Internet Use Said to Cut into TV Viewing and Socializing,”
New York Times, December 30, 2004, https://www.nytimes.com/2004/12/30/
technology/internet-use-said-to-cut-into-tv-viewing-and-socializing.html.
Bruce Feiler, “App Time for Nap Time: The Parennials Are Here,” New
York Times, November 4, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/04/style/
millennial-parents-parennials.html?_r=0.
Joan Angwin, Noam Scheiber, and Ariana Tobin, “Facebook Job Ads Raise
Concerns about Age Discrimination,” New York Times, December 20, 2017,
https://www.nytimes.com/2017/12/20/business/facebook-job-ads.html.
Maggie Astor, “Dove Drops an Ad Accused of Racism,” New York Times,
October 8, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/08/business/dove-adracist.html?_r=0.
“Text of the Southern Baptist Convention’s ‘Disney’ Resolution,” www.
religioustolerance.org/new1_966.htm, accessed August 19, 2022.
Alex Johnson, “Southern Baptists End 8-Year Disney Boycott,” MSNBC (June
22, 2005), www.msnbc.com.
Volkswagen Confesses a Religious Error, Automotive News Europe, February
16, 1998. https://europe.autonews.com/article/19980216/ANE/802160793/
volkswagen-confesses-a-religious-error, accessed April 9, 2023.
Robert Boutilier, “Targeting Families: Marketing to and through the New
Family,” in American Demographics Marketing Tools (Ithaca, NY: American
Demographics Books, 1993): 4–6; W. Bradford Fay, “Families in the 1990s:
Universal Values, Uncommon Experiences,” Marketing Research: A Magazine
of Management & Applications 5 (Winter 1993): 47.
Ellen Graham, “Craving Closer Ties, Strangers Come Together as Family,”
Wall Street Journal, March 4, 1996: B1.
Risto Moisio, Eric J. Arnould, and Linda L. Price, “Between Mothers and
Markets: Constructing Family Identity Through Homemade Food,” Journal of
Consumer Culture 4, no. 3 (2004): 361–84.
Quoted in Tamar Lewin, “Teenagers’ Internet Socializing Not a Bad Thing,”
New York Times, November 19, 2008, https://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/20/
us/20internet.html?ex=1384923600&en=c3467e945b431625&ei=5124.
Gary J. Bamossy, Michael R. Solomon, Basil G. Englis, and Trinske
Antonidies, “You’re Not Cool If You Have to Ask: Gender in the Social
Construction of Coolness,” paper presented at the Association for Consumer
Research Gender Conference, Chicago, June 2000; see also Clive Nancarrow,
Pamela Nancarrow, and Julie Page, “An Analysis of the Concept of Cool and
Its Marketing Implications,” Journal of Consumer Behavior 1 (June 2002):
311–22.
Laurel Anderson and Julie L. Ozanne, “The Cyborg Teen: Identity Play and
Deception on the Internet,” in Cornelia Pechmann and Linda Price, eds.,
Advances in Consumer Research 33, no. 1 (2006): 12–14.
Heather McTeer Toney, “Black Buying Power Could Transform the
Climate Movement,” Mississippi Free Press, March 30, 2021, https://www.
mississippifreepress.org/10787/black-buying-power.
https://www.fuelsinstitute.org/Research/Reports/EV-Consumer-Behavior/
EV-Consumer-Behavior-Report.pdf.
Ibid
Kevin Michael Briscoe, “Hyundai Launches New Electric Appeal for
African Americans,” Minnesota Spokesman Recorder, May 4, 2022, https://
spokesman-recorder.com/2022/05/04/hyundai-launches-new-electricappeal-for-african-americans/.
Marshall Shepherd, “Hybrids, Electric Vehicles, and the Black
Community,” Forbes, February 1, 2020, https://www.forbes.com/sites/
marshallshepherd/2020/02/01/hybrids-electric-vehicles-and-the-blackcommunity/?sh=65b0f8c33bf5.

Chapter 11 • Social and Cultural Identity

144. “Hybrid-Electric, Plug-In Hybrid-Electric and Electric Vehicle Sales,”
Bureau of Transportation Statistics, https://www.bts.gov/content/gasolinehybrid-and-electric-vehicle-sales.
145. Ibid
146. Marshall Shepherd, “Hybrids, Electric Vehicles, and the Black
Community,” Forbes, February 1, 2020, https://www.forbes.com/sites/
marshallshepherd/2020/02/01/hybrids-electric-vehicles-and-the-blackcommunity/?sh=65b0f8c33bf5.
147. Will Englund, “Without Access to Charging Stations, Black and Hispanic
Communities May Be Left behind in the Era of Electric Vehicles,”
Washington Post, December 9, 2021, https://www.washingtonpost.com/
business/2021/12/09/charging-deserts-evs/.
148. Ibid
149. Derek Major, “Hyundai Launches First Black American Marketing Campaign
Using Black Slang ‘OKAY Hyundai,’” Black Enterprises, November 13, 2021,
https://www.blackenterprise.com/hyundai-launches-first-black-americanmarketing-campaign-using-black-slang-okay-hyundai/.

355

150. Ibid
151. Kevin Michael Briscoe, “Hyundai Launches New Electric Appeal for
African Americans,” Minnesota Spokesman Recorder, May 4, 2022, https://
spokesman-recorder.com/2022/05/04/hyundai-launches-new-electricappeal-for-african-americans/.
152. Derek Major, “Hyundai Launches First Black American Marketing Campaign
Using Black Slang ‘OKAY Hyundai,’” Black Enterprises, November 13, 2021,
https://www.blackenterprise.com/hyundai-launches-first-black-americanmarketing-campaign-using-black-slang-okay-hyundai/.
153. Will Englund, “Without Access to Charging Stations, Black and Hispanic
Communities May Be Left behind in the Era of Electric Vehicles,”
Washington Post, December 9, 2021, https://www.washingtonpost.com/
business/2021/12/09/charging-deserts-evs/.
154. Kevin Michael Briscoe, “Hyundai Launches New Electric Appeal for
African Americans,” Minnesota Spokesman Recorder, May 4, 2022, https://
spokesman-recorder.com/2022/05/04/hyundai-launches-new-electricappeal-for-african-americans/.

Section

5

Belonging
The fifth and final section focuses on the external factors that influence our identities as consumers
and the decisions we make. Chapter 12 provides an overview of social influences, from reference
groups and social norms to the power of social media in shaping consumer behavior. Chapter 13
reviews the latest findings on social class and social status to explore how we consume as
a means to communicate our social standing to others. Finally, Chapter 14 adopts a cultural
perspective to discuss how cultural values and rituals infuse every consumption practice with
cultural meanings and to show the diffusion of products and ideas through society.

Chapters Ahead
Chapter 12

Chapter 13

How Groups Define Us

Social Class and Status

Chapter 14

Culture

357

12

How Groups Define Us

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES When you finish reading this chapter, you should be able to:
12-1 Describe the role of reference groups and social
norms in influencing consumer behavior.
12-2 Describe how social influences flow through
word-of-mouth communication and how they’re
especially powerful when they come from opinion
leaders.

Z

Source: Ljupco Smokovski/Shutterstock.

358

12-3 Explain how, whether in a family or a corporation,
members of a group unit play different roles and
have different amounts of influence when making
collective decisions.
12-4 Explain how consumers are social beings that
form groups, tribes, and communities around
consumption practices and brands.

ach leads a secret life. During the week, he is a straitlaced
stock analyst for a major investment firm. However, his day
job only pays the bills to finance his real passion: cruising on
his Harley-Davidson Road Glide Custom. His Facebook posts are filled
with lunchtime laments about how much he’d rather be out on the road
(hopefully his boss won’t try to friend him). His girlfriend Karen worries a
bit about his getting totaled in an accident, but Zach knows if he stays
alert, the only way that will probably happen is if he can’t kick his habit
of texting her while he’s driving the bike.
Come Friday evening, it’s off with the Brooks Brothers suit and on
with the black leather, as he trades in his Lexus for his treasured Harley.
A dedicated member of Harley Owners Group (HOG), Zach belongs to
the rich urban bikers (RUBs) faction of Harley riders. Everyone in his
group wears expensive leather vests with Harley insignias and owns customized “low
riders.” Just this week, Zach finally got his new Harley perforated black leather jacket at
the company’s Motorclothes Merchandise web page.1 As one of the Harley web pages
observed, “It’s one thing to have people buy your products. It’s another thing to have
them tattoo your name on their bodies.” Zach had to restrain himself from buying more
Harley stuff; there were vests, eyewear, belts, buckles, scarves, watches, jewelry, and
even housewares (“home is the road”) for sale. He settled for a set of Harley salt-andpepper shakers that would be perfect for his buddy Doug’s new crib.
Zach’s experiences on social media platforms make him realize the lengths to which
some of his fellow enthusiasts go to make sure others know they are Hog riders. Two of
his riding buddies are in a lively competition to be “mayor” of the local Harley dealership
on Foursquare, whereas many others tweet to inform people about a group ride that will
occur later in the day—kind of a flash mob on wheels.
Zach spends a lot of money to outfit himself to be like the rest of the group, but
it’s worth it. He feels a real sense of brotherhood with his fellow RUBs. The group rides

Chapter 12 • How Groups Define Us

together in two-column formation to bike rallies that sometimes attract up to 300,000
cycle enthusiasts. What a sense of power he feels when they all cruise together—it’s
them against the world!
Of course, an added benefit is the business networking he’s accomplished during
his jaunts with his fellow professionals who also wait for the weekend to “ride on the wild
side; these days it would be professional suicide to let your contacts get cold, and you
can’t just count on LinkedIn to stay in the loop.”2

OBJECTIVE 12-1
Describe the role
of reference groups
and social norms
in influencing consumer behavior.

Sources of Group Influences

Humans are social animals. We belong to groups, try to
please others, and look to others’ behavior for clues about
what we should do in public settings. In fact, our desire to
“fit in” or to identify with desirable individuals or groups is
the primary motivation for many of our consumption behaviors. We may go to great
lengths to please the members of a group whose acceptance we covet.3
As we saw in Chapter 11, according to social identity theory each of us has
several “selves” that relate to groups. These linkages are so important that we think
of ourselves not just as I, but also as we. In addition, we favor others whom we feel
share the same identity—even if that identity is superficial and virtually meaningless.
In numerous experiments that employ the minimal group paradigm, researchers
show that even when they arbitrarily assign subjects to one group or another based
upon eye color, starting letter of last name, or other irrelevant qualities, people tend to
favor those who wind up in the same group as they do and they even derogate members
of another group.4 The cues we use to decide whether we should identify with—and
thus trust—others may be quite subtle. For example, people who simply eat the same
things—what researchers term incidental food consumption (IFC)—like, trust, and
cooperate with one another more than those who don’t.5
Zach’s biker group is an important part of his identity, and this membership influences many of his buying decisions. He has spent many thousands of dollars on parts
and accessories since he became an RUB. His fellow riders bond via their consumption
choices, so total strangers feel an immediate connection with one another when they
meet. The publisher of American Iron, an industry magazine, observed, “You don’t
buy a Harley because it’s a superior bike, you buy a Harley to be a part of a family.”6
Zach doesn’t model himself after just any biker—only the RUB members with
whom he really identifies can exert that kind of influence on him. For example, Zach’s
group doesn’t have much to do with outlaw clubs whose blue-collar riders sport big
Harley tattoos. The members of his group also have only polite contact with “Ma and
Pa” bikers, whose rides are the epitome of comfort and feature such niceties as radios,
heated handgrips, and floorboards.

Reference Groups
A reference group is an actual or imaginary group that significantly influences an
individual’s evaluations, aspirations, or behavior.7 For our friend Zach, the RUBs with
whom he hangs out are a reference group. The group is a socially meaningful category
that reflects his lifestyle and values.8
Research on smoking cessation programs powerfully illustrates the impact of
reference groups. The study found that smokers tend to quit in sets: When one person
quits, this creates a ripple effect that motivates others in his social network to give up
the death sticks also. The researchers followed thousands of smokers and nonsmokers

359

360

Section 5

• Belonging

for more than 30 years, and they also tracked their networks of relatives, coworkers,
and friends. They discovered that over the years, the smokers tended to cluster together
(on average in groups of three). As the overall U.S. smoking rate declined dramatically
during this period, the number of clusters in the sample decreased, but the remaining
clusters stayed the same size; this indicated that people quit in groups rather than
as individuals. Not surprisingly, some social connections were more powerful than
others. A spouse who quit had a bigger impact than did a friend, whereas friends had
more influence than siblings. Coworkers had an influence only in small firms where
everyone knew each other.9
The referent may be a cultural figure who has an impact on many people (e.g.,
the environmental activist Greta Thunberg) or a person or group whose influence
operates only in the consumer’s immediate environment (e.g., the “popular” kids in
high school). Reference groups that affect consumption can include parents, fellow
motorcycle enthusiasts, or even the Chicago Bears, the Zac Brown Band, or Spike Lee.

Types of Reference Groups
Consumers prefer brands that are linked to reference groups to which they belong
(associative groups) or to which they aspire to belong (aspirational groups) because
these groups contribute to their identity.
An associative reference group consists of people we know. These are groups
to which we might belong, whether face-to-face or in an online environment. As we
discussed in Chapter 10, the groups to which we belong are an integral part of our
social identity. People in our immediate social circles, like our family, have tremendous influence on our behavior.
For instance, researchers of childhood obesity pinpoint many of the influences,
both good and bad, that come from the family environment.10 They found that, in addition to biological predispositions, childhood weight issues are shaped mostly through
the interactions of the child with their parents and family. As such they conclude that
parenting practices in this important associative reference group are key to encourage
and promote healthful consumption habits.
In contrast, although we don’t know those in an aspirational reference group, we
admire them anyway. These people are likely to be successful businesspeople, athletes,
performers, or anyone else who rocks our world. Not surprisingly, many marketing
communications that specifically adopt a reference group appeal concentrate on highly
visible celebrities; they link these people to brands so that the products they use or
endorse also take on this aspirational quality. For example, an amateur basketball
player who idolizes Golden State Warriors star Steph Curry might drool over a pair
of Curry Flow 9 shoes courtesy of Under Armour.11 One study of business students
who aspired to the “executive” role found a strong relationship between products they
associated with their ideal selves (see Chapter 6) and products they assumed that real
executives own.12
Reference groups impact our decisions both positively and negatively. In most
cases, we model our behavior to be in line with what we think the group expects us to
do. Sometimes, however, we also deliberately do the opposite if we want to distance
ourselves from dissociative groups. You may carefully study the dress or mannerisms
of a group you dislike (e.g., “nerds,” “druggies,” or “preppies”) and scrupulously avoid
buying anything that might identify you with that group. Rebellious adolescents do the
opposite of what their parents desire to make a statement about their independence.
In one study, college freshmen reported consuming less alcohol when they associated
it with their dissociative groups.13
Our motivation to distance ourselves from a dissociative reference group can be
as powerful or more powerful than our desire to please a positive group.14 That’s why

Chapter 12 • How Groups Define Us

advertisements occasionally show an undesirable person who uses a competitor’s
product. This kind of execution subtly makes the point that you can avoid winding up
like that kind of person if you just stay away from the products they buy. As a oncepopular book reminded us, “Real men don’t eat quiche!”15

Creating Associations with a Reference Group
As we saw in Chapter 6, brand meanings are shaped through associations with
concepts, celebrities, or groups. Brands can use social media influencers and content
creators to shape the reference group with which that brand is associated. Recent
research finds that the perceived typicality of an influencer—that is, the extent
to which they conform (or fail to conform) with the stereotypical consumer of the
brand—can change the strength of a brand’s associated reference group.16 This
relationship follows a U shape, meaning that influencers with characteristics that
are highly typical and not at all typical of a brand’s reference group reinforce that
reference group. The not at all typical group strengthens the association because they
are so different that they are seen as an exception to the rule. Those in the middle, who
are somewhat different, weaken the associated reference group for a brand.

Social Norms: How Groups Change Our Behavior
For a society to function, its members develop norms, or informal rules that govern
behavior. Without these rules, we would have chaos. Imagine the confusion if a simple
norm such as “always stop for a red traffic light” did not exist!
We’re not always aware that we’re following norms, and yet unspoken rules
govern many aspects of consumption. In addition to norms regarding appropriate use
of clothing and other personal items, we conform to rules that include gift-giving (we
expect birthday presents from loved ones and might get upset if they don’t materialize)
and personal hygiene (sterilize your hands frequently in public places).
The primary driver for paying attention and behaving according to social norms is
that they allow us to attain our goals of behaving effectively, of fostering and growing
relationships with others, and of managing our self-concept.18 A recent meta-analysis
reviewed the results of all the studies that had tested the influence of social norms
on consumer behavior over a 40-year period and across 22 countries. The analysis
found that the effect of norms on socially approved behaviors (such as eating fruit or
donating to a charity) is consistent across time and cultures and that the effect of social
norms on disapproved behaviors (such as smoking or gambling) is especially strong
in cultures that emphasize deference to authority and absolute standards.19 Let’s dig
in to see what makes those norms so impactful.

361

Buying, Having, Being
“It’s All Part of My Rock ’n’
Roll Fantasy . . . ”
Most consumers admire their
aspirational reference groups only
from afar; however, more and more
of them shell out big bucks to get
up close and personal with their
heroes. Fantasy camps are a $1
billion industry as people pay for
the chance to hang out—and play
with—their idols. Baseball camps
that mix retired players with fans
have been around for many years,
but now other types let people
mingle with their favorite hockey
players, poker players, and even
members of the U.S. women’s
national soccer team. At one camp,
80 people each paid about $8,000
to jam with rock stars including Nils
Lofgren, Dickey Betts, and Roger
Daltrey. One enthusiastic novice
gushed afterward, “We all grow up
with heroes and never get to share
a moment with them. But I got to
live out my fantasy.”17

Fantasy camps connect fans with their
aspirational reference groups.
Source: Courtesy of Rock ’n’ Roll Fantasy Camp.

362

Section 5

• Belonging

Norms Guide Our Behavior
There are two main types of norms: descriptive norms refer to our perceptions of
what others are doing. When we think that many people are doing something (whether
that behavior is good, like recycling, or bad, like vaping), we are more likely also to
engage in the behavior. In a classic study of social influences, researchers partnered
with a hotel and used this descriptive norms strategy to see whether they could encourage more people to reuse their towels. Their norms intervention was simply a card
signaling that “75% of the guests participated in our new resource savings program
by using their towels more than once. You can join your fellow guests in this program
to help save the environment by reusing your towels during your stay.”20 The norms
message led to 44 percent of hotel guests reusing their towels, still about 9 percent
more than guests whose card contained the standard environmental message focused
on the importance of environmental protection but without any descriptive norms
information.
In contrast, prescriptive norms refer to our beliefs about what others think we
should do. Prescriptive norms function in a manner similar to the subjective norms of
the theory of reasoned action model we studied in Chapter 8: Our perceptions of what
others think we should do affect our behavior. Norms are really powerful influencers.
Even movie critics who are supposedly independent fall prey to what others think of a
movie. An analysis of ratings data from 408 U.S. movies found that movie critics are
more likely to align their reviews with how consumers rated the movie.21 The authors
of the study explain this effect by arguing that movie critics conform to popular tastes.

Norms Depend Upon Comparison Groups
Norms operate by giving us a sense of what other people do or think. But as we just
saw in the reference group section, not all “other people” are the same. Just as there
are different types of reference groups, there are different types of norms.
Associative norms refer to our beliefs about a group to which we belong; for
instance: Most people in my neighborhood are very good about recycling.
Associative descriptive norms can boost the impact of marketing campaigns.
For example, a study of the impact of product placements in telenovelas in Brazil
found that the product placements were more impactful when the viewers were
informed that other fans of the telenovelas were buying fashion products they saw
in the television series.22 In another study, focused on U.S.
viewers of television series that have a lot of alcohol product
placements, such as Budweiser in Entourage, the researchers
manipulated descriptive norms by telling the subjects that
the reason for their participation in the study was to check
the findings of a prior research study. When researchers told
the participants that the prior research had found that “a
high percentage of participants paid attention to and were
influenced by the product placements in the series,” the
participants were also more interested in the brands placed
in the episodes and more likely to want to try those brands.23
Norms we associate with a dissociative reference group
are called dissociative norms. These norms are helpful to
communicate behaviors that are not appealing. But they can
also be the source of denigration, which can be for fun (think
about the nasty things we say about the fans of rival sports
teams!) but can sometimes turn to prejudice and be the source
“We” messages are more effective than “you” messages.
of ill will.
Source: New Africa/Shutterstock.

Chapter 12 • How Groups Define Us

Normative campaigns harness prevailing norms to try to modify consumer behavior.
For instance, in the context of sustainability, many educational campaigns try to promote
sustainable behaviors such as “grasscycling” and composting by communicating
norms regarding the ways we choose to dispose of the things we use. Researchers
found that injunctive and descriptive normative campaigns are most effective when the
collective level of self is activated (remember the interdependent construal we studied
in Chapter 9?).24 This makes sense since the notion of norms reflects perceptions of
others’ opinions. So, prompting people to think about their social/collective self makes
them think about their in-group and activates goals related to belonging. This means that
collectively framed messages such as “Why should we recycle?” are more impactful
than individually framed ones such as “Why should you recycle?”

Conformity: Going Along to Get Along
Although in every age there certainly are those who “march to their own drummers,”
most people tend to follow society’s expectations regarding how they should act and
look (with a little improvisation here and there, of course). Conformity is a change
in beliefs or actions as a reaction to real or imagined group pressure.
The pressure to conform conflicts with another motivation we’ve already
discussed: The need to be unique. How can we reconcile these two goals? One study
suggests that we try to have it both ways: We line up with a group on one dimension,
such as choosing a popular brand, but we differentiate ourselves on another, such as
choosing a unique attribute like color.26
Within limits, people approve of others who exhibit nonconforming behavior.
This may be because we assume someone who makes unconventional choices is more
powerful or competent, so they can afford to go out on a limb. The red sneakers effect, as
researchers have coined it, describes a brave person who does something outside the norm,
like sporting a pair of red kicks in a professional setting. Indeed, researchers find that
nonconforming behaviors under some conditions do lead to more positive impressions,
but these disappear when the observer is unsure why the brave soul is violating a norm
or if they decide the violator is not doing it intentionally (i.e., they are just clueless).27

363

Buying, Having, Being
Who (Else) Is into This
Brand?
On social media, it’s easy to access
information about norms and
how others react to a brand. For
instance, we can easily see how
many times a YouTube video has
been viewed and liked. A study of
how social media can increase the
success of new brands revealed
the effect called mere virtual
presence, which occurs when
social media reveals demographic
information about a brand’s online
supporters.25 This research found
that when most of the likes on a
YouTube video featuring a new
brand or a new store are from
people of a similar age and gender
as you, you are more likely to want
to engage with the featured brand
or to shop at the featured store
because you see yourself as similar
to the fan base. This effect is called
mere virtual presence because it
happens even when you do not
know any of the people who liked
the video.

Conformity Operates on an Unconscious Level
We already know that people imitate others’ choices
consciously—either out of a desire to adhere to social norms
or because others’ choices might convey useful information.
But research shows that we also imitate others’ choices at a
subconscious, automatic level because we have a bias toward
making the same choice that others have made before us.
Imagine you are in a busy line at a food truck and do not
really know what to order. One option might simply be to
choose whatever the person before you selected. This type
of conformity is an example of a social default, where a
person imitates others without even thinking about it.28
Social default is especially influential in situations where
consumers don’t have strong preferences or don’t have
the time, energy, or motivation to decide something for
themselves. But interestingly the researchers also found that
this social default effect reverses in public settings, such that
people avoid mimicking someone else’s choice if that person
is still present. This suggests that the social default effect is
not driven by an attempt to adhere to social norms but rather
by a truly unconscious, automatic process.

Social loafing happens when we don’t devote as much time and
effort to a task as we could because our contribution is part of
a larger group effort.32 You may have experienced this if you’ve
worked on a group project for a class! Servers are painfully
aware of social loafing: People who eat in groups tend to tip less
per person than when they eat alone.33 For this reason, many
restaurants automatically tack on a fixed gratuity for groups of
six or more.

Source: Corepics VOF/Shutterstock.

364

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• Belonging

Buying, Having, Being
Squeaky Wheel or Bent Nail?
Are you wearing your “face pants”
today? This is what the Japanese
call surgical masks—they have
become so commonplace in Japan
that many equate walking around
maskless in public to leaving home
without your trousers (not any more
acceptable in Japan than here!).
That may sound strange to us, but
on the other hand, during the height
of the pandemic, Japan’s COVID
death rate was just one-twelfth of
that in the United States and the
lowest among all developed countries. Even as restrictions around
the world began to subside, 80 to
90 percent of Japanese consumers
say they continue to wear masks in
offices, schools, and other public
settings.
Japan’s success at taming
the virus occurred even though
the Japanese government never
mandated masks, vaccinations, or
lockdowns. How did this happen?
A big reason is peer pressure—the
Japanese have a healthy fear of
public shaming that motivates
them to go along with what others
do. One young woman in Tokyo
explained why she didn’t dare to
remove her mask: “People will stare
at you. There is that pressure.”29
Who needs official intervention when
every day people help to ensure that
others don’t behave out of turn?
Different cultures encourage
conformity to a greater or lesser
degree. Americans like to say, “The
squeaky wheel gets the grease,”
whereas in Japan a popular
expression is “The nail that stands up
gets hammered down.” In a study,
groups of passengers who arrived at
an airport were asked to complete a
survey: They were offered a handful
of pens to use—for example, four
orange and one green. People of
European descent, where the culture
tends to value a more independent
mindset, more often chose the one
pen that stood out. In contrast, people
of Asian descent, where the culture is
more focused on an interdependent
mindset, chose the color that was like
most of the others.30

Differences in Susceptibility to Influence
We all know someone who seems clueless about others’ opinions (or who just doesn’t
seem to care) but also perhaps someone who will do just about anything to gain
others’ approval. Of course, not everyone who grew up in Asia is a conformist and not
everyone who grew up in the U.S. is an individualist. People vary in their susceptibility
to social influence based on their cultural background (e.g., were they raised in a
society that values conformity or independence?) and their unique personality (as we
saw in Chapter 10). Researchers describe the extent to which other people guide an
individual’s choices as the personality trait susceptibility to interpersonal influence.31

OBJECTIVE 12-2
Describe how
social influences
flow through wordof-mouth communication and how
they’re especially
powerful when they
come from opinion
leaders.

Word of Mouth

Altoids breath mints have been around for 200 years, but the
brand caught fire among a larger market only a few decades
ago. How did this happen? The revival began when the mint
attracted a devoted following among smokers and coffee
drinkers who hung out in the blossoming Seattle club scene
during the 1980s. Until 1993, when Kraft bought manufacturer Callard & Bowser, only those “in the know” sucked the
mints. The brand’s marketing manager persuaded Kraft to
hire advertising agency Leo Burnett to develop a modest promotional campaign. The
agency decided to publicize the candy with subway posters sporting retro imagery and
other “low tech” media to avoid making the product seem mainstream—that would
turn off the original audience.34 Young people started to tune into this “retro” treat,
and its popularity skyrocketed as consumers told each other about it.
As the Altoids success story illustrates, grassroots efforts that motivate consumers
to spread a brand’s message are what makes a hit product. Word of mouth (WOM),
or in the digital era, word of mouse, influence refers to product information that individuals transmit to other individuals. Because the message comes from people in our
network and allows interactivity, WOM is more influential than traditional marketing
messages. Despite the huge sums of money marketers pump into lavish ads, WOM is
far more powerful. Indeed in a 2022 survey, 86 percent of respondents said they rely
on word of mouth recommendations and online reviews prior to buying.35
If you think carefully about the content of your own conversations in the course
of a normal day, you will probably agree that much of what you discuss with friends,
family members, or coworkers is product-related: When you compliment someone
on their outfit and ask where they bought it, recommend a new restaurant to a friend,
or complain to your neighbor about the shoddy treatment you got at the bank, you
engage in WOM.
A lot of professionals, such as doctors, accountants, and lawyers, as well as services
marketers like lawn-care companies and nail salons, depend primarily on referrals to
generate business. Referrals rely on people telling others: Consumers recommending
a service provider to a friend or coworker or, in the case of business-to-business,
businesspeople recommending a supplier to other organizations. Indeed, 85 percent
of small business owners agree that word of mouth is key to their livelihood.36
WOM is especially powerful when the consumer is relatively unfamiliar with
the product category. We often encounter these situations in the case of new products
(e.g., medications to prevent hair loss) or those that are technologically complex (e.g.,
smartphones). One way to reduce uncertainty about the wisdom of a purchase is to talk
about it. Talking gives the consumer an opportunity to generate supporting arguments
for the purchase and to garner support for this decision from others. For example,

Chapter 12 • How Groups Define Us

365

the strongest predictor of a person’s intention to buy a residential solar water heating
system is the number of solar heat users the person knows.37

Viral Marketing and Buzz Building
A Hong Kong company called Silverlit Toys makes the popular $30 Picoo Z toy
helicopter.38 This tech toy quickly flew from obscurity to an in-demand gift. At one
point, a Google search for the term Picoo produced more than 109,000 URLs, and
many of those links pointed to major online global gift retailers.
Do you think this huge exposure was the result of a meticulously planned
promotional strategy? Think again. By most accounts, the story better resembles the
way things often work today. It seems that a 28-year-old tech worker in Chicago
started the Picoo Z buzz; he bought his helicopter after he read about it on a hobbyist
message board. A few months later, he uploaded his homemade video of the toy on
YouTube. Within two weeks, 15 of his friends had also bought the toy, and they in turn
posted their own videos and pointed viewers to the original video. Internet retailers
who troll online conversations for fresh and exciting buzz identified the toy and started
to add their own links to the clips. Within a few short months, there were hundreds of
Picoo Z videos and more than a million people viewed them.39 The moral of the story:
Stimulate WOM to build buzz (an aura of excitement) around a product or service,
and then sit back and let your customers do the heavy lifting.
As Silverlit Toys learned to its delight, viral marketing occurs when an
organization motivates visitors to forward online content to their friends. As we all
unfortunately learned from “super-spreader” public events during the pandemic, both
bad and good things can quickly spread in an exponential fashion as people share them
(physically or digitally) with their social networks.
But fortunately (with the exception of political messages that spread quickly
and threaten to sicken us all), almost all the viral techniques that marketers use are
more benevolent. Indeed, they give a crucial boost to smaller organizations that—in
the “good old days” of mass broadcasting—couldn’t afford
the price of entry to compete against the big guys. Today,
it’s possible for virtually anyone, anywhere in the world, to
set up a digital storefront that appears next to (say) an ad for
Dove soap or a Tesla car.
As we saw with the case of the toy helicopter, viral
marketing works because it generates buzz, and buzz
works by creating what researchers call a “reverberating
echoverse”: Brand communications form feedback loops
(“echoes”) between all the sources of brand information—
the “universe” of corporate communications, news media,
and user-generated social media.40 The digital environment
has facilitated communications between advertisers and
consumers but also enabled more exchanges among consumers
in the form of one-to-one conversations but especially on
The colorful Starbucks “unicorn Frappuccino” became a “thing”
social media, in the form of one-to-many. This is a gold mine
(at least for a while) because fans posted numerous photos of it
for advertisers whose brand communications are shared and
on Instagram and other social media sites.
Source: Matt Rourke/AP Images.
reshared because the message keeps echoing and echoing.

Negative WOM
“Oh, that place for lunch? I hear they use expired food in some of their menu items.”
We know that WOM is a powerful tool; unfortunately, it’s a double-edged sword that
cuts both ways for marketers. Informal discussions among consumers can make or

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break a product or store. Furthermore, consumers weigh negative word of mouth
more heavily than they do positive comments. Especially when we consider a new
product or service, we’re likely to pay more attention to negative information than to
positive information and to tell others about our nasty experience.41
Research shows that negative WOM reduces the credibility of a firm’s advertising and
influences consumers’ attitudes toward a product as well as their intention to buy it.42 KFC
sued several Chinese companies for allegedly spreading a false rumor that its chickens have
six wings and eight legs. The company previously had to apologize for failing to inform
consumers that some of its poultry suppliers used high levels of certain hormones to accelerate growth. So, this new unfounded rumor probably made sense to many people. After all,
an eight-legged chicken would be more “efficient!”43 Scary thought—and totally untrue.
As we transmit information to one another, it tends to change. The resulting
message usually does not resemble the original at all. The British psychologist Frederic
Bartlett used the method of serial reproduction to examine how content mutates. Like
the game of “telephone” many of us played as kids, he asked a subject to reproduce a
stimulus, such as a drawing or a story. He then gave another subject this reproduction
and asked him to copy it, and he repeated this process several times. Figure 12.1
illustrates how a message changes as people reproduce it. Bartlett found that distortions
almost inevitably follow a pattern: They tend to change from ambiguous forms to
more conventional ones as subjects try to make them consistent with their preexisting
schemas (see Chapter 3). He called this process assimilation and he noted that it often
occurs as people engage in leveling, when they omit details to simplify the structure,
or sharpening, when they exaggerate prominent details.

Original Drawing

Figure 12.1 Bartlett’s Process of Serial Reproduction
Bartlett’s serial reproduction technique illustrates how people transform ambiguous
figures into familiar ones.

Chapter 12 • How Groups Define Us

Buzz Gone Bad
Abercrombie & Fitch learned the hard way about the power of social media to magnify
comments or behaviors that might have been ignored in an earlier era. The chain’s
CEO commented in an interview that he only wanted “cool” and “popular” kids to
wear the Abercrombie styles—this unleashed a firestorm of scathing comments on
Twitter.44
Just as buzz is great when it benefits the brand, it can also turn sour if it falls into
a negativity spiral, a process through which negative messages inspire others to add
to the conversation.45 These negative spirals can trigger social media firestorms, a
sudden increase in negative word-of-mouth and complaints against a company. These
storms are especially damaging to brands when they emerge from a vivid trigger (like
mistreatment of an employee or the environment), when they generate a large volume
of social media messages, and when they drag on for a long time. A recent text-mining
study of negative eWOM shows that the likelihood of a firestorm igniting from a social
media post depends upon the structure of the social network and the ways in which the
initiator is embedded in the network.46 To understand this, we next review research
on the structure of social networks and the links within them.

Information Flows in Social Networks:
Who Knows Whom?
The play Six Degrees of Separation is based on the premise that everyone on the planet
indirectly knows everyone else—or at least knows people who in turn know them.
Indeed, social scientists estimate that the average person has 1,500 acquaintances
and that five to six intermediaries can connect any two people in the United States.48
Sociometric methods trace communication patterns among members of a network.
These techniques allow researchers to systematically map out the interactions
among people.

The Structure of Social Networks

367

Buying, Having, Being
Breaking Up (with Social
Media) Is Hard to Do
“I can leave Facebook whenever
I want!” For many people, it’s not
so easy. Researchers looked at
Facebook posts, blogs, discussion
groups, and online magazines to
find “breakup stories” that would
help them to understand what
people go through when they
decide to end their relationship with
this social network. Many people
talked about the things they’re
missing: Friends’ birthdays, the
ability to play online games, and the
ability to use various online services.
Their descriptions were laced with
strong emotions that ranged from
sadness to the kind of relief an
addict might feel if they succeed
in breaking out of a bad habit.
One study participant echoed the
difficulty of leaving the platform:
“I found a tiny link at the bottom
of the security settings page for
‘how to deactivate Facebook.’ After
clicking the link, a page popped up
with photos of me and my friends.
‘Jake will miss you,’ one caption
read. ‘Jules will miss you,’ ‘Aaron
will miss you.’ All of my friends were
smiling at me and telling me to
please don’t go.”47 Breaking up is
so very hard to do . . .

Sociometric analyses can identify referral behavior (who recommends a brand to
whom) and locate strengths and weaknesses in terms of how a brand’s reputation
flows through a network.49 To understand how a network guides what we buy,
consider a study researchers conducted among women who
lived together in a sorority house. They found evidence that
subgroups, or cliques, within the sorority were likely to
share preferences for various products. In some cases, the
sisters even shared their choices of “private” (i.e., socially
inconspicuous) products (probably because of shared
bathrooms in the sorority house).50 In many cases, one or a
few people emerge as central connectors in a network. These
individuals are often opinion leaders, which we will discuss
a bit later in this chapter.
Whether offline (e.g., a sorority house) or online (e.g.,
Instagram), social networks consist of a set of socially
relevant nodes connected by one or more relations.51 Nodes
are members of the network (e.g., the more than one billion
Facebook users) who are connected to one another. Ties
Studies in sorority houses and other settings document how
are the connections among nodes; these form due to shared
knowing about our friends’ choices of cosmetics, etc., nudges us
affiliations, common hobbies and interests, and, of course,
to make similar purchases.
family, friends, and professional contacts.
Source: Wavebreakmedia/Shutterstock.

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When we think of community, we tend to think of people, but in principle, members
of a network can be organizations, articles, countries, departments in a company,
or any other definable unit. A good example is your university alumni association.
The association is a community of networked individuals and organizations. Social
networks are sometimes called social graphs, though this term may also refer to a
diagram of the interconnections of units in a network.
Flows occur between nodes. Flows are exchanges of resources, information, or
influence among members of the network. On Facebook, you share news, updates
about your life, opinions on your favorite books and movies, photos, videos, and notes.
As you share content, you create flows from among those in your network.
In social media, these flows of communication go in many directions at any point
in time and often on multiple platforms—a condition we term media multiplexity.
Flows are not simply two-way or three-way; they may go through an entire community,
a list or group within a network, or several individuals independently. For marketers,
flows are especially important because they are the actionable components of any
social network system in terms of the sharing of information, delivery of promotional
materials, and sources of social influence.

Tie Strength
The ways that information flows through a social network depend upon the
relationships among members of that network. We may share news about a family
event only with a subset of network members, for example, but we may publicly share
photos from that glam tropical vacation with hundreds or even thousands of others—
most of whom are “friends” whom we will never meet in person.
Social network researchers have long understood that information flows differently as a function of tie strength. This refers to the nature of the bond between
people. It can range from strong primary (e.g., a person’s romantic partner) to weak
secondary (e.g., an acquaintance whom you rarely see).
Obviously, those strong ties are important! But in many cases, weak ties are as well
because they perform a bridging function. Think of this as a passport that allows you to
travel from one social network to another because you are connected to someone in that
new set of linkages. For example, you might have a regular group of friends that is a primary
reference group (strong ties). If you have an interest in tennis, one of these friends who
attends another school might introduce you to a group of people in their dorm who play on
that college’s tennis team. As a result, you gain access to their valuable expertise through
this bridging function. This referral process demonstrates the strength of weak ties.
A recent study found that weak ties are even stronger influences when they rely on
consensus language—that is, language signaling general agreement about a product or
behavior (e.g., “everyone likes this movie”).52 This is because weak ties that use such
language seem to be speaking about a larger, more diverse group than strong ties, so
their opinion has greater validity. To find this out, the researchers enlisted undergraduates
and had them send private messages through Facebook—five to strong ties (e.g., same
location, same hometown, in several photos together) and five to weak ties (none of
those things). All the messages asked people to read a New York Times article and take
a follow-up survey, but half of them added that “everyone is talking about” the article.
They measured influence in terms of the number of clicks on the article link. There were
more clicks to the article when a consensus message was sent to weak ties.
Online social networks are usually a lot larger than real life social networks
(think of how many “friends” you have on your favorite social media). Even on
these networks, people generally have stronger and weaker ties to others. Perhaps
unsurprisingly, research shows that the benefits of posting and interacting on social
media are different based on whether we focus on our close friends (those with whom
we have strong ties) while browsing the social network.53

Chapter 12 • How Groups Define Us

But it would be a mistake to think only about those individuals who are the most
connected in a network to understand the flow of information. Recent research shows the
differences between hub users (social media users who have a higher ratio of followers
relative to people they are following) and non–hub users.54 The researchers studied
posts on a Chinese micro-blog site (like Twitter) called Sina Weibo. They sampled
a network of 8,891 users, with 872,706 posts over a four-week period, and analyzed
the flow of information in that network. They found that non–hub users have fewer
followers relative to people they follow. While hub users are more likely to disseminate
information rather than to seek it, the reverse is true for non–hub users. Hub users are
also more likely to have followers who are themselves hub users, but most of these ties
are weak ties. This research suggests that non–hub users may play an important role
in the diffusion of new products, which we will review in more depth in Chapter 14,
because these users have much stronger ties with those in their immediate network.

Information Cascades
Researchers of social network dynamics have uncovered a web of complexities in how
information circulates in these networks.55 The original framework, called the twostep flow model of influence, proposed that a small group of influencers disseminates
information because they can modify the opinions of many other people.
But that perspective has been updated quite a bit: When researchers ran extensive
computer simulations of this process, they found that the influence is driven less by
influencers and more by the interaction among those who are easily influenced. These
followers communicate the information vigorously to one another, and they also participate
in a two-way dialogue with the opinion leader as part of an influence network. These
conversations in turn create information cascades that occur when a piece of information
triggers a sequence of interactions (much like an avalanche). One study tracked, on an
hourly basis, the rate at which 50 million Facebook users installed 2,700 apps. The
researchers found clear evidence of an information cascade: Once an app was installed
about 55 times in one day, its popularity took off. As Facebook friends got notified when
someone installed the app, this feedback in turn prompted them to do it as well.56
As we discussed earlier, it’s not unusual to observe herding behavior among
consumers as they blindly mimic what others in their group do. Information cascades
can bias what people choose as they take their cues from what others select rather than
choosing what they genuinely like. In a study that looked at how an individual’s music
preferences depend on knowing what other people choose, test subjects listened to
72 songs by new bands. A control group made their own individual judgments about
which songs to select, but in other groups, the participants could see how many people
downloaded particular songs. This feedback made a huge difference in what people
chose. For example, if a song spiked early in the study and respondents could see a lot of
people chose it, many more people jumped on the bandwagon and downloaded it as well.
And it turns out these cascades occurred regardless of whether people genuinely liked
the songs: The same thing happened when the subjects were given false information
about which songs a lot of other people were downloading.57 Round up the herd!
Businesses often seek to leverage our social networks to acquire new customers
and generate WOM. One of the motivations that drives us to share is the motivation
for social empowerment, the desire to feel an impact on others. A case in point: The
rise of social coupons, coupon sets that include one for self-use and one to be shared.
In a study, researchers distributed 517 social coupon pairs (i.e., 517 coupons for the
individual and 517 coupons to be shared) for a restaurant in a midsized town.58 They
then tracked how many of each coupon were used and how much was spent on the
trips during which the individual coupons were used. They found that people felt more
socially empowered when they shared promotions with others, and this empowerment
led them to spend more.

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Who Influences Us: Opinion Leaders and Social
Media Influencers
To publicize Clinical Therapy, a lotion brand from Vaseline, the company’s advertising
campaign mapped the social network of Kodiak, a small town in Alaska. Company
reps took over a storefront and gave away free bottles of the product. In return, the
recipients had to identify the person in town who recommended Clinical Therapy to
them. Through this process, they found a woman whom many of the townspeople
named as their source.59 It’s a good bet she is an opinion leader, or a person who is
knowledgeable about certain products and whose advice others take seriously.60
Opinion leaders are extremely valuable information sources because they possess
social power, or the capacity to alter the actions of others. The degree to which
you are able to make someone else do something, regardless of whether that person
does it willingly, gives you power over that person. The different sources of social
power are summarized in Table 12.1. The classification of power bases helps us to
distinguish among the reasons a person exerts power over another, the degree to which
the influence is voluntary, and whether this influence will continue to have an effect
even when the source of the power isn’t around.61
Let’s unpack opinion leaders’ social power:

•
•
•
•
•

•

They are technically competent, so they possess expert power.62
They prescreen, evaluate, and synthesize product information in an unbiased way,
so they possess knowledge power.
They are socially active and highly interconnected in their communities.63
They are likely to hold offices in community groups and clubs and to be active
outside of the home. As a result, opinion leaders often wield legitimate power by
virtue of their social standing.
They tend to be like the consumer in terms of their values and beliefs, so they
possess referent power. Note that although opinion leaders are set apart by their
interest or expertise in a product category, they are more convincing to the extent
that they are homophilous rather than heterophilous. Homophily refers to the
degree to which a pair of individuals is similar in terms of education, social status,
and beliefs.64 Effective opinion leaders tend to be slightly higher in status and
educational attainment than those they influence, but not so high as to be in a
different social class.
Opinion leaders are often among the first to buy new products, so they absorb
much of the risk. This experience reduces uncertainty for the rest of us who are not
as courageous. Furthermore, whereas company-sponsored communications tend
to focus exclusively on the positive aspects of a product, the hands-on experience
of opinion leaders makes them more likely to impart both positive and negative
information about product performance. Thus, they are more credible because they
have no “axe to grind.”

When social scientists initially developed the concept of the opinion leader, they
assumed that certain influential people in a community would exert an overall impact
on group members’ attitudes. Later work, however, questioned the assumption that
there is such a thing as a generalized opinion leader whose recommendations we
seek for all types of purchases. Few people are capable of being expert in several
fields (even though they may believe otherwise). Sociologists distinguish between
those who are monomorphic, or expert in a limited field, and those who are
polymorphic, or expert in several fields.65 Even opinion leaders who are polymorphic,
however, tend to concentrate on one broad domain, such as electronics or fashion.

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371

TABLE 12.1    Types of Social Power
Type of Social Power

Definition

Examples

Referent power

A member of an aspirational
reference group. When a
person admires the qualities of
a person or a group, they try to
copy the referent’s behaviors
(e.g., choice of clothing, cars,
leisure activities).

Prominent people in all walks of life affect our consumption behaviors by virtue
of referent power, such as product endorsements (e.g., Lady Gaga for Polaroid),
distinctive fashion statements (e.g., Kim Kardashian’s displays of high-end
designer clothing), or championing causes (e.g., Brad Pitt for UNICEF).

Legitimate power

Sometimes we grant power by
virtue of social agreements,
such as the authority we give
to police officers, soldiers, and,
yes, even professors.

The legitimate power a uniform confers wields authority in consumer contexts.
We can see this in teaching hospitals where medical students don white coats to
enhance their standing with patients. Marketers “borrow” this form of power to
influence consumers. For example, an ad that shows a model who wears a white
doctor’s coat adds an aura of legitimacy or authority to the presentation of the
product (“I’m not a doctor, but I play one on TV”).

Expert power

A person or group may be
uniquely qualified due to
specialized knowledge about
a topic.

U.S. Robotics signed up the late British physicist Stephen Hawking to endorse
its modems. A company executive commented, “We wanted to generate trust.
So we found visionaries who use U.S. Robotics technology, and we let them tell
the consumer how it makes their lives more productive.” Hawking, who had Lou
Gehrig’s disease and spoke via a synthesizer, said in one TV spot, “My body may
be stuck in this chair, but with the internet my mind can go to the end of the
universe.”[i] Hawking’s expert power derived from the knowledge he possessed
about a content area. This helps to explain the weight many of us assign to
professional critics’ reviews of restaurants, books, movies, and cars—even
though, with the advent of blogs and open source references such as Wikipedia,
it’s getting a lot harder to tell just who is really an expert![ii]

Information power

A person possesses information
power simply because they
control access to something
others would like to know (even
if they don’t have expertise in
the topic).

Editors of trade publications such as Women’s Wear Daily often possess
tremendous power because of their ability to compile and disseminate information
that can make or break individual designers or companies. People with information
power can influence consumer opinion by virtue of their access to the knowledge
that provides some kind of competitive advantage.

Reward power

A person or group with the
means to provide positive
reinforcement (see Chapter 4)
has reward power.

Reward power may be the tangible kind, such as what the contestants on
Survivor experience when their comrades do not vote them off the island. Or it can
be more intangible, such as the gushing feedback the judges on The Voice deliver
to contestants.

Coercive power

We exert coercive power
when we influence someone
because of social or physical
intimidation. A threat is often
effective in the short term, but
it doesn’t tend to stick because
we revert to our original
behavior as soon as the bully
leaves the scene.

Fortunately, marketers rarely try to use coercive power (unless you count those
annoying calls from telemarketers!). However, we can see elements of this power
base in the fear appeals we talked about in Chapter 8, as well as in intimidating
salespeople who try to succeed with a “hard sell.”

[i] Tamar Charry, “Unconventional Spokesmen Talk Up U.S. Robotics’ Fast Modems in a New TV Campaign,” New York Times (February 6, 1997), www.nytimes
.com/1997/02/06/business/unconventional-spokesmen-talk-up-us-robotics-fast-modems-in-a-new-tv-campaign.html?scp=44&sq=Tamar+Charry&st=nyt.
[ii] Patricia M. West and Susan M. Broniarczyk, “Integrating Multiple Opinions: The Role of Aspiration Level on Consumer Response to Critic Consensus,” Journal of
Consumer Research 25 (June 1998): 38–51.

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For example, Mediamark Research & Intelligence estimates that 10.5 percent of the
U.S. adult population, whom it labels “Big Circle Influentials,” are the key influencers
for personal finance decisions.66

Social Media Influencers

Buying, Having, Being
Wanna Become a Successful
Online Influencer?
To find out the recipe for developing
an engaged audience, a recent
study analyzed a website that
caters to writers of blog posts and
articles.70 The analysis focused
on 18 contributing authors over a
90-day period and analyzed 1,825
posts and approximately 25,000
comments. The analysis shows the
three-stage process that influencers
follow to attract and retain an
engaged digital audience:
1. Attune to Audience – Observe
potential audiences. Look for
those that are large and willing to
engage actively with a topic that
interests them.
2. Create Compelling Content –
a. Distilling – Give an
informative, interesting bitesize piece of information to
hook people.
b. Antenarratives – Create
content with narrative
elements that come and go.
c. Orienting – Direct advice or
guidance to the audience
about decisions or topics
relevant to them.
d. Disrupting – Provide novel or
counterintuitive perspectives
on events, issues, or objects.
3. Encourage Amplification – Get
the audience to do things that
attract even more attention
(e.g., likes, shares, comments).

It seems like everyone wants to be an “influencer” today. While you may not become
a “mega-influencer” unless you’re Kylie Jenner or Cristiano Ronaldo, don’t despair—
you can still be an opinion leader and have a future in the influencer biz even with a
more modest (but focused and engaged) following.
The impact of online recommendations by celebrities or even by “microcelebrities” who become famous for a short time because people value their expertise
is transforming marketing communications strategies. Companies are scrambling to
embrace the influencer marketing model, and they’re spending about $4 billion per
year in the U.S. alone to find and leverage these online opinion leaders.67 Another
factor (other than wanting to emulate the cool kid) that makes influence marketing so
powerful: About half of American consumers use ad blockers on their social media,
so traditional messages just don’t get through like they used to.68
This process gets more sophisticated all the time, and today marketers even
choose from influencers with different numbers of followers depending upon their
objectives and budget:69
1. Mega-influencers typically are A-list celebrities who have more than a million followers. They’re suitable for mass-market brands with hefty budgets. The celebrity
entrepreneur Kylie Jenner charges $1 million per sponsored post. Nice work if
you can get it!
2. Macro-influencers have between 100,000 to one million followers. They typically
got “famous” on the internet by vlogging or posting viral content.
3. Micro-influencers generally have 1,000 to 100,000 followers. Ironically, these
folks often have more impact than those with bigger followings. They usually
focus on a specific niche or area, and they play the opinion leader role well due
to this specialized knowledge.
4. Nano-influencers are the latest type. They have less than 1,000 followers, but
they are influential in their local neighborhood or community. They don’t have
the reach to make much of an impact, but their reviews, etc., can be useful for a
brand to flex its “grassroots” muscles.
The influencer marketing model basically replicates the “cool kid” phenomenon
we all experienced in high school. The cool kid sets the standard that others then
imitate. If you get really lucky, they will invite you to eat at their lunch table! Now
imagine that cool kid is online so that millions of the rest of us can find out exactly
what they are wearing, listening to, and so on. So, for example, Kylie Jenner partnered
with the Fashion Nova clothing brand to promote the company. One Instagram post
of her wearing the jeans earned 2.2 million likes!
Does influencer marketing work? Both academic research and results from
industry make it clear that influencers can be an effective form of advertising.71 In fact,
research shows that content by influencers can be as effective as or more effective than
advertising by either brands or celebrities. We develop strong parasocial relationships
with them that resemble real life relationships and make them like strong ties.
When companies rely on social media influencers, they take advantage of four
key influencer resources: follower networks, positioning, content, and follower
trust. They tap into the influencer’s follower networks, capitalize on the influencers’
personal positioning in a specific domain of interest and on their communication
content, and most of all, they rely on the trust followers have in the influencer.72

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Identifying the Most Effective Opinion Leaders
A celebrity or an influential industry executive is easy to
locate. That person has national or at least regional visibility
or has a listing in published directories or on social media. In
contrast, opinion leaders tend to operate at the local level, and
they may influence only a small group of consumers rather
than an entire market segment. The most used technique to
identify opinion leaders is simply to ask individual consumers
whether they consider themselves to be opinion leaders.
Figure 12.2 shows one of the measurement scales researchers
use for this kind of self-designation.
Although respondents who report a greater degree
of interest in a product category indeed are more likely to
be opinion leaders, we must view the results of surveys
that discover self-designated opinion leaders with some
skepticism. Some people tend to inflate their own importance
and influence, whereas others who really are influential
might not admit to this quality or be conscious of it if they
are.73 Remember: The fact that we transmit advice about
products does not mean other people take that advice.

When PepsiCo launched its Sierra Mist Ruby Splash flavor, the
company hired a firm to identify local people in different cities
who could help it recruit a select group of “influencers.” The
requirements were specific: Influencers had to love lemon-lime
beverages; be between the ages of 18 to 34; and be musicians,
skateboard shop owners, people who love to throw backyard
barbeques, or others who had laid-back lifestyles and who were
well-known in their communities. One influencer, for example, was
a musician who hosted a backyard jam session for 20 friends;
before the event, a crew dropped off ice-cold cans of the soft
drink as well as branded sunglasses, misters, and car fresheners
with a Ruby Splash scent. Another opinion leader owned a
skateboard store; he hosted an outdoor movie night to debut a
new surf film. In all, the company sponsored more than 300 of
these mini-events in a two-month period.74

Bloggers
Bloggers have become important online opinion leaders.
Consumers perceive bloggers (or vloggers, since many of
the successful ones post their comments on video) as the
third-most trustworthy source of information after friends
and family. So, it’s not surprising that marketers are intent

Source: Paul Sakuma/AP Images.

Please rate yourself on the following scales relating to your interactions with friends and neighbors regarding
1. In general, do you talk to your friends and neighbors about
never

1

2

1

:

3

4

5

very often

4

5

give a great deal of information

do you:

2. When you talk to your friends and neighbors about
give very little information

2

3

?

3. During the past six months, how many people have you told about a new
told no one

1

2

3

4

5

5. In discussion of new

1

2

3

told a number of people
?

4. Compared with your circle of friends, how likely are you to be asked about new
not at all likely to be asked

.

4

5

very likely to be asked

4

5

you tell your friends about

4

5

often used as a source of advice

, which of the following happens most?

your friends tell you about

1

2

3

6. Overall in all of your discussions with friends and neighbors are you:
not used as a source of advice

1

2

3

Figure 12.2 A Scale to Identify Opinion Leaders
Higher scores on this scale correspond to higher levels of opinion leadership.

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on finding these people and getting on their good sides. For example, Marc Jacobs
launched a #castmemarc campaign to recruit beauty bloggers the company would
feature in a how-to video series. Over 100,000 aspiring beauty buffs applied, and the
luxury brand picked five winners.75
The viral marketing explosion highlights the power of the megaphone effect. Web
2.0 makes a huge audience available to everyday consumers. Some fashion bloggers
build an impressive following as they share their views about what’s hot and what’s not.
For example, more than 30,000 people read this post about a mundane pair of socks:
Found the perfect gray socks while shopping at Uniqlo in Tokyo with my
mom/favorite shopping partner (she’s always down to stop randomly to eat
and shares my love for finding wearable things in unlikely places). Vaguely
sheer and just the right length. This sounds extremely trivial, and sort of is,
but I’ve been looking for something like them forever now.76
If an “exciting” product like socks can attract so many readers, imagine what bloggers
can do to sales of other things? Researchers report that communication about brands is
more likely to include mentions of interesting or unusual brands, and the motivation to
post about these items is driven to a greater extent by the desire for self-enhancement.
When people share their opinions about products with their social networks, they may
do so to satisfy one of several goals: To manage the impression they make on others, to
regulate emotions by expressing affective reactions, to share and acquire information,
to bond with others, and to persuade others to change their opinions.77
Unlike a spontaneous conversation in the physical world, when consumers write
about products, they have more time to think strategically about what they’re saying—
and about how these judgments reflect on them.78 Indeed, much of what we post is
about ourselves; one study reported that 80 percent of tweets people send focus on
themselves rather than other topics.79
A study that analyzed Twitter data illustrates the care people take to portray
themselves in a positive light but to avoid acting like they’re bragging when they tweet
about products they’ve bought or experienced. When the researchers looked at socalled “boast posts” regarding two luxury brands—Louis Vuitton and Mercedes—they
found that people commonly mention these items “in passing” as they comment on
what they’re doing or feeling, or even try to downplay the brand’s positive characteristics to avoid looking too snobbish.80
Other researchers identified a somewhat similar phenomenon they call the
dispreferred marker effect. Online posts that are really negative may make the
writer look harsh and judgmental, so people sometimes soften them with dispreferred
markers, including phrases such as, “I’ll be honest,” “God bless it,” or “I don’t want
to be mean, but . . . ” Sure enough, readers of these kinds of posts evaluated the writer
more positively than they did posters who just laid out the bad news, warts and all.81

The Surrogate Consumer
In addition to everyday consumers who influence others’ purchase decisions, a class
of marketing intermediary we call the surrogate consumer often guides what we
buy. This term refers to a third party we retain to provide input into our purchase
decisions. Unlike the opinion leader, we usually compensate the surrogate for
their advice. Interior decorators, stockbrokers, professional shoppers, and college
admissions consultants are surrogate consumers.
Regardless of whether they make the purchase on behalf of the consumer,
surrogate consumers can be enormously influential. The client essentially relinquishes
control over several or all decision-making functions, such as information search,
the evaluation of alternatives, or the actual purchase. For example, a client may
commission an interior decorator to redo their house, and we may entrust a broker to

Chapter 12 • How Groups Define Us

make crucial buy/sell decisions on our behalf. Marketers tend to overlook surrogates
when they try to convince consumers to buy their goods or services. This can be
a big mistake because they may mistarget their communications to end consumers
when they should focus on the surrogates who sift through product information and
recommend a purchase to their clients.82

Product Curators
Some smart marketers proactively seek out influencers to help them identify just what
they should offer to their customers. When a museum decides to mount an exhibition
on, say, pop art, it designates an expert, or curator, in the category to choose which
pieces by Andy Warhol, Roy Lichtenstein, and other artists it will show and to create a
narrative about why those paintings represent the genre. Increasingly we see product
curators who similarly assemble merchandise on behalf of manufacturers or stores,
such as Style Room by Zappos or AHALife that offers one-of-a-kind luxury products.83
These experts (or in some cases, celebrities) often include recommendations about
how to use the items and perhaps even share their stories about how they use them in
their own lives. One difference from museum exhibitions: These items are all for sale!
One popular variation on this theme is the booming popularity of subscription
boxes. In this business model, you pay a subscription fee (often monthly) to receive
a package with a collection of products the provider chooses for you. Birchbox,
Dollar Shave Club, Blue Apron (food), and even the designer brand Hermès cater
to consumers’ desires to be exposed to new products that have been chosen to
complement their lifestyles. Now even Under Armour has gotten into the act with an
ArmourBox that it chooses based upon a subscriber’s workout routine.84
OBJECTIVE 12-3
Explain how,
whether in a family or a corporation, members of
a group unit play
different roles
and have different amounts of
influence when
making collective
decisions.

Who Influences Us:
Collective Decision Making
The Collective Decision Making Process

As if the decision-making process we reviewed in Chapter 9
wasn’t complicated enough, the full story is even more
“interesting.” That’s because many of the decisions we make
are collective. In these cases, other people participate in the
problem-solving sequence—from initial problem recognition
and information search to evaluation of alternatives and
product choice. To further muddy the waters, the collective decision-making process
often includes two or more people who may not have the same level of investment in
the outcome, the same tastes and preferences, or the same priorities. If you’ve ever
debated where to go out to eat with your friends or perhaps bickered about whose turn
it is to do the dishes, you get the picture. You can read 50 restaurant reviews on Yelp,
and it’s still like pulling teeth to reach a consensus.

Key Roles in a Collective Decision
Why do we lump together big corporations and small families in this section? One
important similarity is that in both cases individuals or groups play several specific
roles when they choose products or services for their organizational unit.86 Depending
on the decision, the choice may include some or all of the group members, and
different group members play important roles in what can be a complicated process:

•
•

Initiator – The person who brings up the idea or identifies a need.
Gatekeeper – The person who conducts the information search and controls
the flow of information available to the group. In organizational contexts, the

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Buying, Having, Being
Teachers as Influencers
Big technology companies such as
Amazon, Apple, Google, and Microsoft as well as many start-ups have
set their sights on the classroom
as one of the next frontiers where
organizations are spending millions
of dollars on hardware and software
to teach the next generation of students. The competition to convince
big school systems to commit to
new toys is fierce, and many companies are enlisting a key ally in
the decision-making process: the
teacher. Some outfits give teachers
inexpensive swag, like free technology, T-shirts, or even Amazon gift
cards, in exchange for their support.
Others fly educators to industrysponsored conferences, sometimes
at lush resorts. In an era where the
average K-12 teacher shells out
$600 of their own money every year
just to buy school supplies, it’s hard
to resist these perks. Although the
evidence to support the educational
benefits of many of these tech
enhancements is shaky at best, a
war for the hearts, minds, and wallets of school administrators is being
fought as companies enlist teachers
as foot soldiers—and as influencers
in this complex but lucrative organizational decision.85

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Buying, Having, Being
“Are You Really Going to
Eat That?”
A study focused on the influence
of romantic partners on what
we choose to eat found that the
influence shifts as a function of
the stage in the relationship.87 The
researchers found that, early on
in a romantic relationship, males
have a stronger influence on female
partners’ food choices. This is
because, at the beginning, females
may be more motivated to portray
themselves as agreeable and as
having more in common with their
partner than vice versa. Once a
relationship has been established,
this dynamic reverses such that
females have a stronger influence
on males’ eating patterns. The
researchers gave undergraduate
student participants a scenario
vignette that activated either
a relationship formation or a
relationship maintenance motive.
They told them to imagine they
are at a party where they just met
someone attractive (formation
motive) or they were there with
their partner (maintenance motive).
Participants then imagined they
were at a restaurant eating with the
person described in the vignette.
Their partner ordered either
unhealthy foods (e.g., cheesecake)
or healthy food (e.g., mixed fruit).
Researchers assessed the influence
of the partner by looking at how
much the participant’s choices
matched their partner’s food
choices. They found that females
with a relationship formation
motive were influenced by the
food choices of their partner and,
conversely, males with a relationship
maintenance motive were influenced
by the food choices of their partner.

•
•
•

gatekeeper identifies possible vendors and products for the rest of the group to
consider.
Influencer – The person who tries to sway the outcome of the decision. Some
people may be more motivated than others to get involved, and participants also
possess different amounts of power to get their point across.
Buyer – The person who makes the purchase. The buyer may or may not actually
use the product.
User – The person who consumes the product or service.

So, a teenager may start a discussion with their parent about the wisdom of
buying them a car (initiator), but their parent (gatekeeper) will likely be the buyer
who makes the purchase, while their sibling (influencer) may chime in along the way
with recommendations. Similarly, the CEO and CIO (Chief Information Officer) of a
company may decide that it’s time to switch the software they use internally (initiator).
They may task an expert in IT (gatekeeper) to come up with a few options that they
would then present to a group that might include senior executives but also staff
members who will implement the software as part of their jobs (users). Those people
in turn may consult outside sources, such as tech websites and bloggers (influencers)
who specialize in software. In either case, no one individual is completely responsible
for the process or the resulting choice.

Factors That Influence Group Decisions
The decision process within a group, whether a household or a business, can involve
different members advocating different actions based on their differing priorities
and agendas. They can even involve power struggles and generate conflicts.88 The
following list identifies factors that come into play in group decision making.

•
•
•
•

Interpersonal need (a person’s level of investment in the group): A long-time
member and organizer of the singer Cardi B’s fan club (the Bardi Gang) will likely
be more persuasive in the fan club’s decision making than will a newbie who just
casually checked out the group’s website.89
Product involvement and utility (the degree to which a person will use the product to satisfy a need): A mother who is an avid coffee drinker will obviously be
more interested in the purchase of a new coffeemaker than will her teenage son
who swigs Coke by the gallon.
Responsibility (for procurement, maintenance, payment, and so on): People
are more likely to have disagreements about a decision if it entails long-term
consequences and commitments. For example, a family decision about getting a
dog may involve conflict over who will be responsible for walking and feeding it.
Power (or the degree to which one member of the group exerts influence over the
others): For instance, in some families, one partner has more power than the other.
Conflict can arise when one person continually uses the power they have within
the group to satisfy their own priorities. For example, if a child believed that their
life would end if they did not receive a RadRunner e-bike for their birthday, they
might be more willing to “cash in some chips” and throw a tantrum.

The Intimate Corporation: Collective Decision
Making in Households
There’s nothing like a happy family, but we all know that harmony doesn’t come easily
when family members must choose where to go on vacation, what to eat for dinner,
or who gets to do the dishes. Decisions create conflict among family members to the

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extent that the issue is somehow important or novel; conflict also occurs if individuals
have strong opinions about good or bad alternatives. The degree to which these factors
generate conflict determines the type of decision the family will make.90
The synoptic ideal calls for the members of a family to make decisions jointly.
Together they thoughtfully weigh alternatives, assign one another well-defined roles,
and calmly make mutually beneficial consumer decisions. Still, the synoptic ideal is
just that—an ideal. In real life, couples often don’t have the luxury to make calm and
rational joint decisions. Instead, spousal decision making may be more about choosing
whatever option will result in less conflict. A couple “reaches” rather than “makes”
a decision. Researchers describe this process as “muddling through” (and all married
couples have been there!).91
Researchers of decision-making within relationships
have discovered some interesting dynamics. For instance,
when it comes to spending tendencies, it seems that
opposites do attract. Researchers found that tightwads, who
generally spend less than they would ideally like to spend,
and spendthrifts, who generally spend more than they would
ideally like to spend, tend to marry each other.92 However,
these differences in how they think about money and spending
are not always easy to deal with: The same researchers
also found that these differences in how each partner felt
about spending also tended to create more conflict over the
household’s finances, and this in turn led to lower well-being.
And when things heat up, partners in a close relationship
can also communicate their power with the brand choices
they make. For instance, researchers have found evidence
Roommates must make collaborative decisions just as romantic
of oppositional brand choice: When a partner in a close
partners do.
Source: Gadelshina Dina/Shutterstock.
relationship feels frustrated with their relationship but has
less power than their partner, one way they can act out is by
deliberately choosing brands they know their partner doesn’t like.93 For instance,
even though you might know that your partner likes Diet Coke, you might, out of
frustration (OK and maybe some spite), select a Diet Pepsi. While this may make
you feel less frustrated in the short term, it’s not necessarily a healthy strategy for the
long-term health of the relationship.
Decision making within the family is difficult in times of crises. A recent study
conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic assessed how families adjusted to scarcity
of time and space resources during the lockdowns.94 They found that family members
negotiated and often experienced conflict when trying to find solutions for working
and schooling from home and for caring for children or older parents.
Their study identified differences in how resources were allocated as a function
of the degree of chronic resource scarcity. Low-income families who experienced the
most severe scarcity of resources, such as small houses and limited outdoor spaces,
focused on the essentials and made the most adjustments to their consumer behavior
by taking actions such as purchasing second hand, sharing spaces, and relying a lot
on their support networks. By contrast, higher-income families were able to use their
financial resources to hire help and to remodel home and outdoor spaces.
But across all types of families, the researchers found that family members needed
to be flexible when readjusting how to manage time, money, and space resources: For
instance, a family with budgetary constraints would prioritize finding paid work for a
family member who is not currently working; a family with space constraints would
find ways to share limited space and develop creative solutions to extend the house
and add a new office space.

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Collective Decision Making in Organizations
Many employees of corporations or other organizations make purchase decisions
daily. Organizational buyers are people who purchase goods and services on behalf
of companies for the companies’ use in manufacturing, distribution, or resale. These
individuals buy from business-to-business (B2B) marketers that must satisfy the
needs of organizations such as corporations, government agencies, hospitals, and
retailers. In terms of sheer volume, B2B is where the action is: Roughly $6.7 trillion
worth of products and services change hands among organizations every year in the
U.S. alone, which is more than end consumers purchase.95
In contrast to family-style decision making, collective decisions made in
organizations have the following characteristics:96

•
•
•
•
•
•

Organizational purchase decisions frequently involve many people, including
those who do the actual buying, those who directly or indirectly influence this
decision, and the employees who will use the product or service.
Organizations and companies often use precise technical specifications that require
a lot of knowledge about the product category.
Decisions often are risky, especially in the sense that buyers’ careers may ride on
their judgment.
The dollar volume of purchases is often substantial; it dwarfs most individual
consumers’ grocery bills or mortgage payments. One hundred to 250 organizational
customers typically account for more than half of a supplier’s sales volume, which
gives the buyers a lot of influence over the supplier.
B2B marketing often emphasizes personal selling more than advertising or other
forms of promotion. Dealing with organizational buyers typically requires more
face-to-face contact than when marketers sell to end consumers.
Impulse buying is rare (industrial buyers do not suddenly get an “urge to splurge”
on lead pipe or silicon chips). Because buyers are professionals, they base their
decisions on experience, and they carefully weigh alternatives.

We must consider these important features when we try to understand the purchasing
decisions organizations make. Having said that, however, there are more similarities
between organizational buyers and ordinary consumers than many people realize. True,
organizational purchase decisions do tend to have a higher economic or functional
component compared to individual consumer choices, but emotional aspects still play a role.
Organizational buyers have a lot of responsibility. They decide on the vendors
with whom they want to do business, and what specific items they require from these
suppliers. The items they consider range in price and significance from paper clips (by
the case, not the box) to multimillion-dollar cybersecurity contracts. Several factors
influence the organizational buyer’s perception of the purchase situation. These
include their expectations of the supplier (e.g., product quality, the competence and
behavior of the firm’s employees, and prior experiences in dealing with that supplier),
the organizational climate of the company (i.e., how it rewards performance and what
it values), and the buyer’s assessment of their own performance (e.g., whether they
believe in taking risks).97
Like other consumers, organizational buyers engage in a learning process in
which employees share information with one another and develop an “organizational
memory” that consists of shared beliefs and assumptions about the best choices
to make.98 They (perhaps with fellow employees) solve problems as they search
for information, evaluate alternatives, and decide.99 And, like any other humans,
organizational buyers are not always rational in their decision making and they often
rely on emotions too.100 For instance, they might worry about making mistakes,

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looking stupid, and losing their positions, and this fear could lead them to make
more cautious choices. Or they may be very proud of a decision they made to select a
particular supplier, and the pride they experience helps build trust in the relationship
they develop with that supplier.101
As you’d expect, the organizational decision-making process depends on how complex, novel, or risky the decision is.104 Typically, a group of people (members of a buying
center) play different roles in more complex organizational decisions. This joint involvement is somewhat like family decision making, in which family members are likely to
participate in more important purchases. Note: Unlike a shopping center, a buying center
does not refer to a physical place but rather the group of people who make the decision.
The classic buyclass theory of purchasing divides organizational buying
decisions into three types that range from the least to the most complex:105

•
•
•

A straight rebuy is a habitual decision. It’s an automatic choice, as when an
inventory level reaches a preestablished reorder point. Most organizations maintain
an approved vendor list, and if experience with a supplier is satisfactory, there is
little or no ongoing information search or evaluation.
A modified rebuy situation involves limited decision making. It occurs when an
organization wants to repurchase a product or service but also wants to make some
minor modifications. This decision might involve a limited search for information
among a few vendors. One or a few people will probably make the final decision.
A new task involves extensive problem solving. Because the company hasn’t
made a similar decision already, there is often a serious risk that the product won’t
perform as it should or that it will be too costly. This is when the organization
designates a buying center with assorted specialists to evaluate the purchase, and
they typically gather a lot of information before they come to a decision.

The business-to-business buying process has of course changed a lot with the growth of online, digital applications and software.
Technology has affected how customers interact with suppliers, has automated many of the pieces of the post-decision process, but has
also offered access to a large array of marketing analytics.102 For instance, companies often rely on customer relationship management
(CRM) systems like Salesforce.com. These software packages aim to improve a company’s customer retention level by integrating the
front- and back-offices with access to the firm’s customer records. With a CRM system, partner companies tend to stay together longer
because the buying and the supplying companies’ systems are more integrated.103
Source: Bsd studio/Shutterstock.

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Buying, Having, Being
Agile Marketing: B2B at
High Speed
In business environments where
speed of planning and execution is
especially sensitive for competitive
success, a new decision-making
approach is becoming popular. This
new strategic perspective is called
agile marketing: It refers to using
data and analytics to continuously
source promising opportunities or
solutions to problems in real time,
deploying tests quickly, evaluating
the results, and rapidly iterating
(doing it over and over). An agile
marketing organization can run
hundreds of marketing campaigns
simultaneously and generate
multiple new ideas every week.
The agile marketing framework
grew out of the software
development field, which often uses
a methodology called scrum. It
involves the use of small teams that
run quick “sprints” and frequently
change up their approach based
upon rapid and honest feedback.
How do marketers apply
this approach? Basically, an
organization creates an elite
team, kind of like a Special Forces
operation in the military. These
groups should be small enough that
everyone can communicate with
each other easily—Jeff Bezos of
Amazon specified they should be
“two-pizza teams,” in other words,
teams no bigger than can be fed
by two pizzas. The group’s mission
(should they choose to accept it)
is to execute a series of quickturnaround experiments designed
to create real bottom-line impact.
For example, a retailer might want to
test many approaches to optimizing
conversion on its website (i.e., the
percentage of people who visit the
site and buy something).106

OBJECTIVE 12-4
Explain how consumers are social
beings who form
groups, tribes,
and communities
around consumption practices and
brands.

Who Influences Us:
Consumer Communities
Consumer Collectives

Consumers are social beings. They gather around common
passions. Consumer collectives are networks of social
relations centered on a brand (like Nike), a practice (like
online skating), or a digital platform (like Twitter).107
Consumer collectives are nothing new and have in fact existed ever since people
gathered around a similar consumption practice: For instance, café culture in Europe
was already strong in the 18th century as the new middle class gathered to discuss
politics. These collectives are referred to with all kinds of names, from packs to tribes
and bands, and all of them generate a collective energy in the market.
Collectives can be of all sizes, visibility, and longevity. Some, called brand
secret microcollectives are very small, secretive, and ephemeral.108 These groups
form around shared knowledge about the brand that is invisible outside the group and
signalled quietly inside the group. One such microcollective (not so secret anymore!)
formed around the burger chain In-N-Out’s secret menu. Those in the know share the
secret only selectively, when they order items such as Cheesy Wiki, “Animal Style
Burger,” or the “Flying Dutchman.” But these secret collectives are short lived because
once the secret is out, the microcollective vanishes with it.
Consumers also rally in movements toward or against causes they care about.109
For instance, an ethnographic study of German consumers documented how consumers
organized to express their frustrations with waste in the traditional food system. The
researchers documented “dumpster diving” as an alternative and more sustainable
practice that fights against institutionalized food waste. Dumpster divers rally around a
common world view of sustainability and protecting the world’s limited resources and a
shared belief that the market system is not aligned with these values. Social movements
also fuel consumer activism: Groups sometimes form to fight for change in consumption
culture or to demonstrate their frustrations with corporations or the consumerist world.110

A Culture of Participation
Social media platforms enable a culture of participation: A belief in a democratic
internet; the ability to freely interact with other people, companies, and organizations;
open access to venues that allow users to share content from simple comments to
reviews, ratings, photos, stories, and more; and the power to build on the content of
others from your own unique point of view. Of course, just like democracy in the real
world, we must take the bitter with the sweet.
This participation continues to skyrocket. Users upload 300 hours of video to
YouTube every minute. In just 30 days on YouTube, more video is broadcast than in
the past 60 years on the CBS, NBC, and ABC broadcasting networks combined.111
Consider these mind-boggling social media stats:

•
•
•
•

If you were paid $1 for every time an article was posted on Wikipedia, you would
earn $156.23 per hour.
It took radio 38 years to reach 50 million listeners. TV took 13 years to reach
50 million users. The internet took 4 years to reach 50 million people. In less than
9 months, Facebook added 100 million users.
About 70 percent of Facebook users are outside the United States.
Social networks have overtaken porn as the number-one online activity.

Chapter 12 • How Groups Define Us

•
•
•
•

Eighty percent of companies use LinkedIn as their primary recruiting tool.
Twenty-five percent of search results for the world’s top 10 brands are to usergenerated content.
People share more than 1.5 billion pieces of content on Facebook—every day.
Eighty percent of Twitter usage is from mobile devices, and 17 percent of users
have tweeted while on the toilet.

This is all exciting stuff, especially because it magnifies the impact of our
collective posts as more and more of us take part (we referred to this earlier as
the network effect). Just picture a small group of local collectors who meet once a
month at a local diner to discuss their shared interests over coffee. Now multiply that
group by thousands and include people from all over the world who are united by a
shared passion for sports memorabilia, Barbie dolls, Harley-Davidson motorcycles,
refrigerator magnets, or massive multiplayer online games (MMOGs), such as World
of Warcraft. That’s already a complex system that perhaps someday will merge into
the broader metaverse we discussed in Chapter 1.
Digital platforms also provide an easy way for consumers around the world
to exchange information about their experiences with products, services, music,
restaurants, and movies. The Hollywood Stock Exchange (hsx.com) even offers a
simulated entertainment stock market where traders predict the four-week box office
take for each film.112 News reports tell us of the sometimes wonderful and sometimes
horrific romances that have begun on the internet as people check out potential mates
on sites such as Match.com or OKCupid. Today about one in five heterosexual couples
met online, and the percentage for same-sex couples zooms to almost 70 percent.113
Call it the Metaverse, Internet 3.0, or whatever term you want: Brand communities
(increasingly online) are a hugely important meeting place for like-minded consumers
to commune with other fans of a product, service, store, or celebrity/athlete.

Brand Communities

381

Buying, Having, Being
“Big Deal That You Love
Me. Why Don’t Your Online
Friends Love Me, Too?”
Compared with the “six degrees of
separation” phenomenon we discussed earlier, researchers estimate
that Facebook’s members are even
more closely connected with on average only four degrees of separation
from one another. Although some
users have designated only one
friend and others have thousands,
the median is about 100 friends. The
researchers found that most pairs of
Facebook users could be connected
through four intermediate users, and
this number shrank to three within a
single country.114 Because many of
us devote so much time and energy
to our online group relationships, virtual connectedness also reflects our
real world relationships (for example,
it’s common for people to learn that
their partner has broken up with them
only after they see a change in “relationship status” on Facebook!). One
study that analyzed 1.3 million Facebook users and about 8.6 billion links
among them reported that couples
who are in a relationship are more
likely to stay together if they share a
lot of mutual Facebook friends, and
they’re more likely to break up within
a few months if this indicator dips
sharply because it implies their social
lives aren’t overlapping much.115

Before it released the popular Xbox game Halo 2, Bungie Studios put up a website
to explain the story line. However, there was a catch: The story was written from the
point of view of the Covenant (the aliens who are preparing to attack Earth in the
game)—and in their language. Within 48 hours, avid gamers around the world shared
information in gaming chat rooms to crack the code and translate the text. More than
1.5 million people preordered the game before its release.116
A brand community is a group of consumers—like those
zealous Halo players—who share a set of social relationships
based on usage of or interest in a product. In virtually any
category, you’ll find passionate brand communities (in some
cases devoted to brands that don’t even exist anymore).
Examples include the 3Com Ergo Audrey (discontinued
internet appliance), Apple Newton (discontinued personal
digital assistant), BMW MINI (car), Garmin (GPS device),
Jones Soda (carbonated beverage), Lomo and Holga (cameras),
Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers (musical group), StriVectin
(cosmeceutical), and Xena: Warrior Princess (TV program).
Unlike other kinds of communities, these members
typically don’t live near each other—except when they may
meet for brief periods at organized events or brandfests
Harley’s massive H.O.G. (Harley Owners Group) rallies attract
that community-oriented companies such as Jeep or
hordes of like-minded bike afficionados.
Source: Dasytnik/Shutterstock
Harley-Davidson sponsor. These events help owners to

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StockX is a global platform for trading and consuming current culture, that includes sneakers, apparel, accessories, electronics, and
collectibles.
Source: Image Courtesy of StockX.

“bond” with fellow enthusiasts and strengthen their identification with the product as
well as with others they meet who share their passion.
People who participate in these events feel more positive about the sponsor’s
products as a result, and this enhances brand loyalty. They tend to forgive product
failures or lapses in service quality, and they’re less likely to switch brands even if they
learn that competing products are as good or better. Furthermore, these community
members become emotionally involved in the company’s welfare, and they often serve
as brand missionaries because they carry its marketing message to others.117
Researchers find that brand community members do more than help the product
build buzz; their inputs create added value for themselves and other members as they
develop better ways to use and customize products. It’s common for experienced users
to coach “newbies” in ways to maximize their enjoyment of the product so that more
and more people benefit from a network of satisfied participants.118 We get a good
picture of this process of collective value creation when we look at online support
communities that encourage members to reach their weight loss goals. One study that
analyzed online forums sponsored by Weight Watchers and Obesity Help found that
the exchange of support people offer one another (often anonymously) helps people
feel more committed to their goals.119

Key Characteristics of Online Communities
Successful online communities possess several important features:

•

Standards of behavior: Rules that specify what members can and can’t do on the
site. Some of these rules are spelled out explicitly (e.g., if you buy an item on eBay,

Chapter 12 • How Groups Define Us

•

•
•

you agree that you have entered a legal contract to pay for it), but many of them
are unspoken. A simple example is discouragement of the practice of flaming, or
writing a POST IN ALL CAPITAL LETTERS TO EXPRESS ANGER.
Member contributions: A healthy proportion of users need to contribute content.
If not, the site will fail to offer fresh material and ultimately traffic will slow.
Participation can be a challenge, though. Researchers estimate that only 1 percent
of a typical community’s users regularly participate, and another 9 percent do
so only intermittently. The remaining 90 percent just observe what’s on the site.
Although they don’t contribute content, they do offer value to advertisers that
simply want to reach large numbers of people.
Degree of connectedness: Powerful groups are cohesive; this means the members
identify strongly with them and are highly motivated to stay connected. Online
groups may be even more cohesive than physical groups, even though many of the
members will never meet one another in person.
Network effects: The quality of the site improves as the number of users increases.
For example, Amazon’s ability to recommend books to you based on what other
people with similar interests buy gets better as it tracks more and more people
who enter search queries.

Support Groups
In addition to organized religion, numerous other types of groups serve similar functions
for consumers—and indeed, they may be loosely based on religious principles (like
the highly successful 12-step program that guides Alcoholics Anonymous and other
addiction support groups). Weight Watchers, the world’s largest support group for
weight loss, similarly follows a spiritual-therapeutic model even though it is a
profitable business.121
Social media provide a wide array of support group opportunities as people can
essentially create groups around any type of product, passion, hobby, or health goal.
This opportunity led Facebook to revive its Groups campaign in 2021 to encourage
people to “Take on Anything with Facebook Groups.” And indeed, there are Facebook
groups for just about anything, from parenting to cake decorating and other crafts. A
recent study of health- and wellness-related virtual support communities found that
members of the community do not always get what they come for.122 The researchers
identified many paradoxical social dynamics, or contradictory aspects in how
members relate to each other. Members of virtual support communities get a lot of
support, empathy, and encouragement, but there is also sometimes an unhealthy dose
of social pressure that can generate anxiety and lead members to disengage from the
community.
Private groups on social media offer a safe space for identity expression,
especially for groups that feel marginalized. These groups can become what
researchers call a counterspace to the dominant images and stereotypes in the more
mainstream media, such as those related to important facets of identity like gender
and ethnicity (as we studied in Chapter 9). A recent study analyzed posts from a
specific popular account on Instagram focused on women of South Asian descent
to explore the social dynamics in these counterspaces.123 They found that members
of counterspace groups monitor and check their own stereotypes and biases related
to gender and identity, express support for other marginalized identities within
the group (e.g., LGBTQ+ members), and celebrate those who achieve or aspire to
break beyond the limits placed on their identity by society. These counterspaces
allow groups to push back against dominant stereotypes and to express their own
“gendered ethnic identities.”

383

Buying, Having, Being
Worshipping at the Altar
of Apple
Some brand communities “worship”
products. A study of a brand
community centered on the Apple
Newton illustrates how religious
themes spill over into everyday
consumption, particularly in the
case of “cult products.” Apple
abandoned the Newton PDA
years ago, but many avid users
kept the faith. The researchers
examined postings in chat rooms
devoted to the product. They found
that many of the messages have
supernatural, religious, and magical
themes, including the miraculous
performance and survival of the
brand, as well as the return of the
brand creator. The most common
postings concerned instances
in which dead Newton batteries
magically come back to life. Here is
an excerpt from one story, posted
on a listserv under the heading
“Another Battery Miracle”:
The battery that came with the
2100 that I just received seemed
dead. I figured that the battery was
fried, and I have nothing to lose.
While “charging,” I unplugged the
adapter until the indicator said it
was running on batteries again, and
then plugged it back in until it said
“charging” . . . after a few times,
the battery charge indicator started
moving from the left to right and
was full within 10 minutes! . . . I’ve
been using the Newt for about
4 hours straight without any
problems. Strange. It looks like
there has been yet another Newton
battery miracle! Keep the faith.120

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Gaming Communities
A social game is a multiplayer, competitive, goal-oriented activity with defined rules
of engagement and online connectivity among a community of players. Successful
mobile games such as Candy Crush and Angry Birds boast millions of avid followers,
and as we saw in Chapter 6, the rapidly growing technique of advergaming (inserting
marketing messages into games) helps to fuel the fire.124 These applications usually
incorporate one or more elements of game design, such as leaderboards that indicate
how each player is doing relative to others in the game and badges that show the community the challenges the player has mastered so far.
MMORPGs, or massive multiplayer online role-playing games, truly encompass
the social aspects of gaming. World of Warcraft is
one of the largest MMORPGs with millions of
players from around the world; other popular ones
include Haven and The Sims.125 The money people
spend in virtual worlds like these may surprise you.
Indeed, digital virtual consumption (DVC) may
well be the next frontier of marketing. Consumers
worldwide spend well more than $80 billion per year
(yes, billion) to buy virtual goods for their online
characters.126 Thousands of in-world residents
design, create, and purchase clothing, furniture,
houses, vehicles, and other products their avatars
need, and many do it in style as they acquire the
kind of “bling” they can only dream about in real
life. Some forward-thinking marketers understand
that these platforms are the next stage they can use to
introduce their products into people’s lives, whether
real or virtual. Today, for example, people who play
World of Warcraft is one of the largest MMORPGs with millions of players
The Sims can import actual pieces of furniture from
from around the world.
Source: Bloomberg/Getty Images.
IKEA into their virtual homes.

CHAPTER SUMMARY
Now that you have finished reading this chapter, you should
be able to:
1. Describe how social influences flow from
reference groups and social norms.
We belong to or admire many different groups, and a
desire for them to accept us often drives our purchase
decisions. Individuals or groups whose opinions or
behavior are particularly important to consumers are
reference groups. Both formal and informal groups
influence the individual’s purchase decisions, although
such factors as the conspicuousness of the product and the
relevance of the reference group for a particular purchase
determine how influential the reference group is.

2. Describe how social influences flow through
word-of-mouth communication and how they’re
especially powerful when they come from
opinion leaders.
Much of what we know about products we learn through
word-of-mouth (WOM) communication rather than
formal advertising. We tend to exchange product-related
information in casual conversations. Although WOM
often is helpful to make consumers aware of products, it
can also hurt companies when damaging product rumors
or negative WOM occur.
Opinion leaders who are knowledgeable about a
product and whose opinions are highly regarded tend
to influence others’ choices. Specific opinion leaders

Chapter 12 • How Groups Define Us

are somewhat hard to identify, but marketers who
know their general characteristics can try to target
them in their media and promotional strategies.
Other inf luencers include market mavens, who
have a general interest in marketplace activities, and
surrogate consumers, who are compensated for their
advice about purchases.
3. Explain how, whether in a family or a corporation,
members of a group unit play different roles and
have different amounts of influence when they
make collective decisions.
Collective decision occurs whenever two or more
people evaluate, select, or use a product or service. In
organizations and in families, members play several
different roles during the decision-making process. These
roles include gatekeeper, influencer, buyer, and user.
Marketers must understand how families make
decisions. Spouses have different priorities and exert
varying amounts of influence in terms of effort and
power. Women who work outside the home tend to
command more power in purchasing decisions, but on
the other hand, the significant growth in the number
of stay-at-home fathers also influences this dynamic.
Organizational buyers are people who make purchasing
decisions on behalf of a company or other group.
Although many of the same factors that affect how
they make decisions in their personal lives influence
these buyers, their organizational choices tend to
be more rational. Their decisions are also likely
to involve more financial risk, and as the choices

become more complex, it is probable that a greater
number of people will be involved in making the
decision. The amount of cognitive effort that goes into
organizational decisions relates to internal factors, such
as the individuals’ psychological characteristics, and
external factors, such as the company’s willingness to
tolerate risk. One of the most important determinants is
the type of purchase the company wants to make: The
extent of problem-solving required depends on whether
the product or service it procures is simply a reorder
(a straight rebuy), a reorder with minor modifications
(modified rebuy), or something it has never bought
before or something complex and risky (new task).
4. Explain how consumers are social beings that
form groups, tribes, and communities around
consumption practices and brands.
Brand communities unite consumers who share a
common passion for a product. Brandfests, which
companies organize to encourage this kind of
community, can build brand loyalty and reinforce
group membership.
Social media platforms significantly increase our
access to others’ opinions about products and services.
Virtual consumption communities unite those who
share a common passion for products that include
apparel, cars, music, beer, political candidates, etc.
Many social media users post content online that
satisfies the motive for self-enhancement as well as
the desire to share opinions and experiences about
products and services. Consumers may engage with
these brands via social games.

KEY TERMS
Agile marketing, 380
Aspirational reference group, 360
Associative norms, 362
Associative reference group, 360
Badges, 384
Brand community, 381
Brand secret microcollectives, 380
Brandfests, 381
Business-to-business (B2B)
marketers, 378
Buyclass theory of purchasing, 379
Buying center, 379

385

Buzz, 365
Coercive power, 371
Collective decision making, 375
Collective value creation, 382
Conformity, 363
Consensus language, 368
Consumer activism, 380
Consumer collectives,380
Counterspace, 383
Culture of participation, 380
Customer relationship management
(CRM), 379

Descriptive norms, 362
Digital virtual consumption
(DVC), 384
Dispreferred marker effect, 374
Dissociative groups, 360
Dissociative norms, 362
Expert power, 371
Flaming, 383
Flows, 368
Homophily, 370
Incidental food consumption
(IFC), 359

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Influence network, 369
Influencer marketing, 372
Influencer resources, 372
Information cascades, 369
Information power, 371
Leaderboards, 384
Legitimate power, 371
Market mavens, 385
Media multiplexity, 368
Megaphone effect, 374
Mere virtual presence, 363
Minimal group paradigm, 359
MMORPGs, 384
Modified rebuy, 379
Movements, 380
Negative word of mouth, 366
Negativity spiral, 367
Network effects, 383
New task, 379
Nodes, 367

Norms, 361
Opinion leader, 370
Oppositional brand choice, 377
Organizational buyers, 378
Paradoxical social dynamics, 383
Perceived typicality, 361
Product curators, 375
Red sneakers effect, 363
Reference group, 359
Referent power, 371
Reward power, 371
Scrum, 380
Serial reproduction, 366
Social coupons, 369
Social default, 363
Social empowerment, 369
Social game, 384
Social graphs, 368
Social identity theory, 359
Social loafing, 363

Social media firestorms, 367
Social networks, 367
Social power, 370
Sociometric methods, 367
Spiritual-therapeutic model, 383
Straight rebuy, 379
Strength of weak ties, 368
Surrogate consumer, 374
Susceptibility to interpersonal
influence, 364
Synoptic ideal, 377
Tie strength, 368
Ties, 367
Two-step flow model of influence, 369
User-generated social media, 365
Viral marketing, 365
Virtual goods, 384
Virtual support communities, 383
Word of mouse, 364
Word of mouth (WOM), 364

REVIEW
12-1 What is word of mouth, and how can it be more
powerful than advertising?

12-10 What is a brand community, and why is it of interest
to marketers?

12-2 Which is more powerful: positive or negative word
of mouth?

12-11 Define conformity and give an example of it. Name
three reasons why people conform.

12-3 Describe some ways in which marketers use the
internet to encourage positive word of mouth.
12-4 What is viral marketing? Give an example of this
strategy.

12-12 How does knowing what you now know about B2B
decisions change the way you might approach a
marketing campaign to influence the members of a
buying center?

12-5 What is an opinion leader? Give three reasons why
they are powerful influences on consumers’ opinions.

12-13 What are some factors that influence how an
organizational buyer evaluates a purchase decision?

12-6 Is there such a thing as a generalized opinion leader?
Why or why not?

12-14 Summarize the buyclass model of purchasing. How
do decisions differ within each class?

12-7 What is the relationship between an opinion leader
and an opinion seeker?

12-15 What are some of the ways in which organizational
decisions differ from individual consumer decisions?
How are they similar?

12-8 What are sociometric techniques? Under what
conditions does it make sense to use them?
12-9 List three types of social power and give an example
of each.

12-16 List three roles employees play in the organizational
decision-making process.

Chapter 12 • How Groups Define Us

387

CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CHALLENGE
DISCUSS

12-17 Industrial purchase decisions are totally rational.
Aesthetic or subjective factors don’t—and
shouldn’t—play a role in this process. Do you agree?
12-18 We can think of college students who live away from
home as having a substitute “family.” Whether you live
with your parents, with a spouse, or with other students,
how are decisions made in your college residence “family”? Do some people take on the role of mother, father,
or child? Give a specific example of a decision that had
to be made and the roles members played.
12-19 A sociometric study on obesity (like the one we read
regarding clusters of smokers) provides a striking
example of how our social networks influence what
we do. The researchers analyzed a sample of more
than 12,000 people who participated in the Framingham Heart Study, which closely documented their
health from 1971 to 2003. They discovered that
obesity could spread from person to person, much
like a virus. The investigators knew who was friends
with whom, as well as who was a spouse or sibling
or neighbor, and they knew how much each person
weighed at various times over three decades so they
could reconstruct what happened over the years if
study participants became obese. Guess what? When
one person gains weight, close friends tend to gain
weight too. A person’s chances of becoming obese
if a close friend put on the pounds increased by
57 percent! The friend’s influence remained even if
they lived hundreds of miles away. The researchers
speculated that the reason for this social contagion
effect is that when our best buds get fat, this alters our
perception of normal body weight, so we aren’t as
concerned when we put on a few pounds as well.127
How does social contagion work in your life?
12-20 The average U.S. teenager spends well more than
eight hours a day in front of a screen, whether
smartphone, PC, TV, or tablet. One study reported
increasing physical isolation among internet users;
it created a controversy and drew angry complaints
from some users who insisted that the time they
spent online did not detract from their social
relationships. However, the researchers said they had
now gathered further evidence showing that internet
use has lowered the amount of time people spend

socializing with friends and even sleeping. According
to the study, an hour of time spent using the internet
reduces face-to-face contact with friends, coworkers,
and family by 23.5 minutes; lowers the amount of
time spent watching television by 10 minutes; and
reduces sleep time by 8.5 minutes.128
What’s your perspective on this issue? Does
increasing use of the internet have positive or
negative implications for interpersonal relationships
in our society?
12-21 A consumer tribe is like a brand community; it is a
group of people who share a lifestyle and can identify
with each other because of a shared allegiance to an
activity or a product. Although these tribes are often
unstable and short lived, at least for a time, members
identify with others through shared emotions, moral
beliefs, styles of life, and of course the products they
jointly consume as part of their tribal affiliation.
Some companies, especially those that are more
youth-oriented, use a tribal marketing strategy that
links their product to, say, a group of shredders.
However, there also are plenty of tribes with older
members, such as car enthusiasts who gather to
celebrate cult products like the Citroën in Europe and
the Ford Mustang in the United States, or “foodies”
who share their passion for cooking with other
Wolfgang Puck wannabes around the world.129
Identify and visit a tribal festival in your area
(e.g., a comic book convention, a rock concert, a
basketball tournament, a vegan food show, and so
on). What role do marketers play in this event? How
and to what extent do attendees identify with other
“tribal” members?
12-22 Walmart contended with a widespread text-messaging
hoax that warned women to stay away from its stores
or risk death. The digital rumor apparently originated
in an urban myth (an unsubstantiated “fact” that
many people accept as true) that circulated via email
several years ago. As a reflection of how widespread
this myth became, at one point Walmart was number
five on Twitter’s list of trending topics.130 If you
were a Walmart communications executive, how
might you deal with this kind of public relations
nightmare?

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12-23 The strategy of viral marketing gets customers to sell a
product to other customers on behalf of the company.
That often means convincing your friends to climb on
the bandwagon, and sometimes you get a cut if they
buy something.131 Some might argue that that means
you’re selling out your friends (or at least selling to
your friends) in exchange for a piece of the action.
Others might say you’re simply sharing the wealth
with your buddies. Have you ever passed along names
of your friends to a company or website? If so, what
happened? How do you feel about this practice?
12-24 Social media influencers and opinion leaders are
sometimes called power users. They have a strong
communications network that gives them the
ability to affect purchase decisions for a number of
other consumers, directly and indirectly. Much like
their offline counterparts, power users are active
participants at work and in their communities. Their
social networks are large and well developed. Others
trust them and find them to be credible sources of
information about one or more specific topics. They

tend to have a natural sense of intellectual curiosity,
which may lead them to new sources of information.
And they post an awful lot of brand-related content:
Forrester Research has dubbed these brand-specific
mentions influence impressions. In advertising lingo,
an impression refers to a view or an exposure to an
advertising message. Forrester estimates that, each
year, U.S. consumers generate 256 billion influence
impressions as people talk about their lives with each
other, telling stories and experiences that invariably
include brands.132 These influence impressions are
primarily delivered by—you guessed it—power users:
Only 6.2 percent of social media users are responsible
for about 80 percent of these brand mentions. Forrester
calls these influencers mass connectors. Suppose
you wanted to conduct a social media campaign that
targets these valuable power users. How would you
respond to your (non-marketing) CEO who says,
“These people make up only a very small slice of our
total customer market. Why would we bother to waste
our precious resources on them?”

APPLY

12-25 Identify fashion opinion leaders on your campus. Do
they fit the profile the chapter describes?
12-26 A study on antibranding documented hostility among
consumers who object to the gas-guzzling Hummer
vehicle. One driver posted this message: “The H2 is
a death machine. You’d better hope that you don’t
collide with an H2 in your economy car. You can kiss
your ass goodbye thanks to the H2’s massive weight
and raised bumpers. Too bad you couldn’t afford an
urban assault vehicle of your own.”133
Identify an antibranding site for another product.
What functions do the site seem to serve? How can
people who participate there be considered part of a
community?
12-27 More than 16 million millennial women are now
mothers, and that number grows by more than a
million every year. These new parents demand
innovations in child-rearing to match their
experiences in other realms of their lives. These
“parennials” are information-hungry; they never stop
researching the best things to buy for their children.
There are numerous resources for them to learn about
parenting, such as chat rooms like Wonder Weeks
and WebMDBaby. Many parennials, accustomed

to chronicling every great dish they ordered in a
restaurant, give their children YouTube channels from
the first sonogram and hashtags when they’re born.134
What is the next “killer app” for young parennials?
12-28 Conduct a sociometric analysis within your dormitory
or neighborhood. For a product category such as music
or cars, ask everyone to identify other individuals
with whom they share information. Systematically
trace all these avenues of communication and identify
opinion leaders by locating individuals whom others
say provide helpful information.
12-29 Trace a referral pattern for a service provider such as
a hair stylist; track how clients came to choose him
or her. See whether you can identify opinion leaders
who are responsible for referring several clients to
the businessperson. How might the service provider
take advantage of this process to grow their business?
12-30 The power of unspoken social norms often becomes
obvious only when we violate them. To witness this
result firsthand, try one of the following: Stand facing
the back wall in an elevator, serve dessert before the
main course, offer to pay cash for dinner at a friend’s
home, wear pajamas to class, or tell someone not to
have a nice day.

Chapter 12 • How Groups Define Us

12-31 Identify a set of dissociative groups for your peers.
Can you identify any consumption decisions that
you and your friends make with these groups in
mind?
12-32 Several colleges have sponsored “social media
detox” events. Students at Saint Mary’s College of
California were challenged to “Disconnect, Power
Off and Unplug” to rediscover “The Lost Art of
Solitude”—no internet for a month! The library at
Wake Forest University created a “ZieSta Room”
where technology is banned.135 Do a “detox” of
your own for 48 hours. No cellphones. No Facebook.
No social media of any kind. Keep a diary of your
experiences.

389

12-33 Although social networking is red hot, could its
days be numbered? Many people have concerns
about privacy issues. Others feel that platforms such
as Facebook are too overwhelming. As one media
executive comments, “Nobody has 5,000 real friends.
At the end of the day it just becomes one big cauldron
of noise.” What’s your stance on this: Can we have
too much of a good thing? Will people start to tune
out all of these networks?136
12-34 The adoption of a certain brand of shoe or apparel by
athletes can be a powerful influence on students and
other fans. Should high school and college coaches be
paid to determine what brand of athletic equipment
their players wear?

DIGGING IN WITH DATA

See “Data Case 4: Going Global with Juice” in Appendix A for an opportunity to work with real consumer data and
apply this chapter’s concepts to real world problems.

CASE STUDY

Lush is Trying to Find an Authentic Voice Online

As you learned in this chapter, as social beings we belong to
and seek acceptance from the different groups that we are a
part of. Social identity theory (see Chapter 11) tells us that
the groups to which we belong are an integral part of our
social identity. Those groups inform myriad behaviors—what
products we use, where we live, and where we work. Lush, a
skincare firm, makes environmentally friendly products that
align with the social identity and values of their customers.
The U.K.-based manufacturer of premium beauty
products, such as body washes, bath bombs, and face masks,
was founded in 1995 by a close-knit team of six co-founders
committed to engaging happy customers and employees
while being vocal advocates for protecting the planet.137
In an industry saturated with brands that extensively
use chemicals, Lush inevitably stands out. With a vision of
creating fresh, handmade, vegetarian products sold through
900+ shops around the globe, Lush has a presence in 47
countries, with manufacturing operations in 6 countries
(U.K., North America, Germany, Croatia, Japan, and
Australia), employing around 14,000 people.138 The founders
of the brand strive to “create a cosmetic revolution to save
the planet.”139 They are committed to becoming number one

for the sake of the environment. One of the seven tenets of
the brand’s ethos is “We believe in happy people making
happy soap, putting our faces on our products, and making
our mums proud.” On their environmentally friendly minimal
packaging, Lush places labels showing employees’ faces.
This—along with a high level of staff interaction in-store and
online—makes the consumer’s experience feel personal.140
The multisensory Lush retail experience is interactive,
fun, and engaging. The staff is very knowledgeable about
the products and encourages customers to try products and
ask questions.
With over 900 vibrant products, with wacky names
and minimal packaging, Lush’s focus on innovation and
creativity has elevated the power of a perfect bath and
engendered an indulgent experience for a community of bath
enthusiasts, many of whom have evolved into a group of
superfans, affectionately known as “Lushies.”141 The Lushie
community’s passion for the brand is arguably unrivaled.
A quick Instagram search of the hashtag #lushie yields over
600,000 results. If you click the term, you’ll find photos and
videos of fans showing their love for all things Lush. Whether
they’re dropping an Intergalactic bath bomb into a tub or

390

Section 5

• Belonging

rocking a Cup o’ Coffee face mask, Lushies love nothing
more than proclaiming their appreciation for the brand.142
To keep the Lushies and other customers authentically
and consistently engaged with the brand, the company
replaced traditional advertising with user-created content and
product demonstrations on all its social media channels and
websites.143 Lush engages customers with captivating posts
with 659,000 Instagram followers, 275,000 Twitter fans, and
more than 1 million Facebook followers.144 The YouTube
videos of the Shower Jellies or the Bath Bomb experiment
(by YouTubers the Creatures to see what happens when you
dissolve 50 bath bombs in a kiddie pool) have garnered over
six million views. The popularity of the Bath Bomb video
grew in part because of the rapid-fire word of mouth and
nutty antics of The Creatures.145 In 2016 when Kylie Jenner
shared her Lush beauty day experience on social media, the
community of online followers exploded.146
In March 2019, the company announced it was switching
off its U.K. social media, saying it was “tired of fighting
algorithms and unwilling to pay for newsfeed real estate.”147
During the nine-month break, Lush encouraged customers
to engage with its staff and store social media accounts,
Lush hashtags, its e-commerce site, and the Lush Labs app.
When the pandemic hit, the digital team saw little choice
but to return to social media, and Lush chief digital officer
Jack Constantine acknowledged, “We were a bit ahead of
the curve. Social media is addictive, and we struggled to
convince our team to go cold turkey.148 During the pandemic,
shops were closed, and social media was the best way to
engage with customers, so we used those tools again. Now
feels like a more stable time to re-establish our position and
stand by our digital ethics.”149
In November 2021, Lush announced it was closing its
accounts on Facebook, Instagram, Snapchat, and TikTok
until the social media sites do a better job of protecting users

from harmful content.150 The beauty retailer said it had “had
enough” after the allegations of the Facebook whistleblower
Frances Haugen, who claims the company puts profit ahead
of the public good. Constantine said the company would
not ask customers to “meet us down a dark and dangerous
alleyway,” adding that some social media platforms were
“beginning to feel like places no one should be encouraged
to go . . . Something has to change.”151 Acknowledging that
it would risk over $13 million in sales generated through its
social media—with four million U.S. followers of its North
American Instagram channel alone—Lush committed to
leaving these popular social media sites for a year across all
its 48 markets.152 Lush promises to find new ways to connect,
to build better channels of communication elsewhere, and to
use the older tried and tested routes. For now, the firm can still
be found on Twitter, Pinterest, LinkedIn, and YouTube.153
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

CS 12-1 What is the rationale behind Lush’s decision
to discontinue and then reintroduce a curated
assortment of social media channels? Do you
think followers and customers understood Lush’s
choice? Why or why not?
CS 12-2 As Lush implemented the change, how could it
measure the effects of leaving and then returning
to social media on the achievement of its marketing
goals?
CS 12-3 How would you describe the Lush brand community?
What are the key characteristics of the online
community? How do you think Lush’s decision
to discontinue and criticize the same social media
outlets that connects the brand with its followers
will impact how customers view the brand?

NOTES
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Chapter 12 • How Groups Define Us

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Chapter 12 • How Groups Define Us

98. James M. Sinkula, “Market Information Processing and Organizational
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104. Daniel H. McQuiston, “Novelty, Complexity, and Importance as Causal
Determinants of Industrial Buyer Behavior,” Journal of Marketing 53 (April
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105. Erin Anderson, Wujin Chu, and Barton Weitz, “Industrial Purchasing: An
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107. Eric J. Arnould, Adam Arvidsson, and Giana M. Eckhardt, “Consumer
Collectives: A History and Reflections on Their Future,” Journal of the
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108. Heather Johnson Dretsch and Colbey Emmerson Reid, “Brand Secret MicroCollectives,” Journal of the Association for Consumer Research 6, no. 4
(2021): 462–73.
109. Johanna F. Gollnhofer, Henri A. Weijo, and John W. Schouten, “Consumer
Movements and Value Regimes: Fighting Food Waste in Germany by Building
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110. Henri A. Weijo, Diane M. Martin, and Eric J. Arnould (2018), “Consumer
Movements and Collective Creativity: The Case of Restaurant Day,” Journal of
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111. www.youtube.com/t/press_statistics; Danny Donchev, “40 Mind Blowing
YouTube Facts, Figures and Statistics – 2022,” FortuneLords, August 1, 2022,
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113. “First Evidence That Online Dating Is Changing the Nature of Society,” MIT
Technology Review, October 10, 2017, www.technologyreview.com/s/609091/
first-evidence-that-online-dating-is-changing-the-nature-of-society/.
114. “Facebook Users Have Four Degrees of Separation from Each Other!” IBN
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115. Steve Lohr, “Researchers Draw Romantic Insights from Maps of Facebook
Networks,” New York Times, October 28, 2013, http://bits.blogs.nytimes.
com/2013/10/28/spotting-romantic-relationships-on-facebook/.
116. http://halo.xbox.com/en-us/intel/titles/halo2; Kris Oser, “Microsoft’s Halo 2
Soars on Viral Push,” AdAge, October 25, 2004: 46.
117. Hope Jensen Schau, Albert M. Muñiz, Jr., and Eric J. Arnould, “How Brand
Community Practices Create Value,” Journal of Marketing 73 (September
2009), 30–51; John W. Schouten, James H. McAlexander, and Harold F. Koenig,
“Transcendent Customer Experience and Brand Community,” Journal of the
Academy of Marketing Science 35 (2007): 357–68; James H. McAlexander,
John W. Schouten, and Harold F. Koenig, “Building Brand Community,”
Journal of Marketing 66 (January 2002): 38–54; Albert Muñiz and Thomas
O’Guinn, “Brand Community,” Journal of Consumer Research (March 2001):
412–32; Scott A. Thompson and Rajiv K. Sinha, “Brand Communities and
New Product Adoption: The Influence and Limits of Oppositional Loyalty,”
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118. Rama K. Jayanti and Jagdip Singh, “Framework for Distributed Consumer
Learning in Online Communities,” Journal of Consumer Research 36, no. 6
(2010): 1058–81.
119. “People Turn to Online Communities to Lose Weight,” Canvas8, December
11, 2017, www.canvas8.com/signals/2017/12/11/public-commitment.html;
Tonya Williams Bradford, Sonya A. Grier, and Geraldine Rosa Henderson,
“Weight Loss through Virtual Support Communities: A Role for Identity-based
Motivation in Public Commitment,” Journal of Interactive Marketing (2017):
40–49.

393

120. Quoted in Albert M. Muñiz, Jr. and Hope Jensen Schau, “Religiosity in the
Abandoned Apple Newton Brand Community,” Journal of Consumer Research
31, no. 4 (March 2005): 737–47, https://doi.org/10.1086/426607; https://
applenewton.co.uk/, accessed July 7, 2022.
121. Ana Babić Rosario, Cristel A. Russell, and Doreen Shanahan (2022),
“Paradoxes of Social Support in Virtual Support Communities: A MixedMethod Inquiry of the Social Dynamics in Health and Wellness Facebook
Groups,” Journal of Interactive Marketing 57, no. 1 (2022): 54–89.
122. Moisio, Risto, and Mariam Beruchashvili (2010), “Questing for Well-Being at
Weight Watchers: The Role of the Spiritual-Therapeutic Model in a Support
Group,” Journal of Consumer Research, 36, no. 5, 857–875, https://doi.
org/10.1086/605590.
123. B. Yasanthi Perera, Sarita Ray Chaudhury, Pia A. Albinsson, and Lubna Nafees,
“This Is Who I Am: Instagram as Counterspace for Shared Gendered Ethnic
Identity Expressions,” Journal of the Association for Consumer Research 6,
no. 2 (2021): 274–85.
124. Drew Elliott, “Opportunities for Brands in Social Games,” Ogilvy PR (blog),
May 2010, http://blog.ogilvypr.com/2010/05/opportunities-for-brands-insocial-games/.
125. Thomas H. Apperley, “Genre and Game Studies: Toward a Critical Approach to
Video Game Genres,” Simulation & Gaming 37, no. 1 (March 1, 2006): 6–23.
126. “What’s So Great about True Ownership of Virtual Game Items?” Hacker
Noon, March 4, 2018, https://hackernoon.com/whats-so-great-about-trueownership-of-virtual-game-items-be629e5ae900; Janice Denegri-Knot and
Mike Molesworth, “Concepts and Practices of Digital Virtual Consumption,”
Consumption Markets & Culture 13, no. 2 (2010): 109–32; Natalie T. Wood
and Michael R. Solomon, “Adonis or Atrocious: Spokesavatars and Source
Effects in Immersive Digital Environments,” in Handbook of Research on
Digital Media and Advertising: User Generated Content Consumption, ed.
Matthew S. Eastin, Terry Daugherty, and Neal M. Burns (Hershey, PA: IGI
Global, 2011), 521–34.
127. Gina Kolata, “Find Yourself Packing It On? Blame Friends,” New York Times,
July 26, 2007, https://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/26/health/26fat.html.
128. John Markoff, “Internet Use Said to Cut into TV Viewing and Socializing,”
New York Times (December 30, 2004), https://www.nytimes.com/2004/12/30/
technology/internet-use-said-to-cut-into-tv-viewing-and-socializing.html.
129. Veronique Cova and Bernard Cova, “Tribal Aspects of Postmodern
Consumption Research: The Case of French In-Line Roller Skaters,” Journal
of Consumer Behavior 1 (June 2001): 67–76.
130. Jack Neff, “Will Text Rumor Scare Off Wal-Mart Customers? Messaging
Hoax in at Least 16 States Warns Women They Could Be Killed,” AdAge,
March 19, 2009, https://adage.com/article/news/text-rumor-scare-walmartcustomers/135382; Choe Sang-Hun, “Web Rumors Tied to Korean
Actress’s Suicide,” New York Times, October 2, 2008, https://www.nytimes
.com/2008/10/03/world/asia/03actress.html?scp=1&sq=web%20rumors%20
tied%20to%20Korean%20actress&st=cse; The Associated Press, “Fighting the
Web Bullying That Led to a Suicide,” New York Times, June 1, 2008, https://
www.nytimes.com/2008/06/01/us/01internet.html?scp=1&sq=Fighting%20
the%20Web%20Bullying%20That%20Led%20to%20a%20Suicide&st=cse.
131. Thomas E. Weber, “Viral Marketing: Web’s Newest Ploy May Make You an
Unpopular Friend,” Wall Street Journal, September 13, 1999, https://www.wsj.
com/articles/SB93717982983860029.
132. “Introducing Peer Influence Analysis: 500 Billion Peer Impressions
Each Year,” Empowered, April 20, 2010, http://forrester.typepad.com/
groundswell/2010/04/introducing-peer-influence-analysis.html.
133. Marius K. Luedicke, “Brand Community under Fire: The Role of Social
Environments for the Hummer Brand Community,” Advances in Consumer
Research 33, no. 1 (2006): 486–93.
134. Bruce Feiler, “App Time for Nap Time: The Parennials Are Here,” New
York Times, November 4, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/04/style/
millennial-parents-parennials.html?_r=0.
135. Carl Straumsheim, “Intersession Solitude,” Inside Higher Ed, January 15, 2015,
https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2015/01/15/saint-marys-college-califstudents-disconnect-power-and-unplug-interim-term-course.
136. Tom Vanderbilt, “Inside the Mad Mad World of TripAdvisor,” Outside,
March 13, 2015, https://www.outsideonline.com/adventure-travel/advice/
inside-mad-mad-world-tripadvisor/.
137. “Who We Are,” Lush, https://weare.lush.com/lush-life/our-company/who-weare/.
138. Ibid.
139. Ibid.
140. “We Believe,” Lush, https://www.lushusa.com/stories/article_we-believestatement.html.
141. Beth Shapouri, “The Real Reason People Are So Obsessed with Lush
Cosmetics,” Cosmopolitan, July 27, 2016, https://www.cosmopolitan.com/
style-beauty/a61890/lush-cosmetics-popularity/.
142. Shea Simmons, “9 Outrageous LUSH Hauls That’ll Turn You into a Lushie,”
July 10, 2017, https://www.bustle.com/p/9-outrageous-lush-hauls-thatll

394

143.
144.
145.
146.

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• Belonging

-totally-convince-you-to-become-a-lushie-69246#:~:text=However%2C%20
if%20you're%20not,an%20at%2Dhome%20spa%20night.
“How LUSH Cosmetics Uses User-Generated Content to Transform Customers
into an Engaged Community of Brand Advocates,” Nosto, May 7, 2019, https://
www.nosto.com/case-studies/lush-cosmetics/.
Parija Kavilanz, “This Cult Teen Brand Is Quitting Social Media Amid
Growing Safety Concerns,” CNN Business, November 22, 2021, https://www
.cnn.com/2021/11/22/tech/lush-quits-social-media/index.html.
Beth Shapouri, “The Real Reason People Are So Obsessed with Lush
Cosmetics,” Cosmopolitan, July 27, 2016, https://www.cosmopolitan.com/
style-beauty/a61890/lush-cosmetics-popularity/.
Augusta Statz, “Kylie Jenner’s Go-To Brand for a Pampering Sesh,” July 14,
2016, https://www.bustle.com/articles/172630-kylie-jenners-lush-haul-onsnapchat-gives-you-the-perfect-recipe-for-pampering-videos.

147. Parija Kavilanz, “This Cult Teen Brand Is Quitting Social Media Amid
Growing Safety Concerns,” CNN Business, November 22, 2021, https://www
.cnn.com/2021/11/22/tech/lush-quits-social-media/index.html.
148. Ibid.
149. https://www.socialbakers.com/website/storage/2019/12/WP_LUSH.pdf.
150. Zoe Wood, “Lush Quits Facebook, Instagram, TikTok and Snapchat over Safety
Concerns,” The Guardian, November 23, 2021, https://www.theguardian
.com/business/2021/nov/23/lush-quits-facebook-instagram-tiktok-snapchatsocial-media.
151. Ibid.
152. Parija Kavilanz, “This Cult Teen Brand Is Quitting Social Media Amid
Growing Safety Concerns,” CNN Business, November 22, 2021, https://www
.cnn.com/2021/11/22/tech/lush-quits-social-media/index.html.
153. https://www.socialbakers.com/website/storage/2019/12/WP_LUSH.pdf.

13

Social Class and Status
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES When you finish reading this chapter, you should be able to:
13-1 Summarize how our consumption choices
are expressions of our taste and are strongly
influenced by our social class.
13-2 Describe how consumption contributes to
movements within and across social class
structures.

13-3 Explain how we consume to communicate our
social standing to others.
13-4 Discuss the ways organizations are starting to
work toward greater social justice to combat
inequality.

M

ariela is so proud. She just got the keys to her new townhome,
and she is moving in with her two kids. Her very own house—
who would have believed it?
Growing up in a working-class family, Mariela knew that she would
have to fight hard to “make it.” Both of her immigrant parents worked
tirelessly at their modest bodega so she could do “better” in life.
She’s well on her way. It’s taken her a long time to go to school while
putting in long hours at her parents’ store, but Mariela finally completed
her training program to become an LPN (licensed practical nurse). Now
she’s pulling down $40,000 per year; the path to advancement is starting
to look clearer.1
And the icing on the cake: Even though she’s still up to her ears in
debt on her school loan, Mariela decided to commemorate her odyssey
by earmarking her first paycheck to buy that Tory Burch Ella tote bag she’s been coveting.
Mariela smiles in anticipation of the envious looks she’ll get from her new hospital
coworkers when she plunks that baby down in the staff break room. Life is good!

OBJECTIVE 13-1
Summarize how
our consumption
choices are expressions of our taste
and are strongly
influenced by our
social class.

Source: Viorel Kurnosov/iStock/Getty Images.

What Is Social Class?

We use the term social class more generally to refer to
a group of people with similar levels of prestige and
esteem who also share beliefs, attitudes, and values that
they express in their thinking and behavior.2 People who
belong to the same class have approximately equal social
standing in the community. They work in roughly similar
occupations, and they tend to have similar lifestyles by virtue of their income levels
and common tastes. These people tend to socialize with one another and share many

395

396

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• Belonging

ideas and values regarding the way we should live.3 In other words, consumption
choices tend to be similar within a social class group, so consumption reflects class
membership.
Marketing researchers were among the first to propose that we can distinguish
people of different social classes from one another because their consumption choices
are distinct. In this chapter, we will discuss the many facets of social class and the
many ways in which our consumption choices express our standing in society—that
is, our social status.
Sociologists describe divisions of society in terms of people’s relative social
and economic resources. Some of these divisions involve political power, whereas
others revolve around purely economic distinctions. Karl Marx, the 19th-century
economic theorist, argued that a person’s relationship to the means of production
determined their position in a society. The haves control resources, and they use
the labor of others to preserve their privileged positions. The have-nots depend on
their own labor for survival, so these people have the most to gain if they change
the system.
The German sociologist Max Weber showed that the rankings people develop are
not one-dimensional. Some involve prestige or “social honor” (he called these status
groups), some rankings focus on power (or party), and some revolve around wealth
and property (class).4 These notions of social class have remained relevant across
decades.5
In Chapter 11, we explored how our parents and peers help us learn how to
behave and how to make sense of the world; similarly, our social class helps determine
our values and preferences. We develop our tastes in terms of food, furniture, and
clothing from the environment in which we live, and these dispositional distinctions
are almost embodied.6 Embodied dispositions are not necessarily conscious; they
are just how we know to do things—how to conduct ourselves in a group, how to
eat, how to behave, and what to wear in what situations. For this reason, class is not
just about how we view ourselves but also how others view us—for example, how
others perceive our way of speaking or how others assess our manners and etiquette
(or lack thereof).
As we saw in Chapter 12, “birds of a feather do flock together.” People tend
to marry people from a social class like their own, a tendency sociologists call
homogamy. More than 90 percent of married high school dropouts marry someone
who also dropped out or who has only a high school diploma. On the other side of the
spectrum, less than 1 percent of the most highly educated Americans have a spouse
who did not complete high school.7

Social Class Provides a Set of Resources
Current theoretical perspectives on social class view the social structure of a society
as a function of how economic, status, and power dimensions are systematically
distributed. This perspective emerged mostly from the French philosopher Pierre
Bourdieu’s writings in the 1970s and 1980s about how people compete for resources,
or capital. It is important to note that these resources do not refer to the amount of
money a person has at their disposal (although that is captured in economic capital).
Instead, a person’s capital refers to their own resources, as well as their ability to
effectively mobilize the capital resources in their network of connections. For these
sociologists, social class is a set of resources that are deployed by a person within a
competitive field to attain greater symbolic capital (prestige, honor, attention) within
that field.

Chapter 13 • Social Class and Status

Based on his large-scale surveys tracking people’s wealth and connecting them
to patterns of taste in entertainment and the arts, Bourdieu identified three forms
of capital—economic capital, social capital, and cultural capital—that are still very
relevant today. Together all these forms of resources create a storehouse of resources
(symbolic capital), as Figure 13.1 illustrates. Each social class group shares the same
type of capital, but the resources of each social class group are different.

•
•

•

Economic capital is money and wealth. It refers to financial and other assets that
we might have earned or inherited.
Social capital is the aggregate of actual and potential resources within one’s social
network. But it’s not just knowing a lot of people; it’s about being able to get the
backing of those relationships. Social capital can be in the form of a common
name (the name of a family, class, tribe, school, or party) that can be the basis
of an exchange. But it can also be reflected in our manners or ways of speaking
because those also reveal membership to a particular group. In fact, even your
accent can affect your employment prospects—people tend to view others with
foreign accents (or even a different regional accent from the same country) as less
trustworthy, intelligent, and attractive.8
Cultural capital refers to a set of distinctive tastes, skills, and practices. Each
social class group shares the same knowledge and this sharedness and mutual
understanding create both the feeling of belonging to one’s group as well as a
feeling of distinctiveness from other groups. As we discussed earlier, a lot of cultural capital is embodied. Embodied cultural capital refers to the knowledge and
skills that we’ve acquired from our social position and that we demonstrate on an
everyday basis. For instance, art appreciation is usually recognized as a symbol
of one coming from a place of education, cultivation, and good taste. Another
form of cultural capital is objectified in the form of tangible cultural goods, such
as pictures, books, or artwork.

Economic Capital

Social Capital

Symbolic
Capital
(Prestige)

Cultural Capital
Figure 13.1 Social Class as a Set of Resources

397

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Section 5

• Belonging

These differences create social distinction, a system
of social relations embedded in judgments of consumption
tastes. The new elite in America, which some researchers
term the aspirational class, are highly educated, but their
consumption choices are far from flashy. Instead, their
choices reflect their values: They use their financial resources
to prioritize important decisions about health (eating and
being well), parenting and education, and their retirement.
So the elites in our society pass on their “classiness” to their
children by transferring their cultural, social, and economic
resources in rather invisible ways.9

Social Distinction, Taste, and Habitus
The sociological perspective regards class as a network of
relationships of mutual acquaintances that can draw upon
each other’s resources. For example, alumni of your college
may be happy to help you in your job search—and the better
the school you attend, the more likely that alumni were able
to land posh positions that they can now use to benefit you.
Bourdieu concluded that “taste”(preference for specific things) is a statusmarking force, or habitus, that causes consumption preferences to cluster together.
Later analyses of U.S. consumers largely confirm these relationships; for example,
people with greater economic capital are more likely than the average consumer
to attend the theater, whereas people with lower economic capital are more likely to
attend a wrestling match.10
According to Bourdieu, we consume and collect experiences when we are young,
and we incorporate these experiences into our habitus as we accumulate cultural
capital.11 Some research shows that people who grow up in a middle-class environment
tend to intentionally accumulate novel experiences with cultural capital potential early
in life because they worry that they may not be able to have these experiences later in
life after they marry and have children. By contrast, working-class consumers tend to
seek stable, comforting relationships and experiences. For instance, they enjoy events
that build community, like local baseball or softball games. Those choices are not just
bound by economic and financial realities but also by a focus on developing strong
connections and tight social networks in or near the places where they grew up.12
How does this perspective that differential access to resources influences our
view of the world and the experiences we desire translate into consumer behavior?
A short and simple answer is that a person’s social standing strongly influences the
specific products, media vehicles, and other consumption choices they make. In other
words, it shapes a taste regime, or a system of norms that links aesthetics to practice.
For example, how you think you should dress or decorate your home is influenced by
marketplace institutions like magazines and websites that may reinforce notions of
what is appropriate or desirable for a certain social group.13

Jockeying for social capital begins at a very young age. Some
parents who worry about their kids gaining admission to the
“right” university start the application process by paying a hefty
tuition for an elite preschool.
Source: ViewStock/Shutterstock.

Buying, Having, Being
If You’ve Got It, Post It!
Today, social media posts are a
prime way to let others know when
you’ve snagged a status symbol
(“eat your hearts out, BFFs!”). While
about as many people stay at the
budget hotel Circus Circus and the
luxury hotel Bellagio in Las Vegas,
the latter gets about three times
as many check-ins on Facebook.
Owners of luxury cars such as
BMWs and Mercedes-Benzes are
2.5 times more likely to announce
their ownership on Facebook as
do those who own less expensive
cars.15

Online Capital
Because we spend so much time in digital environments, it’s natural that social
class dynamics operate in these spaces as well. When you’re online, it’s not so much
what you own as what you post or how you post it that raises or lowers your status
among your network (unless you’re one of those people who loves to post photos on
Instagram of every expensive outfit, car, or other merch you’ve just bought). Indeed,

Chapter 13 • Social Class and Status

just being active online can boost your standing in others’ eyes because it can enhance
your social capital. According to one study, people assume that if a person posts on
Facebook about how busy they are, that’s enough to infer that the person is competent,
ambitious, and successful. The same holds true for people who use hi-tech timesaving
products, such as a hands-free Bluetooth headset or online grocery shopping and
delivery services.14
Let’s use the social media platform Pinterest to understand the dynamics and
exchanges between different types of online capital. People visit this digital scrapboarding site to search for images of clothing, home furnishings, and many other
items they can “pin” to create boards that reflect their tastes. But they also actively
follow others for inspiration (or inspo, to use the new slang). Some users attract huge
followings and acquire “celebrity” status.
In the online world, many people hold others in high regard for their opinions as
much as, or maybe even more than, for their money. The “psychic income” we get
when we post reviews that others validate creates a reputation economy, in which
the “currency” people earn is approval rather than cold hard cash.16 For example, Joy
Cho (aka Oh Joy!) has a board called “Recipes” with almost four million followers.17
As a result, she gains followers and grows her social network. This accumulation of
social ties makes her attractive to corporate sponsors because she can use the social
capital she has acquired due to her central role in that large network and turn it into
economic capital. When people move on to something else, the social capital that
flows from being a Pinterest attraction will slow to a trickle. At that point, we’re
on to the next hot site—fortunately for Joy, she’s also a hot ticket on Instagram!
As a platform declines, the community experiences a big drop off in participation,
adherence to norms, perceived reputation, and trust among members.18 Think about
formerly popular online communities like MySpace or Friendster to understand how
platforms can lose their cool almost overnight. Is TikTok the next to go?
In general, we know that a community is healthier and more desirable when it
can offer a lot of social capital as an inducement for people to join; that’s one reason
why the competition is fierce to get admitted to Ivy League universities. This is true
in the online world as well, where bloggers acquire social capital when a lot of other
people start to rate their posts highly and perhaps retweet them.19
And, like exclusive country clubs, online gated communities that selectively
allow access to some people may offer a high degree of social capital to the lucky
few who pass the test. In this context, it’s interesting to remember that even Facebook
started in 2004 as a restricted site that was intended only to connect Harvard
students with one another before it expanded to admit people from other Ivy League
universities—and then only eventually everyone else.20

“Is That a Yoga Mat?” Taste Cultures and Codes
Our consumption choices are expressions of our taste and a representation of our
social class.21 Cultural capital is especially noticeable in consumers’ preferences for
and taste in hobbies, food, furniture, and clothing. At the low end of the cultural
capital spectrum, consumers place greater emphasis on functional, utilitarian product
characteristics rather than aesthetic and stylistic qualities. There also is greater
emphasis on quantity, size, and ostentatious display of materialism, whereas high
cultural capital consumers tend to prefer “self-actualizing” experiences (remember
Maslow’s pyramid?) that are mentally stimulating and creative. Being a connoisseur
(French for “someone who knows”) is a proxy for cultural capital.
Luxury consumers who become connoisseurs gain what researchers have termed
maturity: They reject mass luxury brands, preferring instead inconspicuous luxury

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The Burning Man Festival began in 1986 as a summer solstice celebration on a California
beach that attracted a small group of people. Some of them built an eight-foot-tall wooden
man and set it on fire. Over the years, the event attracted more and more people who
celebrated “alternative lifestyles” with bizarre costumes, primitive camps, and ample mindaltering substances. As the event grew, organizers moved it to the desert to accommodate
more attendees. Since that time, however, this countercultural festival has evolved into
something quite different: A huge annual retreat in the Black Rock Desert north of Reno,
Nevada, that attracts wealthy technology moguls who engage in one-upmanship to show
one another just how much money they can flaunt in the name of weirdness. Luminaries from
Facebook, Amazon, Google, Twitter, Uber, and other hot Silicon Valley outfits go glamping in
splendor with their entourages, and fees purportedly reach $25,000 per person. They arrive
in tricked-out RVs like the ones celebrities stay in on movie sets; these connect to create
private enclaves that other attendees can’t penetrate. Guests arrive on private jets and spend
the week dining on sushi and lobster as they “get back to nature” in style.22
Source: BLM Photo/Alamy.

products.23 The more mature a consumer gets in their luxury consumption
journey, the more they move away from highly visible markers of luxury with
visible logos (like Louis Vuitton, which is often associated with the over-the-top
conspicuous consumption of the nouveaux riches) toward designers that are more
obscure and brands without oversized logos (like a Visvim Ballistic backpack you
can snag for “only” about $600).

How Do We Measure Social Class?

The Canada Goose circular logo has
surfaced as a popular status symbol in
recent years.
Source: Copyright © 2022 Canada Goose Inc.

Given the complexities of social class, it’s not easy to quantify these categories.
That’s because social class is as much a state of being as it is of having: It’s not
(just) about money but also what we do with our money and how our social class
identity influences what we think is important, desirable, or just plain attractive.
Also, sociologists insist that social class is not about our own perceptions
of our prestige and standing in society but rather about the perceptions of
others. Standing in society is hard to measure objectively, so most sociologists
instead rely on proxies, or indicators that give an approximate indication of
one’s position. By far the most useful proxies of social class are education and
profession. Obviously, these go hand-in-hand—if you want to be a doctor, it helps
to go to medical school!

Chapter 13 • Social Class and Status

One proxy that’s gaining in popularity—at least among consumers—is a person’s
credit score; a measure based on their outstanding debt and payment histories that
banks use to qualify people for loans. That score has become a badge that many use
to “keep score” of a person’s worth. Indeed, some online dating sites even use credit
scores to screen potential suitors.24
Even among sociologists, there is not a lot of agreement on a standard classification
system for social class. Most experts account for a person’s highest level of education,
their occupation, and their annual household income and the number of earners who
contribute to that income. In recognition that social class tends to be “inherited” from
one’s parents, some social class classifications also account for the education and
occupation of the parents. Others deduce class level from surrogates of family income,
education, parent’s occupation, lifestyle, and cultural factors.25 These are surrogate
indicators because they rely on a person’s own perception of where they stand in
society. For instance, a recent consumer research study asked participants to indicate
how they perceived their position relative to others on a 10-rung ladder in terms of
income, education, and job status.26
Similarly to this approach, researchers trained more in the psychology of social
class often directly ask people to provide indicators of their own socioeconomic status.
These measures of subjective socioeconomic status assess perceived social class and
are better suited for psychological research that tackles the impact of one’s perceived
social standing on psychological functioning and behavior.27 In other words, it’s as
or more important to understand how a customer perceives their own social standing
than it is to apply an objective measure of income.28
OBJECTIVE 13-2
Describe how
consumption
contributes to
movements within
and across social
class structures.

Social Class Structures
In virtually every context, some people rank higher than
others—even if they just have a larger number of Twitter
followers. Patterns of social arrangements evolve whereby
some members get more resources than others by virtue of
their relative standing, power, or control in the group.29

Social Stratification
The process of social stratification refers to this creation of artificial divisions that allow
us to understand the structure of a society, the relative size of the different socioeconomic
groups, and the types of consumer behavior that are prevalent in each stratum.30
Way back in 1941, the sociologist W. Lloyd Warner proposed the most influential
classification of U.S. class structure. Warner identified six social classes that we can
represent on a continuum anchored at one end by lower lower and at the other by
upper upper.31
Other social scientists have proposed variations on this system over the years, but
Warner’s six levels roughly summarize the way we still think about class, even though
the number of categories and the proportion of consumers who “fall” into each category
fluctuates over time and around the world. For example, a recent study of over nine million
British consumers adapted Bourdieu’s work to further distinguish among social classes.
The researchers identified seven main strata that characterize U.K. consumers today32:
1. Precariat (or precarious proletariat), who make up 15 percent of the population.
Its members earn just £8,000 in yearly household income (about $10,000) after tax
and are extremely unlikely to go on to higher education, with just one in 30 having
a university qualification. Most experience a high degree of economic insecurity.

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2. Emergent service workers are a new, young urban group that is relatively poor
(yearly household income of £21,000, or about $26,000) but has high social and
cultural capital. They are the youngest group, with a mean age of 34 and a high
proportion of ethnic minority members.
3. Traditional working class, who are described as not completely deprived despite
scoring low on all forms of capital. Their average yearly household income is
only around £13,000 (about $16,000) but its members tend to have properties
with reasonably high values because they are, on average, aged 66. The category,
making up just 14 percent of the total population, has a high number of traditional
working class occupations such as truck drivers, cleaners and electricians.
4. New affluent workers, who are a young, socially and culturally active group with
middling levels of economic capital. They tend to come from nonmiddle-class
families, and work in a variety of white-collar and blue-collar jobs, largely in the
private sector and in customer facing occupations, such as sales. This group is
economically secure without being very well off.
5. Technical middle class, who are a small, distinctive new class group which is
relatively prosperous, with yearly household incomes of £38,000 (about $47,000),
good savings and home ownership. Its members have primarily used their scientific and technical skills to gain reasonably secure and well-rewarded work, but
they are socially and culturally disengaged.
6. Established middle class, who are the largest group with high scores on economic,
social, and cultural capital. Comprising a quarter of the population, it averages
£47,000 (about $58,000) in yearly household income and exhibits some “highbrow” tastes. Engineers and nurses tend to be in this category.
7. Elite, who are a small but powerful group (6 percent of the population) whose
members have extensive social contacts, are educated at top universities, and
have average savings of more than £140,000 (about $173,000). Professions in
this group include CEOs, marketing directors, and dentists.
As in the U.K., most societies exhibit a structure, or status hierarchy, in which
some members are better off than others. The better-off members may have more
authority or power, or other members may simply like or respect them. Because a
person’s occupation links strongly to their use of leisure time, allocation of family
resources, aesthetic preferences, and political orientation, many social scientists
consider it the single best indicator of social class.
Given the important role of education and profession in
determining social class, occupational prestige is one way
we evaluate how “rank” compared to others. A typical ranking
includes a variety of professional and business occupations
at the top (e.g., CEO of a large corporation, physician, and
college professor); whereas jobs that hover near the bottom
include shoeshiner, ditch digger, and garbage collector.
Hierarchies of occupational prestige tend to be quite stable
over time and across cultures. Researchers find similarities
in occupational prestige in countries as diverse as Brazil,
Ghana, Guam, Japan, and Turkey.33

Social Mobility
Occupational prestige plays an important role in defining a status
hierarchy.
Source: ESB Professional/Shutterstock.

Keep in mind that social class is a continuum, and our
standing in this social map can change as a function of life
events, many of them consumption related. For instance,

Chapter 13 • Social Class and Status

gaining more education, as Mariela did, allows us to access occupations with greater
prestige. These movements along the social class continuum are referred to as social
mobility.35
According to another prominent sociologist, Max Weber, the very definition of
social class should incorporate the idea of social mobility. Weber defined social class
as “a cluster of class situations which are linked together by virtue of the fact that they
involve common mobility chances, either within the career of individuals or across
the generations.”36 According to Weber, individuals have higher mobility chances
within social class groups—that is, horizontal mobility—than between social class
groups—that is, upward or downward mobility.
Also remember that movement can happen in several directions. Horizontal
mobility occurs when a person moves from one position to another that’s roughly
equivalent in social status; for instance, a nurse becomes an elementary school teacher.
Downward mobility is, of course, movement none of us wants, but unfortunately, we
observe this pattern often, as people find themselves in precarious situations and may
go on welfare rolls or join the ranks of the homeless. By one estimate, over ½ million
Americans are homeless.38 We will discuss the rise of poverty in the last section of
this chapter.
By contrast, upward mobility reflects a movement upward on the social ladder.
Two factors that contribute to upward mobility are increases in educational attainment
and a shift in women’s roles:39
1. Although picking up the tab for college often entails great sacrifice, it still pays
off in the long run. The college wage premium, which describes the gap between
what workers with a college degree earn compared with those without one, continues to grow. The Federal Reserve Board estimates that during a lifetime on
average a person with a degree will earn $830,000 more than someone with just
a high school diploma.40 On average, young workers with high school diplomas
but no higher education credential earn $30,000 per year, while recent college
graduates earn $52,000 per year. This gap grew even larger since the start of the
COVID-19 pandemic. A caveat here: Average salaries obviously depend a lot
on the field of study a person chooses. But in addition, there are also very large
racial differences for college graduates. For example, between 2000 and 2018 at
every level of educational achievement, white workers had higher incomes than
Latino/a and black workers.41
2. Mothers with preschool children are the fastest-growing segment of working
people. Furthermore, many of them work in high-paying occupations, such as
medicine and architecture, which men used to dominate. Unfortunately, the
female-to-male earnings ratio shows that their compensation continues to lag
behind that of their male counterparts. When you compare all male and female
workers, in 2022 women earned 82 cents for every dollar men earned. The good
news: The “controlled gender pay gap,” which directly compares men and women
who have similar job titles, education, years of experience, industry, and hours
worked, shows that women earn 99 cents for every dollar that men make.42 The
problem is getting women into those comparable positions!
Despite the well-deserved reputation of the United States as the “land of
opportunity,” social mobility today is a harder climb in the United States than in
many other developed economies. One widely cited report, for example, found
that the economic advantage of having an affluent father is much more likely to
influence the fortune of his son in the United States than in most other Western
countries.43

403

Buying, Having, Being
Understand Consumers’
Social Class Orientation to
Develop Relevant Marketing
Messages
Given that social class is
characterized by a set of values and
beliefs, it makes sense that people
respond to marketing messages
and engage in consumption
activities differently as a function of
their class. Researchers found that
understanding the different values
and priorities between workingclass and middle-class consumers
leads to making better choices in
marketing communications.34
A study that analyzed the
contents of ads targeted to different
social classes revealed how
messages can address varying
priorities. One ad for an expensive
Cadillac depicts a successful
executive who walks through his
luxurious house as he proclaims,
“You work hard, you create your
own luck, and you’ve got to believe
anything is possible.” The man is
the sole focus of attention for 50
out of 60 seconds in the ad. In
contrast, every scene in an ad for an
expensive Chevrolet Malibu portrays
interactions between people, such
as when a son sits with his father
at a diner or a group of friends go
to the beach. The narrator says,
“We don’t worry about the opening
bell; we’re trying to make the
school bell” and that the “corner
booth beats corner office every
day.” Of the ad’s 30 seconds, more
than 25 depict close relationships.
Both messages feature attractive
people and environments, but the
consumers they target differ quite a
bit in terms of the priorities the ads
communicate.

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The World Economic Forum recently ranked 82 countries using five indicators
of social mobility: healthcare, education, tech access, work opportunities, and
social protection. All the countries with the highest rankings are in northern Europe
(Denmark is #1). The U.S. ranked #27; the report noted that more than 90 percent
of Americans born in the 1940s earned more than their parents, but that number has
dropped to 50 percent today.44
Even in countries like India, where status hierarchies have been in place for
hundreds of years, we can see changes brewing. For instance, researchers who
conducted an ethnographic study of a village in North India found that power dynamics
disrupted the old order, which was based on a closed caste system that prevented
upward mobility.45 The research showed that in India and other industrializing
countries, changes in consumption and access in the markets affect the social class
structure in fundamental ways and offer opportunities for those who previously did
not have them.

Some Key Factors That Influence Consumer Behavior
within and across Social Classes
Social class impacts how we understand ourselves, including what we think it means
to be a good, moral, or successful person, and what we believe is ideal, expected,
and possible for us. Thus, individuals in different social classes have distinct ways of
thinking, feeling, and acting.46

Empowerment

The trend toward more renting or borrowing as opposed to
owning pricey goods further erodes our ability to distinguish
among members of social classes just by seeing what they own
or wear. For instance, we can now “rent the runway” and wear
designer clothes for a weekend, so expensive threads no longer
are only accessible to people with deep pockets.48
Source: Kelly Sullivan/Getty Images.

One study that looked at social class and how it relates to
consumers’ feelings of empowerment reported that lowerclass consumers are less likely to feel they have the power to
affect their outcomes in life. Respondents varied from those
who were what the researcher calls potent actors (those
who believe they can take actions that affect their world)
to impotent reactors (those who feel they are at the mercy
of their economic situations). This orientation influenced
consumption behaviors; for example, the professionals in
the study who were likely to be potent actors set themselves
up for financial opportunity and growth. They took broad
perspectives on investing and planned their budgets
strategically.47

Consumer Confidence

Our expectations about the future affect our current spending,
and these individual decisions add up to affect a society’s
economic well-being.49 Consumers’ beliefs about what the
future holds are an indicator of consumer confidence. This measure reflects how
optimistic or pessimistic people are about the future health of the economy and
how they predict they’ll fare down the road. These beliefs are important because
they influence how much money people pump into the economy when they make
discretionary purchases.
Many businesses take forecasts about anticipated spending seriously, and
periodic surveys “take the pulse” of the U.S. consumer. The Conference Board
conducts a survey of consumer confidence, as does the Survey Research Center at

Chapter 13 • Social Class and Status

the University of Michigan. The following are the types of questions they pose to
consumers:50

•
•
•
•

Would you say that you and your family are better off or worse off financially
than a year ago?
Will you be better off or worse off a year from now?
Is now a good time or a bad time for people to buy major household items, such
as furniture or a refrigerator?
Do you plan to buy a car in the next year?

When people are somewhat pessimistic about their prospects and about the
state of the economy, as they are now, they tend to cut back on what they spend and
take on less debt. When consumers feel optimistic about the future, they reduce the
amount they save, they take on more debt, and they splurge on discretionary items.
A range of factors influence the overall savings rate, including individual consumers’
optimism or pessimism about their personal circumstances, such as a sudden increase
in personal wealth as the result of an inheritance or financial uncertainty due to global
events like the pandemic.52

Old Money versus New Money
People who have had money for a long time tend to use their fortunes a lot differently.
Old money families (e.g., the Rockefellers, DuPonts, Fords, and others) live primarily
on inherited funds. One commentator called this group “the class in hiding.”53
Following the Great Depression of the 1930s, moneyed families became more discreet
about exhibiting their wealth. Many fled from mansions, such as those we still find in
Manhattan (the renovated Vanderbilt mansion is now Ralph Lauren’s flagship store),
to hideaways in Virginia, Connecticut, and New Jersey.
Mere wealth is not sufficient to achieve social prominence in these circles. You
also need to demonstrate a family history of public service and philanthropy, and
tangible markers of these contributions often enable donors to achieve a kind of
immortality (e.g., Rockefeller University, Carnegie Hall, or the Whitney Museum).54
“Old money” consumers distinguish among themselves in terms of ancestry and
lineage rather than wealth.55 Furthermore, they’re secure in their status. In a sense,
they have trained their whole lives to be rich.
In contrast to people with old money, today there are many people—including
high-profile billionaires, such as Elon Musk, Mark Zuckerberg, and Sir Richard

405

Buying, Having, Being
A Cosmopolitan Is Not Just a
Cocktail!

Source: Ron Zmiri/Shutterstock.

Cosmopolitanism is an aspect
of worldview that is starting to
receive more attention by consumer
behavior researchers, who define a
cosmopolitan (not to be confused
with the popular cocktail) as
someone who tries to be open
to the world and who strives for
diverse experiences51. This is a
quality that used to be linked to the
wealthy, but now—with improved
access to media and, of course, the
internet—it’s no longer necessary
to be rich to express an interest
in a range of culturally diverse
products. Cosmopolitans respond
well to brands that have a “worldly”
(i.e., international or global) image.
They think it’s important to own
consumer electronics products
and are more likely to engage in
social media activities. A scale to
identify these consumers includes
statements like these:

• I enjoy exchanging ideas with
•
•

people from other cultures or
countries.
I am interested in learning more
about people who live in other
countries.
I find people from other cultures
stimulating.

The “rags to riches” story still
resonates with many tech companies,
especially those with humble
beginnings. The garage where the
Hewlett-Packard company started is a
museum today.
Source: Michael Vi/Shutterstock.

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• Belonging

Buying, Having, Being
It’s Good to Be King
Some societies acknowledge class
differences more than others. Class
consciousness is an awareness
of one’s place in a system of social
classes. In countries with “royalty,”
like the United Kingdom, the royals
get their social status by blood or
marriage. The royal families play
mostly a symbolic and ceremonial
role rather than a political one, but
their consumption choices are
influential because their choices of
what to wear and how to act are
displayed conspicuously.58 The
influence of the royals is fueled
by consumers’ interest in and
aspiration to engage in lifestyles that
they see as the highest social strata
of society.59
Likely because it is a monarchy,
the United Kingdom is an extremely
class-conscious country, and,
at least until recently, inherited
position and family background
largely predetermined consumption
patterns. Members of the upper
class, including the royal family,
were educated at schools such as
Eton and Oxford. But as the findings
of the Great British Class Survey
showed, even in the traditionally
aristocratic society of the U.K., the
dominance of inherited wealth has
begun to fade as entrepreneurs like
Sir Richard Branson (of the Virgin
empire) redefine the economy.

Branson—who are “the working wealthy.”56 The Horatio Alger myth, where a person
goes from “rags to riches” through hard work and a bit of luck, is still a powerful force
in our society. That’s why a commercial that showed the actual garage where the two
cofounders of Hewlett-Packard first worked struck a chord in so many.
Although many people do in fact become “self-made millionaires,” they often
encounter a problem (although not the worst problem one could think of!) after they
have become wealthy and change their social status. The label nouveaux riches
(French for the “new rich”) describes consumers who recently achieved their wealth
and who don’t have the benefit of years of training to learn how to spend it. The term
nouveaux riches is often used in a derogatory way because those with newly acquired
wealth tend to spend in rather ostentatious, flashy ways. In other words, behaviors
and values of the new money does not reflect the tastes and values of high status.
That helps to explain, for example, why Amazon founder Jeff Bezos (definitely a
new money guy) caught flack when he recently bought the Warner estate in Beverly
Hills for $165 million. This “fixer-upper” features a 13,600-square-foot mansion, two
guesthouses, a pool, and a tennis court.57

OBJECTIVE 13-3
Explain how we
consume to communicate our social
standing to others.

Social Status and Consumption

We saw in Chapter 9 that social comparison frequently
occurs when we assess how we stand compared with others
around us. This process also is key to understanding our
perceptions of social status in a society. This term refers
to where we think we stand in a society, and to assess that standing, we compare
ourselves and what we have with others and what they have, or with our own situation
in earlier times.
For example, when consumers compare their financial situation with others’, they
may get a sense of financial deprivation, or the sense that they don’t have as much
money as their peers. Because this is a relative judgment, a person who is merely “rich”
rather than “wealthy” may ironically feel worse-off than another who objectively has
a modest income but is doing well compared to their friends. Researchers found that
the inferiority and unpleasant emotions that financial deprivation triggers motivate
consumers to look for scarce goods rather than abundant goods.60 This form of coping
helps compensate for a sense of social inferiority (cf. our earlier discussion about the
status anxieties of the nouveaux riches).

To Whom Do We Compare Ourselves?
Of course, the answer we get when we want to know how we’re doing relative to others
depends a lot on just whom we are comparing ourselves to—and this applies to social
class as well. When we engage in upward comparison, we compare ourselves to
aspirational social reference groups, but when we engage in downward comparison,
we look at those less fortunate than us. The popular phrase “keeping up with the
Joneses” refers to a desire to compare your standard of living with your neighbors’—
and exceed it if you can.
So, it’s not necessarily about what you buy, own, or use, but rather how you stand
relative to your neighbors, friends, or colleagues. We see this comparison at work
when we look at ever-popular loyalty programs (e.g., when airlines award special
status based on the number of miles you fly). In a study, subjects were assigned “gold
status” either in a program where gold was the only special tier or in a program where
there was also a silver tier. Although both groups were “gold,” those in the program

Chapter 13 • Social Class and Status

that also offered a lower-level tier felt better about their gold status than those in the
program that did not have a lower tier.61 Same objective outcome, but oh so different
in meaning.
A recent study conducted in South Africa conceptualized well-being in terms of
an aspirations gap, which is the relative difference between one’s aspired standard of
living and that which they have attained.62 The researchers compared these indicators
among three distinct areas of the country:
1. Areas that experienced rising inequality and average annual growth in real per
capita incomes of 5 percent or more in five years (high growth);
2. Areas that experienced declining inequality and high growth; and
3. Areas whose average annual income grew less than 5 percent in five years (low
growth).
The results show evidence of the “hedonic treadmill”: No matter how much
material life conditions change, one’s well-being tends to revert to its previous
baseline. Second, their study finds evidence of aspirations failure: Living in a highgrowth area can lead people to form lofty but unattainable goals, which can create
frustration and discouragement when the goals do not come to fruition. Again, it’s not
just what you have. It’s what you have compared with others.
This comparison tendency is so important that some researchers measure what
they call subjective socioeconomic status—a person’s judgment of their own status,
whether or not that assessment necessarily corresponds to reality—by simply asking
people to indicate the degree to which they perceive themselves or their households
to be worse off or better off than most other people or households.63 Keep in mind the
potential for distortions in these judgments. For example, respondents may experience
the FOMO (“fear of missing out”) phenomenon we discussed in Chapter 10, which is
partly fueled by the (probably mistaken) conclusion that “everyone else” has a better
life—at least based on their social media posts.

Status Symbols
As we saw at the beginning of the chapter, Mariela is moving up in the world. And,
like many of us, she wants to let others know about her progress—in her case, by
toting around an expensive handbag.
Because products and services link so closely to social class, they often play an
important role as status symbols—possessions (e.g., luxury brand items) or services
(e.g., spa treatments or personal shoppers) that communicate wealth or prestige to
others. Some refer to our modern world as “status obsessed” because we are constantly
bombarded with status-related images and posts from peers and strangers alike on
social media.66
Like it or not, a major motivation to buy for many consumers is not just to enjoy
their purchases but to let others know they can afford them. Status seeking is a
significant source of motivation to procure products and services that we hope will let
others know we’ve “made it.” A study demonstrated how people turn to status symbols
to prop up their self-concepts, especially when they feel badly or uncertain about other
aspects of their lives. When subjects in auctions were made to feel that they had little
power, they spent more to purchase items to compensate for this deficit.67
Research shows that people who identify with a relatively low-status category
value choices they associate with high status to enhance social standing.68 This
desire to compensate can ironically work against these individuals in the long run.
For example, nutritionists point to supersized food portions and mega-sized cups of

407

Buying, Having, Being
Is “Going Green” a Fashion
Statement?
According to optimal
distinctiveness theory, all of us
experience tension between a need
for assimilation (to fit in with others)
and a need for differentiation (to
be distinct from others). Although
everyone experiences this conflict,
researchers find that lower-class
consumers have a dominant need
to assimilate, while higher-class
consumers have a dominant
need to differentiate. Middleclass consumers have a strong
motivation to do both, and thus
are most attracted to products
that can satisfy both motivations
simultaneously.
One route to “have your cake
and eat it too” may be via the
purchase of green products. It
seems that at least for some people,
choosing earth-friendly options
accomplishes two (contradictory)
goals: Green products facilitate
inclusion and assimilation (by
making one seem nicer, more
caring, more altruistic, etc.) but also
self-promotion and differentiation
from others (by making one seem
on top of “correct” practices and
sophisticated, progressive, or even
wealthy enough to afford some
green products).64 In Chapter
9, we talked about impression
management (strategically
displaying products, etc., to convey
a desirable image to others), and
that’s really relevant here because
some consumers may go out of
their way to let others know just
how environmentally aware they
are by conspicuously displaying
their electric cars, compost bins,
or recycled clothing. By the way,
social scientists describe this kind of
impression management as virtue
signaling, the practice of publicly
expressing sentiments intended to
show one’s good character or moral
uprightness.65

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sugary drinks as prime culprits in the obesity epidemic we see in the United States.
A research project demonstrated an obstacle to battling this problem: Underprivileged
consumers view larger-sized portions as status symbols. When study respondents were
made to feel they had less power, they chose bigger food portions to compensate. They
were even more likely to do so when their choices were public. The researchers note
the irony of this situation: The short-term status display may ultimately lead to even
lower status because of the stigma of obesity in our society.69

Conspicuous Consumption

Buying, Having, Being
Even if You Don’t Have It,
Flaunt It?
Just as we might judge a book by
its cover, we tend to judge people’s
social class by what they buy and
how much they spend. But that
would be a flawed assessment of
social class. Some people spend
above their means as a form of
impression management that
makes others believe they have the
resources to splurge even when
(ironically) these excesses may
decrease their overall standard of
living if they reach the point where
they can’t keep up the illusion
anymore. Researchers addressed
this tendency in a measure that
they literally call “spending implies
wealth.”73 The scale to assess
this behavior includes items like
“I think people who spend more are
wealthier than people who spend
less.” Based on an analysis of over
two million transaction records from
the bank accounts of over two
thousand British users of a money
management app, connected to
self-reported financial well-being,
they found that people who believe
more strongly that spending implies
wealth also spend their own money
more lavishly and as a result end
up more financially vulnerable. So,
don’t always believe every status
symbol you see.

The social analyst Thorstein Veblen first discussed the motivation to consume for
the sake of consuming at the turn of the 20th century. For Veblen, we buy things to
create invidious distinction; this means that we use our purchases to inspire envy in
others through our display of wealth or power. Veblen coined the term conspicuous
consumption to refer to people’s desire to provide prominent visible evidence of
their ability to afford luxury goods (some analysts today also refer to this as status
signaling). The material excesses of his time motivated Veblen’s outlook. Veblen
wrote in the era of the “Robber Barons,” where the likes of J. P. Morgan, Henry
Clay Frick, and William Vanderbilt built massive financial empires and flaunted their
wealth as they competed to throw the most lavish party. This is not unlike Elon Musk’s
sending a Tesla into space! Some of these events were legendary, as this account
describes:
There were tales, repeated in the newspapers, of dinners on horseback; of
banquets for pet dogs; of hundred-dollar bills folded into guests’ dinner napkins; of a hostess who attracted attention by seating a chimpanzee at her table;
of centerpieces in which lightly clad living maidens swam in glass tanks,
or emerged from huge pies; of parties at which cigars were ceremoniously
lighted with flaming banknotes of large denominations.70
Consumers engage in conspicuous consumption to display status markers, yet the
prominence of these markers varies from products with large recognizable emblems
to those with no logo at all. Those “in the know” often can recognize a subtle status
marker when another member of their elite group displays it, such as the distinctive
design of a bag or watch—these are “quiet signals.” In contrast, some people may feel
the need to hit others over the head with their bling; they use “loud signals.”
One set of researchers labels these differences brand prominence. They assigned
consumers to one of four consumption groups (patricians, parvenus, poseurs, and
proletarians) based on their wealth and need for status. When they looked at data on
luxury goods, the authors found different classes gravitated toward different types
of brand prominence. Brands like Louis Vuitton, Gucci, and Mercedes vary in terms
of how blatant their status appeals (e.g., prominent logos) are in advertisements and
on the products themselves—or in other words, in the type of status signaling they
employ. Status signaling is especially common for those individuals who have a
higher power distance belief—that is, those who have a higher acceptance of and
tendency to endorse power or status disparities; they are more likely to consume
products, such as a fancy television for their living room, that raise their relative
status.71
Thinking back to our discussion about “old money” compared with “new money,”
for example, it’s not surprising that those who are wealthier and don’t have a high need
for status (patricians) rely on “quiet signals” and likely will be put off by excessive
displays. They do not need products with explicit logos and other highly visible status
cues.72 Figure 13.2 summarizes these four types and provides one set of contrasting
products the researchers used in their study: quiet versus loud Gucci sunglasses.

Chapter 13 • Social Class and Status

Patricians signal to each
other. They use quiet
signals.

Parvenu
Parvenus associate with
other haves and want to
dissociate themselves from
have-nots. They use loud
signals.

Proletarian
Proletarians do not
engage in signaling.

Poseur
Poseurs aspire to be haves.
They mimic the parvenus.

Low

High

Patrician

Wealth

Haves

Havenots

409

Need for Status
Denote associations
Denote disassociations

Figure 13.2 A Typology of Status Signaling
“Quiet” sunglasses (left) do not include a prominent designer logo,
while “loud” sunglasses (right) do.
Source: Young Jee Han, Joseph C. Nunes, and Xavier Drèze, “Signaling Status with
Luxury Goods: The Role of Brand Prominence,” Journal of Marketing 74 (July 2010):
15–30, from Figure 2.

Status Pivoting

Counterfeit luxury goods are a major headache
for companies that cater to high-end customers.
In addition to creating financial losses for these
companies, the fake items may dim a brand’s
luster when potential consumers of the brand see
the “wrong” kind of people using their products.
Reverse signaling refers to the type of signals
we infer from associations between a product or
brand and people of a given social class. Research
illustrates that counterfeit items tend to cheapen a
brand’s image only among people who can afford to
buy the real version. People from lower classes who
see someone using a counterfeit product are more
attracted to the genuine luxury brand regardless of
the social class of the user, while people in higher
classes are less attracted to the genuine luxury brand
when they see lower classes using the counterfeit.74

Upward comparison can also make us worried about our social status,
a condition called status threat. Comparing ourselves to people with a
higher status tends to motivate us to emulate their consumption choices
by seeking out luxury or high-status products. Recent research reveals
that another way to cope with status threat is by status pivoting, which
also involves signaling our status and success—but doing so in alternative
Source: Neil Setchfield/Alamy Stock Photo.
domains.75
In one of their studies, the researchers surveyed 73 marathon runners
during the Boston Marathon pre-race exposition. They put half of the participants in a
position of status threat from upward comparison to wealthy individuals by asking the
runners to think of someone they knew who had a very expensive car and to describe
that car. The other half did not get any such prompts. To assess the difference between
the two conditions, the researchers measured participants’ intention to use and display
a “26.2 Boston Marathon” sticker that respondents received for finishing the race.
They found that those in the status threat condition were significantly more interested
in displaying the sticker and concluded that this was a type of status pivot.

Status and Parody Displays
It’s getting more difficult to clearly link certain brands or stores with a specific
class. That’s because a lot of “affordable luxuries” now are within reach of many

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consumers who could not have acquired them in the past.
Think of college women you may know who buy pricey bags
from Louis Vuitton or Coach, and then eat ramen noodles
for dinner. To make matters even more confusing, a wealthy
family may well buy its wine at Costco and its bath towels
at Target—and proudly gloat about the deals they snagged.76
As the competition to accumulate status symbols
escalates, sometimes the best tactic is to switch gears and
go in reverse. One way to do this is to deliberately avoid
status symbols—that is, to seek status by mocking it.
Social scientists call this sophisticated form of conspicuous
consumption parody display.77 Hence, the popularity of
old, ripped blue jeans (or more likely, the ones companies
stonewash and treat so that they look old and ripped), “utility”
vehicles such as Jeeps among the upper classes, and brands
with a strong blue-collar heritage, like Von Dutch truckers’
hats and Red Wing boots.

The Meaning of “Luxury”
Luxury bags and watches. Luxury townhomes. Luxury
resorts. Luxury spas. We use the word all the time, but just
what does it mean? SRI Consulting Business Intelligence
divides consumers into three groups based on their attitudes toward luxury brands:

Did you get a discount because they’re ripped? “Damaged” jeans
are one form of parody display.
Source: Eugenia Porechenskaya/Shutterstock

1. Luxury is functional: These consumers use their money to buy things that will
last and have enduring value. They conduct extensive prepurchase research and
make logical decisions rather than emotional or impulsive choices.
2. Luxury is a reward: These consumers tend to be younger than the first group
but older than the third group. They use luxury goods to say, “I’ve made it.” The
desire to be successful and to demonstrate their success to others motivates these
consumers to purchase conspicuous luxury items, such as high-end automobiles
and homes in exclusive communities.
3. Luxury is indulgence: This group is the smallest of the three and tends to include
younger consumers and slightly more males than the other two groups. To these consumers, the purpose of owning luxury is to be extremely lavish and self-indulgent.
This group is willing to pay a premium for goods that express their individuality and
make others take notice. They have a more emotional approach to luxury spending
and are more likely than the other two groups to make impulse purchases.78

The Evolutionary Perspective on Luxury
As these three types of purchasers remind us, luxury products serve many purposes:
They boost consumers’ self-esteem, allow them to express their identity, and signal
social status. In line with the evolutionary perspective, which examines human
behavior through the lens of biological evolution and natural selection, researchers
have found that luxury products also play important signaling functions in heterosexual
relationships: Men use conspicuous luxury products to attract mates, whereas women
use such products to deter female rivals.79 They found that when women feel that other
women threaten their romantic relationships, they are motivated to guard their mate
and they do so by displaying lavish possessions. Flaunting designer handbags and
shoes deters other women from poaching a relationship partner.

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411

To document this effect, the researchers showed female participants one of two
versions of a short story (about 800 words long). The story placed them in either a
mate guarding mode (they imagine they’re at a party and notice someone flirting
with their date) or in mate attracting mode (they imagine they are single and have
some romantic encounters with an attractive man). Then, the women considered
four different products (e.g., a sports car), picked their favorite luxury brand in each
category, and drew each logo as large as they wanted on a picture of the product.
The extent of logo signaling was measured by the size of the logos the women drew.
Sure enough, on average the women in the first condition were more likely to draw
a larger logo.
OBJECTIVE 13-4
Discuss the ways
organizations are
starting to work
toward greater
social justice to
combat inequality.

Social Inequality, Poverty, and
Social Justice

Today one of the biggest issues we hear about is income
inequality—that is, the extent to which resources are
distributed unevenly within a population. One consequence
of rising inequality is that more consumers worry about
“falling behind” if a breadwinner loses their job or if the family can no longer afford
the cost of housing, transportation, and other necessities. These concerns may be well
founded: In 2020, there were 37.2 million Americans living below the poverty level.80
In the last decade, the label one percenter entered our
nation’s vocabulary. Beginning with the Occupy Wall Street
movement during which protestors camped out in cities
across the United States, the spotlight has been on the people
who earn the top one percent of income in our country. The
total wealth of this elite group reached a record $45.9 trillion
(about one-third of the nation’s wealth) at the end of 2021—
and this amount increased by more than a third during the
pandemic.81
One indicator of income inequality is the CEO pay ratio,
which compares the salary of a company’s chief executive to
the earnings of a typical employee. In 2021, S&P 500 CEOs
averaged $18.3 million in compensation—for a ratio of 324
(324 times the median worker’s pay at the same company).
Way back in 1965, the ratio was only 20, and as recently as
Income inequality is emerging as one of the most important issues
2018, it was “only” 140.82 It’s good to be the CEO, but does
for many people.
this affluence come at the expense of other employees?
Source: Kevork Djansezian/Getty Images.

The Bottom of the Pyramid: Low-Income Consumers
Roughly four billion people in the world today are classified as “bottom of the
pyramid”; they live on less than $2 per day. Until recently, most marketers largely
ignored these huge numbers of people because they couldn’t envision how they would
make any money from them. But today, many organizations have woken up to the
huge potential of the low-income consumer market. The logic is simple: True, a poor
person can’t afford to buy much, but when you multiply that consumer by billions of
others, the numbers start to add up. Now low-income consumer markets worldwide
are worth at least $5 trillion per year.83
Low-income families purchase staples—such as milk, orange juice, and tea—at
the same rates as average-income families. Minimum wage–level households spend

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TAILOR OFFER TO MARKET

RESTRUCTURE VALUE CHAIN

• Promote offerings through
mix of outlets
• Form partnerships with
public and nongovernmental
organizations

AWARENESS

AFFORDABILITY

• Reduce packaging size for
low price per unit
• Maintain operations on zero
(or near-zero) working capital
• Leverage scale effects and
sourcing network

4 A’s
• Focus development on
customers
• Employ innovative thinking
to meet customer needs
• Establish local R&D

ACCEPTABILITY

AVAILABILITY

• Reduce cost
• Shortern supply chain
• Select and support
retailers
• Devise stocking strategy
• Localize sourcing

Figure 13.3 The 4 A’s of addressing low-income consumers

Source: Jamie Anderson and Niels Billou, “Serving the World’s Poor: Innovation at the Base of the Economic Pyramid,”
Journal of Business Strategy 28, no. 2: 14–21, reprinted in A. T. Kearney, Serving the Low-Income Consumer: How to
Tackle This Mostly Ignored Market, 2011.

more than average on out-of-pocket healthcare costs, rent,
and the food they eat at home.84 Low-income consumers,
especially those with children in the household, often shop on
a budget and are unsurprisingly more likely to use coupons.85
Figure 13.3 summarizes the “4 A’s” framework of awareness,
affordability, acceptability, and availability to help marketers
make needed changes to provide for the needs of low-income
consumers around the world.

The Role of Consumption in Social
Justice: Walk the Walk
Way back in Chapter 2, we discussed the “consumer rights”
that (ideally) everyone is entitled to (e.g., the right to safety,
etc.). Although we’ve certainly witnessed a lot of changes
The digital divide refers to how access to technology is still
(most for the better) over the past decades when it comes to
restricted for many people because of income. Not surprisingly,
consumer rights, it may be fair to say that social justice issues
affluent people are much more likely to own cell phones,
computers, e-readers, and other entertainment devices.86 In
have never been more front-and-center than they are now as
addition, there are systematic differences in health as a function
we lick our wounds after the pandemic. Whether it’s Black
of socioeconomic status, with higher rates of disease and greater
Lives Matter, the #MeToo movement, or even just more
mortality amongst individuals with the lowest levels of education
transparency about who made the products we use and what
and income.87 Many advocates argue that historical, legal, and
goes into them, consumers are scrutinizing the organizations
political processes that have acted selectively upon this social
class group have accentuated these health disparities.
they buy from as never before. Indeed, the National Retail
Source: Deshakalyan Chowdhury/AFP/Getty Images.
Federation reports that purpose-driven consumers, who
choose products and brands based on how well they align with their values, now
represent the largest segment of consumers (44 percent).88
But before we conclude that a focus on social justice issues is the key to marketing
success today, let’s remember how crucial it is for marketers to “walk the walk” as

Chapter 13 • Social Class and Status

413

well as “talk the talk.” Unfortunately, some marketers still haven’t gotten that message
as they rush to proclaim how “woke” they are without really backing up their claims
(back in Chapter 2, we referred to this problem as “wokewashing”). As one executive
commented, “If you’re a brand celebrating International Women’s Day and you don’t
have any women on your board, that’s something that’s going to get noticed and called
out, and will end up being a negative versus a positive.”89

Social Responsibility
Consumption is often at the core of economic inequalities. For all the reasons we
discussed in this chapter, the consumption and status signals we get in the market
shape and sometimes bias our perceptions of economic inequalities as well as affect
the ways in which we cope with inequality (for instance with status pivoting).90
As we discussed in Chapter 2, marketers have an important responsibility when it
comes to communicating about their products and services so as not to accentuate
socioeconomic disparities.
Researchers from the transformative consumer research movement we discussed
in Chapter 2 identified six forms of consumption they deemed essential to maximize
human potential: subsistence, sound health, safety, sociality, sovereignty, and
spirituality. (Note: Not too surprisingly, these needs resemble those we discussed in the
Maslow’s hierarchy in Chapter 5.) To address social justice in the global marketplace
and create social change that eliminates or reduces inequalities, the researchers
propose programmatic responses across the main institutions in the market as well as
more cooperation among these domains: 91
1. Businesses can play a role in creating greater social justice through their efforts
in corporate social responsibility, by improving access to bottom-of-the-pyramid
consumers, and by investing in cause-related marketing.
2. Society can play its part in the formation of grassroots community organizations
and consumer movements that generate change.
3. The government can enact policy changes and put forth education efforts that
improve citizens’ opportunities for upward social mobility and offer safeguards
to those in precarious situations.
4. Non-profit organizations can fund and encourage social programs that address
and reduce social inequalities.

CHAPTER SUMMARY
Now that you have finished reading this chapter, you should
be able to:
1. Summarize how our consumption choices
are expressions of our taste and are strongly
influenced by our social class.
A consumer’s social class refers to their standing
in society. Factors including education, occupation,
and income determine the class to which we belong.
Virtually all groups make distinctions among members
in terms of relative superiority, power, and access to
valued resources. This social stratification creates a
status hierarchy in which consumers prefer some goods

to others. Although income is an important indicator
of social class, the relationship is far from perfect.
Factors such as place of residence, cultural interests,
and worldview also determine social class.
2. Describe how consumption contributes to movements within and across social class structures.
Social class is a continuum, and we can—as a function
of life events, many of them consumption-related—
move up and down along this continuum. For instance,
gaining more education allows us to access occupations
with greater prestige. These movements along the social
class continuum are referred to as social mobility.

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3. Explain how we consume to communicate our
social standing to others.
Social comparison occurs when we assess how we stand
compared to others around us. This process also is key to
understanding our perceptions of social status in a society:
We compare ourselves and what we have with others and
what they have, or with our own situation in earlier times.
Because products and services link so closely to social
class, they often play an important role as status symbols
in communicating wealth or prestige to others.

4. Discuss the ways organizations are starting to
work toward greater social justice to combat
inequality.
Purpose-driven consumers, who choose products
and brands based on how well they align with
their values, now represent the largest segment of
consumers.92 But, as marketers jump on the social
justice bandwagon, it’s crucial for them to “walk
the walk” as well as “talk the talk” when they align
themselves with causes.

KEY TERMS
Aspirational class, 398
Aspirations failure, 407
Aspirations gap, 407
Bottom of the pyramid, 411
Brand prominence, 408
CEO pay ratio, 411
Class consciousness, 406
College wage premium, 403
Conspicuous consumption, 408
Consumer confidence, 404
Cosmopolitanism, 405
Cultural capital, 397
Digital divide, 412
Downward comparison, 406
Downward mobility, 403
Embodied cultural capital, 397
Economic capital, 397
Evolutionary perspective, 410
Female-to-male earnings ratio, 403
Glamping, 400

Habitus, 398
Hedonic treadmill, 407
Homogamy, 396
Horizontal mobility, 403
Income inequality, 411
Invidious distinction, 408
Maturity, 399
Nouveaux riches, 406
Occupational prestige, 402
One percenter, 411
Online gated communities, 399
Optimal distinctiveness theory, 407
Parody display, 410
Power distance belief, 408
Proxies, 400
Purpose-driven consumers, 412
Reputation economy, 399
Reverse signaling, 409
Savings rate, 405
Social capital, 397

Social change, 413
Social class, 395
Social distinction, 398
Social mobility, 403
Social stratification, 401
Social status, 406
Status implies wealth, 408
Status hierarchy, 402
Status pivoting, 409
Status seeking, 407
Status signaling, 408
Status symbols, 407
Status threat, 409
Subjective socioeconomic status, 407
Symbolic capital, 396
Taste regime, 398
Upward comparison, 406
Upward mobility, 403
Virtue signaling, 407

REVIEW
13-1 How have women contributed to the overall rise in
income in our society?
13-2 How does consumer confidence influence consumer
behavior?
13-3 What is social class? Is it different from income? If
so, how?
13-4 Define social mobility, and describe the different
forms it takes.
13-5 What one variable is the best indicator of social class?
What are some other important indicators?

13-6 What is income inequality, and why is it a problem?
13-7 Why might a person’s social class not change when
they earn more money?
13-8 What are some of the problems we encounter when
we try to measure social class?
13-9 How do the worldviews of blue-collar and whitecollar consumers differ?
13-10 Describe the difference between a restricted and an
elaborated code. Give an example of each.

Chapter 13 • Social Class and Status

415

13-11 What is cultural capital, and how does a person accumulate it?

13-14 What is conspicuous consumption? Give a current
example.

13-12 How do you differentiate between “old money” versus “Nouveaux Riches” consumers?

13-15 What is a current example of parody display?

13-13 What roles do status symbols play in purchase
decisions?

13-16 What is wokewashing, and how does this practice
relate to brands that take a stand on social justice
issues?

CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CHALLENGE
DISCUSS

13-17 The comedian Groucho Marx famously commented,
“I’d never join a club that would have me as a member.” Some venues—such as exclusive websites,
nightclubs, etc.—carefully monitor participants to
screen out people who don’t “belong.” What do you
think of this practice?
13-18 Research finds that the social elite tend to be
omnivorous: They embrace and seek variety in all
forms of consumption, from music to food.93 But
being omnivorous is not just happening amongst
the elite. A sociological study compared American
consumers’ openness to different musical genres
between 1993 and 2012.94 Their study showed a
trend toward greater openness and acceptance of
diversity in music not just amongst the elites but
every education level and age group (especially
young people) in their large sample. If we continue
to see this kind of openness to new experiences, how
do you think that social change may affect the power
of social class in the coming years?
13-19 Sears, JC Penney, and Walmart tried hard in recent
years to upgrade their images and appeal to higherclass consumers. How successful have these efforts
been? Do you believe this strategy is wise?
13-20 What are some of the obstacles to measuring social
class today? Discuss some ways to get around these
obstacles.
13-21 How do you assign people to social classes, or do
you at all? What consumption cues do you use (e.g.,
clothing, speech, cars, and so on) to determine social
standing?
13-22 In today’s economy, it’s become somewhat vulgar
to flaunt your money—if you have any left. Do you
think this means that status symbols, like luxury
products, are passé? Why or why not?
13-23 Thorstein Veblen argued that men in the 19th century
used young, attractive women as “trophy wives”
to display their wealth. Is this argument still valid
today?

13-24 Research suggests that social class influences how
much compassion people show to others who need
help. For example, one study reported that luxury car
drivers were more likely to cut off other motorists
instead of waiting for their turn at the intersection.
Another showed that less affluent people are more
likely to agree with such statements as “I often notice
people who need help” and “It’s important to take
care of people who are vulnerable.” Other studies
have demonstrated that upper-class people are not as
good at recognizing others’ emotions. One explanation is that more resources provide a sense of independence; the less we must rely on others, the less we
care about their feelings.95 Do you agree that wealthy
people are less caring? Why or why not?
13-25 This chapter observes that some marketers find
“greener pastures” when they target low-income
people. How ethical is it to single out consumers who
cannot afford to waste their precious resources on discretionary items? Under what circumstances should we
encourage or discourage this segmentation strategy?
13-26 Some have referred to our modern world as “statusobsessed” because we are constantly bombarded
with images and posts of peers and strangers alike
on social media, such as Facebook, LinkedIn, and
Twitter.96 Do you agree?
13-27 The chapter discussed the evolutionary perspective.
It is important to note that this viewpoint attracts a
lot of debate, sometimes heated and biting, among
consumer researchers.97 The advocates argue that
deep-seated evolutionary motives influence much
modern behavior, in particular protection motives,
such as avoiding physical harm or disease, and social
motives, such as affiliation, acceptance, and status;
acquiring and keeping a mate; and caring for family.98 The critics argue that it is overly simplistic to
view humans as wired to have survival or reproduction instincts and that our genes and predispositions
cannot in and of themselves explain many of our
behaviors.99 What do you think?

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13-28 Status symbols are products, such as Rolex watches
or expensive sports cars, that we value because they
show others how much money or prestige we have.
Do you believe that your peer group values status
symbols? Why or why not? If yes, what are the products that you think are status symbols for consumers
your age? Do you agree with the assertion that a cell
phone is a status symbol for many young people?

13-29 As we continue to emerge from the Great Recession,
many people live frugally; they cut back on visits
to restaurants, buy fewer high-end clothes and other
luxury goods, and hold onto their cars much longer.
Are we witnessing a long-term shift in consumer
behavior, or do you believe this is just a temporary
situation?

APPLY

13-30 Compile a list of occupations and ask a sample of students in a variety of majors (both business and nonbusiness) to rank the prestige of these jobs. Can you
detect any differences in these rankings as a function
of students’ majors?

13-31 Compile a collection of ads that depict consumers
of different social classes. What generalizations can
you make about the reality of these ads and about the
media in which they appear?

DIGGING IN WITH DATA

See “Data Case 4: Going Global with Juice” in Appendix A for an opportunity to work with real consumer data and
apply this chapter’s concepts to real world problems.

CASE STUDY

Are Dollar Stores Really Cheaper?

Consumer behavior is influenced by internal and external
factors. One external factor that sets real boundaries for
consumers is their level of income. Some marketers refer
to strategies directed at different income tiers as targeting
certain levels of a pyramid. Marketing to the “bottom of the
pyramid,” focusing on consumers with very limited financial
means, became well-known in 2004 when C. K. Prahalad
wrote the book The Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid. He
envisioned companies marketing affordable products to the
billions of consumers around the world with limited income
and unmet needs. He believed that companies could help consumers and be profitable at the same time.100
The number of potential bottom of the pyramid (BOP)
customers is huge, currently estimated at 3 billion worldwide
which represents about half of the world’s population.101 The
U.S. Census Bureau estimates the U.S. poverty rate nationally
at 13.4%. This means that more than one out of every ten
Americans lives below the poverty line. This is equal to more
than approximately 42.5 million Americans.102 Successful
BOP strategies are usually focused on offering low cost/low
price products in smaller sizes, innovative distribution or
financing and may include educating consumers on the use

of the product.103 Given rampant inflation, sluggish supply
chains, and worker shortages, many higher income shoppers
may now find these BOP strategies attractive as they turn to
dollar stores looking for bargains.
As the number of new dollar stores have proliferated
across the country, they are concentrated in blue-collar,
working-class states.104 Affordable retail chains like Dollar
General, Dollar Tree, and Family Dollar are cashing in on
the low cost/low price product offering strategy to BOP
customers and other customers across the income pyramid.
The growth in the popularity of these bargain chains is
evident in their success. Dollar General became the nation’s
largest retailer by store count with more than 18,000 stores
(as of February 2022), generating $34 billion in revenue in
2021.105 Its chief competitor, Dollar Tree (which also owns
Family Dollar) had more than 16,000 locations as of January
2022 with $26.3 billion in revenue in 2021.106 According
to Forbes, these two chains operate more stores combined
than the six biggest U.S. retailers –Walmart, Kroger, Costco,
Home Depot, CVS, and Walgreens.
Dollar stores take advantage of consumers’ love for a
great deal, but also the thrill of finding limited and highly

Chapter 13 • Social Class and Status

desirable items. The “thrill of the hunt” attracts frugal
customers across all income levels. At a Goldman Sachs
retailing conference, Dollar General CEO Todd Vasos shared
that his stores’ average shopper is typically a woman living
in a two-income household, making $40,000 per year before
taxes, with disposable income of about 2%, or $800, which
doesn’t leave much wiggle room for extras or changes in
price. 107 But in addition to this average shopper, about 22%
of dollar store shoppers make more than $70,000 a year. 108
But do shoppers really save dollars when they shop
at dollar stores? A recent study from Consumer Reports
compared the deals by purchasing items at both dollar
stores and big-name grocery stores. The magazine sent out
a team of secret shoppers, who selected 12 items at dollar
stores across the country and compared them to items they
found in a local grocery store.109 Brian Vines who wrote the
article for Consumer Reports, reported that shoppers did
save money at the dollar store on the basket of goods they
purchased. Other reports, however, suggest that while dollar
stores seem like a great way to save money, frugal shoppers
should take a close look at sizes and brands. In an interview
with Business Insider, Priya Raghubir suggests that many
common household items like batteries and toothpaste appear
to be good deals but really aren’t.110 A dollar for a pack of
batteries sounds like a good deal but they will not last as
long because the name brand batteries such as Duracell or
Energizer are made from higher quality materials. Colgate
toothpaste for a dollar is also a great deal until you compare
the closest comparable size in a retailer like CVS and see that
the dollar store variety is much smaller, such that the unit
price of the dollar store product is higher. 111

417

Considering the need for low-cost products among the
economically disadvantaged throughout the United States
and especially in certain areas of the country that have been
hit hardest by economic and manufacturing shifts in the
global economy, stores like Dollar General and Dollar Tree
are likely to continue thriving. Consumers can in fact benefit
from the discounted products these retailers offer, but, as
always, need continue comparing prices against those offered
by other retailers. And they must also take into consideration
the overall quality of the products they are purchasing to
ensure that their dollar saved in the short term doesn’t end
up being lost in the long term. When it comes to consumer
behavior, real value will decidedly come from not taking
anything exclusively at face value.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

CS 13-1 Using the “4A’s” framework in Figure 13.3, analyze
the considerations that went into the decision for
Dollar General opening 1,000+ new stores in the
United States over the past few years.
CS 13-2 Select one city in one of the states or areas
mentioned in the case and do an online search of
dollar stores within a 5-mile radius. Does your
research confirm or deny the assertion that dollar
stores are closely congregated in blue-collar lower
income areas? How does this concentration of
dollar stores affect consumer shopping options?
CS 13-3 Are companies that target the bottom of the
pyramid taking advantage of vulnerable consumers
with limited resources?

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Review Digital Articles (2016): 2–6.
104. Kaitlyn Wang and Irene Anna Kim, “Dollar stores may seem like an easy
way to save money, but here’s why you may be tempted to spend more,”
https://www.businessinsider.com/dollar-stores-billions-spend-moremoney-deals-sales-2019-8.
105. Bill McGinty, “Shopping at dollar chains may save you money, but you sacrifice
this one aspect,” https://www.wcnc.com/article/money/dollar-markets-savingsgrocery-shopping/275-e8a4329d-5362-43ae-a3e3-f62e96f085e6.

420
106.
107.
108.
109.

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• Belonging

Ibid.
Ibid.
The Dollar Store Economy - The New York Times (nytimes.com)
Bill McGinty, “Shopping at dollar chains may save you money, but you sacrifice
this one aspect,” https://www.wcnc.com/article/money/dollar-markets-savingsgrocery-shopping/275-e8a4329d-5362-43ae-a3e3-f62e96f085e6.

110. Kaitlyn Wang and Irene Anna Kim, “Dollar stores may seem like an
easy way to save money, but here’s why you may be tempted to spend
more,” https://www.businessinsider.com/dollar-stores-billions-spendmore-money-deals-sales-2019-8.
111. Ibid.

14

Culture
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES When you finish reading this chapter, you should be able to:
14-1 Describe how culture is a society’s personality.
14-2 Discuss how consumption rituals structure our
experiences and convey our cultural values.

14-4 Explain how products, ideas, and practices
circulate through society via the process of
diffusion.

14-3 Summarize how products, brands, and practices
are vessels of cultural meanings.

Y

asmita is at her wits’ end. It’s bad enough that she has a
deadline looming on that new Christmas promotion for her gift
shop. Now, there’s trouble on the home front as well: Her son
had to go and flunk his driver’s license road exam, and he’s acting salty
because he feels he can’t be a “real man” if he doesn’t have a license. To
top things off, she’ll now have to postpone her much-anticipated vacation
to Disney World with her stepdaughter Arya because she just can’t find
the time to get away.
When Yasmita meets up with her buddy Lynn at their local Starbucks
for their daily “retreat,” her mood starts to brighten. Somehow the calm
of the café rubs off as she savors her cappuccino grande. Lynn consoles
her with the ultimate remedy to beat the blues: Go home, take a nice
long bath, and then consume a quart of Starbucks Espresso Swirl ice
cream. Yes, that’s the ticket. It’s amazing how the little things in life can make such a big
difference. As she strolls out the door, Yasmita makes a mental note to get Lynn a nice
Christmas gift this year. She’s earned it.

OBJECTIVE 14-1
Describe how
culture is a society’s
personality.

Source: Rob Marmion/Shutterstock.

Cultural Systems

Yasmita’s experiences illustrate how everyday events reflect
deeper meanings. Overcoming challenges like a driver’s test,
planning “pilgrimages” to destinations like Disney World,
choosing gifts to thank others, even calming ourselves with that daily latte or bowl
of favorite ice cream—these consumption-related activities have significance to the
consumer. Marketers can appreciate the importance of these activities only when they
understand what they mean—and that’s why this final chapter will explore some of
the underlying cultural elements of consumer behavior.
Culture is a society’s personality. It includes both abstract ideas, such as values
and ethics, and material objects and services, such as the automobiles, clothing, food,
art, and sports a society produces. Put another way, it’s the accumulation of shared

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• Belonging

meanings, rituals, norms, and traditions among the members of an organization or
society.
We simply can’t understand consumption unless we consider its cultural context:
Culture is the “lens” through which people view products. Ironically, the effects of
culture on consumer behavior are so powerful and far-reaching that it’s sometimes
difficult to grasp their importance. We don’t always appreciate this power until we
encounter a different culture. Suddenly, many of the assumptions we take for granted
about the clothes we wear, the food we eat, or the way we address others no longer
seem to apply. The effect when we encounter such differences can be so great that the
term culture shock is not an exaggeration.
Our culture determines the overall priorities we attach to different activities and
products, and it also helps us decide whether specific products will satisfy these
priorities. A product that provides benefits to members of a culture at any point in
time has a much better chance to achieve marketplace acceptance.
For example, U.S. culture began to emphasize the concept of a fit, trim body as
an ideal of appearance in the mid-1970s. The premium consumers put on thinness,
which stemmed from underlying values such as mobility, wealth, and a focus on
the self, greatly contributed to Miller’s success when the brewer launched its Lite
beer. However, a decade earlier (in the 1960s) when Gablinger’s introduced a similar
low-cal beer, the product failed.
Understanding consumer behavior through a cultural lens requires anthropological tools (anthropology is the study of humanity, including social and cultural
processes). Consumer researchers in the consumer culture theory movement study
consumer behavior with ethnography, which is deep, longitudinal inquiry from
the inside of a cultural phenomenon or group to unravel insights into the cultural
processes therein.1
For instance, some researchers spent months immersing themselves into a
community of consumers who repair fragile objects to
understand what motivates them to engage in those behaviors
and to identify the social and cultural sustainability values
that drive them, and another team studied the development
of coffeehouse culture in the early Ottoman society and its
continued cultural importance in modern day Turkey.2 And
others tried to unravel the deep meanings of rodeo as a myth
of the American West by inserting themselves into that
subculture as an anthropologist would.3
The relationship between consumer behavior and
culture is a two-way street. On the one hand, consumers are
more likely to embrace products and services that resonate
with a culture’s priorities at any given time. On the other
hand, it’s worthwhile for us to understand which products
do get accepted because this knowledge provides a window
One team of consumer researchers embedded themselves into
into the dominant cultural ideals of that period. Consider,
rodeo culture to better understand it.
Source: © By Daniel Ahrend.
for example, some U.S. products that successfully reflected
dominant values during their time:

•
•

The TV dinner that became popular in the 1950s reflected changes in family
structure and the onset of a new informality in U.S. home life.
Cosmetics made from natural materials without animal testing were introduced in
the 1970’s, and reflected consumers’ apprehensions about pollution, waste, and
animal rights.

Chapter 14

•

• Culture

To reflect the growing cultural conversation about age and
weight stereotypes, the 2022 Sports Illustrated swimsuit
edition included a plus-size woman of mixed-race and
Maye Musk (mother of Tesla CEO Elon Musk), who was
74 when the magazine was published.4

Dimensions of Culture
Culture is not static. It evolves continually as it synthesizes
old ideas with new ones. A cultural system consists of these
functional areas:5

•

•

•

Ecology—The way a system adapts to its habitat.
The popularity of the TV dinner reflected changes in family
The technology a culture uses to obtain and distribute
structure.
resources shapes its ecology, as do the environmental
Source: Curt Teich Postcard Archives/Heritage Images/Alamy Stock Photo.
resources and their allocation. The Japanese, for
example, greatly value products that make efficient
use of space because of the dense conditions in their
urban centers.6 And consumers in modern cities are
increasingly reclaiming waste to take responsibility for
the environmental crisis we face.7
Social structure—The way people maintain an orderly
social life. This includes the domestic and political
groups that dominate the culture (e.g., the nuclear family
versus the extended family; representative government
versus dictatorship). It also includes the systemic ways
in which metropolitan spaces are structured and how
neighborhoods’ ethno-racial composition might affect the
opportunities (or lack thereof) for their residents.8
Ideology—The mental characteristics of a people and
the way they relate to their environment and social
Many companies—including Nike, Adidas, Amazon, and
groups. People within the same culture share a common
Walmart—now sell the burkini to Muslim women.
worldview that includes rules and regulations that are
Source: Razvan Chisu/EyeEm/Alamy Stock Photo.
either informal or formal. They also share an ethos, or a
set of moral and aesthetic principles.9 Whether consciously or unconsciously, we
express our ideology in our consumption desires and how we enact them.10

How We Learn about Our Culture
The process of learning the values, beliefs, and behaviors in our own culture is
called enculturation. In contrast, acculturation refers to the learning that occurs
when we travel to a new culture and learn that culture’s value system and ways of
doing things.
Much like the learning process we studied in Chapter 4, we learn what is right,
what is wrong, what is good, and what is bad from observing others in our family,
social institutions, workplace, etc.
In one study, for example, the researchers explored the domain of hunting. They
described the process by which family members and friends mentor young men as
they learn how to hunt. These socialization agents used stories and traditions to guide
the men as they moved through the stages of pre-hunter, neophyte, and apprentice
until they finally become enculturated, competent hunters.11

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Dimensions of National Culture
Sure, every culture is different. That’s what makes them so interesting! But at times
it’s helpful to compare and contrast cultures to isolate specific dimensions that might
make them similar or different from your own (hint: especially if you plan to expand
your marketing activities to other countries). One of the most widely used measures
of cross-cultural values is Hofstede’s dimensions of national culture, developed
by Dutch researcher Geert Hofstede.12 This measure scores a culture in terms of its
standing on six dimensions:13

•
•
•
•
•
•
High power-distance cultures stress that everyone
should have a defined place within the social order.
One study reported that people who score high on this
dimension also tend to prefer luxury brands more than
those who do score lower. The researchers speculate
that these products are closely linked to status in the
society, so they help to reinforce power differences.14
Source: Dmitry Lobanov/Shutterstock.

The Marlboro cowboy image is
a cultural icon that symbolizes
individualism, a value long associated
with American culture.
Source: RLFE Pix /Alamy Stock Photo.

Power distance—The extent to which the less powerful members
of organizations and institutions (like the family) accept and expect
that power is distributed unequally.
Individualism—The degree to which people’s self-image is
defined in terms of “I” (individualism) or “we” (collectivism).
Masculinity—The extent to which a society stresses achievement,
ambition and and differentiated gender roles (masculinity) versus caring
and nurturing behaviors, and more fluid gender roles (femininity).
Uncertainty avoidance—A society’s tolerance for uncertainty
and ambiguity.
Long-term orientation—Values associated with long-term
orientation are thrift and perseverance; values associated with
short-term orientation are respect for tradition, fulfilling social
obligations, and protecting one’s “face.”
Indulgence versus restraint—The extent to which a society
allows relatively free gratification of basic and natural human
drives related to enjoying life and having fun. A culture high
on restraint suppresses gratification of needs and regulates it by
means of strict social norms.

These dimensions are useful to marketers that want to understand
how members of specific cultures may respond differently when they
encounter the same situations or marketing messages. Here are a few
quick examples that illustrate how these cultural dimensions link to
people’s thoughts and actions:

Chapter 14

•
•
•

Researchers found a lower level of prosocial behavior, such as donating to
charities, in countries characterized by higher power distance. They argue that
because people expect and accept greater levels of inequality among citizens, they
don’t feel as much responsibility to help others.15
A recent analysis of consumer reviews of 260 movies in 25 country markets found
that people like products more when those products have cultural content that feels
congruent with their own national culture—and this is especially true for those
in cultures that are high in collectivism, femininity, and uncertainty avoidance.16
A study that compared perceptions of price fairness across cultures found that
people from collectivist cultures (China, in their study) don’t see it as unfair if
they have to pay a different price than what a stranger pays (whether the stranger
is paying more or less).17 In collectivist cultures like China, consumers are more
concerned about preserving face, or the status earned in a social network, and
this sensitivity to face makes them more understanding if they have to pay a
different price than their friends within a social network. In contrast, people in
more individualist countries (the U.S., in their study) don’t make this distinction
between friends and strangers, so they think it’s unfair if another person pays less
(versus more), whether friend or stranger.

Cultural Meaning Creation and Movement
Watercolor tats. Alexandre Birman textured-lamé sandals. The Weeknd. Blue velvet
couches. Fortnite. CBD gummy bears. Bitmojis. Selfies. Teslas. Costa Rican ecotours.
We inhabit a world that brims with different styles and possibilities. The food we eat,
the cars we drive, the clothes we wear, the places we live and work, the music we listen
to—the ebb and flow of popular culture and fashion influences all of them.
We don’t form our tastes and product preferences in a vacuum. The many images
mass media present to us drive our choices, as well as our observations of those around
us, and even our desires to live in the fantasy worlds marketers create in the ads we see
all around us. These options constantly evolve and change. A clothing style or type of
cuisine that is “hot” one year may be “out” the next.
As we saw in Chapter 10 and as represented in Figure 14.1, the meaning transfer
model captures the movement of cultural meaning.19 The model explains that brands

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425

Buying, Having, Being
Is Your Culture Tight or
Loose?
Other cultural dimensions have
begun to emerge that also explain
consumer behavior. For instance,
one distinction is tightness–
looseness, which refers to the
strength of social norms, or the
social pressure to behave a certain
way (see Chapter 12), and the
extent to which deviance from those
norms is tolerated versus punished.
Tight cultures (e.g., Japan, South
Korea, Norway, India) tend to set
more boundaries around what you
can say or do in social situations
than do loose cultures (e.g., Israel,
the U.S., Greece, Australia).
Research suggests that tightness
versus looseness affects how
consumers respond to different
types of advertising appeals.
For instance, people from loose
cultures may be more attracted to
advertising that emphasizes gains
and risk-taking rather than stability
and trustworthiness. By contrast,
people from tight cultures may
respond better to messages that
emphasize uniformity and suggest
what consumers “should” do.18

Cultural Values and Symbols

ADVERTISING AND
FASHION SYSTEMS

CONSUMPTION
RITUALS
Consumer Goods

Consumers

Figure 14.1 The Movement of
Cultural Meaning
Source: Matsabe/Shutterstock.

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gain meaning in fashion and advertising systems from being associated with values and
symbols that have strong cultural meanings, such as celebrities or culturally resonant
slogans. Then, these meanings transfer to consumers when they use those brands.
In turn, how consumers use the brands or speak about the brands infuses further
cultural meaning to the brand—and the cycle continues.
To see these changes in action, consider the hip-hop craze. Hip-hop was born
way back in 1968 by a DJ in the Bronx, New York. The music and fashion that
grew around it developed over the years and began to garner mainstream status when
Columbia Records bought the Def Jam record label in 1985. By the mid-2000s,
hip-hop entrepreneurs branched out into other categories, including sports (Jay Z
became part-owner of what is now the Brooklyn Nets), beverages (Nelly launched
Pimp Juice, an energy drink), and fragrances (Queen by Queen Latifah, Pink Friday
by Nicki Minaj, Girl by Pharrell Williams). Ghostface Killah sold a $500 action figure
of himself; it came with a mixtape, a real 14k gold chain, and a chalice lined with
Swarovski crystals. Eventually hip-hop grew beyond its U.S. roots as artists in other
countries developed their own interpretations. And today, it’s common to see teenagers
in locales far removed from the streets of New York City who display the styles that
originated in this specialized taste subculture (see Chapter 13).
The widespread adoption of hip-hop style illustrates some of the characteristics
of fashion and popular culture:

•
•
•

•
•
•

Styles reflect more fundamental societal trends (e.g., politics and social conditions).
A style begins as a risky or unique statement by a relatively small group of people
and then spreads as others become aware of it.
Styles usually originate as an interplay between the deliberate inventions of
designers and businesspeople and spontaneous actions by ordinary consumers
who modify these creations to suit their own needs. Designers, manufacturers,
and merchandisers who anticipate what consumers want will succeed in the
marketplace. In the process, they help to fuel the fire when they encourage
distribution of the item—especially if they persuade opinion leaders to use it first.
Cultural products travel widely, often across countries and even continents.
Influential people in the media and increasingly everyday “influencers” who are
active in social media play a significant role in deciding which items will succeed.
Most styles eventually wear out as people continually search for new ways to
express themselves and marketers scramble to keep up with these desires.
Many judges or “tastemakers” have a say in the products
we consider. These cultural gatekeepers filter the
overflow of information as it travels down the “funnel.”
Gatekeepers include movie, restaurant, and car reviewers;
interior designers; disc jockeys; retail buyers; magazine
editors; and increasingly a fan base that obsessively
follows and shares the latest gossip, styles, TV and film
plots, and other pieces of popular culture.20
The cultural selection process never stops, so when
styles become obsolete, others wait to replace them in
popular culture.

•

•

Myths
Cultural gatekeepers’ choices often are influenced by products and
images in other, unrelated categories.
Source: Tiziana Fabi/AFP/Getty Images.

You probably learned about the gods of Greek mythology at
some point, but what about more current cultural heroes, like
the McDonald’s Hamburglar, Yoda from Star Wars, or even
Buzz Lightyear, Chester Cheetah, Batman, or Mr. Clean?

Chapter 14

A myth is a story with symbolic elements that express a culture’s values. The
story often focuses on conflict between two opposing forces, and its outcome serves
as a moral guide for listeners (like when superheroes battle the forces of evil). In this
way, a myth reduces anxiety because it provides consumers with guidelines about
their world. Most members of a culture learn these stories, but usually we don’t think
about their origins.
Every culture develops stories and ceremonies that help its members to make
sense of the world. When we hear about a practice that goes on in another place, it may
be hard to figure out just what these people think they’re doing. Yet, our own cultural
practices seem quite normal—even though a visitor may find them equally unusual!
Just take a European to a NASCAR race, and you’ll understand that culture is relative.
Sometimes marketers adapt cultural stories and (perhaps unconsciously)
pattern their messages along a mythic structure. Consider, for example, the way
that McDonald’s takes on “mythical” qualities.21 The “golden arches” are virtually
synonymous with U.S. culture. They offer sanctuary to Americans around the world,
who know exactly what to expect once they enter. Basic struggles involving good versus
evil play out in the fantasy world McDonald’s advertising creates (for example, when
Ronald McDonald confounds the Hamburglar). McDonald’s even has a “seminary”
(Hamburger University) where inductees go to learn the ways of the Golden Arches.

The Function and Structure of Myths
When we analyze myths, we examine their underlying structures, a technique the
French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss (no relation to the blue jeans company)
pioneered. Lévi-Strauss noted that many stories involve binary opposition, which
represents two opposing ends of some dimension (e.g., good versus evil, nature versus
technology).22
Often a mediating figure resolves the conflict between mythical opposing forces;
this figure links the opposites as it shares characteristics of each. For example, many
myths involve animals with human abilities that allow them to bridge the gap between
humanity and nature (e.g., a talking snake). Similarly, marketers often give products
(e.g., cars) animal names (e.g., Cougar, Cobra, and Mustang), linking opposing forces,
like technology and nature.
We associate myths with the ancient Greeks and Romans, but comic books,
movies, holidays, and, yes, even commercials embody our own cultural myths.
Furthermore, researchers report that some people create their own consumer fairy
tales. They tell stories that include magical agents, donors, and helpers to overcome
villains and obstacles as they seek out goods and services in their quest for happy
endings.23

Marketing the Myth
Smart marketers are more than happy to help us live out these fairy tales. Consider the
popularity of the elaborate weddings Disney stages for couples who want to reenact
their own version of a popular myth: At Disney World, the princess bride wears a tiara
and rides to the park’s lakeside wedding pavilion in a horse-drawn coach, complete
with two footmen in gray wigs and gold-lamé pants. At the exchange of vows, trumpets
blare as Major Domo (he helped the Duke in his quest for Cinderella) walks up the
aisle with two wedding bands he gently places in a glass slipper on a velvet pillow.
Disney stages about 2,000 of these extravaganzas each year. The company continues
to expand the appeal of this myth as it moves into the bridal gown business. It sells
a line of billowing princess gowns complete with crystal tiaras. Fairy tale brides
can walk down the aisle costumed as Elsa, Cinderella, Snow White, Belle, Sleeping
Beauty, Jasmine, or Ariel.25

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427

Buying, Having, Being
“What Big Ears You
Have . . . ”
Originally a peasant’s tale in
16th-century France, the familiar
Little Red Riding Hood myth tells
the story of a girl who meets a
werewolf on her way to Granny’s
house. (There is historical evidence
of a plague of wolf attacks during
this time, including several incidents
where men were put on trial
because they allegedly turned
themselves into the deadly animals).
In the original myth, when Little Red
Riding Hood meets the werewolf,
he has already killed Granny, stored
her flesh in the pantry, and poured
her blood into a bottle. And when
the girl arrives at her grandmother’s
house, contrary to the version of
the story we’re familiar with, she
snacks on Granny and then strips
naked and climbs into bed with the
wolf! To make the story even more
scandalous, some versions refer to
the wolf as a “gaffer” (a contraction
of “grandfather”), implying incest
as well. This story first appeared in
print in 1697; it was a warning to the
loose ladies of Louis XIV’s court (the
author put her in red in that version
because red symbolized harlots).
Eventually, the brothers Grimm
wrote their own version in 1812, but
they substituted violence for sex
to scare kids into behaving. And
to reinforce the sex-role standards
of that time, in the Grimm version,
a man rescues the girl from the
wolf.24 So, this myth sends vivid
messages about such cultural
no-no’s as cannibalism, incest,
and promiscuity.

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Corporations often have myths and legends in their
history. Nike designates senior executives as “corporate
storytellers” who explain the company’s heritage to the
hourly workers at Nike stores. They recount tales about the
coach of the Oregon track team who poured rubber into
his family waffle iron to make better shoes for his team—
the origin of the Nike waffle sole. The stories emphasize
the dedication of runners and coaches to reinforce the
importance of teamwork. Rookie hires visit the track where
the coach worked to help them appreciate the importance
of the Nike legends. And rumor has it that senior Nike
executives (including the CEO) have a “swoosh” tattoo on
their backsides.26

Many blockbuster movies and hit TV shows draw directly on
mythic themes. For example, the multiple television series,
movies, prequels, and sequels that document the adventures of
the starship Enterprise in Star Trek reflect cultural myths, such
as the story of the New England Puritans who explored and
conquered a “new” continent (“the final frontier”). Encounters with
the Klingons mirror skirmishes with Native American people. In
addition, at least 13 out of the original 79 episodes employed the
theme of a quest for paradise.27

OBJECTIVE 14-2
Discuss how
consumption
rituals structure our
experiences and
convey our cultural
values.

Consumption
Rituals

A ritual is a set of multiple,
symbolic behaviors that occurs in
a fixed sequence and is repeated
periodically. 28 Bizarre tribal
ceremonies, perhaps involving animal or human sacrifice,
may come to mind when you think of rituals. Many
Source: Allstar Picture Library Limited./Alamy Stock Photo.
contemporary consumer activities, whether individual or
collective, are ritualistic. Researchers find that when people consume products like
chocolate as part of a ritual, they report they enjoy them more than if there is no
context.29 Rituals structure consumption practices and give meaning. Researchers
have found that, because it makes the things we do more meaningful, ritualistic
consumption can decrease feelings of loneliness.30

Rituals and Community
Rituals occur at several levels. While (as we’ll see) we may perform some rituals in
private, others reinforce broad cultural or religious values. Rituals are an essential
component of holding communities together. Public rituals—such as the Super Bowl,
presidential inaugurations, and graduation ceremonies—are communal activities that
affirm our membership in the larger group and reassure us that we are reading from
the same script as everyone else.31
A study the BBDO Worldwide advertising agency conducted illustrates the close
relationship between brands and rituals.32 It labels the brands whose products we use
to perform our rituals fortress brands because once their products become embedded
in our ceremonies—whether we use them to brush our teeth, drink a beer, or shave—
we’re unlikely to replace them.
The study ran in 26 countries, and the researchers found that, overall, people
worldwide practice roughly the same consumer rituals. The agency claims that
89 percent of people always use the same brands in their sequenced rituals; three
out of four are disappointed or irritated when something disrupts their ritual or when
their brand of choice isn’t available. For example, the report identifies one common
ritual category it calls preparing for battle. For most of us, this means getting ready
for work or school. Relevant rituals include brushing teeth, taking a shower or bath,
having something to eat or drink, talking to a family member or partner, checking

Chapter 14

email, shaving, putting on makeup, watching TV or listening to the radio, and reading
a newspaper.
Extraordinary beliefs—beliefs that either cannot be affirmed by science or
that even contradict established science—are an important part of consumer rituals.
A recent review of research on consumption rituals identified 15 extraordinary beliefs
that underpin these rituals, organized into four functions33:

•
•
•
•

Connecting—Refers to beliefs that allow consumers to feel connected or grounded
to a certain object, place, time, or community.34
Controlling—These beliefs help consumers reduce uncertainty in their lives. Many
believe in a higher power (a form of faith) that imposes rules and systems onto an
otherwise chaotic-seeming world. For example, people who go skydiving, which
is a high-risk activity, express faith in their equipment and attribute accidents to
human errors rather than equipment failure.35
Enchanting—Beliefs in magical or otherwise non-scientific processes or properties
(e.g., “magical” cures for COVID-19). Some believe that certain people, like a DJ
who can send a crowd into a frenzy, have an aura or such charisma that they exert
magic-like influence on their audiences.
Explaining—Beliefs that help consumers make sense of the world. For example,
myths are foundational stories that both reflect and promote a person’s or group’s
values. Fatalism is another form of explaining that helps people cope with traumatic
experiences such as death.36

“Pulling” the perfect pint
is a treasured ritual for
many Guinness drinkers.
According to tradition,
the slow pour takes
exactly 119.5 seconds
as the bartender
holds the glass at a
45-degree angle, fills
it three-quarters full,
lets it settle, and tops
it off with its signature
creamy head.37

Source: Oli Scarff/Getty Images.

Ritual Artifacts and Scripts
Many businesses benefit from supplying ritual artifacts to consumers. These are
items we need to perform rituals, such as wedding rice, birthday candles, diplomas,
specialized foods and beverages (e.g., wedding cakes, ceremonial wine, or even
hot dogs at the ballpark), trophies and plaques, band uniforms, greeting cards, and
retirement watches.41
We often follow a ritual script to identify the artifacts we need, the sequence
in which we should use them, and who uses them. Examples include graduation
programs, fraternity manuals, and etiquette books. A wedding ceremony is one of our
most familiar rituals. If you’ve ever planned or participated in a wedding, you know
the many scripted activities are serious stuff. They’re expensive too: Americans spend
$70 billion a year on weddings; that’s more than we spend on pets, coffee, toothpaste,
and toilet paper combined.42

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429

Buying, Having, Being
It Works Like Magic!
To appreciate how “primitive” belief
systems influence our supposedly
“modern” rational society, consider
the avid interest many of us have in
magic. Marketers of health foods,
anti-aging cosmetics, exercise
programs, and gambling casinos
often imply that their offerings have
“magical” properties that prevent
sickness, old age, poverty, or
just plain bad luck. People by the
millions play their “lucky numbers”
in the lottery, carry rabbits’ feet and
other amulets to ward off “the evil
eye,” and own “lucky” clothing.38
In a set of studies, researchers
examined how people come
to regard products as lucky:
They looked at conditioned
superstition, which occurs when
consumers who don’t feel they have
control over their outcomes come
to associate a product that is paired
with a reward with the outcome
itself (see Chapter 4). You may have
observed this process, for example,
when a friend wears a certain T-shirt
to a big game and the team wins.
This person may choose to wear
the same shirt to future games to
“help” the team.39 An advertising
campaign for Budweiser featured
fans with bizarre superstitions
and the tagline, “It’s only weird if it
doesn’t work.”
Interest in the occult tends to
spike when members of a society
feel overwhelmed or powerless;
magical remedies simplify our
lives when they give us “easy”
answers. Many consumers regard
the computer with awe as a sort of
“electronic magician” with the ability
to solve our problems (or, in other
cases, to cause data to magically
disappear!).40 Software developers
even supply “wizards” that guide the
uninitiated through their programs!
Or we may even think a person’s
soul inhabits an object: Some kids
(and maybe some adults) believe
that when they put on their Air
Nikes they magically absorb some
of the athletic ability of Michael
Jordan or Dwyane Wade. Sound
preposterous? The movie Like Mike
has this exact storyline.

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Grooming Rituals
Whether you brush your hair 100 strokes a day or give
yourself a pep talk in the mirror before a big date, virtually
all of us practice private grooming rituals. These ceremonies
help us to transition from our private self to our public self.
Grooming rituals help to inspire confidence before we
face the world, and they “cleanse” us of impurities. When
consumers talk about their grooming rituals, some of the
dominant themes that emerge from these stories reflect the
almost mystical qualities we attribute to grooming products
and behaviors. Many people emphasize a before-and-after
phenomenon, whereby they feel magically transformed after
they use certain products (similar to the transformation in the
Cinderella myth).43
Some companies that make personal care products
Graduation is a milestone that includes ritual artifacts.
understand
the power of these rituals and supply the artifacts
Source: Rawpixel/Shutterstock.
we need to make them happen. Nair, the depilatory maker,
expanded its customer base when it targeted younger girls
with its Nair Pretty product—a market the industry calls
“first-time hair removers.” Researchers conducted focus
groups with mothers and their daughters, where they learned
that “[w]hen a girl removes hair for the first time, it’s a lifechanging moment.” Some of the respondents actually held hair
removal slumber parties, where the moms bought products for
the teens to remove their hair. So, instead of a focus on boys
or romance, ads for Nair Pretty suggest that the depilatory is
a stubble-free path to empowerment. “I am a citizen of the
world,” reads the ad copy. “I am a dreamer. I am fresh. I am
so not going to have stubs sticking out of my legs.”44
Grooming rituals express two kinds of binary opposition:
private/public and work/leisure. Many beauty rituals reflect
Recent research on couples finds that they are more satisfied
a transformation from a natural state to the social world (as
with both each other and their relationship when they incorporate
in the expression “putting on one’s face”) or vice versa. For
rituals, like a weekly date night, into their relationship.45
example, a bath may be a cleansing time, a way to wash
Source: Andresr/E+/Getty Images.
away the “sins” of the profane world.46 In these daily rituals,
women reaffirm the value their culture places on personal beauty and the quest for
eternal youth. This cleansing ritual is clear in ads for Oil of Olay Beauty Cleanser that
proclaim, “And so your day begins. The Ritual of Oil of Olay.”

Gift-Giving Rituals
In a gift-giving ritual, we procure the perfect object, meticulously remove the
price tag, carefully wrap the object (where we symbolically change the item from a
commodity to a unique good), and deliver it to the recipient.47 Some research indicates
that gift giving evolves as a form of social expression as relationships evolve. It is
more exchange oriented (instrumental) in the early stages of a relationship (where we
keep track of exactly what we give and receive to be sure we’re not getting ripped off),
but it becomes more altruistic as the relationship develops.48 Gifts can be store-bought
objects, homemade items, or services. They can also be special possessions, financial
or symbolic, that are passed on from generation to generation and that can serve to
maintain a spiritual connection with the gift giver after they die or to transmit family
love and heritage across generations.49

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Researchers view gift giving as a form of economic exchange in
which the giver transfers an item of value to a recipient, who in turn
must reciprocate. However, gift giving also involves symbolic exchange.
In fact, researchers who analyzed the personal memoirs of World War II
concentration camp inmates found that even in such a brutal environment,
where people had to focus primarily on survival, a need to express humanity
through generosity prevailed. The authors found that gift giving, which
symbolized recognition of others’ plight as well as one’s own, was an act
of defiance against the dehumanizing existence the camps forced on their
prisoners.50
Every culture dictates certain occasions and ceremonies to give gifts,
whether for personal or professional reasons. We love giving gifts so much
that in one survey, 41 percent of respondents agreed they are willing to
go into debt to obtain the funds they need to buy them.51 Business gifts
are an important way to define and maintain professional relationships.
Expenditures on business gifts exceed $125 billion per year, and givers take
great care to ensure that they purchase the appropriate gifts (sometimes with
the aid of professional gift consultants).52
The gift-giving ritual proceeds in three distinct stages:53
Self-gifting is a growing phenomenon, as people
1. During gestation the giver procures an item to mark some event. This
reward themselves instead of or in addition to
event may be either structural (i.e., prescribed by the culture, as when
buying for others.
people buy Christmas presents) or emergent (i.e., the decision is more
Source: Ariya J/Shutterstock.
personal and idiosyncratic). Selecting the perfect gift is hard! A group
of researchers found that when deciding what to give
someone, consumers often avoid giving something that
they themselves also own. This is because the gift giver
may feel that their own copy of the product will be less
unique and thus less valuable to the gift receiver.54
2. The second stage is presentation, or the process of
gift exchange. The recipient responds to the gift (either
appropriately or not), and the donor evaluates this
response. Look carefully: When “The Love of Your Life”
opens their present, do you see a fleeting look of disappointment before they turn it into a forced smile? If so,
you have a problem.
3. In the reformulation stage, the giver and receiver redefine the bond between them (either looser or tighter) to
reflect their new relationship after the exchange. Negativity can arise if the recipient feels the gift is inapproExperiential gifts (e.g., a ticket to a wine-tasting event) strengthen
priate or of inferior quality. The donor may feel that the
relationships between givers and receivers more than material
response to the gift is inadequate, insincere, or a violagifts (e.g., a set of wine glasses), regardless of whether the
tion of the reciprocity norm, which obliges people to
recipient consumes the gift in the company of the gift giver.56
return the gesture of a gift with one of equal value.55
Source: Yuri Arcurs /Alamy Stock Photo.

Holiday Rituals
The Chinese e-commerce giant Alibaba single-handedly turned a minor holiday into a
blockbuster sales event. Traditionally, unmarried Chinese men gathered each year on
November 11 to lament their single status on what was called Bachelors’ Day. They
chose this date because the calendar shows it as 11.11 (four singles). The company
decided to turn this day into an excuse for shopping, and in 2009, it began to promote

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Singles’ Day. Within a few years, this “anti-Valentine’s Day”
surpassed Black Friday as the most lucrative online shopping
day. In 2021 the holiday generated a record $139 billion in
sales (for one day!). That’s a lot of lonely bachelors.57
On holidays, we step back from our everyday lives and
perform ritualistic behaviors unique to those occasions.58
Each cultural celebration typically relates to the adventures
of one or more special characters, such as St. Patrick in
Ireland or Yue Lao in China.
Consider the Halloween holiday, for example. It began
as a pagan religious ceremony, but it’s clearly a secular
event today. However, in contrast to Christmas, the rituals
of Halloween (e.g., trick-or-treating and costume parties)
primarily involve non-family members. Halloween is an
Costumes are big business during Halloween, and many of those
unusual holiday because its rituals are the opposite of many
outfits are for our pets.
other cultural occasions. In contrast to Christmas, it celebrates
Source: Courtesy of Beneva Flowers.
evil instead of good and death rather than birth. It encourages
revelers to extort treats with veiled threats of “tricks” rather
than rewards for good.
Because of these oppositions, Halloween is
an antifestival—an event that distorts the symbols
we associate with other holidays. For example,
the Halloween witch is an inverted mother figure.
The holiday also parodies the meaning of Easter
because it stresses the resurrection of ghosts, and
it mocks Thanksgiving because it transforms the
wholesome symbolism of the pumpkin pie into
the evil jack-o-lantern.59 Furthermore, Halloween
provides a ritualized, and therefore socially
sanctioned, context that allows people to try on
new roles: Children can go outside after dark,
stay up late, and eat all the candy they like for a
night. The otherwise geeky guy who always sits
in the back of class dresses as Jason from Friday
the 13th and turns out to be the life of the party.
A recent study of how holiday rituals affect families asked participants to
Halloween, of course, is big business as well:
report whether their family had performed a ritual during several popular
Western holidays—Christmas, New Year’s Eve, and Easter—and, if so, how
Americans spend $350 million on costumes, and
many rituals they had performed.61 Participants were also asked to pick one
that’s just what they’re shelling out for their pets’
of the rituals and describe it in detail. They were then asked how much they
getups.60
enjoyed that holiday, how close they felt to their families during the holiday,
and how much they liked and trusted their family. Of the U.S. participants
in the study, 60.7 percent reported having a family ritual during Christmas,
37.5 percent had one for New Year’s Eve, and 40.6 percent had one for Easter.
The most common rituals during Christmas, for example, were (1) opening
gifts, (2) having a family meal, and (3) decorating the tree. Families that perform
more rituals during a holiday felt closer and had greater interest in the activity
and each other, which led them to like that holiday and their family more. Note:
Remember that correlation doesn’t imply causation. It may be that members of
happier families are more likely to develop group rituals that affirm their warm
feelings toward one another.
Source: VIA films/Shutterstock.

Rituals as Rites of Passage

What does a dance for recently divorced people
have in common with a teen who passes their
driving test? Both are modern rites of passage,
or rituals we perform to mark a change in social
status. Every society, both primitive and modern,
sets aside times for these changes. Some may
occur as a natural part of our life cycles (e.g.,
puberty or death), whereas others are more individual (e.g., getting divorced and
reentering the dating market or getting access to the car keys).

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Buying, Having, Being
The Holy Tailgate

Tailgating is a popular group ritual.

Source: Mike Stobe/National Hockey League/Getty Images.

A wedding is a great example of a cultural ceremony that is chockful of ritualistic
behaviors. Many parts of the ritual script hold great meaning, even if most of us today
don’t remember the original symbolism:62

•

•

•

Giving away the bride: Years ago,
it was common for fathers to use
daughters as currency to pay off
a debt or to appease a member of a
more powerful tribe. The bride wore
a veil so that the payee would not
refuse her as payment in case she
turned out to be less attractive than he
desired.
The best man: His original job was
to stand next to the couple to be sure
the bride wasn’t kidnapped during the
ceremony. He was chosen because he
was “best” with his sword. Similarly,
bridesmaids were instructed to dress
similarly to the bride to confuse
potential kidnappers and evil spirits;
somehow this custom evolved to the
design of hideous gowns that make
the bride look better by comparison!
The tossing of the garter: At one time
the bride and groom were expected
to conclude the marriage ceremony
and retire immediately to a nearby
As concerns about sustainability grow,
room to “close the deal.” To make
some consumers look for ways to update
burial rituals. This Infinity Burial Suit is
the consummation official, witnesses
seeded with mushrooms that grow on the
would crowd around the nuptial bed
corpse.
and hope to grab a lucky piece of the
Source: Edmund D Fountain/The New York T/Redux
bride’s gown as it was ripped from her
Pictures.
body. Over time, modesty prevailed,
and the guests had to settle for a symbolic piece of her undergarments.

Tailgating at college and pro
ballgames is one of the most
visible group rituals around today.
According to legend, this practice
started in the 19th century when
fans had to cook meals in their
carriages after they journeyed to
the site of a football game. The
tradition is alive and well, and
recent research shows that today’s
tailgating events continue to center
on three pillars of the collegiate
brand: community, conviviality, and
chorography, which refers to the
systematic description and mapping
of space.63
Today tailgating is also big
business. A survey Coca-Cola
sponsored reported that
41 percent of tailgaters spend
more than $500 a season on food
and supplies. Now, everyone from
food conglomerates to camping
suppliers tries to get a piece of
these boisterous pregame rituals.64
The NFL sells $100 million a year
of tailgating merchandise, including
keg-shaped grills. For the truly hard
core, California customizer Galpin
Motors sells a tailgaters’ pickup
truck complete with a huge grill,
taps for two beer kegs, a blender,
and a flip-down TV screen for “only”
$70,000.

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•

Throwing rice: Rice is a symbol of fertility; this action is supposed to encourage
the newlyweds to get busy and start producing offspring. More recently many
couples have replaced rice with butterflies or other items because of the false
rumor that birds who eat the rice will die when it expands in their stomachs.

OBJECTIVE 14-3
Summarize how
products, brands,
and practices are
vessels of cultural
meanings.

Products Are Vessels of
Cultural Meanings

Nike had to pull a new line of Pro Tattoo Tech Gear clothing
for women after the news came out that the graphics it used
came from a sacred Samoan tattoo that only men wear.
Consumers started a Change.org petition online and bombarded the brand’s Facebook
page with negative comments.65 As Nike discovered, we need to be aware of an item’s
symbolism and whether there are people for whom its meaning is special.

Sacred and Profane Products
Sacred consumption occurs when we set apart objects and events from normal
activities and treat them with respect or awe. Note that in this context the term sacred
does not necessarily carry a religious meaning, although we do tend to think of
religious artifacts and ceremonies as “sacred.”
Profane consumption, in contrast, describes objects and events that
are ordinary or everyday; they don’t share the “specialness” of sacred ones.
Again, note that in this context, we don’t equate the word profane with
obscenity, although the two meanings do share some similarities.
Sacralization occurs when ordinary objects, events, and even people
take on sacred meaning. Many consumers regard events such as the Super
Bowl and people such as Elvis Presley as sacred. Sacralization practices are
frequent in brand communities: They transform a brand from a superficial,
commercial object to a sacred one to be revered. Star Trek fans, for example,
are strongly invested in the brand to the point of treating it as a religion or
myth.
Objectification occurs when we attribute sacred qualities to mundane
items. One way that this process occurs is via contamination, whereby
objects we associate with sacred events or people become sacred in their
own right. This explains many fans’ desires for items that belonged to (or
were even touched by) famous people. Even the Smithsonian Institution in
Washington, DC, maintains a display that features such “sacred items” as
the ruby slippers from The Wizard of Oz, a phaser from Star Trek, and Archie
Bunker’s chair from the television show All in the Family—all reverently
Do you know any sneakerheads? This term
describes people who are avid collectors of rare or
protected behind sturdy display glass.66
limited edition “kicks,” such as Nike Air Jordans or
the Yeezy that rap singer Kanye West designs.67
Nike’s releases dominate the rare kicks market.
The company cleverly controls the shoes it offers
for sale to keep their value high and motivate
collectors to seek them out—often by camping
out in front of shoe stores for days at a time before
a new model debuts. Many sneakerheads pay big
bucks to pursue their passion—by one estimate,
the typical collector drops about 10 percent of
their income on vintage shoes.68
Source: Ryan Rolo/Shutterstock.

Collections of “Sacred” Products
In addition to museum exhibits that display rare objects, we often set apart
mundane products in collections; when we do so, we transform them from
profane items to sacred ones. An item is sacralized as soon as it enters
a collection, and it takes on special significance to collectors, such as
sneakerheads, that outsiders may find hard to comprehend.
Collecting refers to the systematic acquisition of a particular object
or set of objects. We distinguish this from hoarding, which reflects a
reluctance to discard used objects.69 Hoarding is a problem in some cities

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where residents’ refusal to properly dispose of old newspapers, food, or even deceased
pets results in fires, eviction, and even the removal of children from the home. A dozen
cities run hoarding task forces to combat this problem.70
Collecting typically involves both rational and emotional components. On the
one hand, avid collectors carefully organize and exhibit their treasures.71 On the other
hand, they are ferociously attached to their collections. A teddy bear collector summed
up this fixation: “If my house ever burns down, I won’t cry over my furniture, I’ll cry
over the bears.”72
Some consumer researchers feel that collectors acquire their “prizes” to gratify
their materialism in a socially acceptable manner. When people systematically amass a
collection, they can “worship” material objects without feeling guilty or petty. Another
perspective argues that collecting is an aesthetic experience; for many collectors,
the pleasure comes from creating the collection. Whatever the motivation, hard-core
collectors often devote a great deal of time and energy to maintaining and expanding
their collections, so for many this activity becomes a central component of their
extended selves (see Chapter 6).73

Domains of Sacred Consumption
Sacred consumption events permeate many aspects of our lives. We find ways to set
apart all sorts of places, people, and events. Note that that “ordinary” consumption is
sometimes not so ordinary after all.

•

•
•

Sacred places: A society sets apart sacred places because they have religious
or mystical significance (e.g., Bethlehem, Mecca, Stonehenge) or because
they commemorate some aspect of a country’s heritage (e.g., the Kremlin, the
Emperor’s Palace in Tokyo, the Statue of Liberty, or Ground Zero in Manhattan).
Contamination makes these places sacred: Something sacred happened on that
spot, so the place itself takes on sacred qualities. Hard-core fans buy Yankees
Sod, the first officially licensed grass. Although it costs a few thousand dollars to
fill out a good-sized lawn, proud fans can boast of turf that grows from the same
seeds the groundskeepers use at the stadium, and the sod comes with a certificate
of authenticity from Major League Baseball and a counterfeit-proof hologram that
declares it the official grass of the New York Yankees.74
Sacred people: Hundreds of fan clubs, like Always Elvis, memorialize the King.
Katy Perry has more than 108 million “Katy Cat” followers on Twitter.75
Sacred events: Sometimes public events resemble sacred, religious ceremonies.
Think about fans who hold their hands over their hearts and solemnly recite the
“Pledge of Allegiance” before a ball game or how others reverently light matches
(or hold up illuminated cell phones) during a rock concert.76

From Sacred to Profane, and Back Again
Just to make life interesting, some consumer activities move back and forth between the
sacred and profane spheres over time.77 A study of tea preparation in Turkey illustrates
this movement. Although we are more likely to think of thick Turkish coffee, Turks
consume more tea per capita than any other country. In Turkish culture people drink
tea continuously, like (or instead of) water. Tea is an integral part of daily life; many
households and offices boil water for tea in the traditional çaydanlik (double teapot)
first thing in the morning and keep it steaming all day so that the beverage is ready
at any time. The tea drinking process links to many symbolic meanings—including
the traditional glasses, clear to appreciate the tea’s color and hourglass-shaped like a
woman’s body—and rituals, such as blending one’s own tea, knowing how finely to
grind the tea leaves, and how long to steep the tea for optimal flavor. When Lipton

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Buying, Having, Being
Just Where Is Your
Häagen-Dazs From?
A product’s “address” matters.
Consumers strongly associate
certain items with specific countries,
and products from those countries
often attempt to benefit from these
linkages. That’s why country
of origin (COO) is an important
heuristic. Indeed, marketers often
go out of their way to link a brand
with a country to capitalize on
associations people have with a
specific COO: French wines, Italian
sports cars, even Häagen-Dazs ice
cream with that authentic Danish
taste (but owned by Nestlé and
made in Scandinavian strongholds
like New Jersey!).
Ethnocentrism refers to the
belief that other places are inferior
to one’s own. So an ethnocentric
consumer would view products
from other places as inferior to
local versions.82 This perspective
may stem from a person’s fear that
imported products are a threat to
the domestic economy or perhaps
to a general assumption that one’s
own country produces superior
things in general. And, of course,
there’s the “buy local” movement
that emphasizes the desirability
of buying products that are made
within 50 to 100 miles of the point
of purchase in order to minimize the
carbon footprint involved in shipping
them to stores.

A KFC restaurant in Japan started to
offer turkey dinners on Christmas for
expats who missed being home for the
holiday. Over time, this practice spread
and is now a holiday tradition for many
Japanese consumers as well.
Source: David Parker/Alamy Stock Photo.

introduced the modern tea bag in 1984, Turkey was intent on modernization, and soon
consumers snapped up electric çaydanliks and mugs instead of small, shapely tea
glasses. Tea became a symbol of the quick and convenient, and the drinking act became
more of a fashion statement. Now, many Turkish consumers opt to return to the sacred,
traditional rituals to preserve authenticity in the face of rapid societal changes.78
The transition of Turkish tea to a mass-market product illustrates the process of
desacralization. This occurs when we remove a sacred item or symbol from its special
place or duplicate it in mass quantities so that it loses its “specialness” and becomes
profane. Souvenir reproductions of sacred monuments, such as the Washington
Monument or the Eiffel Tower, of artwork, such as the Mona Lisa or Michelangelo’s
David, or of sacred symbols, such as the U.S. flag on T-shirts, eliminate their special
aspects. They become inauthentic commodities with relatively little value.

Global Consumer Culture
Walk the streets of Lisbon or Buenos Aires, and the sight of Nike hats, Gap T-shirts,
and Levi’s jeans will accost you at every turn. The West (and especially the United
States) is a net exporter of popular culture. Many consumers equate Western lifestyles
in general and the English language with modernization and sophistication, and
numerous U.S. brands slowly but surely insinuate themselves into local cultures.
Indeed, some global brands are so widespread that many are only vaguely aware
of their countries of origin. In surveys, consumers routinely guess that Heineken is
German (it’s Dutch) and that Nokia is Japanese (it’s Finnish).79
Many multinational firms are household names, widely recognized by literally
billions of people. The dominance of these marketing powerhouses creates a global
consumer culture that unites people around the world by their common devotion
to brand-name consumer goods, movie stars, celebrities, and leisure activities.80 As
developing countries generate millions of new middle-class consumers, people all over
the world value well-known brands that symbolize prosperity. Shopping evolves from
a wearying, task-oriented struggle to locate even basic necessities to a leisure activity.
In some cases, consumers in one place simply do not like some products that
are popular elsewhere, or their different lifestyles require companies to rethink their
designs. Cheetos come in many flavors around the world that have little to do with
cheese, including Seaweed (Taiwan), Avocado Salad (Japan), Ketchup (Canada),
Masala Balls (India), and Strawberry Yogurt (Vietnam)—there’s even a Pepsi flavor
in Japan.81

Chapter 14

OBJECTIVE 14-4
Explain how
products, ideas,
and practices
circulate through
society via the
process of diffusion.

The Diffusion of Innovations

Have you ever wondered where the practice of skateboarding
came from and how it has become so popular around the
world? The originators of skateboarding in 1970s southern
California (who were portrayed in the popular documentary
Dogtown and Z-Boys) wouldn’t recognize the sport today. At
that time, boarders were outlaws; as one of the main characters in the film says, “We
get the beat-down from all over. Everywhere we go, man, people hate us.”
Now, skateboarding is about as countercultural as The Simpsons. More kids ride
skateboards than play basketball, and many of them snap up pricey T-shirts, skate
shoes, helmets, and other accessories. In fact, boarders spend almost six times as much
on “soft goods,” such as T-shirts, shorts, and sunglasses (about $4.4 billion in a year),
than on hard-core equipment, including the boards themselves. To real aficionados,
skateboarding has simply become a way for big companies like Nike to sell its SB
Dunks and Janoski shoes.83
Boarders used to live on the fringes of society, but through a steady process of
diffusion, skateboarding is very mainstream today.
The diffusion of innovations refers to the process whereby a new product, service, or
practice spreads through society. An innovation is any product or service that consumers
perceive to be new. It may take the form of an activity (skateboarding), a clothing style
(“cold shoulder” blouse), a new manufacturing technique (the ability to design your
own running shoe at nike.com), a new variation on an existing product (Parkay Fun
Squeeze Colored Margarine in electric blue and shocking pink), a new way to deliver
a product (Uber Eats), or a new way to package a current product (Campbell’s Soup in
Hand Microwaveable Soup that comes in a travel mug). With the explosion of social
and digital media, the diffusion process is faster than ever and involves more consumers
than ever in its process. The media democratization has fundamentally disrupted the
way we become aware of new products and the rate at which these innovations diffuse.
If an innovation is successful (most are not!), it spreads through society. First only
a trickle of people decides to try it. Then, more and more consumers decide to adopt
it, until sometimes it seems that almost everyone is buying it—if it’s a “hit.” The rate
at which a product diffuses varies. For example, within 10 years after introduction,
40 percent of U.S. households watched cable TV, 35 percent listened to compact discs,
25 percent used answering machines, and 20 percent bought color TVs. It took radio
30 years to reach 60 million users and TV 15 years to reach this number. In contrast,
within 3 years, 90 million of us surfed the web.84
Adoption rates of an innovation can go exponential when the process reaches
the moment of critical mass—what one author calls the tipping point.85 For example,
Sharp introduced the first low-priced fax machine in 1984 and sold about 80,000 in
that year. There was a slow climb in the number of users for the next three years. Then,
suddenly, in 1987 enough people had fax machines that it made sense for everyone
to have one, and Sharp sold a million units. Cell phones followed a similar trajectory.
Do you remember when you first heard about Instagram or TikTok?

How Do We Decide to Adopt an Innovation?
Our adoption of an innovation resembles the decision-making sequence we discussed
in Chapter 9. We move through the stages of awareness, information search, evaluation,
trial, and adoption. The relative importance of each stage differs, however, depending
on how much we already know about an innovation as well as on cultural factors that
affect our willingness to try new things.86

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Types of Adopters
As Figure 14.2 shows, roughly one-sixth of the population (innovators and early
adopters) are quick to adopt new products, and one-sixth (laggards) are slow. The
other two-thirds, so-called late adopters, are somewhere in the middle. These
consumers are the mainstream public. They are interested in new things, but they
do not want them to be too new. In some cases, people deliberately wait to adopt an
innovation because they assume that the company will improve its technology or that
its price will fall after it has been on the market awhile (have you been holding off on
that iPhone purchase to see what Apple will come up with next?).87 Keep in mind that
the proportion of consumers who fall into each category is an estimate; the actual size
of each depends on such factors as the complexity of the product, its cost, and how
much risk people associate with it.
Even though innovators represent only about 2.5 percent of the population,
marketers are eager to identify them. Innovators are always on the lookout for novel
products or services, and they are first to try something new. An innovator tends to
be a risk-taker. They also are likely to have a relatively high educational and income
level and to be socially active.
In some cases, an innovator is an admired celebrity to whom others look for
leadership. Luxury brands understand this, and they often work hard to “seed
adoptions” by providing their exclusive items to high-profile people. This is the
strategy Apple followed when the company launched its Apple Watch. Rather than
making the new item widely available as it does with iPhones, Apple at first restricted
access to celebrities including Pharrell Williams, Katy Perry, Drake, and Beyoncé. As
Apple hoped, the celebs in turn posted Instagram photos of themselves sporting their
new toys that stoked the fires of desire for the rest of us.88
Early adopters share many of the same characteristics as innovators.
An important difference is their high degree of concern for social acceptance,
especially regarding expressive products such as clothing and cosmetics. An early
adopter is receptive to new styles because they are involved in the product category
and value being trendy. But they take less of a risk than the innovators who have
already “field-tested” the new style or new technology. In the context of fashion,
we’re likely to find early adopters in “fashion-forward” stores or on e-commerce
sites that feature the latest “hot” designer brands. In contrast, we’re more likely
to find true innovators in small boutiques that carry merchandise from as-yetunknown designers.

rity
ajo
M
rly
Ea

La
t

eM
ajo

y
rit

PERCENTAGE ADOPTING

438

ers
opt
d
A
y
Earl
tors
Innova
13.5%

2.5%

Introduction

Growth

34%

34%
Maturity
LIFE CYCLE

Figure 14.2 Types of Adopters

16%

Lagg
ards

Decline

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The Gartner Hype Cycle
The Gartner hype cycle (see Figure 14.3), developed by a research firm by the same
name, is a widely used approach to help analysts chart the progress of a technological
innovation. Its purpose is to tease apart the “hype” from the real commercial promise
of a new product or technology such as blockchain or virtual reality. This model
describes five key phases of a technology’s life cycle:

•
•
•
•
•

Innovation trigger: A potential technology breakthrough kicks things off. Early
proof-of-concept stories and media interest trigger significant publicity. Often no
usable products exist, and commercial viability is unproven.
Peak of inflated expectations: Early publicity produces a few success stories—
often accompanied by scores of failures. Some companies act; many do not.
Trough of disillusionment: Interest wanes as experiments and implementations fail
to deliver. Producers of the technology shake out or fail. Investments continue only
if the surviving providers improve their products to the satisfaction of early adopters.
Slope of enlightenment: More instances of how the technology can benefit the
enterprise start to crystallize and become more widely understood. Second- and
third-generation products appear from technology providers. More enterprises
fund pilot projects; conservative companies remain cautious.
Plateau of productivity: Mainstream adoption starts to take off. Criteria for
assessing provider viability are more clearly defined. The technology’s broad
market applicability and relevance are clearly paying off.

Types of Innovations
Researchers identify three major types of innovations, although these three categories
are not absolutes. They refer, in a relative sense, to the amount of disruption or change
they bring to people’s lives.
1. A continuous innovation is a modification of an existing product, such as when
General Mills introduces a Honey Nut version of Cheerios or Porsche offers an
SUV model. The company makes small changes to position the product, add line

Expectations

Peak of Inflated
Expectations

ent

p

f
eo

Slo

Innovation
Trigger

En

lig

nm
hte

Plateau of
Productivity

Trough of
Disillusionment
Figure 14.3 Gartner Hype Cycle
TIME

Source: Gartner Hype Cycle-Interpreting Technology Hype by Gartner Inc.

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extensions, or merely alleviate consumer boredom. Most product innovations are of this type; they are evolutionary rather
than revolutionary. When a consumer adopts this kind of new
product, they only make minor changes in their habits (such
as choosing the newer option over the usual one).
2. Some innovations present us with a new way to use an existing
product. This may be more effective, but we still must alter
our habits to use it. A dynamically continuous innovation is
a significant change to an existing product. People who buy
Teslas or other electric cars need to transition from gas stations
to charging stations.
3. A discontinuous innovation creates really big changes in the
way we live. Major inventions, such as the airplane, the car,
the computer, and the television, radically changed modern
lifestyles. Recently a “dual-mode car-aircraft vehicle” called
the AirCar was cleared for takeoff, so in coming years, perhaps your younger
siblings will fly to class instead of drive!89

A flying car is a discontinuous innovation.
Source: Phonlamai Photo/Shutterstock.

What Determines Whether an Innovation Will Diffuse?
Regardless of how much we have to change what we do to use it, a successful
innovation should possess these attributes, as Figure 14.4 shows:90

•
•
•

Compatibility—The innovation should be compatible with consumers’ lifestyles.
During the pandemic, many grocery shoppers started to order their food online and
have it delivered, even though they may not have been interested in this system
beforehand.
Trialability—Because we think an unknown product is risky, we’re more
likely to adopt an innovation if we can experiment with it before making a
commitment. To reduce this risk, companies may spend a lot of money to
distribute free trial-size samples of new products.
Complexity—The product should be low in complexity. All things being equal,
we will choose a product that’s easier to understand and use rather than a more
complex one. This strategy requires less effort from us, and it also lowers our

SUCCESSFUL INNOVATION MUST HAVES

Compatibility
with consumers’
lifestyles

Easy
trialability

Low
complexity

Figure 14.4 Ingredients for a Successful Innovation
Source: Ysclips design/Shutterstock.

High
observability

Large relative
advantage

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perceived risk. Manufacturers of smartphones for example, put a lot of effort into
simplifying usage to encourage non-techies to adopt them.
Observability—Innovations that are readily apparent are more likely to spread because
we can learn about them more easily. Airline passengers who hang out in airports (many
of us are doing that a lot these days) may browse through stores that stock luxury brands,
such as designer fragrances, that encourage people to consider new options.
Relative advantage—Most importantly, the product should offer relative
advantage over alternatives. The consumer must believe that it will provide a
benefit other products cannot offer. For example, the Bugchaser is a wristband that
contains insect repellent. Parents with young children like it because it’s nontoxic
and doesn’t stain—these are clear advantages over alternatives. In contrast, the
Crazy Blue Air Freshener, which emits a fragrance when you turn on your car
wipers, fizzled: People didn’t see the need for the product and felt there were
simpler ways to freshen the air in their cars.

The Diffusion of Consumption Practices
Practices are “routinized things people do, say, and understand” that are situated within
a larger system of social structures, such as markets and governments. These practices
often move from one context to another, acquiring new “carriers,” taking on new
meanings, and influencing other practices. This process is known as practice diffusion.
Let’s catch a wave and look at how this process works in a specific setting: surfing.
New research based on a historical analysis and ethnographic inquiry of surfing shows
the evolution of what started as an indigenous practice all the way to what we know
and see today.91 This study shows how practices such as surfing adapt and change
as they diffuse across cultures and countries. Table 14.1 summarizes these changes.
TABLE 14.1    Practice Diffusion and the Development of Surfboarding
Demarcation

Elements of a practice are set apart from
both the original context in which the
practice developed and the new context
to which the practice is moving.

Surfing began as a practice in the Polynesian islands. For instance, in pre-colonial
times, Hawaiians surfed as recreation, as a means of creating and perpetuating
social relations and as an instrumental part of worship, laden with rich, spiritual
meanings. Although surfing was integral to Hawaiian culture, early Westerners who
colonized the islands condemned and actively discouraged surfing as they promoted
alternative family, community, and religious practices. This juncture brought in
new materials, competences, and meanings (practice elements), which altered
local culture and separated surfing from the systems of practices in which it was
originally embedded. As more foreigners became familiar with surfing, the meanings
of surfing evolved. Elements of surfing transitioned from their original cultural
context, Hawaiian culture, and integrated with Western culture. Western practices
made connections between the competences of surfing and meanings of adventure.

Imitation

Others start to replicate certain elements
of the practice, sometimes meeting
resistance from the larger culture.

Practice imitation enabled the practice of surfing to continue through the
development of surf clubs even though other, more dominant social forces continued
to hinder its reproduction.

Acculturation

Parts of the practice start to become
integrated with the dominant culture.

What began as practice imitation and a countercultural movement became
legitimized and commercialized through the growth of a large subculture of
consumption. Surfing became intertwined with beach and youth cultures worldwide
during the first half of the 20th century through movies, magazines, and the
movement of the practice to other coastal areas.

Innovation

Elements of the practice are unbundled
from one another and recombined with
elements of other practices, transforming
the practice.

Surfing became acculturated in many coastal areas as a way of life, which led to
different forms of surfing that require the introduction and reproduction of new
competences, meanings, and materials. This expansion led to an extended industry
of board sports (surfing, snowboarding, and skateboarding).

Source: Adapted from Melissa Archpru Akaka, Hope Jensen Schau, and Stephen L. Vargo, “Practice Diffusion,” Journal of Consumer Research 48, no. 6 (2022): 939–69.

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Buying, Having, Being
The Cultural Appropriation
Land Mine
As product designers scour
popular culture in search of
symbols they can “borrow” to
imbue their brands with meanings,
they need to avoid the land
mines that are ready to explode
if they cross the line and engage
in cultural appropriation. This
problem occurs when individuals
or companies who belong to a
dominant cultural group adopt a
minority group’s cultural symbols
in an exploitative, stereotypical, or
disrespectful manner. For example,
Kim Kardashian’s Kimono line of
shapewear ignited a firestorm of
controversy and accusations of
cultural appropriation and disrespect
for Japanese culture.94 A kimono is
a traditional garment in Japanese
culture, and one that bears little
resemblance to Kim’s spandex
shapewear. She was forced to
rename the line with the more
neutral SKIMS.95
This is a common problem,
especially in the fashion industry.
Victoria’s Secret has repeatedly
been accused of sending models
down the runway in outfits that
make exaggerated costumes of
other cultures, including Native
American and Asian styles.96 In
2018, Gucci’s fall collection sparked

One widely used approach to predicting whether people will adopt a new form
of technology or information system is the technology acceptance model (TAM).
TAM suggests that the likelihood of change is based on two factors: the perceived
usefulness of the new option and its perceived ease of use. TAM has been used
to understand, for example, whether consumers will be interested in virtual reality
systems depending on how useful they perceive them to be relative to other digital
environments.92

The Fashion System
Style is important to many of us, even when the style is to not be in style. That was
the case in recent years as a fashion movement known as normcore started to take
off. This term describes a trend among young urbanites to forsake hipster styles like
skinny jeans, wallet chains, and flannel shirts, for bland, suburban attire like Gap
cargo shorts, a Coors Light T-shirt, a Nike golf hat, white sneakers, and “dad jeans.”
More broadly, some analysts proposed that normcore reflected an effort by young
bohemian types to “get over themselves.” They had devoted tremendous effort to set
themselves apart from others with quirky style flourishes, like handlebar moustaches
and drinking obscure microbrews, and so they felt a need to throw themselves back
into mainstream culture. The normcore buzz grew quickly, to the point where a Google
search of the term yields almost 1 million hits. Fashion insiders couldn’t take it
anymore; one person created the Google Chrome extension No More #NORMCORE,
which blocks references to the term.93 Time to move on to the next trend.

Fashion Is about a Lot More Than Paris Runways
The fashion system includes all the people and organizations that create symbolic
meanings and transfer those meanings to cultural goods. Although we often equate
fashion with clothing, it’s important to keep in mind that fashion processes affect
all types of cultural phenomena, including music, art, architecture, and even science
(i.e., certain research topics and individual scientists are “hot” at any point in time).
Even business practices are subject to the fashion process; they evolve and change
depending on which management techniques are in vogue, such as total quality
management (TQM), just-in-time inventory control (JIT), or managing by walking
around (MBWA). The movement of meaning we discussed earlier in this chapter
affects all these domains.

The Spread of Memes

The normcore style reflected the fashion of not being in fashion.
Source: Eugenio Marongiu/Shutterstock.

A meme is an idea or product that enters the consciousness
of people over time—examples include tunes, styles like
the Hush Puppy, catch-phrases like “You’re fired!,” and
other social developments (e.g., how many times have you
seen the word metaverse since Facebook—now named
Meta—announced its plans to dominate this space in
2022?)97
Memes travel fast, and when they make fun of a
brand, they can hurt. Increasingly, disgruntled consumers
are creating memes to complain about bad experiences
with companies. As one marketing executive put it, “The
brand becomes a temporary punching bag for many, many
people. People will pile on even if they haven’t actually been
aggrieved.”

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When a Tesla electric car erupted in flames, memes showed up almost instantly.
One depicted a young couple holding each other outside a burning Tesla car, with
the caption “Keep warm on a cold night.” Another meme ridiculed Samsung’s
Galaxy phones when they started to explode all over the place. It showed a
bomb-defusing expert in full military gear getting ready to plug in his Samsung
phone, with the caption “How to safely charge your Galaxy Note 7.” But the
company did what experts recommend: It confronted the problem directly. When
it launched its updated (and presumably less combustible) model, Samsung posted
a #DoWhatYouCant video that featured an ostrich that dreams of flying. The bird
stumbles but ultimately soars into the sky. It had more than 1.3 million views on
YouTube in its first 24 hours.98
Memes spread among consumers in a geometric progression just as a virus
starts off small and steadily infects increasing numbers of people until it becomes a
pandemic. Memes “leap” from brain to brain via a process of imitation. The memes
that survive tend to be distinctive and memorable, and the hardiest ones often combine
aspects of prior memes. For example, the Star Wars movies evoke prior memes that
relate to the legend of King Arthur, religion, heroic youth, and 1930s adventure serials.
Indeed, George Lucas studied comparative religion and mythology as he prepared his
first draft of the Star Wars saga, The Story of Mace Windu.99

Threadless crowdsources product ideas and then sells the most popular ones to the
community it maintains.
Source: Courtesy of Threadless.

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controversy when white models
wore turbans resembling those
worn in the Sikh community. The
Sikh Coalition tweeted, “The Sikh
is a sacred article of faith, @gucci,
not a mere fashion accessory.
#appropriation. We are available for
further education and consultation
if you are looking for observant Sikh
models.”100
The potential for appropriation
is a tough problem for an industry
that thrives on the use and reuse
of imagery from multiple sources.
The violations that have aroused
critics’ ire demonstrate the fragility
of the wall we like to think separates
authentic from fake design. As
a brand management executive
observed, “There is a fine line
between cultural appropriation and
appreciation. To try to maintain
artificial lines between groups or
protect one group’s rights over
another to address or celebrate
images and ideas of gender, race,
ethnicity, and the like is a losing
battle in a day and age wherein
these divisions matter less and less.
The lines themselves are dissolving
completely.”101
Ironically, one reason for these
issues is that the industry is making
a sincere attempt to become more
inclusive. As it moves away from
a purely Caucasian paradigm, it is
inevitable that some miscues will
occur. And these violations are more
likely to surface because so many
people on social media are vigilant,
and they use these digital tools to
instantly call attention to problems.
There is no immediate remedy
for this problem, but there is an
obvious long-term solution. It’s
in a brand’s best interest to be
sure it hires people from diverse
backgrounds who can detect
the potential for offense earlier in
the product development cycle.
Diversity in hiring is more than a
good slogan; it’s a rational form of
self-preservation to ensure that a
marketer has the right filters built
into its brand’s DNA.

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Consumers as Sources of Innovations
Today some marketers have figured out that their consumers are the best source for new
product ideas. This is the logic behind crowdsourcing, which describes the growing
practice of soliciting ideas for new products and even advertising campaigns from a
user community. Under this model, companies no longer market to consumers, they
market with them.102 The process of value co-creation emphasizes the involvement of
consumers both in the production and design process and in the product use process.
LEGO for example has had great success in soliciting ideas for new products from
its enthusiastic users.
The wisdom of crowds perspective (from a book by that name) argues that, under
the right circumstances, groups are smarter than the smartest people in them. If this
is true, it implies that large numbers of consumers can predict successful products.103
Companies as diverse as Budweiser (which crowdsourced its new Black Crown beer)
to handbag designer Alexander Wang today offer products that originated from ideas
employees or consumers submitted.104
Many companies see value in consumers cooperating in the creation of
new products or in the improvement of existing products.105 But sometimes the
collaboration between companies and consumers is far from smooth. For instance,
a researcher documented many facets and phases of drama in the ways in which
consumers in the 1990s resisted the music industry’s traditional business model and
moved to digital downloads. These digital downloads were initially decried as illegal
but, with the support of artists like Prince and Bob Dylan, eventually led to the digital
music industry that makes music available on streaming platforms.106

Part of the innovation process centers on adapting technologies so that consumers with
limited access to resources can benefit from improvements, such as solar-powered lighting,
water filtration systems, and improved hygiene.107 In line with the technology acceptance
model, people are more likely to adopt technological innovations that are useful and provide
an advantage over prior products. For example, M-Pesa (“M” for mobile, “pesa” is Swahili
for money) is a mobile-phone-based money transfer service that is popular in parts of Africa,
where most consumers do not have access to bank branches. M-Pesa provided a new and
better way to do something—and offers a reminder that our consumption choices have the
potential to make the world a better place.
Source: Benedicte Desrus/Alamy Stock Photo.

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CHAPTER SUMMARY
Now that you have finished reading this chapter, you should
be able to:
1. Describe how culture is a society’s personality.
A society’s culture includes its values, ethics, and the
material objects its members produce. It is the accumulation of shared meanings and traditions among
members of a society. We describe a culture in terms
of ecology (the way people adapt to their habitat), its
social structure, and its ideology (including moral and
aesthetic principles).
2. Discuss how consumption rituals structure our
experiences and convey our cultural values.
A ritual is a set of multiple, symbolic behaviors that
occur in a fixed sequence and that we repeat periodically. Ritual is related to many consumption activities
that occur in popular culture. These include holiday
observances, gift giving, and grooming. A rite of passage is a special kind of ritual that marks the transition
from one role to another. These passages typically
entail the need to acquire ritual artifacts to facilitate
the transition. Modern rites of passage include graduations, fraternity initiations, weddings, debutante balls,
and funerals.
3. Summarize how products, brands, and practices
are vessels of cultural meanings.

We divide consumer activities into sacred and profane domains. Sacralization occurs when we set apart
everyday people, events, or objects from the ordinary
and thereby make them sacred. Objectification occurs
when we ascribe sacred qualities to products or items
that sacred people once owned. Desacralization occurs
when formerly sacred objects or activities become part
of the everyday, as when companies reproduce “oneof-a-kind” works of art in large quantities.
4. Explain how products, ideas, and practices circulate
through society via the process of diffusion.
Diffusion of innovation refers to the process whereby a
new product, service, or idea spreads through a population. Innovators and early adopters are quick to adopt
new products, and laggards are slow. A consumer’s
decision to adopt a new product depends on his or her
personal characteristics as well as on characteristics
of the innovation itself. We are more likely to adopt a
new product if it demands relatively little behavioral
change, is easy to understand, and provides a relative
advantage compared with existing products. The fashion system includes everyone involved in creating and
transferring symbolic meanings. Many different products express common cultural categories. According
to meme theory, ideas spread through a population in
a geometric progression much as a virus infects many
people until it reaches epidemic proportions.

KEY TERMS
Acculturation, 423
Adoption rates, 437
Antifestival, 432
Binary opposition, 427
Collecting, 434
Compatibility, 440
Complexity, 440
Conditioned superstition, 429
Consumer fairy tales, 427
Contamination, 434
Continuous innovation, 439
Country of origin (COO), 436
Crowdsourcing, 444
Cultural appropriation, 442
Cultural gatekeepers, 426
Culture, 421

Desacralization, 436
Diffusion of innovations, 437
Discontinuous innovation, 440
Dynamically continuous innovation,
440
Early adopters, 438
Ecology, 423
Enculturation, 423
Ethnocentrism, 436
Ethnography, 422
Extraordinary beliefs, 429
Fashion system, 442
Fortress brands, 428
Gartner Hype Cycle, 439
Gestation, 431
Gift-giving ritual, 430

Global consumer culture, 436
Grooming rituals, 430
Hoarding, 434
Hofstede’s dimensions of national
culture, 424
Ideology, 423
Individualism, 424
Indulgence versus restraint, 424
Innovation, 437
Innovators, 438
Laggards, 438
Late adopters, 438
Long-term orientation, 424
Masculinity, 424
Meme, 442
Myth, 427

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Objectification, 434
Observability, 441
Power distance, 424
Practice diffusion, 441
Practices, 441
Presentation, 431
Profane consumption, 434
Reciprocity norm, 431
Reformulation, 431

Relative advantage, 441
Rites of passage, 432
Ritual, 428
Ritual artifacts, 429
Ritual script, 429
Sacralization, 434
Sacred consumption, 434
Social structure, 423

Technology Acceptance Model
(TAM), 442
Tightness–looseness, 425
Tipping point, 437
Trialability, 440
Uncertainty avoidance, 424
Value co-creation, 444
Wisdom of crowds, 444

REVIEW
14-1 What is culture? List three dimensions that social scientists use to describe a culture, and give an example
of each.
14-2 A myth is a special kind of story. What makes it special? What is an example of a modern myth?
14-3 What is a ritual? Describe three kinds of rituals, and
provide an example of each.

14-4 List the three stages of a rite of passage ritual.
14-5 What is the difference between sacred and profane
consumption? Provide one example of each.
14-6 How is a collection sacred? What is the difference
between collecting and hoarding?
14-7 Who are innovators? Early adopters? Laggards?
14-8 What is an example of a meme?

CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CHALLENGE
DISCUSS

14-9 The chapter discusses the perils of cultural appropriation, where a company borrows symbolism from
a specific culture for its own purposes. While many
critics abhor this practice, others point to the role
that fashion plays in exposing people to other cultures. What’s your take—is cultural appropriation a
problem, or just a “compliment” for the culture that
provides the symbols?
14-10 The allure of U.S. consumer culture spreads throughout the world but with a lot of pushback in many
places. Critics in other countries deplore the creeping Americanization of their cultures because of what
they view as excessive materialism. One French critic
summarized this resistance to the diffusion of U.S.
culture: He described the Euro Disney theme park as
“a horror made of cardboard, plastic, and appalling
colors—a construction of hardened chewing gum and
idiotic folklore taken straight out of a comic book
written for obese Americans.”108
What is your reaction to these criticisms?
14-11 Many colleges boast unique rituals in which students engage in some scripted group activity, though

in recent years, some institutions have abolished
these because of safety concerns or because the rituals encourage underage drinking. Casualties include
spring couch burning at the University of Vermont,
and Texas A&M’s bonfire on the eve of the annual
football game against the University of Texas (the
bonfire ritual has since been revived off campus).109
However, UC–Santa Barbara still offers an Undie
Run. Naked Harvard students let off steam just before
finals in The Primal Scream, and Yale seniors run
naked through campus libraries at the end of each
semester to toss candy at underclass students as they
cram for finals. Denison University celebrates Naked
Week and Tufts has a Naked Quad Run. What is
your feeling about these rituals? Should universities
encourage them?
14-12 “Disney World is a sacred place.” Do you agree? Why
or why not?
14-13 Describe the three stages of the rite of passage associated with graduating from college.
14-14 Have you ever given yourself a gift? If so, why did
you do it, and how did you decide what to get?

Chapter 14

14-15 Identify modern-day myths that corporations create. How do they communicate these stories to
consumers?
14-16 In the last few years, our culture has been shocked by
revelations regarding sexual harassment by famous
artists, actors, executives, and others as the #MeToo
movement accelerated. Prominent companies including Volkswagen, Mercedes-Benz, Hugo Boss, Bayer,
IBM, and Kodak had ties to Nazi Germany. Aetna
and New York Life profited by selling insurance policies to slaveowners.110 Yet we value their products
today. To what extent can or should we separate the
creator from the creation? Should we buy products or
services that are “tainted” by their owners’ or companies’ unsavory past actions?
14-17 “Christmas has become simply another opportunity
to exchange gifts and stimulate the economy.” Do
you agree? Why or why not?
14-18 Bridal registries clearly specify the gifts that the
couple wants. How do you feel about this practice?
Should people specify what you should buy for them,
or should a gift be a more personal expression from
you?
14-19 Rituals provide us with a sense of order and security.
In a study of the drinking rituals of college students,
the researchers found that drinking imposed order in
students’ daily lives—from the completion of assignments to what and when to eat. In addition, ritualizing an activity such as drinking provides security and
fellowship at a time fraught with confusion and turbulent change. Obviously, though, there’s a dark side
to drinking rituals. Consider the highly publicized
death of an MIT student who died three days after he
fell into an alcohol-induced coma as the result of a
fraternity pledge. Indeed, although binge drinking is
a ritual many college students practice, critics have

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described it as the most significant health hazard on
college campuses today.111 What role does drinking
play in the social life on your campus? Based on your
experience, how does it fit into rituals of college life?
Should these practices be changed? If so, how?
14-20 Movie companies often conduct market research
when they produce big-budget films. If necessary,
they will reshoot part of a movie when viewers say
they don’t like it. Some people oppose this practice:
They claim that movies, like books, songs, plays, and
other artistic endeavors, should not conform to what
the market wants, lest they sacrifice their integrity.
What do you think?
14-21 Boots with six-inch heels were a fashion rage among
young Japanese women a few years ago. Several
teens died after they tripped over their shoes and
fractured their skulls. However, followers of the style
claimed they were willing to risk twisted ankles, broken bones, bruised faces, and other dangers the platform shoes caused. One teenager said, “I’ve fallen
and twisted my ankle many times, but they are so
cute that I won’t give them up until they go out of
fashion.”112 Many consumers around the world seem
willing to suffer for the sake of fashion. Others argue
that we are merely pawns in the hands of designers,
who conspire to force unwieldy fashions down our
throats. What do you think? What is and what should
be the role of fashion in our society? How important
is it for people to be in style? What are the pros and
cons of keeping up with the latest fashions? Do you
believe that we are at the mercy of designers?
14-22 Identify the ritual elements of a football game.
14-23 The chapter states that a culture is a society’s personality. If your culture were a person, how would you
describe its personality traits?

APPLY

14-24 Over the years, the McDonald’s fast-food chain
has tried to modify its menu to appeal to people in
different cultures. In India, the company doesn’t
sell any of its famous beef hamburgers. Instead, it
offers customized entrées such as a Pizza McPuff,
McAloo Tikki (a spiced-potato burger), and a Paneer
Salsa McWrap. Still, like many other marketers, the
company has come under fire for ignoring cultural
sensitivities. Back in 1994 during the soccer World
Cup, the fast-food giant reprinted the Saudi Arabian
flag, which includes sacred words from the Koran, on
disposable packaging it used in promotions. Muslims

around the world protested this borrowing of sacred
imagery, and the company had to scramble to correct
its mistake. Still, McDonald’s keeps trying—it
recently introduced the McVegan in its stores in
Finland and Switzerland.113
Research McDonald’s menus in a few different
countries. What evidence can you find that the company has adapted its offerings to local tastes? Do you
see any opportunities it is missing?
14-25 People in Thailand are preoccupied with supernatural
forces. One common sight is a “spirit house,” a
miniature dwelling intended for protective ghosts.

448

Section 5

• Belonging

Some include electric wiring and indoor lighting; you
will even find them in 7-Eleven convenience stores
throughout the country. Thais spend about $63 million
per year on visits to fortune tellers. Stores sell amulets
for good luck next to breath mints, and horoscope
books next to junk food. There are YouTube channels
devoted to fortune telling and computer programs
like “Feng Shui Master,” which supposedly help to
predict the future of gold prices.114
How do consumers in the United States compare? Interview people you know about any “magic”
items they own (e.g., how many of your friends have
a lucky charm or hang a St. Christopher medal or
some other object from their rearview mirrors?). Get
them to describe their feelings about these objects
and tell how they acquired their magical properties.
How would they feel if they lost these special items?
14-26 Interview people you know who have a collection
of some kind. How do they organize and describe
their collections? Do you see any evidence of sacred
versus profane distinctions?
14-27 Ask friends to describe an incident in which they
received a gift they thought was inappropriate. Why
did they feel this way, and how did this event influence the relationship between them and the gift giver?
14-28 U.S. television inspires knockoffs around the world.
But to be fair, many U.S. viewers don’t realize that
U.S. reality show hits such as Big Brother and American Idol started out as European concepts that U.S.
producers imported. In fact, the U.K. version of Big
Brother briefly went off the air after a fight broke
out and housemates threatened to kill each other.115
In contrast, a Malaysian show that borrows the
American Idol format is called Imam Muda (Young

Leader). Contestants debate religious topics and
recite passages from the Koran. The winner doesn’t
get a recording contract. Instead, he receives a job as
an imam, or religious leader; a scholarship to study in
Saudi Arabia; and an all-expenses-paid pilgrimage to
Mecca, Islam’s holiest city.116 See whether you can
identify foreign versions of familiar reality shows.
You should be able to find them online. How have the
creators of these programs adapted them to appeal to
local customs?
14-29 The chapter states that experience-oriented gifts
(e.g., lessons) do more to strengthen the relationship
between givers and receivers than do material gifts.
How might marketers in the travel industry apply this
insight to their own efforts?
14-30 Death also involves rites of passage. Funeral ceremonies help the living organize their relationships with
the deceased. Action is tightly scripted, down to the
costumes (e.g., the ritual black attire, black ribbons
for mourners, the body laid out in its best clothes)
and specific behaviors (e.g., sending condolence
cards or holding a wake). Passing motorists award
special status to the cortege (the funeral motorcade)
when they obey the strong social norm that prohibits
cutting in as the line of cars proceeds to the cemetery.117 Funeral practices vary across cultures, but
they’re always rich in symbolism. Compare and contrast funeral rituals in another country versus those
we typically see at American death ceremonies.
14-31 The chapter discusses the Gartner hype cycle, and
it describes five stages in the cycle. Identify three
current tech innovations (e.g., virtual reality, drones,
etc.), and pinpoint where you believe each new product fits in the cycle.

DIGGING IN WITH DATA

See “Data Case 4: Going Global with Juice” in Appendix A for an opportunity to work with real consumer data and
apply this chapter’s concepts to real world problems.

CASE STUDY

Twist, Lick, and Dunk! Does It Make Oreos Taste Better?

Do you fold your pizza slice or tap your can of soda before you
drink it? If so, you are practicing a food ritual. As we discussed
in this chapter, rituals are sets of multiple, symbolic behaviors
that occur in a fixed sequence and are repeated periodically.118

Rituals are an important component of culture and many rituals are associated with food. Perhaps you also follow the
same ritual millions of others do when eating “Milk’s Favorite
Cookie”—the Oreo: Twist, Lick, and Dunk!119

Chapter 14

Oreo was first introduced in 1912 and has grown to be
the bestselling cookie brand with over $3 billion in global
annual sales in 2020. Oreo has a worldwide market share that
is about three times the market share of any other cookie.120
Every year, enough Oreos are produced to circle the earth
more than four times—approximately 34 billion!121 A great
product and intensive marketing have contributed to Oreo’s
success, but many also give credit to the famous ritual associated with eating its delicious cookies.
One study found that food rituals like “twist, lick, and
dunk” may actually enhance our enjoyment of the food we
eat. Performing the ritual seems to boost our interest in the
food; we think the eating experience is more enjoyable and
we find the food more flavorful. An important finding for
marketers was that the study participants who performed the
ritual were willing to pay more than those who just ate the
food without the ritual. The test was done with chocolate and
lemonade, but it also worked with baby carrots. Perhaps we
need a ritual for broccoli?122
Mondelēz, the maker of Oreos, has invested heavily in
promotional activity designed to help us remember how to
eat its cookie. A series of TV commercials shows very cute
children teaching their parents how to eat the cookie properly.123 In one, a boy and his father twist, lick, and dunk via
video chat from opposite sides of the globe, wishing each
other “good morning” and “good night.”124
A TV and social media promotion was designed to get
even more cookie fans engaged in Oreo’s ritual. The “Oreo
Dunk Challenge” was inspired by the study mentioned earlier and featured celebrities Shaquille O’Neal, Christina Aguilera, and Brazilian soccer star Neymar da Silva Santos Jr.
In one, Shaq (wearing a sparkly blue pantsuit) flew down a
silk rope to make his dunk. Aguilera was on a tightrope, and
Neymar bounced off a trampoline before dunking and stopping a rolling soccer ball.125 The promotion also included a
sweepstakes in which Oreo fans submitted their own dunk
videos via Twitter or Instagram.126
While rituals contribute to our culture, there are other
societal factors that may conflict with those treasured routines or at least the products at the center of them. Oreo faced
this problem several years ago as another cultural trend took
hold: the concern over childhood obesity. Some schools
pulled cookies from vending machines or snack menus, and
in California, a lawsuit was filed to ban the sale of Oreos
to children.127 The sales of Oreo and other cookie producers suffered.128 Oreo responded to the public concern by

• Culture

449

eliminating all marketing in schools, including a book that
used images of Oreos to teach children how to count.129 The
brand also introduced a vanilla cookie with no trans-fat and
100-calorie packs of its cookies.130 Today, all Oreos are made
without trans-fat.131
Another major cultural shift occurred with the adoption
of the smartphone and with it our seemingly constant use of
social media apps. How did this impact Oreo sales? In the
past, shoppers waiting to pay at the grocery store were prime
targets for an impulse purchase—candy, gum, or a sleeve of
Oreos. Now, these waiting shoppers are probably looking at
their smartphones instead of those racks full of Oreos and
other delights. To try to get those consumers’ attention again,
Oreo sends regular social media messages—YouTube videos,
Instagram ads, and Tweets—hoping the customer will take
the hint to grab a pack of Oreos.132
For the record, not all Oreo eaters faithfully twist, lick,
and dunk. About 50 percent of Oreo lovers eat their cookies
whole and 50 percent pull them apart. Men are more likely
than women to eat them whole.133 But for many, this ritual will
have the effect that Oreo Global Brand Director Justin Parnell
intends: “OREO sees the world with childlike wonder and our
iconic dunking ritual is the purest articulation of that vision.
When you dunk an OREO cookie in milk, you’re releasing
a bit of childlike wonder from within, and it’s those types of
moments that our brand was built on. We’re thrilled to inspire
fans to dunk OREO cookies on a global scale and inspire more
moments of play and wonder around the world.”134
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

CS 14-1 What other food categories or brands have rituals
associated with them? If you are a participant in
one or more of those rituals, do you agree with the
study referenced above that this ritual increases
your enjoyment of the food?
CS 14-2 Choose a food brand without an apparent ritual and
come up with one that could be used in a promotional activity. (No dunking allowed.)
CS 14-3 How could Oreo assess the impact of the twist, lick,
and dunk ritual? Create a simple experiment that
could provide Oreo marketers with data to judge
the role that the ritual plays in some marketing metric of interest (e.g., brand loyalty, likely increased
frequency of purchase, or differentiation from competitive offerings).

450

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• Belonging

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127. David Barboza, “Kraft Plans to Rethink Some Items to Fight Obesity,” New
York Times, July 2, 2003, https://www.nytimes.com/2003/07/02/business/

Chapter 14

kraft-plans-to-rethink-some-products-to-fight-obesity.html; Kim Severson,
“Lawsuit Seeks to Ban Sale of Oreos to Children in State of California/
Nabisco Taken to Task over Trans Fat’s Effects,” SF Gate, May 12, 2003,
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17938135.
129. David Barboza, “Kraft Plans to Rethink Some Items to Fight Obesity,” New
York Times, July 2, 2003, https://www.nytimes.com/2003/07/02/business/kraftplans-to-rethink-some-products-to-fight-obesity.html; “A Nation of Snackers
Snubs Old Favorite: The Beloved Cookie,” Wall Street Journal, June 16, 2004,
https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB108734056517938135.
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Street Journal, June 16, 2004, https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1087340565
17938135.

• Culture

453

131. Betsy McKay and Jacob Bunge, “Food Makers Vow to Cut Trans Fat
Globally,” Wall Street Journal, May 14, 2018, https://www.wsj.com/articles/
food-makers-vow-to-cut-trans-fats-globally-1526271513.
132. Danielle Sacks, “The Story of Oreo: How an Old Cookie Became a Modern
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133. Ibid.
134. “Oreo Puts New Spin on Iconic Dunking Ritual with Launch of New Oreo
Dunk Challenge,” MultiVu, February 8, 2017, https://www.multivu.com/
players/English/8031651-oreo-dunk-challenge-shaq-christina-aguileraneymar-da-silva-santo-jr/.

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Appendix

Data Cases
Case

1

A

Analyzing the Athletic Shoe Market

Background

The Data

You are the marketing analyst for an online athletic shoe
store. To date, your company has done little formal marketing research about athletic shoe buyers in the United States.
Using the 2022 Spring MRI Simmons data, you recently ran
a series of reports about the shoe-buying habits of several
U.S. consumer segments. At this time, you have decided
to focus on the five best-selling shoe brands on your website: Adidas, Asics, Nike, New Balance, and Reebok. After
looking through the MRI Simmons data report options, you
decided that the most fitting question for your purposes is
“Did you buy [SHOE BRAND] in the last 12 months?”
The report is designed to compare the shoe-buying habits
of consumers across several different consumer characteristics:
gender, age, and internet use. In addition, you also created three
subsegment schemes that combined two different segmentation
variables: Gender and Age (men 18–34 and women 18–34) and
Internet Use and Age (heavy internet users 18–34 years old).

You can interpret the data in the following manner:

Your Goal

•
•
•
•
•
•

First, review the data from the 2022 MRI Simmons data report. You will use this information to make some inferences
about the brand preferences of the different segments. You
will combine the information in the MRI Simmons data report
with some financial assumptions provided by your company to
make some recommendations for future marketing tactics.

Total
Market Segment Size (000s)
Market Segment Size (%)

Men

254,237 122,919

Market Segment Size (000s): The total number of U.S.
adults that meet the criteria for the segment (regardless of
whether they did or did not buy a particular shoe brand).
Market Segment Size (%): The same as Market Segment
Size (000s) but presented as a percentage of all U.S. adults.
Estimated Count (000s): The estimated number of U.S.
adults within the segment who bought that particular
pair of shoes at least once in the last 12 months.
Percentage of Total: Among all U.S. adults who bought
a particular brand of shoes in the last 12 months, the percentage of them who belong to that particular segment.
Percentage within Market Segment Who Bought in
Last Year: The percentage of people within a particular segment who bought the shoe brand within the last
12 months.
Index: The likelihood of a member of the segment
to have bought the particular shoe brand in the last
12 months, indexed to the likelihood of an average U.S.
adult (the U.S. average equals an index value of 100).
Thus, an index value of 120 can be interpreted as members of that segment being 20 percent more likely than
the national average to have bought a particular brand of
shoes in the last 12 months.

Adults
18–34

Men
18–34

131,318

74,801

37,586

37,215

14.78

14.64

Women

100

48.35

51.65

29.42

35,393

16,479

18,914

15,058

100

46.56

53.44

13.92

13.41

14.40

100

96

103

Women
18–34

Internet
1 (Heavy
Users)

Adults 18–34
and Heavy
Internet

50,839

24,851
9.77

ADIDAS
Estimated Count (000s)
% of Total
% within Mkt. Seg. Who Bought Last Year
Index

6,902

8,156

8,490

5,084

19.50

23.04

23.99

14.36

20.13

18.36

21.92

16.70

20.46

145

132

157

120
(Continued )



455

456

Appendix  • Data Cases

Men
18–34

Women
18–34

Internet
1 (Heavy
Users)

Adults 18–34
and Heavy
Internet

Total

Men

Women

Adults
18–34

12,517

5,335

7,162

3,327

1,571

1,755

2,276

1,120

% of Total

100

42.78

57.22

26.58

12.55

14.02

18.18

8.95

% within Mkt. Seg. Who Bought Last Year

4.92

4.36

4.45

4.18

4.72

4.48

4.51

Index

100

88

111

90

85

96

91

92

52,644

25,551

27,093

21,737

10,846

13,025

7,543

100

48.54

51.46

41.29

20.69

20.60

24.74

14.33

20.71

20.79

20.63

29.06

28.98

29.14

25.62

30.35

100

100

100

140

140

141

124

147

27,123

13,440

13,684

5,430

2,871

2,559

4,552

1,789

100

49.55

50.45

20.02

10.59

9.43

16.78

6.60

10.67

10.93

10.42

7.26

7.64

6.88

8.95

7.20

100

102

98

68

72

64

84

67

9,095

4,520

4,575

3,427

1,666

1,761

2,054

1,262

% of Total

100

49.69

50.31

37.68

18.32

19.36

22.59

13.87

% within Mkt. Seg. Who Bought Last Year

3.58

3.68

3.48

4.58

4.43

4.73

4.04

5.08

Index

100

103

97

128

124

132

113

142

ASICS
Estimated Count (000s)

NIKE
Estimated Count (000s)
% of Total
% within Mkt. Seg. Who Bought Last Year
Index
NEW BALANCE
Estimated Count (000s)
% of Total
% within Mkt. Seg. Who Bought Last Year
Index
REEBOK
Estimated Count (000s)

Source: Spring 2022 MRI Simmons.

Task 1

Correct the Table

Unfortunately, it appears that someone accidentally left some of the calculated values blank in the table. Luckily, you know
you can use the other available information in the table to calculate the missing values.

•

Q1: Calculate the market segment size (in percentage) for heavy internet users.
CALCULATION =

•

Segment Size (000s) in the Internet 1( Heavy Users ) Column ]
[ Market Segment Size (000s) in the Total Column ]

Q2: Calculate the percentage of total market for adults 18–34 who bought Adidas in the last 12 months.
CALCULATION =

•

[ Market

[Estimated Count (000s) in Adults 18−34]
[Estimated Count (000s in Total)]

Q3: Calculate the index for adults 18–34 who are heavy internet users who bought Adidas in the last 12 months.
([percentage within market segment who bought last year in adults 18–34

CALCULATION = 100 +

heavy internet ] – [ percentage within market segment who bought last year in total])
[percentage within market segment who bought last year in total]

×100

Appendix  • Data Cases

•

Q4: For the Women column, calculate the percentage within the market segment who bought Asics in the last 12 months.
CALCULATION =

•

457

[Estimated Count (000s)]
Market Segment Size (000s)

Q5: For men 18–34, calculate the Estimated Count (000s) who bought Nike shoes in the last 12 months.

CALCULATION = [Market Segment Size (000s) for Men 18–34] × [Percentage within market segment who bought
last year for Men 18–34]

Task 2 Making Inferences about
Athletic Shoe Buyers
1. Generally speaking, does it appear that heavy internet
users are more or less likely than the average U.S. adult
to have bought these shoe brands in the last 12 months?
2. If you were going to run a series of advertisements for your
company targeting younger adult women, which brand would
you recommend featuring on the advertisement? Which shoe
brand would you be disinclined to feature? Why?
3. Lately, management for your company has worried that its
positioning has completely overlooked serving the wants
of “older” consumers (older than 45 years old). If your
company decides to market toward older U.S. adults, which
of the brands should your company be more conscientious
about featuring?

Task 3 Estimating the Value of the
Shoe-Buying Segments
Using some assumptions provided by the CFO, you are
tasked with estimating the annual sales (in dollars) for each
shoe-buying segment. To do so, you will need to make the
following assumptions:

•
•

These numbers are estimates that came from the internal
efforts of your financial analyst team.
If someone buys at least one pair of a shoe
brand in the last 12 months, how many total
pairs of that brand do they buy on average?

Average
price per
shoe pair

Adidas

2.0

$70

Asics

2.0

$70

Nike

1.5

$75

New Balance

2.0

$70

Reebok

1.5

$65

1. What are the total estimated sales of these five shoe
brands for heavy internet users in the last 12 months?
2. For a random U.S. adult woman, how much would
we estimate she spent on Asics shoes in the last
12 months?
3. For the U.S. adult women segment, which shoe brand
is currently the most profitable for the online athletic
store? If it costs $10 in advertising spend to acquire a
new female customer, which shoe brands would be best
to feature in an advertising campaign?

Average number of pairs bought within 12 months
Average price of shoe brand

DISCUSSION AND DEBATE

1. Based solely on the information that you analyzed, do
you think it makes more sense for your company to:
treat the whole market as homogeneous (no segmentation), use a single variable segmentation scheme (just
gender, just age, just internet usage), or use a multivariate segmentation scheme? Regardless of your answer,
identify the advantages and limitations associated with
your argument.

2. You are about to ask a junior analyst at your company
to run another MRI Simmons report for you. Which
additional variables do you think would be best to add
into the report for segmentation purposes? Why?
3. Consider some of the emerging macro-environmental
trends that influence consumer behavior. How could
the athletic shoe store incorporate emerging trends into
its marketing strategy?

Source: © MRI-Simmons USA Study Spring 2022. The data herein derives from a confidential, proprietary syndicated product
owned by GfK US MRI, LLC

458

Appendix  • Data Cases

Case

2

Evolving Trends in Fitness and
French Fries

Background and Goal
Your close friend has finally saved up enough money to open
up his dream business—a fitness gym! He hopes to one day
turn his gym into a national chain, but for now he plans on
opening just two locations in the large U.S. city where he
lives. He recently read a news article about how fitness trends
in his city are consistent with overall trends in the United
States, so he asked you to do a little research about fitness
membership trends in the nation. In addition, he asked you
to look up membership trends for three likely competitors:
Planet Fitness, LA Fitness, and 24 Hour Fitness. In addition,
your friend has noted that some recent trends for gyms have
included some rather curious practices, like giving away free
pizza and candy to its members! He is wondering if you may
be able to provide some insight, even if indirect, about such
trends and how they may apply to his new gym.
You used MRI Simmons’ data to find information about
U.S. adult gym membership trends in 2020 and 2022. Your
plan is to use the two different time points to make some inferences about where the future of fitness gym marketing may
be heading. In addition, you also found historical trends about
U.S. adult spending at fast-food restaurants. Although not

exactly the same as free pizza at gyms, you decided to look at
the data to consider whether you can glean any insights.

The Data
The data in the report are all reported in the millions
(000,000s) and interpreted in a similar way:

•

•
•

“Bought Fast Food” and “Spent More Than $100 on
FF”: Both questions deal with someone’s fast-food consumption in the past six months from either Spring 2022
or Spring 2020. The first question is a simple count of
whether someone spent any money on fast food, whereas
the second question estimates the number of people who
spent more than $100 on fast food in the past six months.
“Member of Gym”: This question is an estimate of U.S.
adults who have had a membership to any sort of fitness
gym in the last 12 months from either Spring 2022 or
Spring 2020. This number includes any gym, not just
24 Hour Fitness, Planet Fitness, and LA Fitness.
“LA Fitness,” “24 Hour Fitness,” and “Planet Fitness”:
These questions are the estimated count of U.S. adults
who had a membership to the gym within the last
12 months from either Spring 2022 or Spring 2020.

Bought Fast Food

Spent More Than
$100 on FF

Member of Gym

2020

2022

2020

2022

2020

2022

2020

2022

2020

2022

2020

2022

227.0

231.7

35.5

45.9

67.9

53.4

5.3

3.8

12.0

10.1

3.8

2.6

HHI < $40, 000

55.0

49.8

4.8

8.2

11.5

9.2

0.8

0.7

2.8

2.1

0.6

0.4

HHI $40,000–
$74,999

55.4

53.9

8.8

9.8

15.0

11.6

1.0

0.9

2.9

2.4

0.7

0.7

HH $75, 000 +

116.5

128.0

21.8

28.0

41.4

33.0

3.5

2.3

6.3

5.6

2.6

1.6

Men

109.5

112.3

19.7

23.8

32.7

25.9

3.0

2.1

5.8

5.1

2.3

1.4

Women

117.5

119.4

15.7

22.1

35.2

27.5

2.3

1.8

6.1

5.1

1.5

1.2

All

LA Fitness

Planet Fitness

24 Hour Fitness

All numbers reported in millions (000,000s)
Source: Spring 2020 and Spring 2022 MRI Simmons.

•

Which of the three income groups had the largest change
in gym membership from 2020 to 2022? If this was expressed in terms of percentage change, which income
group experienced the largest change from 2020 to
2022? What do you think accounts for this change?

•
•

Which of the three gyms had the largest market share
in 2020? In 2022?
From 2020 to 2022, does it appear that LA Fitness, 24
Hour Fitness, and Planet Fitness comprise a greater or
lesser share of the total gym membership market? Why?

Appendix  • Data Cases

459

DISCUSSION AND DEBATE

1. Compare the membership trends among LA Fitness,
24 Hour Fitness, and Planet Fitness. Are membership
trends similar or different across genders and income
groups? Consider the different marketing mixes of the
three gyms; what do you think may account for the
differences in membership trends? (Tip: You can use a
tool like Google News to search for news articles about
each gym in 2020 or 2022.)
2. Your friend told you that he envisions his gym being a
place where people who are “intimidated” about going
to the gym will feel safe and empowered to work out.
Assuming this aspect of your friend’s gym is going to
be part of his positioning, which of the three competing
gyms would you consider to be his most serious competitor? Why?

3. Which income group has experienced the greatest increase in fast-food spending from 2020 to 2022? Do you
think this information is relevant for your friend when
thinking about the marketing mix of his gym? Why or
why not?
4. Visit the websites of LA Fitness, 24 Hour Fitness, and
Planet Fitness. Compare and contrast the perceptual
elements used by these three brands. How might your
friend develop a positioning strategy that learns from
the success of these brands and differentiate his gym
using sensory stimuli and perceptual positioning?
5. Suggest how your friend might apply concepts from motivational theory to encourage consumers to join their gym.
6. Based on the available data, create a buyer persona for
your friend’s ideal customer.

Source: © MRI-Simmons USA Study Spring 2022. The data herein derives from a confidential, proprietary syndicated product
owned by GfK US MRI, LLC

460

Appendix  • Data Cases

Case

3

Cats, Kibble, and Commercials

Background and Goal

Task 1

You were hired by a small regional chain of boutique pet care
stores. The retail chain focuses on serving dog and cat owners for all of their pet needs, including pet sitting, pet training,
grooming, toys, and food. The chain tends to serve customers
who consider their dogs and cats “surrogate children” and who
are willing to spend top dollar on quality services and products.
The retail chain is preparing to launch its first television advertising campaign. The top management team has
whittled the list of cable channels to potentially advertise on
down to 11. Your task is to analyze additional information
about the viewers of these 11 stations and come up with
a short list of cable channels that you believe will be best
for the retail chain. To aid you in your task, management
handed you three reports generated from MRI Simmons.
The first report deals with the quantity of pets owned by
viewers of each channel, the second report deals with the
types of pet services used by channel viewers, and the final
report is about where people buy their pet food.

Use the information provided in Table 1 to answer the following questions:
1. If someone owns a dog, what is the percentage chance
they watch Fox News? What if they own a cat?
2. Which channel is much more likely to be watched
by someone with four or more dogs than an average
American? What is the index value for this channel?
An index value of 100 is the benchmark for an average
U.S. adult to have four or more dogs.
3. Which channel is much less likely to be watched by
someone with four or more cats than compared to an
average American? What is the index value?
4. If we wanted to reach the most two- to three-dog-­
owning households by advertising on only a single
cable channel, which channel would we pick?
5. Based on these results, is it fair to say that Animal
Planet watchers are more likely to own either a cat or
dog compared to the national average?
6. Regardless of the number of dogs or cats someone
owns (including zero!), about how many U.S. adults in
total said they watch the Cooking Channel?

The Data
The data in each of the three reports can be interpreted in a
similar manner:

•
•
•

The (mils) column is the estimated number (in millions)
of people or U.S. households who exhibited the target
behavior in the row and column. For example, 10.7 million U.S. adults report watching the cable channel AMC
as well as owning one dog.
The vertical percentage (%) column is the estimated percentage of all people in a column who watch the channel
reported in the table’s row. For example, of all people
who own one dog, 16.6 percent of them also report
watching AMC.
The horizontal percentage (%) column is the estimated percentage of all people in a row who also exhibit the behavior
reported in the table’s column. For example, of all people
who watch AMC, 26.3 percent of them own one dog.

These three pieces of information can be informative on
their own. However, they can also be used to calculate other
useful metrics.

Understanding the Data

Task 2
Use the information provided in Table 2 to answer the following question:
1. Your friend assumed that Animal Planet is the best
channel to find pet owners who use pet services frequently. Do your data support or contradict her belief?
Why?

Task 3
Use the information provided in Table 3 to answer the following questions:
1. Assuming people buy only from one of the four options, how many people in total bought their pet food
from an online pet store. grocery store, pet specialty
store, or directly from their veterinarian? What percentage of this total bought from their veterinarian?
2. Which cable channel had the largest percentage of
viewers who buy their pet food from a veterinarian?

10.8

13.0

11.9

12.4

14.1

6.8

Discovery Channel

Food Network

Fox News Channel

History Channel

HGTV

Syfy

Source: Spring 2022 MRI Simmons.

10.2

4.0

Cooking Channel

Weather Channel

7.0

Comedy Central

10.7

AMC

6.7

19.9

HH Subscribes to
Cable

Animal Planet

64.6

(mils)

15.9

10.6

21.9

19.2

18.4

20.2

16.7

6.2

10.9

10.4

16.6

30.9

100.0

24.5

26.8

27.7

25.5

26.1

26.5

27.1

25.6

26.7

28.5

26.3

24.11

25.4

Vert % Horz %

1 Dog

6.8

4.5

8.9

8.8

7.2

8.5

7.2

2.5

4.8

4.7

7.0

11.9

41.0

(mils)

16.5

11.0

21.6

21.4

17.6

20.7

17.7

6.2

11.7

11.5

17.2

29.0

100.0

Vert %

2–3 Dogs

16.2

17.8

17.4

18.1

15.9

17.3

18.2

16.2

18.3

20.0

17.3

14.4

16.1

Horz
%

1.1

0.7

1.2

1.4

1.1

1.3

1.4

0.3

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

5.9

(mils)

19.2

11.9

20.8

24.3

18.0

21.5

23.5

5.3

13.4

16.1

20.1

23.7

100.0

2.7

2.8

2.4

3.0

2.3

2.6

3.5

2.0

3.0

4.0

2.9

1.7

2.3

Horz
%

4 + Dogs
Vert %

Ownership and Cable Channel Viewing

Total

TABLE 1    Pet

117

119

104

127

101

111

150

86

130

174

125

73

100.0

Index

5.4

3.2

6.2

6.3

5.2

6.4

5.2

1.9

3.8

3.3

5.3

9.7

32.2

(mils)

16.7

10.1

19.3

19.4

16.0

19.7

16.2

6.0

11.9

10.3

16.5

30.2

100.0

Vert %

1 Cat

12.9

12.8

12.1

12.8

11.4

12.9

13.1

12.2

14.6

14.0

13.0

11.8

12.7

Horz
%

3.7

3.1

5.2

5.2

4.2

4.8

4.4

1.3

3.1

3.1

4.2

7.2

25.0

(mils)

14.7

12.2

20.9

20.9

16.7

19.1

17.6

5.3

12.5

12.4

16.8

28.9

100

Vert %

2–3 Cats

8.8

12.0

10.2

10.8

9.2

9.7

11.1

8.4

11.9

13.1

10.3

8.7

9.8

Horz
%

1.3

0.8

1.4

1.6

1.3

1.4

1.3

0.3

0.8

1.0

1.3

1.7

6.8

(mils)

19.7

12.2

20.2

23.9

18.8

20.2

18.7

5.1

11.1

14.5

19.3

25

100

Vert %

3.2

3.3

2.7

3.3

2.8

2.8

3.2

2.2

2.9

4.2

3.2

2

2.7

Horz
%

4 + Cats

120

122

101

125

105

104

120

82

108

156

120

77

100

Index

Appendix  • Data Cases

461

2.1

1.4

1.6

0.9

1.9

2.8

2.0

2.2

2.7

1.3

2.1

AMC

Animal Planet

Comedy Central

Cooking Channel

Discovery
­Channel

Food Network

Fox News
Channel

History Channel

HGTV

Syfy

Weather Channel

Source: Spring 2022 MRI Simmons.

4.3

HH Subscribes to
Cable

13.0

Total

15.9

10.0

21.2

17.1

15.6

21.8

14.5

6.9

12.5

10.8

16.4

33.3

100

5.0

5.1

5.4

4.6

4.5

5.8

4.7

5.7

6.1

5.9

5.2

5.2

5.1

0.8

0.4

1.2

0.9

0.7

1.2

0.9

0.4

0.6

0.5

0.8

1.8

5.2

(mils)

16.3

7.4

23.6

18.1

14.2

23.5

16.8

7.3

12.1

9.9

15.3

34.7

100

2.0

1.5

2.4

1.9

1.6

2.5

2.2

2.4

2.4

2.2

1.9

2.2

2.0

Horz
%

Vert
%

Horz
%

Vert
%

(mils)

Used Pet Daycare

Has Pet Insurance

6.3

4.4

9.3

7.7

7.1

8.7

6.7

2.7

4.4

4.1

6.5

12.6

38.3

(mils)

16.3

11.5

24.3

20.1

18.5

22.8

17.4

7.0

11.5

10.7

17.0

32.8

100

Vert
%

15.0

17.4

18.3

15.9

15.6

17.8

16.8

16.9

16.7

17.4

16.0

15.2

15.1

Horz
%

Used Pet Grooming

Service Usage and Cable Channel Viewing

Target

TABLE 2    Pet

4.9

3.1

6.3

5.9

5.3

6.2

5.1

1.9

3.2

3.1

5.0

9.1

31.2

(mils)

15.7

10.0

20.3

19.0

17.1

19.7

16.3

6.2

10.1

10.1

16.0

29.2

100

Vert
%

1 Vet Visit

11.7

12.2

12.4

12.2

11.8

12.5

12.8

12.3

12.0

13.4

12.2

11.0

12.3

Horz
%

7.5

5.0

10.5

9.4

8.9

9.5

8.0

3.1

5.3

5.0

7.6

14.1

46.4

(mils)

16.0

10.9

22.7

20.3

19.1

20.4

17.3

6.6

11.4

10.7

16.3

30.4

100

Vert
%

2–3 Vet Visits

17.9

19.8

20.7

19.4

19.5

19.2

20.2

19.5

20.1

21.0

18.6

17.1

18.3

Horz
%

5.7

3.6

7.5

6.9

5.8

7.2

5.8

1.9

4.2

3.8

5.8

10.6

33.2

(mils)

17.2

10.8

22.5

20.9

17.6

21.8

17.4

5.8

12.7

11.4

17.4

32.1

100

Vert
%

4 + Vet Visits

13.7

14.1

14.6

14.3

12.9

14.7

14.5

12.2

16.0

16.0

14.2

12.9

13.1

Horz
%

462
Appendix  • Data Cases

463

Appendix  • Data Cases

TABLE 3    Pet

Food Buying and Cable Channel Viewing
Online Pet Store

Target

(mils)

Total

23.2

Vert %
100

Grocery Store

Horz %

(mils)

9.1

58.8

Vert %
100

Veterinarian

Horz %

(mils)

23.1

8.9

Vert %
100

Pet Specialty Store
Horz %

(mils)

Vert %

3.5

12.3

100

Horz %
4.8

HH Subscribes to Cable

7.1

30.4

8.5

17.8

30.3

21.5

3.2

35.5

3.8

4.0

32.4

4.8

AMC

3.6

15.5

8.9

10.4

17.7

25.5

1.6

17.7

3.9

2.2

17.9

5.4

Animal Planet

2.6

11.2

11.0

6.9

11.8

29.5

0.8

8.7

3.3

1.2

9.9

5.2

Comedy Central

2.6

11.1

9.8

6.5

11.1

24.8

1.0

10.7

3.6

1.5

12.2

5.7

Cooking Channel

1.3

5.8

8.5

3.6

6.2

23.0

0.4

4.7

2.7

0.8

6.2

4.8

Discovery Channel

4.0

17.1

10.0

10.1

17.2

25.5

1.4

15.7

3.5

2.0

16.5

5.1

Food Network

4.8

20.5

9.8

12.2

20.8

25.0

1.8

19.8

3.6

2.7

22.1

5.5

Fox News Channel

4.0

17.2

8.8

10.6

18.0

23.3

1.8

20.2

4.0

2.0

16.5

4.7

History Channel

4.8

20.8

10.0

12.2

20.7

25.1

1.7

19.6

3.6

2.5

20.3

5.1

HGTV

5.2

22.4

10.2

12.2

20.8

24.0

2.0

22.0

3.8

2.7

21.7

5.2

Syfy

2.5

10.6

9.7

6.5

11.0

25.4

0.9

9.9

3.5

1.3

10.7

5.2

Weather Channel

3.5

15.1

8.4

10.1

17.1

24.1

1.6

18.2

3.9

2.0

16.2

4.8

Source: Spring 2022 MRI Simmons.

DISCUSSION AND DEBATE

1. Based only on the information provided, which three
cable channels would you recommend as the best
choices for promoting the business? Which three cable
channels do you think are the poorest fit?
2. What other additional information would you like
to have so that you could make a more informed

recommendation? Why is it important? How could you
find out this information?
3. If the pet store chain told you that its services were
much more profitable than its product (toys, food, and
so on) sales, would that change your recommendation?
Why or why not?

Source: © MRI-Simmons USA Study Spring 2022. The data herein derives from a confidential, proprietary syndicated product
owned by GfK US MRI, LLC

464

Appendix  • Data Cases

Case

4

Going Global with Juice

Background
You are the chief marketing officer (CMO) for a juice
company. Your juice company sells a line of premium, allnatural juices. The juice is marketed as a tasty beverage
particularly well-suited for people who emphasize health
and wellness in their lives. To date, your company has only
sold in the United States, but you are now preparing to make
your first expansion into a foreign market.
Previous research has narrowed the candidate countries
down to three. Regardless of which country is selected, it
has already been determined that the juice will be sold to
local distributors who will then be responsible for selling to
­local retailers and, ultimately, consumers. Your chief financial
­officer (CFO) has provided you some preliminary financial
information, and you have also been handed a report created from the 2014 GfK Consumer Trends Global Consumer
Survey. This survey reports information about each country.
Importantly, it dives deeper and also segments consumers by
their relative income and occupational status. In the United
States, income and occupation have been important characteristics to identify the firm’s juice consumers.

•

•
•
•
•
•

Your Goal
Review the data from the CFO and from the GfK consumer
report. Then, make some preliminary financial estimates
about the likely financial performance of the juice company.
Based on your estimates, make some preliminary recommendations for your juice company’s future international
expansion.

The Data

•

•
•
•
•

About the data from the CFO:

•
•

PRICE: The CFO has provided you with the
­assumed sale price per bottle of juice. The price has
been adjusted into U.S. dollars and is assumed to be
constant for each of the three countries and for any
quantity of juice that is sold.
MARKET SIZE: The CFO has asked you to assume
that your juice firm will account for a specific percentage of the foreign market after a single year. The
market for a country is defined as the quantity of total
fruit juices or fruit drinks sold in a given year.

•
•
•

About the GfK data: The GfK Consumer Trends
Global Survey is a large survey of many countries.
Results for each country are adjusted to be representative of the country’s population that is 15 years or older.
Each country has results for four different consumer
segments from the combination of income (high/low)
and occupation (white collar/other occupation).
Size (000s) of Group: The estimated number of people
(in thousands) who are in each segment of a country.
This estimate uses the CIA Factbook’s 2018 estimate
of the number of 15 + year olds in each country as the
base to determine the total estimated size of a group.
% Country: The estimated % of the entire country
that is comprised of people within a particular segment.
% Group: The “% Group” means the percentage of
people within a segment who meet the criteria for a
specific survey question.
Personal Values, Health, and Fitness: The percentage of segment members who scored the two highest
possible values on how important “health and fitness”
were as part of their personal values.
Satisfaction with Primary Shopping Location:
Availability of Healthy Foods and Beverages: The
percentage of segment members who scored the two
highest possible values on how satisfied they were with
the availability of healthy foods/beverages.
Drink Fruit Juice Daily: The percentage of segment
members who said they drink fruit juice “daily.”
Drink Fruit Juice Weekly: The percentage of segment
members who said they drink fruit juice “weekly.”
Drink Fruit Drinks Daily: The percentage of segment
members who said they drink fruit drinks “daily.”
Drink Fruit Drinks Weekly: The percentage of
segment members who said they drink fruit drinks
“weekly.”
Regularly Eat Healthy, Nutritious Foods For:
Physical Health: The percentage of segment members
who said this is a motivation to eat healthy foods.
Regularly Eat Healthy, Nutritious Foods For:
Mental/Emotional Health: The percentage of segment members who said this is a motivation to eat
healthy foods.
Regularly Eat Healthy, Nutritious Foods For:
Appearance: The percentage of segment members
who said this is a motivation to eat healthy foods.

59.7
87.7

(000s)
% of
group
% of
group
% of
group
% of
group
% of
group
% of
group
% of
group
% of
group
% of
group

Size of Group

Personal Values: Health and Fitness

Satisfaction with Primary Shopping
Location: Availability of Healthy Foods
and Beverages

Drink Fruit Juice Daily

Drink Fruit Juice Weekly

Drink Fruit Drinks Daily

Drink Fruit Drinks Weekly

Regularly Eat Healthy, Nutritious Foods
For: Physical Health

Regularly Eat Healthy, Nutritious Foods
For: Mental/Emotional Health

Regularly Eat Healthy, Nutritious Foods
For: Appearance

$5.80

Source: GfK Custom Research LLC.

$15,898.6

Estimated Sales per Consumer

10%

CFO Data: Estimated Market Share
within Segment

Estimated Annual Sales (000s)

72.53

Estimated Number of Annual Fruit Juice/
Drink Beverages Consumed per Year by
Segment Member

198,732.8

544.5

Number of Daily Drinks in Segment (000s)

Beverages Sold per Year to Segment
(000s)

$0.80

CFO Data: Price per Bottle to Local
Distributors (U.S. $)

46.4

32.7

55.8

31.8

6.9

38.9

17.3

2,740.2

% of
group

Country Segment, % of Country
3.9

(millions)

White
Collar

High

Est. Population of Country 15+ Years
Old (CIA Factbook 2018)

Occup.
Group

Income
Group

Country

$0.80

33.5

39.3

62.8

25.5

3.5

43.3

20.4

66.0

60.3

1,475.5

2.1

Blue
Collar

$0.80

37.2

29.9

51.5

25.8

5.3

39.3

17.0

75.3

54.0

11,382.3

16.2

70.3

$0.80

35.8

24.1

49.2

23.3

3.3

31.8

11.6

77.5

52.4

8,220.5

11.7

Blue
Collar

Medium
White
Collar

GERMANY

$0.80

29.3

30.2

61.0

31.7

13.8

35.3

32.1

75.1

47.0

5266.8

9.7

White
Collar

4.0

54.3

Blue
Collar

$0.80

45.7

47.7

75.3

48.2

12.0

39.9

35.2

71.5

55.5

2,171.9

High

UK

$0.80

40.7

30.5

49.7

29.6

12.5

33.9

22.2

66.6

36.1

5,049.6

9.3

White
Collar

$0.80

37.0

33.9

54.3

32.9

15.1

43.1

24.2

75.2

44.8

5049.6

9.3

Blue
Collar

Medium

$0.80

50.8

38.5

70.0

38.7

21.3

29.0

36.1

77.2

60.0

19,908.7

7.5

White
Collar

High

$0.80

31.7

32.7

66.0

15.8

5.6

32.2

18.5

75.4

49.0

9,821.6

3.7

265.4

Blue
Collar

9.2

White
Collar

$0.80

39.4

33.2

60.8

33.0

8.6

39.8

20.5

72.6

44.4

$0.80

34.7

30.7

49.0

34.9

14.0

38.9

26.8

68.6

54.7

19,112.4

7.2

Blue
Collar

Medium

24,421.4

USA

Appendix  • Data Cases

465

466

Task 1

Appendix  • Data Cases

1. Before providing recommendations to the CFO, make
sure you understand how to interpret the information
presented in the table.
2. Which country has the segment with the fewest consumers in it?
3. Which country has the largest total number of potential
consumers in it?
4. Find the country that has the consumer segment that
makes up the largest percentage of its total amount of
consumers. What is that percentage?
5. Which segment prioritizes physical appearance as a motivation for eating/drinking healthy?
6. Which segment prioritizes mental/emotional health as a
motivation for eating/drinking healthy?

Task 2

•

Understanding the Data

Estimating Sales

•

Actual consumption:
When someone says they drink juice or drink fruit
drinks “daily,” we assume they actually have 0.7 of
that drink on a typical day.
When someone says they drink juice or drink fruit
drinks “weekly,” we assume they actually have 0.1 of
that drink on a typical day.
For all other answers, we assume that they don’t
drink the beverage at all.
There are 365 days in a year.
Using the data provided by GfK and the preceding assumptions, what are total estimated number of fruit drinks
and juices (combined) that are estimated to be sold to consumers of each segment in a typical year (365 days)? The
answers have been provided to you for the first column.
CALCULATION:
Estimated Units Sold Per Segment per Year =
(Segment Total Size) × (% daily drink) ×
(assumed daily consumption) ×
(Segment Total Size) ×
(% weekly drink) ×
(assumed daily consumption) +
× 365
(Segment Total Size) × (% daily drink)*
(assumed daily consumption) ×
(Segment Total Size) ×
(% weekly drink)*
(assumed daily consumption)

•

•

•
•

•

Average yearly consumption per consumer =

 For each segment, take the answers


 immediately above ] / [ total size of segment 

Estimating Sales

The CFO is impressed with your initial estimates. She
would like you to go even further and estimate the total
sales expected within each segment after one year. Again,
the CFO has provided you with some important estimates to
help you make your calculations.

•

•
•

•

Task 3

Using some assumptions provided by the CFO, you are
tasked with estimating the annual sales (in $) for each segment in each country. To do so, you will need to make the
following assumptions:

•

According to these estimates, how many beverages
would we assume a typical person in each segment
consumes per year?
CALCULATION:

Financial Assumptions:
(1) The per unit price sold to distributors will be
$0.80, regardless of country or quantity sold.
(2) The estimated market share for sales depends on
how much a segment sees health and wellness as being essential to their lives. If health and wellness is a
priority for a segment, the CFO assumes a 10 percent
market share in that segment during the first year is
reasonable. If health and wellness is not a major priority, the market share is assumed to be only 5 percent.
Health and wellness are considered not to be a priority
for a segment if less than 50 percent of the members of
that segment identify it as a priority.
Question 1: Using the GfK data and the information
provided by the CFO, what is the estimated annual
sales for each segment?
CALCULATION:

•
•

•
•

•
•
•

Annual Sales $ estimated per segment =
 ( Original Estimated Units Sold Per Segment per Year )×



 ( Assumed Market Share, per CFO’s rules ) ×



 ( Price per unit to distributors )


Question 2: Which country, overall, has the highest
estimated annual sales? Which country has the lowest estimated annual sales?
Question 3: Based on these estimates, how much
money per consumer would we expect for each
segment?

Appendix  • Data Cases

467

DISCUSSION AND DEBATE

segment. From your perspective, how might your juice
1. Based solely on the information that was analyzed,
company incorporate the rest of the GfK information into
which country do you think your juice company should
their estimates? Which questions do you think may lead to
expand to? Why?
you increasing or decreasing different estimates?
2. While making its financial estimates, your juice company
did not consider the impact of every GfK survey question 3. Think about other important consumer behavior factors
that might impact the success of your juice company in
reported in the table. For example, your juice company
a foreign market. What other important information do
did not consider whether each segments’ satisfaction with
you think is pertinent for your juice company to know
the availability of healthy foods and beverages at grocery
but was not present in the table? Why?
stores might impact their market share within a given

GfK Consumer Life (Roper Reports © Worldwide).

B

Appendix

Careers in Consumer
Research

An understanding of consumers is not only useful for you
to become a savvier consumer; it is also a foundation for
a career in any position that develops or uses consumer
insights. Virtually every organization has consumers: For-profit
companies have consumers who buy their products or services,
non-profit organizations have consumers who engage with
them in a variety of ways, and governments or branches of
governments are more successful when they consider citizens
as consumers of their services. So it’s important to remember
that your knowledge about consumer behavior can find all
kinds of applications. For example, Australia’s services for
issuing drivers’ licenses (the equivalent of the U.S.’s DMV)
had a long-standing reputation for poor customer service, long
lines, and an altogether terrible experience for those seeking a
license. One of its provinces, New South Wales, put consumer
insights to work to completely revamp the organization and
develop a customer-friendly experience.
To prepare for a career in a consumer-related field, consider
getting involved in relevant research that one of your professors
might be doing. In addition to your Consumer Behavior
course, be sure to take as many courses as possible in other
aspects of understanding behavior. As we saw in Chapter 1,
consumer behavior knowledge is inspired by many academic
disciplines. Courses in the social sciences—from psychology
and sociology to anthropology—complement what this course
covers. It is also helpful to develop your research skills, so try
to achieve proficiency in statistics and computer skills.

Career Trajectory Options
Many entry-level jobs are available to a competent person with a bachelor’s degree (although in some fields, it is
increasingly difficult to get hired without at least a master’s
degree). A typical starting position for a university graduate in a marketing research firm, for example, would be
as an assistant project manager. This person assists in the
design and administration of studies and ensures that they
are enacted within the prescribed budget. The beginner may
also be assigned to supervise field operations, overseeing the
actual collection of data and perhaps coding and analyzing it.

468

Over time the person might move up to a supervisory
position with increasing responsibility. Eventually the person
might attain the position of vice president of marketing
research or Chief Marketing Officer (CMO), a role in
which they would be responsible for the entire company’s
marketing research efforts and be part of senior management. Chances of moving up tend to improve greatly if the
individual received advanced training in statistics, research
design, and appreciation for and understanding of all aspects
of consumer behavior.
Another alternative is to consider training to become
a scholar in the field of consumer behavior. Many major
business schools offer doctoral programs in marketing in
which it is possible to specialize in consumer behavior
research. In addition, some psychology departments offer
doctoral programs in consumer psychology. The typical
doctoral program involves from four to seven years of
intensive study, during which the student is trained in both
theoretical and technical aspects of consumer research.
Many doctoral students in business have already earned an
MBA, though this is not always the case.
Most consumer behavior PhDs who did not obtain their
degrees in marketing were trained in psychology. Other
possible fields of study—as the discipline’s perspective
continues to widen—include sociology, anthropology,
economics, history, English, and human ecology.
Those who go the academic route might take faculty
positions in a business school, where they conduct research
that is published in such academic journals as the Journal of
Consumer Research and the Journal of Consumer Psychology.
Those with PhDs are also in demand as consultants for
corporations and other organizations and for full-time nonacademic positions in research departments (e.g. Meta),
consulting firms, “think tanks,” advertising agencies, consumer
packaged goods companies (e.g. Procter & Gamble or Nestle),
trade groups (e.g., the Wool Bureau or the Conference Board),
and government agencies.
For further insight into these possibilities, consider asking your professor about their educational background and
research activities.

Appendix B • Careers in Consumer Research

Types of Positions
There are three different types of positions related to consumer behavior, as Figure B.1 illustrates.
1. Consumer Data Collection and Analysis
The first type of position involves the actual gathering and
analyzing (and storytelling) of consumer research. This
position can be found in agencies that specialize in conducting research for their clients; in specific industries, where
research is conducted from within an organization to assist
the sales and marketing team; or in universities or thinktanks,
where more fundamental academic research is performed.
Marketing researchers define problems and collect
the information needed to resolve them. They typically
design projects, analyze data, present findings, and make
Figure B.1 Sample Job Description for a Consumer
Insights Specialist
Consumer Insights Specialist to assist with the organization’s sales
and marketing efforts.
Requirements:
• Stay current on trends related to consumer behaviors,
demographics, consumption, and key business categories.
• Perform basic analysis of quantitative and qualitative consumer
data.
• Create comprehensive analyses that leverage previous projects’
learnings, trends, and internal analytics to fully inform the
marketing and brand teams on consumer insights.
• Continuously monitor retail and consumer trends, and report to
key internal stakeholders leading important trends for retail and
innovation.
• Presents findings and implications to the marketing team and
senior leadership, showcasing a strong command of research
acumen and business knowledge and providing actionable
insights and recommendations that impact the business.
• Synthesize and integrate consumer/marketplace insights from
a vast array of current knowledge to inform on issues and
opportunities/challenges and/or provide direction.
Key skills needed:
• Ability to synthesize multiple data sources (primary insights,
analytics data, trend and syndicated data) to drive strategic
recommendations to internal teams
• An analytical mind, able to manage details but also to see the
big picture to tell the story
• Strong storytelling skills
• Ability to work cross-functionally and collaboratively
• Ability to translate research results into business implications
and gain organizational alignment to recommendations
• Attention to detail
• Proficiency with Word, Excel, and PowerPoint
• Knowledge of secondary data such as Nielsen, Scarborough, and
Google Analytics
• Solid written and oral communication skills
• Good organization skills
• Ability to handle multiple tasks simultaneously

469

recommendations to management. Researchers may be
employed by corporations that maintain their own market
research staffs, or they may work for independent market
research firms, trade organizations, advertising agencies,
the government, or nonprofit organizations.

2. Consumer Insights for Marketing Decisions
The second type of position involves the use of consumer
behavior insights to make marketing decisions. For instance,
consumer insights support the management of products and
brands, new product development, as well as retailing and
sales training. Communications and promotions and jobs
in advertising agencies, public relations, and digital media
agencies draw on consumer research to develop marketing
communications campaigns. Here are some possible roles
within this type of position:
Brand manager: Brand managers oversee and direct
marketing efforts for a specific product or line of
products. As you can see in Figure B.2, they manage
all aspects of product strategy, including research,
packaging, sales, promotion, and forecasting.
Retail manager and merchandiser: Department or
store managers must make decisions about such factors as the store’s sales force and how merchandise
is displayed in the store. They must understand the
factors that add to or subtract from the quality of the
customer’s experience while in the store.

•
•

Figure B.2 Sample Job Description for a Brand
Manager
Brand Manager is responsible for increasing brand awareness in
target markets; sales pipeline growth through program support and
collateral creation; event creation, budget spending, and ROI; and
keeping employees informed of business goals and programs.
MARCOM PLANS AND EXECUTION:
• Develop and execute marketing communication plans/programs/
materials for multiple marketplaces.
• Track, assess, and distribute sales collateral based on marketing
plan.
• Manage and develop sponsorship and event planning for the
region to support pipeline growth.
• Collaborate with leadership to develop a theme, budget,
communication, and ROI for specific events, including but not
limited to maximizing sports sponsorship opportunities, open
houses, tech shows, trade shows, lunch and learns, etc.
• Leverage and adopt corporate social media content to fit local
markets.
• Develop and coordinate social selling programs that train and
support sales reps in pipeline growth.
• Create localized social media posts for reps to use and analyze/
monitor success rate.
• Monitor and track local CSR activities and promote them internally
and externally as appropriate.

470

Appendix B

• Careers in Consumer Research

Figure B.3 Sample Job Description for a Copywriter
Copywriter who can engage, captivate, distill, inspire, evoke, disarm,
persuade, illuminate, clarify, and amuse with words. We’re looking for
a Copywriter with an un-skippable portfolio: one they’ve occasionally
had to pull an all-nighter to make exceed their own stratospheric
taste level (and probably still want to take another crack at it). Hungry
to advance and grow and thrive on collaboration with fellow creatives
as well as client stakeholders—approaching both challenges and
opportunities with an open mind to new ideas and points of view.
You’ll work across a spectrum of projects from brand platforms to
integrated advertising to web content to email and blog programs to
social and experiential activations.
Key qualifications:
• Organized, thoughtful, and reliable
• Natural curiosity for the world: new places, cultures, and
experiences
• Copywriting portfolio website of original work that demonstrates
talent for brand storytelling
• Collaborative mindset

•
•

•

Retail buyer: Buyers purchase merchandise for a
store. Good buyers are always tuned in to upcoming
trends and fashions and are sensitive to the wants and
needs of the store’s clientele.
Advertising copywriter: Copywriters translate a
brand’s positioning strategy into concrete form by
creating words and visual images that convey this
imagery. They need to understand the target market to
employ imagery that will create the desired response
(see Figure B.3).
Advertising account executive: Account executives
supervise the development of a marketing plan and
make sure that the agency’s clients understand and are
happy with the plan. This job requires knowledge of
all aspects of marketing, including an understanding
of target markets.

Figure B.4 Sample Job Description for a Customer
Affairs Representative
Answer phone calls, emails, letters, or other correspondence from
customers who have encountered a problem with a product or service.
Listen to customers’ issues, provide accurate information, and follow
up in a timely manner when a solution cannot be immediately provided.
Must have knowledge of company’s products and services, and be able
to communicate effectively in conversations with dissatisfied customers.
Document complaints and provide feedback to managers, which can
lead to improvements to products and services.

•

Public relations specialist: Public relations specialists are
responsible for maintaining positive public awareness of
the firm and minimizing negative reactions to company
activities. Knowledge of how people’s perceptions are
influenced by the media is integral to this job.
Social media manager: Social media managers are
responsible for the company’s social media marketing and advertising. They are tasked with developing brand awareness and cultivating a positive online
reputation. They also deal with content management
(what is posted on the company’s website, blogs, and
so on), cultivation of leads and sales via SEO (search
engine optimization), and generation of inbound traffic to the website.
3. Consumer Research to Help Protect Customers
A customer affairs representative acts as a liaison
between a firm and its customers. They handle complaints and may act as an advocate for the customer
within the company (see Figure B.4).

•

•

Research Agencies
Consumer Insights (inside
organizations)
GATHER CONSUMER
RESEARCH

Academic Research

Product/Brand Management
Retailing
Sales
USE CONSUMER
RESEARCH TO
MARKET

USE CONSUMER
RESEARCH TO
PROTECT

Communications
Advertising
Copywriting
Public Relations
Digital Media

Figure B.5 Careers Related to Consumer Behavior

Consumer Advocacy
(in government or nonprofit agencies)
Customer Affairs
(inside organizations)

Appendix

Consumer Research
Methods
As we saw in Chapter 1 (see especially Table 1.1), there are
many approaches to studying consumer behavior. Depending
on the consumption phenomenon of study, methods range
from one-on-one intensive interviews to sophisticated
analyses of “Big Data” that may involve (literally) millions
of observations. If you are a marketing major, the odds are
quite good that you will take a separate course on marketing
research. So for now, we’ll only briefly review some of the
many methodologies available to researchers.
Remember that information we collect for our own use
is called primary data, while information that others collect (and we use or purchase) is called secondary data. For
example, if your professor assigns you to interview friends
and family members on their thoughts about snack food
brands (or snacking in general), you are collecting primary
data. If, on the other hand, they assign you to analyze the
information the GfK marketing research firm kindly provided at several places in this text, you are using secondary
data that were collected by someone else for some other
purpose. In this section, we’re focusing on different types

Marketers both big and small benefit from marketing research to
understand their customers’ needs.
Source: Del_selenio/Shutterstock.

C

of primary data. Appendix D provides more information
about some sources of secondary data that many companies
also use.
We’ll roughly divide these approaches into qualitative
and quantitative approaches. Keep in mind that in most
cases qualitative research intends to probe for insights and
hopefully to identify the “deep meanings” that explain
why people choose some products over others or how they
use these products (or services) in their daily lives. These
insights don’t necessarily apply to everyone in a target
market, but they provide a solid foundation that quantitative
approaches may later complement or that may try to probe
for whether X causes Y (for example, do shoppers buy
more French wine in a liquor store when French music is
playing in the background?). In other cases, these studies try
to describe a bigger phenomenon, such as what consumers
are posting online about the latest brand introduction or
whether Americans’ attitudes toward sustainable products
have changed in the last five years.
To put these approaches into perspective, meet Kayla,
a 23-year-old who recently graduated with a degree in
marketing. Kayla landed a job in the marketing department of On Deck, a small company that makes skateboard
decks and a limited amount of skate gear. Actually, Kayla
is the marketing department! Their college friend Brandon
started On Deck in their basement when he was a sophomore and has now sold enough merch to actually move
into a converted warehouse near Laguna Beach. That’s
because the designs caught the attention of an “angel
investor” who pumped enough money into the business
to give it a good kick start. A staff of five employees
(Brandon’s college friends) make the decks, and Brandon
designs the hats, hoodies, and shirts that then get made
in China. Kayla’s task is to understand the skateboard
market and help Brandon to grow the business with a limited research budget. Kayla needs to get a handle on how
potential customers think about the emerging On Deck
brand, and they need to understand how “wood pushers”
choose one board over others.



471

472

Appendix C

• Consumer Research Methods

Qualitative Methods
Kayla will probably want to start with some qualitative
exploration to dig into skateboarding culture. They might
engage in the following types of research:
Interview: A one-on-one discussion where the
interviewer asks a respondent detailed questions about their
purchase decisions and product use.
Kayla can go to a skate park and strike up conversations with the people there. Kayla may offer each participant some kind of incentive to engage, such as a discount
coupon for On Deck products. These conversations would
be recorded (audio or video)—with the permission of the
participants—so these interview data can be consulted
later. Recorded sound and video is very helpful because
it captures not only what the participants said but how:
Nonverbal cues such as facial expressions or other body language are just as revealing as what is being said.
This is a great way to gain some initial understanding,
and the ability to probe for additional responses can provide
insights more formal methods cannot. But these interviews
are personal, so, by definition, they are very subjective, and
what people say can differ based upon many factors, such as
the gender and age of the interviewer. A conversation with a
young female interviewer may not reveal the same insights
as a one with a middle-aged male. So interviews are rich
in insights and meanings but need to be interpreted cautiously and accounting for the environment in which they
are conducted.
Focus group: A small group of people discusses a
topic, either in person or in some kind of online format.
A trained interviewer, called the moderator, leads the
discussion and tries to focus the conversation on the issue
without letting some people dominate or go off on tangents.
Typically the focus group moderator submits a report
to the client that offers a summary, insights, and recommendations. A professionally run focus group typically costs
around $4,000 to $6,000. It’s often useful to run a few to be
sure the results aren’t too biased due to the makeup of one
group. For example, although a trained moderator can minimize the problem, sometimes (as in the occasional college
class) one or two people dominate the group and others are
less willing to share their real opinions.
Stories, photos, and diaries: Consumers can write
stories about their own experiences with products or those
of others. Researchers might ask them to take pictures of
people using the product or perhaps to react to pictures
they provide. In the latter case, researchers may employ
projective techniques that use ambiguous stimuli to draw
consumers out. That’s especially effective when respondents are reluctant or unable to discuss their own behavior.
Researchers can also use photos for autodriving, a type of

interview that is guided by the photos a participant brings.
Photo- and video-elicitation is a powerful tool because it
can immerse the participant back in the experience depicted
in the photo or video so they can describe with great detail
their mental states at the time and they can verbalize their
goals and sensations.
Finally, a company can pay people to keep a diary about
their product usage. They may record how much they use
the product, where, and under what circumstances. Note:
All of these techniques may be combined with focus groups
or interviews. So Kayla might enlist a small number of
boarders to basically act as researchers themselves; they
might take pictures of others in action or even write a story
about a “day in the life” of a typical skateboarder. These
stories aren’t necessarily 100 percent factual (what stories
are?), but they can provide good insights into the ideal
usage situations for these respondents.
Ethnography: A research technique adapted from
anthropology that requires the researcher to “live with the
natives”—in other words, to immerse herself into a natural
setting where people consume the product of interest.
Anthropologists often live with the cultures they study
for years at a time, but in most cases, marketing ethnographies get done much quicker! Still, ideally, the researcher
should spend some time with a subculture so that people
accept them. This should be an immersive experience where
the researcher becomes part of the group. However, ethical
issues can arise when the researcher doesn’t reveal the true
reason for participation.
Kayla can spend a good amount of time among skateboarders and, over time, document their likes and dislikes.
Even though they may know Kayla works for a skateboard
company, over time it’s likely they will feel pretty comfortable with the “researcher” around and won’t censor their
behavior in Kayla’s presence. This deep immersion allows
access to insights these consumers might not honestly share
with a researcher in a different context, though it may take a
substantial time investment for this to happen.
Netnography: This technique essentially moves ethnographic studies to the online world. It’s a qualitative
approach that examines the kinds of cultural stories people
swap online about brands. These might be as simple as
recipe suggestions brand users post that incorporate a food
product, or they might come from blogs, forums, and other
online content that gives a sense of the issues people grapple
with in their RL (real life) worlds and how they view certain
brands as solutions to these problems.
These conversations can be very useful to marketers.
For example, they can learn a lot about the jargon actual
consumers use to describe their products or discover uses for
what they make that hadn’t occurred to them. Kayla would
be smart to at least conduct an informal netnography—for

Appendix C • Consumer Research Methods

instance, by spending time on skateboarding forums and
blog posts where members of this “taste subculture” (see
Chapter 13) communicate with one another. To put it
another way: Fish where the fish are!
Shop-along: An interviewer accompanies people while
they shop in a store. In this “shadowing” activity, the researcher
will ask questions as the respondents look at different options
to get a sense of their turn-ons and turn-offs. The interviewer
may recruit respondents ahead of time or simply ask people as
they enter the store if they’re willing to be shadowed.
A similar activity is a pantry check, which food and
beverage companies often do. In a pantry check, researchers visit people’s homes and catalog what they have in their
refrigerator or on their shelves. A rarer but sometimes effective exercise is called—believe it or not—garbology. Here
researchers actually sift through people’s garbage to catalog
what they throw out. Why would anyone want to take on
such a smelly assignment? In some cases, respondents aren’t
necessarily truthful, so there is a gap between what they say
they buy and what they actually do. For example, people
often underestimate the amount of liquor they consume, so
a count of discarded bottles they leave in the garbage can be
very informative.
Kayla might consider doing some shop-alongs to understand how skateboard customers evaluate merchandise in
stores and to see whether they interact with other shoppers
or with store employees to get advice about what to buy.
These shop-alongs may identify “pain points” in the shopping experience, such as difficulty finding certain items or
getting competent advice from salespeople. Shoppers might
try out different boards at some stores, so Kayla might also
get an “up close and personal” sense of what they look for
and what they avoid in a new deck.

A Caveat about Qualitative Data
It’s easy to collect qualitative data, talk to people, take photos, and record people in their own “habitat.” But it’s much
harder to meaningfully organize the insights. Because of
the deep meanings embedded in consumption phenomena,
qualitative data can be hard to analyze. There is no software
that automates this analysis; it’s all human-powered.

Quantitative Methods
Remember that quantitative techniques typically aim to
generalize insights to a larger group of customers. They
can yield powerful results, but as you might guess, they
tend to be more complicated and typically much more
expensive than qualitative methods. That’s why it’s a good
idea to do qualitative research first, even if you’re planning
to eventually implement one or more of these techniques.

473

The more you know in advance about the types of questions
to include, the less costly it will be. When you’re conducting a survey with 5,000 respondents, it’s not so easy to
change questions that don’t make sense to them!
Surveys: A set of questions about a topic that the
researcher typically administers to a reasonably large sample of respondents.
In many cases, the sample is not only large but also
carefully chosen to represent a target market—the respondent universe. The survey usually includes a number of
closed-ended questions that respondents answer on a scale
of some kind (for example, a seven-point scale with the
ends labeled something like strongly disagree and strongly
agree). It may also include some open-ended questions that
require respondents to write or type in their own responses.
Surveys used to be administered largely by mail or
even in person, but today they are much more likely to be
done either on the phone or online (unfortunately, some
unscrupulous telemarketers “poison the well” for legitimate survey takers when they call people and pretend they
are doing a legitimate survey that is really a pretext for a
sales pitch).
Surveys are particularly valuable when they are
repeated periodically because analysts can track changes
over time. For example, the U.S. Census is done every
10 years, and thus the Census Bureau can report important secondary data, such as changes in demographics or
household composition. Many organizations track important changes on psychographic variables, such as consumer
confidence, attitudes toward social issues like gun control,
and even behaviors, like getting body piercings!
Survey responses are anonymous (unless an interviewer
administers it in person, which is a rare occurrence these
days). Thus, surveys are well-suited to examine sensitive
topics like drug consumption or whether people practice
safe sex. However, even though this seems like a “scientific”
approach, survey results can still be quite biased if questions
are asked in a leading way. In addition, well-intentioned
people sometimes want to “please the experimenter,” so
they may politely give more positive answers about a product than honest but critical ones.
Kayla might consider commissioning a survey on
boarders’ attitudes toward various brands, as well as more
general issues, such as how much they prioritize boarding in
their leisure time over other activities. Professional research
firm services could be contracted to develop an expertly
written survey that is sent to a well-defined sample. Today
most surveys are developed on online platforms, such as
Qualtrics or SurveyMonkey, that allow just about anyone
to create their own questionnaires. There are also consumer
panel providers, such as Amazon’s M Turk or Prolific, that
can recruit respondents for a small cost per participant.

474

Appendix C

• Consumer Research Methods

However, let the buyer beware: GIGO. This means
garbage in, garbage out. It’s hard to generalize your results
when you don’t really know who responds. If Kayla goes
the DIY (do it yourself) route, the quality of the results will
depend upon the way the questions are worded, Kayla’s
ability to analyze and make sense of the data, and, of course
who responds to the survey. Professional survey firms are
quite scrupulous about who they recruit, so, for example,
they usually weed out “professional survey takers” who love
to take surveys as much as possible regardless of the issue.
Experiments: An experiment is a controlled study
where researchers randomly assign participants to different
“conditions” and measure how they behave as a result. It is a
tried-and-true way to assess causal relationships—that is, to
know what causes what.
Researchers may conduct an experiment if they
want to identify whether one variable (an independent
variable) “causes” another (a dependent variable). By
varying respondents’ exposure to one or more independent
variables and (hopefully) holding everything else constant,
the researcher can with some degree of confidence
attribute any changes in behavior to the things that were
manipulated.
For example, let’s say a cable network wants to test
whether a certain commercial that features the well-known
influencer Bethany Mota endorsing a new skincare brand
draws enough interested buyers to justify the fee they must
pay her. Researchers might create two versions of the spot:
one with Bethany and another with an unknown woman
of the same age. It might even create a third version—a
control group—that doesn’t include any endorser. In each
version, everything else is identical, such as the text that
describes the product and even the look and feel of the ad.
The network randomly splits its viewer base into subgroups, and each of these sees one version of the commercial (the independent variable) at the same time and during
the same show. Researchers then measure calls to an 800
number at the end of the spot from viewers who want to buy
the product (the dependent variable). If Bethany’s version
pulls 10,000 calls and the other versions pull 2,000 each,
they can be fairly confident that it will be worth it to pay
Bethany for her endorsement. In other words, we can conclude it’s extremely likely that including an influencer like
Bethany causes many new buyers to respond who would not
take the bait if she weren’t in the spot. Note: The purist will
tell you that we can never be 100 percent sure that one variable causes another; we can only reduce but not eliminate
the possibility that the effect was caused by chance. In fact,
in many cases the accepted standard for statisticians is that
the odds are 5 percent or less that the change in behavior
was caused by chance. That’s why in reports of results from
experiments, you often see the label, p < .05. It’s always

Many food companies have test kitchens in which they run blind
experiments to try different versions of their food innovations:
from less sweetened cakes to Impossible Burgers.
Source: Party people studio/Shutterstock.

possible that for some bizarre reason the viewers who saw
the Bethany spot were more inclined to buy the product
anyway even though they were chosen randomly. That’s
one reason we want to include larger samples when possible as this helps us to reduce (but again, never eliminate!)
the possibility that something funky happened during the
experiment.
By the way, this particular kind of relatively simple
experiment is called an A/B test, and cable networks in
fact do them often. And, although many experiments are
done in laboratories where researchers can better control
other circumstances, this kind of study is called a field
experiment because it takes place in the real world. Indeed,
many e-commerce companies literally perform hundreds of
similar A/B tests in short periods of time as they constantly
explore in real time whether very subtle factors such as the
color or font size in an online ad result in a more effective
appeal.
This also is how most market tests are done when a
company wants to gauge the likely success of a new product
before it’s released to the larger market. Here, we can see
how researchers sometimes have to forfeit some control
in order to get results: It’s not uncommon for a rival to get
wind of the fact that a company is using a certain city as a
test market and to send operatives in to buy large quantities
of their products in order to contaminate the results!
Another specialized kind of experiment is called a
conjoint analysis. This is a sophisticated technique that
exposes respondents in a laboratory setting to many different
permutations of a brand in order to identify the optimal
mixture of ingredients, colors, and so on. For example, Kayla
might name four attributes of skateboarding hats (number
of panels, price, color, and so on), and then participants
would see a series of pictures or slides that vary the levels of
each variable in each configuration. They will then analyze

Appendix C • Consumer Research Methods

responses across participants to different combinations to
determine whether some attributes are more important than
others or to see whether people prefer one level of an
attribute (e.g., a four-panel hat) over others.
Data mining and “Big Data”: “Big Data” is all the
rage these days, as marketers gain access to huge amounts
of information about consumers (with all the privacy issues
that go with this).
Typically a database of this nature combines information from several sources so that analysts “know” an enormous amount of information about a very large number of
consumers. Because the sample size is so large, they are
able to use sophisticated analytical techniques to search for
patterns in the data, a practice known as data mining. Very
large firms, such as American Express and Walmart, mine
their huge databases to understand buying patterns (e.g.,
consumers who buy a lot of product X also tend to buy a lot
of product Y) and increasingly to predict what people will
buy based upon past purchases.
Note that these techniques typically don’t try to predict
what any one person will buy but rather what they are likely
to do given that they are a lot like others in the database.
When you get a book recommendation from Amazon, a
similar process has occurred. However, even this constraint
is starting to go away: Amazon is experimenting with predictive distribution. By combing through past purchases,
it is starting to ship orders to warehouses even before the
consumers place them!
Kayla is unlikely to open this door given the company’s
small budget and limited data about current customers, but
a research firm could be contracted to provide more general
insights about the types of people who buy skateboarding
gear (essentially, a very large and expensive psychographic
analysis). As we will see in Appendix D, there may be
plenty of secondary data sources, for instance from trade
associations that already have data on the skateboard market
more generally.
And it gets better: As so many of us constantly post
about our experiences (good and bad) with brands, this
content presents a new and enormously useful window
into consumer behavior that researchers are still figuring out. Web scraping refers to techniques that extract
large amounts of data from websites so that analysts
can deposit this information into very large databases
and track what thousands of people are saying about
brands—in real time!
One important type of web scraping analysis is called
sentiment analysis, or opinion mining. These terms refer
to the process of determining the emotional tone behind
a series of words in order to gain an understanding of the
attitudes, opinions, and emotions expressed within an online
mention. This technique is one of the most widely used in

475

social media research. It works with the aid of software that
systematically searches key words it finds in social spaces
like blogs, social networks, and forums. Think of sentiment
analysis as an early warning system for a brand.
How do marketers use sentiment analysis? Analysts can
track product reviews to offer insight into the least and most
popular features that are available. They can look at news
mentions of a company to indicate the industry’s perceptions
in terms of product quality, service quality, performance, and
value. Customers use sentiment analysis to systematically
utilize reviews when they make purchase decisions—we love
to find restaurants with glowing Yelp reviews, and we’re more
confident when we see 1,000 of these rather than 10.
In addition, positive comments can turn into customer
testimonials for use in retailing and promotions. Comments
about competitors serve as competitive intelligence.
Conversations among like-minded groups of friends
and connections provide consumer insight that’s useful
for targeting and positioning. Monitoring results in the
development of a detailed database that analysts can use
to create more insights as they synthesize the comments of
hundreds or even thousands of people. These techniques
gain in sophistication almost daily, especially as analysts
begin to apply more elaborate artificial intelligence engines
(like IBM’s Watson®) to probe for intricate patterns among
many thousands of posts. There’s an enormous amount of
chatter about there about brands—most likely including
Kayla’s. Sentiment analysis allows constant monitoring
of the emotional landscape and proactively managing an
organization’s image.
Neuromarketing: Another approach that’s getting a lot
of buzz is neuromarketing, where researchers adapt techniques that neuroscientists use to study psychophysiological
reactions to brands that occur in the brain or elsewhere in
the body.
These measures include involuntary changes in our bodies when we become emotionally aroused or stressed, such as
GSR (galvanic skin response), pupil dilation, heart rate, and
facial muscle movements. As we saw earlier, there are times
when consumers can’t or won’t tell us accurately what they’re
feeling, but these physiological measures don’t lie. The proliferation of wearables makes access to physiological measures
easy and cheap. Some companies offer research services that
use the participant’s own smart device, such as a heart rate
monitor, to capture physiological responses.
More recently, neuroscientists have begun to administer
fMRIs (functional magnetic resonance imaging) to respondents to detect changes in brain activity when people look at
various stimuli, such as photos of different brands or logos.
Kayla is unlikely to prioritize these techniques at this point
but may well turn to them down the road as they become
more affordable and accessible.

476

Appendix C

• Consumer Research Methods

Caveat about Big Data:
It’s BIG. Some of the datasets generated from web tracking or physiological measurements are massive and require
sophisticated data analysis skills to analyze. Sometimes
super computers with high computing power are required to
handle very large datasets.

In Closing
As you can see, there are many tools available to gain insights
into consumer behavior. All have their strengths and weaknesses. For this reason, it’s great, when possible, to use more
than one in order to triangulate on more accurate guidelines
for developing a complete understanding of a consumer or a
consumption behavior. Remember that no single method is
appropriate to answer all research questions. Above all, don’t
be a hammer in search of a nail—just because you like or
have mastered one approach doesn’t mean you should apply
it to every single question you encounter!

KEY TERMS
A/B test
Autodriving
Big Data
Closed-ended questions
Conjoint analysis
Control group
Data mining
Dependent variable
Ethnography
Experiments
Field experiment
Focus group
Garbology
GIGO
Incentive

Independent variable
Interview
Market tests
Moderator
Netnography
Neuromarketing
Open-ended questions
Pantry check
Primary data
Projective techniques
Secondary data
Shop-along
Surveys
Web scraping

Appendix

Sources of
Secondary Data
Many organizations in the government and private sector collect information on consumer buying patterns. One good place
to start is GfK, the international marketing research company
that supplied data for the exercises in this text: www.gfk.com.
A list of selected other secondary data sources and
indices that are particularly useful to consumer researchers
follows. Many of these sources are available in the reference
section of your library.

Library Databases of Academic
Articles and White Papers with
Consumer Insights
Check to see what databases your university library subscribes to.

•

Academic and Industry Associations
with Sources of Consumer Insights

•
•

•
•

•

American Marketing Association (AMA): AMA offers
free access to webinars from authors of published academic journal articles.
Marketing Science Institute (MSI): MSI is a non-profit
organization whose goal is to bridge renowned scholars
and leading practitioners. Its website includes a curated
selection of articles, white papers, and academic research video seminars related to consumer behavior (and
many other topics).
Advertising Research Foundation (ARF): ARF provides a collection of academic articles, popular press
articles, podcasts, and videos on evolution in advertising research and practice. Note: Some access is
member-only.
UCLA Anderson Forecast: For over 60 years, the UCLA
Anderson Forecast has provided forecasts for the economies of California and the United States. Founded by
professor Robert M. Williams in 1952, the national forecast
has been recognized as one of the most accurate and has a
reputation for being unbiased—an attribute that the numerous corporate and Wall Street forecasts cannot lay claim to.
Wharton Research Data Services: Wharton Research
Data Services offers instant access to important databases in the fields of finance, accounting, banking, economics, management, marketing, and public policy.

D

•

•

•

Business Source Complete: Business Source Complete
provides access to the industry’s most used business
research database, providing full text for more than
2,200 journals, including full text for more than 1,100
peer-reviewed titles. This database provides full text
back to 1886 and searchable cited references back
to 1998. Business Source Premier includes full text
coverage in all disciplines of business, including
marketing, management, MIS, POM, accounting,
finance, and economics. The database is updated daily.
Communication & Mass Media Complete (CMMC):
CMMC offers access to content from CommSearch
and Mass Media Articles Index along with numerous other journals in communication, mass media, and
other closely related fields of study. CMMC provides
cover-to-cover indexing and abstracts for more than 620
journals and selected coverage of nearly 200 more for a
combined coverage of more than 820 titles.
Dissertations & Theses Global (ProQuest): With access
to nearly three million searchable citations, Dissertations
& Theses Global is the most comprehensive collection of doctoral dissertations and master’s theses in
the world. Dissertations from 1980 forward include
350-word abstracts and master’s theses from 1988 forward include 150-word abstracts. There is full text for
most dissertations since 1997 with 1.2 million full-text
dissertations available for download in PDF format.
Approximately 70,000 new dissertations and theses are
added each year. Coverage from 1743 to the present.
Emerald Management Journals: Emerald Management
Journals provides access to over 75,000 searchable



477

478

•

•

•

•
•

•

Appendix D

• Sources of Secondary Data

articles from over 120 Emerald journals. It contains
over 25,000 management articles from its archives back
to 1989. Subjects covered include management, HRM,
marketing, and librarianship.
JSTOR: Access the journal archives Arts & Sciences I,
II, III, and IV, and over 40,000 e-books on the JSTOR
platform. Book chapters and journal articles are crosssearchable. JSTOR is an extensive archive of interdisciplinary journals and books, covering subject disciplines
in arts, business and economics, history, humanities, law,
science and mathematics, social sciences, and religion.
LexisNexis Uni (formerly LexisNexis Academic):
LexisNexis Uni provides full-text coverage of approximately 15,000 national and regional newspapers, broadcast
transcripts, magazines, wire services, federal and state
court opinions, federal and state statutes, federal regulations and SEC filings, such as 10-Ks and 10-Qs. It offers
access to company profiles, industry and market research
information, and trade journals, and also provides access to
the renowned Shepard’s Citations® service for all federal
and states court cases back to 1789. This database is available only with login through your university’s library.
MIT Sloan Management Review: MIT Sloan
Management Review focuses on how the practice of
management is transforming in the digital age. Its expert
contributors help leaders explore the trends that are
shaping how organizations operate, compete, and create
value in a technology-fueled world. If the website asks
you to subscribe or does not provide full-text access,
visit www.sloanreview.mit.edu and go to ‘Topics’ on the
top left, then select ‘Marketing.’ Once you are at SMR,
click the menu button in the upper left-hand corner, and
then click “Current Issue” under Features.
NBER Working Papers: NBER Working Papers offers
research findings from the National Bureau of Economic
Research, a private non-profit engaged in quantitative
analysis of the American economy; nearly 700 working
papers are issued each year.
PsycINFO: The American Psychological Association’s
(APA’s) resource for abstracts of scholarly journal
articles, book chapters, books, and dissertations is the
largest resource devoted to peer-reviewed literature in
behavioral science and mental health. It contains over
five million records and summaries dating as far back as
the 1600s. Journal coverage, which spans from the 1800s
to the present, includes international material selected
from around 2,500 periodicals in dozens of languages.
Scopus: Scopus is the largest abstract and citation database of peer-reviewed literature for scientific journals,
books, and conference proceedings. Delivering a comprehensive overview of the world’s research output in

the fields of science, technology, medicine, social sciences, and arts and humanities, Scopus features smart
tools to track, analyze, and visualize research.

Governmental Sources of
Demographic and Statistical Data on
Population

•

•
•
•

•

•

•

United States Census Bureau Data (formerly American
Fact Finder): The Census Bureau is the leading source
of quality data about the nation’s people and economy.
Offering data access and a dissemination system for useful facts and information about your community, economy, and society, the system will find and retrieve the
information you need from some of the Census Bureau’s
largest data sets.
Population Reference Bureau (PRB): PRB provides data
sheets that are ready references of demographic and
health indicators by country and region, including population projections and key data insights.
The Roper Center for Public Opinion Research: This site
offers public opinion survey data from the United States
and around the world.
Country Commercial Guides: These guides are published annually by U.S. embassies with the assistance of
several U.S. government agencies. They present a comprehensive look at countries’ commercial environments,
using economic, political, and market analysis (that is,
the PESTLE framework, per Chapter 2).
Doing Business Project: IFC and the World Bank provide objective measures of business regulations and their
enforcement across 183 economies and selected cities at
the subnational and regional level. For each economy,
regulations affecting nine stages of a business’s life are
measured to determine their “Ease of Doing Business”
ranking: starting a business, dealing with construction
permits, registering property, getting credit, protecting
investors, paying taxes, trading across borders, enforcing contracts, and closing a business.
Export.gov Market Intelligence Library: This resource
contains more than 100,000 industry- and country-specific
market reports, including Country Commercial Guides
(“doing business” guides), Market Intelligence Reports,
and Best Markets Reports. Export.gov is managed by the
U.S. Department of Commerce’s Commercial Service in
collaboration with other federal agencies that offer export
assistance programs and services.
Integrated Public Use Microdata Series (IPUMS): IPUMS
provides census and survey data from around the world
integrated across time and space. IPUMS integration

Appendix D • Sources of Secondary Data

and documentation makes it easy to study change, conduct comparative research, merge information across data
types, and analyze individuals within family and community contexts.

•
•

Data and Services Available Free of
Charge

•
•
•

•

Statistics Canada: The Canadian national statistical office
that provides Canadians (and others) key information on
Canada's economy, society, and environment to help
them as citizens and consumers.
European Society for Opinion and Marketing Research
(ESOMAR)
World Bank Open Knowledge Repository (OKR): The
World Bank’s official open access repository for its
research outputs and knowledge products, the OKR
collects, disseminates, and permanently preserves
the World Bank’s intellectual output in digital form.
Launched in April 2012, the OKR contains over 14,000
research works, including books published since 2000.
The World Bank DataBank: The World Bank provides
indicators for the following categories: economic policy and debt, education, environment, financial sector,
health, infrastructure, labor and social protection, poverty, private sector and trade, and public sector. Time
series data is available back to 1960 for some countries.

•

Consumer Lifestyles information can be found from
the Consumers section of the Passport opening page
using the following steps:
1. Select Consumers from the upper menu box.
2. On the resulting page, find the Explore Analysis box
and select the following:
From Choose Industry, select Lifestyles from
the dropdown menu.
From Choose Category, select Lifestyles from
the menu options.
From Choose Geography, select a Country or
Region from the dropdown box.
Click Go.

(Note: Some of these databases may be available with login
through your university’s library.)

•

IBISWorld: This site provides access to research reports
containing key statistics, industry conditions, market
characteristics, industry performance, external market
drivers, key success factors, and five-year revenue forecasts for each U.S. industry. Charts and graphs download into Excel, and detailed written analysis provides
explanations and insights. The subscription also includes
Global Market Research Reports that analyze 75 of the
largest industries on a world-wide scale.
Insider Intelligence (formerly eMarketer): Insider
Intelligence includes daily research articles, analyst reports, and a database of e-business and online marketing statistics, aggregated and analyzed from over 4,000
sources. Topics include market research and trend analysis on internet, e-business, online marketing, media, and
emerging technologies.

Ipsos: Many syndicated studies are available for purchase here. The cost of the surveys depends on their age.
Mintel Reports: This site provides market research
report insights for market share, consumer profiles,
forecasting, driving forces, and distribution methods on
very specific consumer markets in the U.S. Users have
access to approximately 800 + unique reports with 220
new reports created each year. Common data sources
include Simmons Consumer Research Information
Resources, Inc., (IRI) Nielsen/NPD, trade associations,
and Mintel’s unique consumer research.
Claritas 360 (SRDS – formerly Nielsen Segmentation &
Market Solutions): Claritas 360 is an application
available within SRDS that allows users to measure
consumer demand and evaluate locations and markets.
It provides users with information for finding the best
customers and customer locations and for figuring out
how best to engage with them.
Tip: Use the Search box in the top right corner to
locate Consumer Lifestyle reports for the desired
country. Type “Consumer Lifestyles [Country
Name].” Consumer information is also available
within Industry Profiles and Category Briefings.

Commercial Data Repositories and
Databases Searchable for Consumer
Insights

•

479

•
•

•

•
•
•
•

MRI-Simmons: This site offers a searchable database of
insights on the American consumer. Some reports are free,
but most are for purchase. Some webinars are also available.
Passport (formerly Global Market Information
Database): From Euromonitor International, Passport
GMID provides business intelligence on countries,
consumers, and industries, and offers detailed analysis
of consumer and industrial markets around the world
across 781 cities, 210 countries, and 27 industries with
historic data from 1997 and forecasts through 2020.
Simmons Brand Catalyst: Simmons Brand Catalyst is
a strategy and predictive segmentation tool built on
the Simmons Insights platform. It identifies the unique

480

•

•

Appendix D

• Sources of Secondary Data

characteristics that differentiate over 8,000 brands. This
resource can help marketers define brand identity, differentiate against competitors, create unique personas,
and drive effective media, creative, and partnership strategies. Create segments (using Simmons’ Smart Search
technology) and compare and contrast up to three brand
users or other personas, and dive deep into what defines
and motivates these consumers. For access, click Brand
Catalyst at the top of the Simmons interface.
Simmons Insights (formerly Simmons OneView): Simmons
Insights provides survey data from the Simmons National
Consumer Study, National Hispanic Consumer Study,
and New Media Study. The consumer studies include
consumer usage behavior for all major media (more
than 450 product categories and over 8,000 brands).
The consumer studies include over 700 psychographic
measures to understand customer targets across categories, such as general attitudes, media, and shopping
habits. The New Media Study measures attitudes and
use of emerging media technologies. Academic license
is restricted to five simultaneous users.
Statista: Statista consolidates statistical data on over
80,000 topics from more than 22,500 sources. Its reports
provide insights across 170 industries and more than

150 countries. Check your university’s library subscription to know whether it provides access to the expert
tools and the Global Consumer Survey.

Other Fun but Also Useful Resources

•

•
•
•

PsycTests: PsycTests is an electronic database providing
descriptive summaries, full text, and relevant citations on
the development and assessment of tests and measures that
can be used in research and teaching. Updated monthly,
PsycTests includes a wide variety of test types: achievement
and aptitude tests, intelligence tests, tests of cognitive
functioning, occupational tests, personality tests, and more.
These include previously unpublished measures, tests
developed by psychologists for which no source document
has been located, and information about published tests
available from commercial publishers. (Note: To search
only PsycTests, uncheck the box marked APA Books.)
Q Scores: This site contains comprehensive ratings of
the attractiveness and visibility of celebrity endorsers.
Pantone: This site provides color forecasting for different
industries.
VALS Survey: This is a free academic version of a
personality and lifestyle survey.

GLOSSARY
80/20 rule a rule-of-thumb in volume seg-

Advertising weariness consumers react neg-

mentation, which says that about 20 percent of consumers in a product category
(the heavy users) account for about 80
percent of sales
A/B test a marketing experiment that shows
two versions of a message to respondents to determine if one option is more
effective
ABC model of attitudes a multidimensional
perspective stating that attitudes are
jointly defined by affect, behavior, and
cognition
Absolute threshold the minimum amount of
stimulation that can be detected on a given
sensory channel
Acceptance cycles a way to differentiate
among fashions in terms of their longevity
Acculturation agents friends, family, local
businesses, and other reference groups
that facilitate the learning of cultural
norms
Acculturation the process of learning the beliefs and behaviors endorsed by another
culture
Achievement motivation wanting to do well
and trying to achieve some standard of
excellence, whether that standard is conscious or nonconscious
Activation models of memory approaches
to memory stressing different levels of
processing that occur and activate some
aspects of memory rather than others,
­depending on the nature of the processing task
Activity stores a retailing concept that lets
consumers participate in the production
of the products or services being sold in
the store
Actual self a person’s realistic appraisal of his
or her qualities
Adaptation the process that occurs when a
sensation becomes so familiar that it no
longer commands attention
Adaptive clothing apparel products that are
modified to accommodate wearers with
physical disabilities
Adoption rates the pace at which a new technology is acquired and used by the public
Advergaming online games merged with interactive advertisements that let companies target specific types of consumers
Advertainment the fusion of advertising and
entertainment

atively to a repeated marketing stimulus,
and as a result become less interested in
the brand being advertised
Advertising wear-out the condition that
­occurs when consumers become so used
to hearing or seeing a marketing stimulus
that they no longer pay attention to it
Aesthetic bias product designs that are
deemed more attractive lead us to think
the product will also be more useful
Affect the way a consumer feels about an
­attitude object
Affiliation being closely associated with a
­particular person, group, party, company, etc.
Affluenza well-off consumers who are
stressed or unhappy despite of, or even
because of, their wealth
Age cohort a group of consumers of approximately the same age who have undergone
similar experiences
Agentic goals an emphasis on self-assertion
and mastery, often associated with traditional male gender roles
Agentic orientation expressive traits, such as
instrumentality and independence
Agile marketing a decision-making process
that uses data and analytics to continuously source promising opportunities or
solutions to problems in real time, deploy
tests quickly, evaluate the results, and
quickly improve on an ongoing basis
Agreeableness the degree to which a person
feels sympathy, kindness, and consideration toward other people
AIOs (activities, interests, and opinions) the
psychographic variables researchers use to
group consumers
Algorithm bias inaccurate decisions made by
computers when the input they receive is
flawed in some way
Allegory a story told about an abstract trait
or concept that has been personified as a
person, animal, or vegetable
Alternate-reality game (ARG) an application
that blends online and offline clues and
encourages players to collaborate to solve
a puzzle
Ambicultural an identity that is a mixture of
two subcultures
Ambivalence a sense of being torn or mixed
about an attitude object, because both
positive and negative components of our
attitudes are simultaneously accessible

Androgyny refers to the possession of both

masculine and feminine traits
Anthropomorphism the tendency to attri-

bute human characteristics to objects or
animals
Antibrand communities groups of consumers
who share a common disdain for a celebrity, store, or brand
Anti-consumption boycotting or avoiding
products
Anticonsumption the actions taken by consumers involving the deliberate defacement or mutilation of products
Antifestival an event that distorts the symbols
associated with other holidays
Antifragility the ability to grow when faced
with stressors
Approach–approach conflict a person must
choose between two desirable alternatives
Approach–avoidance conflict a person
­desires a goal but wishes to avoid it at the
same time
Archetypes a universally shared idea or
­behavior pattern, central to Carl Jung’s
conception of personality; archetypes
­involve themes—such as birth, death,
or the devil—that appear frequently in
myths, stories, and dreams
Arrogant brands brands that communicate
the message they are superior to others
Art product a creation viewed primarily as an
object of aesthetic contemplation without
any functional value
Artificial intelligence the simulation of human
intelligence processes—perceiving, synthesizing, and inferring information—by
machines, especially computer systems
Artificial intelligence (AI) Data applications
that improve over time as they learn from
prior analyses
Aspirational class highly educated people
whose choices reflect their values
Aspirational reference group high-profile
athletes and celebrities used in marketing
efforts to promote a product
Aspirations failure unattainable goals, which
can create frustration and discouragement
when the goals do not come to fruition
Aspirations gap relative difference between
one’s aspired standard of living and that
which they have attained
Associative network a memory system that
organizes individual units of information
according to some set of relationships;

481

482

Glossary

may include such concepts as brands,
manufacturers, and stores
Associative norms beliefs about a group to
which we belong
Associative reference group people we know
Astroturfing a company’s attempts to write
fake reviews of its products in the absence
of real, “grass roots” support
Asynchronous communications messages
that don’t require all participants to respond immediately
Atmospherics the use of space and physical
features in store design to evoke certain
effects in buyers
Attention the assignment of processing activity to selected stimuli
Attitude a lasting, general evaluation of people (including oneself), objects, or issues
Attitude accessibility perspective an attitude
will guide the evaluation of the object
but only if a person’s memory activates it
when they encounter the object
Attitude models frameworks that identify
specific components and combine them
to predict a consumer’s overall attitude
toward a product or brand
Attitude object (A o) anything toward which
one has an attitude
Attitude toward the act of buying (A act) the
perceived consequences of a purchase
Audio watermarking a technique where composers and producers weave a distinctive
sound/motif into a piece of music that
sticks in people’s minds over time
Augmented reality (AR) technology applications that layer digital information over a
physical space to add additional information for users
Authenticity the quality of being authentic
Authoritarian parents strict parenting style
Authoritative parents an extremely strict parenting style
Autodriving a type of interview that is guided
by the photos a participant brings
Autonomous vehicles self-driving cars
Autonomy the experience of volition and
willingness
Autotelic reflects the fun, pleasurable aspect
of touch
Avoidance & avoidance conflict being faced
with a choice that has two undesirable
alternatives
Avoidance groups reference groups that exert a negative influence on individuals
because they are motivated to distance
themselves from group members
Avoidance selves the type of person we
don’t want to be that motivates us not to
consume products we associate with this
image

Avoidance-avoidance conflict a choice

Big Data the collection and analysis of

situation where both alternatives are
undesirable
B2C e-commerce businesses selling to consumers through electronic marketing
Baby Boomers a large cohort of people born
between the years of 1946 and 1964 who
are the source of many important cultural
and economic changes
Backstory a behind-the-scenes experience
Back-translation a technique in which a different interpreter retranslates a translated
ad back into its original language to catch
errors
Badges evidence of some achievement
consumers display either in the physical
world or on social platforms
Balance theory a theory that considers relations
among elements a person might perceive as
belonging together, and people’s tendency
to change relations among elements to
make them consistent or “balanced”
Basking in reflected glory the practice of
publicizing connections with successful
people or organizations to enhance one’s
own standing
Beacons devices in a retail environment that
communicate with shoppers’ phones as
they walk through the aisles
Behavior a consumer’s actions with regard to
an attitude object
Behavioral biases views people as rational
decision makers who calmly and carefully
weigh their choices to be sure they make
the best possible decision
Behavioral economics the study of the behavioral determinants of economic decisions
Behavioral learning theories the perspectives
on learning that assume that learning takes
place as the result of responses to external
events
Being space a retail environment that
­resembles a residential living room where
customers are encouraged to congregate
Belief systems a person’s underlying beliefs;
the extent to which people share a belief
system is a function of individual, social,
and cultural forces; believers tend to be
exposed to information that supports their
beliefs
Benevolent halo effect when a company does
a good thing (even when that good thing is
unrelated to their core business), their reputation improves, their consumers’ goodwill
also increases, and in turn so do consumers’ evaluations of the company’s product
Beta marriage a new type of relationship
where partners can choose to renew, renegotiate or split after an agreed number
of years

e­ xtremely large datasets to identify patterns of behavior in a group of consumers
Big Five a set of five dimensions that form
the basis of personality: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extroversion,
agreeableness, and neuroticism
Big Five Inventory a set of five dimensions
that form the basis of personality, which
include openness to experience, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness,
and neuroticism
Bigorexia obsession with bodybuilding and
getting more muscular
Binary bias a deviation of thought that makes
us process information in a dichotomous
way: good or bad, and black or white
Binary opposition a defining structural characteristic of many myths in which two
opposing ends of some dimension are
represented (e.g., good versus evil, nature
versus technology)
Biohackers people who explore new ways to
integrate their bodies with technology
Bioterrorism a strategy to disrupt the nation’s
food supply with the aim of creating economic havoc
Bitcoin an online currency system that uses
peer-to-peer technology and does not
coordinate with any central authority or
banks
Blockchain an encryption technique that
avoids banks to regulate the generation of
units of currency and verify the transfer
of funds
Body image a consumer’s subjective evaluation of his or her physical self
Body image distortions psychological disorders that cause the patient to believe that
his or her body is bigger or smaller than
others see it
Body positive a movement encourages people
to love themselves as they are, regardless
of whether their body conforms to an idea
that Western society perpetuates
Boomerang kids grown children who return
to their parents’ home to live
Botnets a set of computers that are penetrated
by malicious software known as malware
that allows an external agent to control
their actions
Bottom of the pyramid the huge number of
consumers around the world who have
low incomes
Bounded rationality a concept in behavioral
economics that states because we rarely
have the resources (especially the time)
to weigh every possible factor into a decision, we settle for a solution that is just
good enough

Glossary

Brain drain a deficit of cognitive resources
Brand enables consumers to identify a par-

ticular company, product, or individuals;
it uses identifying markers to tell potential
buyers not only what it does but also what
it means and perhaps even the cultural
­values it stands for
Brand biography the history of a brands
origins or founders that includes ­details
about a brand’s origins and how it
succeeded
Brand community a set of consumers who
share a set of social relationships based
on usage or interest in a product
Brand equity a brand that has strong positive
associations in a consumer’s memory and
commands a lot of loyalty as a result
Brand immigrants noncore users who try to
claim membership within a community of
users
Brand loyalty repeat purchasing behavior that
reflects a conscious decision to continue
buying the same brand
Brand narrative stories that engage the reader
or viewer on a brand
Brand personality a set of traits people attribute to a product as if it were a person
Brand prominence the display of blatant status symbols to ensure that others recognize one’s luxury brands
Brand purpose a reason to exist beyond making money
Brand resonance the condition that occurs
when a brand truly speaks to some aspect
of a consumer’s individual life or the culture in which he or she lives
Brand secret microcollectives shared knowledge about a brand that is invisible outside
the group and signalled quietly inside the
group
Brand storytelling a marketing communications approach that emphasizes the
importance of giving a product a rich
background to involve customers in its
history or experience
Brand tourists noncore users who buy the
brand but who do not seek admittance into
a community of users
Brandfests a corporate-sponsored event
­intended to promote strong brand loyalty
among customers
BRIC nation the bloc of nations with rapid
economic development: Brazil, Russia,
India, and China
Bring your own bags (BYOB) when shoppers
are encouraged to bring their own reusable
grocery bags to reduce our reliance on disposable plastic bags
Bro culture a critical term to describe the
situation when the worst aspects of

stereotypical fraternity life make their
way into corporate culture—hard partying, motivating employees with public humiliation, and treating women as
­sexual playthings
Bromance a relationship characterized by
strong affection between two straight
males
Business ethics rules of conduct that guide
actions in the marketplace
Business-to-business (B2B) e-commerce

internet interactions between two or more
businesses or organizations
Business-to-business (B2B) marketers

­specialists in meeting the needs of organizations such as corporations, government
agencies, hospitals, and retailers
Buyclass theory of purchasing a framework that characterizes organizational
buying decisions in terms of how much
cognitive effort is involved in making a
decision
Buyer personas a “story” about your ideal
customer based on market research and
real data about your existing customers
Buying center the part of an organization
charged with making purchasing decisions
Buzz marketing messages that consumers
perceive to be authentic and consumer
generated
C2C e-commerce consumer-to-consumer activity through the Internet
Cancel culture the phenomenon of the public
calling out companies for missteps and
recommending that consumers boycott
the guilty brands
Cart abandonment rate indicates what percentage of a site’s users signal purchase
intent by adding an item to the cart, but
don’t complete the purchase
Category exemplars brands that are particularly relevant examples of a broader
classification
Cause marketing a strategy that aligns a company or brand with a cause to generate
business and societal benefits
Celebrity endorsements a communications
tactic whereby an organization retains a
well-known person to tout a product or
cause on its behalf
Cellphone zombie a term to describe a person
who walks while texting and is unaware of
his or her surroundings
CEO pay ratio a ratio that compares the salary of a company’s chief executive to the
earnings of a typical employee
Chavs British term that refers to young,
lower-class men and women who mix
flashy brands and accessories from big
names such as Burberry with track suits

483

Chipped a form of wearable computing that

inserts a computer chip into a person’s
wrist or other body part
Choice overload the condition of having too
many choices which forces us to make
­repeated smart choices
Chunking a process in which information
is stored by combining small pieces of
­information into larger ones
Circular economy (CE) an economic model
that proposes that sustainable growth can
happen only through ongoing reutilization
of resources and materials with the ultimate goal of generating zero waste
Class consciousness an awareness of one’s
place in a system of social classes
Classic a fashion with an extremely long
­acceptance cycle
Classical conditioning the learning that
­o ccurs when a stimulus eliciting a
­response is paired with another stimulus
that initially does not elicit a response on
its own but will cause a similar response
over time because of its association with
the first stimulus
Closed-ended questions questions that can
only be answered by selecting from a limited number of options, usually ­multiplechoice questions with a single-word
­answer, ‘yes’ or ‘no’, or a rating scale
Closure principle the Gestalt principle that describes a person’s tendency to supply missing information to perceive a holistic image
Co-branding strategies linking products
­together to create a more desirable connotation in consumer minds
Co-consumers other patrons in a consumer
setting
Co-creation involving consumers in the process of developing advertising and other
marketing actions
Codes the ways members of a shared culture
express and interpret meanings
Coercive power influence over another person because of social or physical intimidation cohesiveness
Cognition the beliefs a consumer has about an
attitude object
Cognitive learning theory approaches that
stress the importance of internal mental
processes; this perspective views people
as problem solvers who actively use
­information from the world around them
to master their environment
Cohabitate people who live together without
being married
Collaborative consumption a term to d
­ escribe
the new sharing economy, where people
rent or barter what they need rather than
buying it

484

Glossary

Collabs collaborations between companies

and celebrities that link to the endorser’s
image or passion in a meaningful way
Collecting the systematic acquisition of a particular object or set of objects
Collective decision making situations in
which more than one person chooses the
products or services that multiple consumers use
Collective selection where many people tend
to adopt a new style simultaneously
Collective self a process of self-definition
whereby an individual’s identity is
largely derived from his or her group
memberships
Collective value creation the process whereby
brand community members work together
to develop better ways to use and customize products
College wage premium the gap between what
workers with a college degree earn compared with those without one
Color forecasts predictions that manufacturers and retailers buy so they can be sure
they stock up on the next hot hue
Color palette a set of colors that represent a
brand personality
Communal goals an emphasis on affiliation
and the fostering of harmonious relations,
often associated with traditional female
gender roles
Communal orientation people who are
­inclined to be inclusive and interdependent
Communications model a framework specifying that a number of elements are necessary for communication to be achieved,
including a source, message, medium,
­receiver, and feedback
Comparative advertising a strategy in
which a message compares two or more
specifically named or recognizably
­p resented brands and makes a comparison of them in terms of one or more
­specific attributes
Compatibility in the context of diffusion of
innovations, the extent to which a new
product fits with a consumer’s preexisting
lifestyle
Compensatory consumption consuming
products that link to an aspect of preserving self-esteem
Compensatory rules a set of rules that allows
information about attributes of competing
products to be averaged in some way; poor
standing on one attribute can potentially
be offset by good standing on another
Competence the belief in one’s ability to perform essential tasks
Complexity in the context of diffusion of
­innovation, the extent to which a new

product is difficult to use or to integrate
into a person’s daily life
Compliance belief that we form an attitude
because it helps us to gain rewards or
avoid punishment
Compulsive consumption the process of
­repetitive, often excessive, shopping used
to relieve tension, anxiety, depression, or
boredom
Compulsive shopping repetitive and ­often
excessive shopping performed as an anti­
dote to tension, anxiety, depression, or
boredom
Conditioned response (CR) a response to
a conditioned stimulus caused by the
learning of an association between a
­conditioned stimulus (CS) and an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Conditioned stimulus (CS) a stimulus that
produces a learned reaction through asso­
ciation over time
Conditioned superstition consumers who
don’t feel they have control over their
outcomes come to associate a product that
is paired with a reward with the outcome
itself
Conformity a change in beliefs or actions
as a reaction to real or imagined group
pressure
Conjoint analysis a statistical technique that
exposes respondents in a laboratory setting to many different permutations of
a brand in order to identify the optimal
mixture of ingredients, colors, or other
variables
Conjunctive rule the decision maker estab­
lishes cut-offs for each attribute and
chooses a brand if it meets all the cutoffs,
but rejects a brand that fails to meet any
one cut-off
Connexity a lifestyle term coined by the
advertising agency Saatchi & Saatchi
to describe young consumers who place
high value on being both footloose and
connected
Conscientious consumerism a new value that
combines a focus on personal health with
a concern for global health
Conscientiousness the ability to be orga­nized,
responsible, industrious, and reliable
Conscious consumerism a perspective that
encourages us to make positive decisions
throughout the buying process
Consensus language language signalling
general agreement about a product or
behavior
Consideration set the products a consumer
actually deliberates about choosing
Conspicuous consumption the purchase
and prominent display of luxury goods to

provide evidence of a consumer’s ability
to afford them
Constructive processing a thought process in
which a person evaluates the effort he or
she will need to make a particular choice,
and then tailors the amount of cognitive
“effort” expended to make this decision
Consumed consumers those people who
are used or exploited, whether willingly or not, for commercial gain in the
marketplace
Consumer a person who identifies a need or
desire, makes a purchase, or disposes of
the product
Consumer activism when consumers band together to attack what they view as ­unsafe
or otherwise harmful
Consumer addiction a physiological or psychological dependency on products or
services
Consumer animosity intense dislike toward
a brand, often due to a political or social
position with which people disagree
Consumer behavior the processes involved
when individuals or groups select, purchase, use, or dispose of products, services, ideas, or experiences to satisfy
needs and desires
Consumer centricity the focus on meeting
consumers’ needs
Consumer collectives networks of social
­relations centered on a brand, a practice,
or a digital platform
Consumer confidence the extent to which
people are optimistic or pessimistic about
the future health of the economy
Consumer confusion in legal contexts, the
likelihood that one company’s logo,
product design, or package is so similar
to another that the typical shopper would
mistake one for the other
Consumer culture theory (CCT) the study of
consumption from a cultural perspective
rather than a psychological or economic
focus
Consumer fairy tales stories that consumers
create involving products that help them
to overcome villains and obstacles
Consumer hyperchoice the profusion of
options in the modern marketplace that
forces us to make repeated decisions that
may drain psychological energy while
decreasing our abilities to make smart
choices
Consumer identity renaissance the redefinition process people undergo when they
retire
Consumer satisfaction/dissatisfaction
(CS/D) the overall attitude a person has

about a product after it has been purchased

Glossary

485

Consumer socialization the process by which

Contestations consumers questioning and

Counterspace social media safe space for

people acquire skills that enable them to
function in the marketplace
Consumer style a pattern of behaviors, what
others think of us by strategically choosing clothing and other of a person’s consumption activities—­including attitudes
toward advertising, preferred channels of
information and purchase, brand loyalty,
and price consciousness
Consumer trends patterns of shopping habits that change over time, driven by the
underlying values that drive consumers
toward certain products and services and
away from others
Consumerspace marketing environment
where customers act as partners with companies to decide what the marketplace will
offer
Consumption all facets of the consumer
­behavior process, including how we
­observe and make sense of the world
around us, how we choose and purchase
things, and how we communicate our
identity and sense of self in society
Consumption communities web groups
where members share views and product
recommendations online
Consumption constellation a set of products and activities used by consumers to
define, communicate, and perform social
roles
Consumption practices activities that involve
consuming a product
Consumption situation includes a buyer, a
seller, and a product or service—but also
many other factors, such as the reason
we want to make a purchase and how the
physical environment makes us feel
Contact points consumers access brand
and marketing messages synchronously across transmedia, allowing
them to engage with content in a such
a variety of ways that it amounts to a
make-your-own-journey
Contamination effect people like a product
less and are less likely to buy it if another
person has touched it earlier
Contamination when a place or object takes
on sacred qualities because of its association with another sacred person or
event

modifying what the product or service
symbolizes
Context effects subtle cues in the environment that influence a person’s decisions
Continuous innovation a modification of an
existing product
Contrast stimuli that differ from others
around them
Control group a group of people in an experiment that are used as a baseline
Conventions norms that regulate how we
conduct our everyday lives
Convergent style of thinking that reflects a
preference for more alignment between
one’s identity and one’s choices
Cooptation a cultural process by which the
original meanings of a product or other
symbol associated with a subculture are
modified by members of mainstream
culture
Core values common general values held by
a culture
Corporate social irresponsibility (CSI) business wrongdoing in relation to the environment, community, society, ethics, and
business practices
Corporate social responsibility (CSR) processes that encourage the o­ rganization
to make a positive impact on the v­ arious
stakeholders in its community including consumers, employees, and the
environment
Corporate sociopolitical activism (CSA) a
firm’s public demonstration of support
or opposition to a partisan sociopolitical
issue
Corrective advertising messages an organi­
zation releases (voluntarily or not) that
inform consumers of previous messages
that were inaccurate or misleading
Cosmopolitanism a cultural value that
­emphasizes being open to the world and
striving for diverse experiences
Cougars older women who date younger
men
Counteractive construal exaggerating the
negative aspects of behaviors that will
­impede the attainment of a goal as a strategy to avoid them and reach the goal
Counterarguing the tendency for consumers
to think of reasons why they should not
believe a message
Counterargument a cognitive defense mechanism, or our natural tendency to refute
messages that try to persuade us
Counterfeiting companies or individuals selling (for parallel construction between
term and definition) fake versions of real
products

identity expression, especially for groups
that feel marginalized
Country of origin (COO) original country
from which a product is produced; it can
be an important piece of information in
the decision-making process
Covariation assumed associations among
events that may or may not actually influence one another
Covert advertising a form of advertising that
works under the guise of nonadvertising
formats
Craft product a creation valued because of
the beauty with which it performs some
function; this type of product tends to follow a formula that permits rapid production, and it is easier to understand than an
art product
Creolization foreign influences are absorbed
and integrated with local meanings
Crescive norms unspoken rules that govern
social behavior
Cross-modal effect the phenomenon
whereby two different sensory systems
influence one another
Crowdsourcing the growing practice of
soliciting ideas for new products and
even advertising campaigns from a user
community
Cryptocurrency a system that relies upon
encryption techniques rather than banks
to regulate the generation of units of
currency and verify the transfer of
funds
Cult products items that command fierce
consumer loyalty and devotion
Cultivation theory influence from cumulative exposure to television and the lifestyles we observe on (mostly) fictional
shows
Cultural appropriation when individuals or
companies who belong to a dominant
cultural group adopt a minority group’s
cultural symbols in an exploitative,
­stereotypical, or disrespectful manner
Cultural capital a set of distinctive and
­socially rare tastes and practices that
­admits a person into the realm of the ­upper
class
Cultural distinctiveness the feeling of being
different and separated from the surrounding cultural environment
Cultural formula a sequence of media events
in which certain roles and props tend to
occur consistently
Cultural gatekeepers individuals who are
responsible for determining the types of
messages and symbolism to which members of mass culture are exposed

Contemporary Young Mainstream Female
Achievers (CYMFA) modern women who

assume multiple roles
Content marketing a strategic marketing

a­ pproach focused on creating and distributing valuable, relevant, and consistent
content to attract and retain a clearly defined audience

486

Glossary

Culture jamming strategies that attempt

Data privacy a branch of data security in-

Diffusion of innovations the process whereby

to disrupt or satirize messages from
corporations
Culture of participation the driving philosophy behind social media that includes a
belief in democracy; the ability to freely
interact with other people, companies, and
organizations; open access to venues that
allow users to share content from simple
comments to reviews, ratings, photos,
stories, and more; and the power to build
on the content of others from your own
unique point of view
Culture production system (CPS) the set of
individuals and organizations responsible for creating and marketing a cultural
product
Culture the values, ethics, rituals, traditions,
material objects, and services produced or
valued by the members of a society
Curation a source such as a store or celebrity
that selects a set of products to simplify
shoppers’ decisions
Custom a norm that controls basic behaviors,
such as division of labor in a household
Customer journey a methodology where a
marketer maps out in detail all the steps
a customer takes while they interact with
the company

tended to keep data safe against improper
access, theft, or loss
Database marketing tracking consumers’
buying habits very closely, and then crafting products and messages tailored precisely to people’s wants and needs based
on this information
Decay structural changes in the brain produced by learning decrease over time
Deceleration slowing down the experience of
time by decreasing the traveled distance,
the use of technology, and the number of
experiences
Decision paralysis the lack of ability to decide
out of fear of making the wrong choice
Decluttering a movement to simplify life by
cleaning out excess products and other
items
Deethnicization process whereby a product
formerly associated with a specific ethnic
group is detached from its roots and marketed to other subcultures
Default bias a tendency in decision making
that makes it more likely for people to
comply with a requirement than to make
the effort not to comply
Deindividuation the process whereby individual identities get submerged within a
group, reducing inhibitions against socially inappropriate behavior
Demographics the observable measurements
of a population’s characteristics, such as
birthrate, age distribution, and income
Dependent variable in an experiment, a product of a cause used to determine if the manipulation of one or more other factors
influences it
Desacralization the process that occurs when
a sacred item or symbol is removed from
its special place, or is duplicated in mass
quantities, and becomes profane as a result
Descriptive norms our perceptions of what
others are doing
Design thinking a perspective on product
development that emphasizes the importance of how the product makes sense in
terms of how customers actually live their
lives and use these things
Determinant attributes the attributes actually
used to differentiate among choices
Diasporic being, or relating to any group
that has been dispersed outside its traditional homeland, either involuntarily or by
migration
Dichotomous thinking a type of black-andwhite cognitive thinking style
Differential threshold the ability of a sensory
system to detect changes or differences
among stimuli

a new product, service, or idea spreads
through a population
Digital divide refers to how access to technology is still restricted for many people
­because of income
Digital native young people who have grown
up with computers and mobile technology;
multitaskers with cell phones, ­music
downloads, and instant messaging on
the internet; people who are comfortable
communicating online and by text and IM
rather than by voice
Digital self elements of self-expression that
relate to a person’s online identity
Digital selling assistants a computer program
that uses artificial intelligence to simulate
a conversation with the people who use it,
typically over the internet
Digital selves identity in these worlds,
whether expressed via our social media
profiles, Instagram photos, or by Bitmojis
or avatars
Digital virtual consumption (DVC) purchases
of virtual goods for use in online games
and social communities
Digital wallets electronic devices that ­allow
an individual to make e-commerce
transactions
DINKS acronym for double income, no kids;
a consumer segment with a lot of disposable income
Disclaimers content at the end of a commer­
cial message that supplies additional infor­
mation the advertiser is required to provide
Discontinuous innovation a new product or service that radically changes the way we live
Discretionary income the money available
to a household over and above what is
­required for necessities
Dispreferred marker effect the tendency
to phrase negative product reviews in
softer terms to avoid looking harsh and
judgmental
Dissociative groups groups with whom an
individual does not wish to be associated
Dissociative norms norms we associate with
a dissociative reference group
Divergent style of thinking that would lead to
opposite effects
Diversity seeking a person’s propensity to
seek out cultural diversity in products,
services, and experiences
DIY (Do It Yourself) the growing interest
among consumers in creating or helping
to create the products they use
Dominance-submission hierarchy a “pecking
order” within a culture that dictates which
members are relatively higher in status
than other members

Customer relationship management (CRM)

software packages that aim to improve a
company’s customer retention level by integrating the front- and back-offices with
access to the firm’s customer records
Cyberbullying when one or more people post
malicious comments online about someone else in a coordinated effort to harass
him or her
Cybermediary intermediary that helps to filter
and organize online market information so
that consumers can identify and evaluate
alternatives more efficiently
Cyberterrorism disruptive attacks on computer systems by malicious agents
Cyborg A person who lives a ­technologically
enhanced existence, and who often possesses special abilities because they are
linked to other parts of a larger system
Dadvertising a new trend that depicts fathers
as wise and benevolent in advertising
Dark design web design industry name for
the practice of creating user interfaces
that are intentionally designed to trick or
deceive the user
Data breaches when criminals hack into an
organization’s computers and gain access
to sensitive information
Data mining the search for patterns in very
large databases using sophisticated and
analytical techniques

Glossary

Doppelgänger brand image a parody of a

brand posted on a website that looks like
the original but is in fact a critique of it
Downward comparison comparing one’s self
to those less fortunate
Downward mobility a movement downward
on the social ladder
Dramaturgical perspective a view of consumer behavior that views people as
­actors who play different roles
Drive the desire to satisfy a biological need to
reduce physiological arousal
Drive theory concept that focuses on biological needs that produce unpleasant states of
arousal
Drunk shopping making purchases while
intoxicated
Dyadic encounters relationships in which
both parties must reach some agreement
about the roles of each participant during
a process of identity negotiation
Dynamically continuous innovation a significant change to an existing product
Early adopters people who are receptive to
new products and adopt them relatively
soon, though they are motivated more by
social acceptance and being in style than
by the desire to try risky new things
Echo Boomers people born between 1986 and
2002, also known as Gen Y and Millennials
Ecology the way members of a culture adapt
to their physical habitat
Economic capital the amount of money a person has at their disposal
Economics of information a perspective that
regards advertising as an important source
of consumer learning
Eco-wakening the growth in awareness of
sustainability that influences consumers’
decisions in the buying process
Ego the system that mediates between the id
and the superego
Ego-defensive function attitudes we form
to protect ourselves either from external
threats or internal feelings
Elaborated codes the ways of expressing and
interpreting meanings that are more complex and depend on a more sophisticated
worldview, which tend to be used by the
middle and upper classes
Elaboration likelihood model (ELM) the
­approach that one of two routes to persuasion (central versus peripheral) will
be followed, depending on the personal
relevance of a message; the route taken
determines the relative importance of the
message contents versus other characteristics, such as source attractiveness
Elaboration a cognitive process that involves
thinking about the meaning of a stimulus

and relating it to other information already
in memory
Elaborative rehearsal a cognitive process that
allows information to move from shortterm memory into long-term memory by
thinking about the meaning of a stimulus
and relating it to other information already
in memory
Elimination-by-aspects rule a rule that
­selects the brand that is the best on the
most ­important attribute, but that imposes
specific cut-offs or “must haves”
Embarrassment an emotion driven by a concern for what others think about us
Embeds tiny figures inserted into magazine
advertising by using high-speed photography or airbrushing; these hidden figures,
usually of a sexual nature, supposedly
­exert strong but unconscious influences
on innocent readers
Embodied cognition the perspective that our
behaviors and observations of what we do
and buy shape our thoughts rather than
vice versa
Embodied cultural capital refers to the
knowledge and skills that we’ve acquired
from our social position and that we demonstrate on an everyday basis
Embodied knowledge we develop and grow
our knowledge through our own actions,
and by witnessing others’ actions
Emergency reserves a type of slack we give
ourselves in our goal pursuit in case we
fail
Emic perspective an approach to studying
(or marketing to) cultures that stresses the
unique aspects of each culture
Emojis small digital icons that people use as
shorthand to express ideas and emotions
in social media
Emotion profile can influence which emotions we think are appropriate to exhibit
or to use in our decision-making
Emotional contagion the spread of emotion across people who receive affective
messages
Emotional oracle effect a finding reported
by researchers that people who trust their
feelings are able to predict future events
better than those who do not
Emotions intense affective reactions, such as
happiness, anger, and fear
Empty self a shift toward a greater focus on
the self as traditional points of reference
such as family and cultural traditions
­recede in importance
Enclothed cognition as a demonstration of the
more general phenomenon of e­ mbodied
cognition, the symbolic meaning of
­clothing changes how people behave

487

Encoding stage the stage of the memory pro-

cess where information enters in a way the
system will recognize
Enculturation the process of learning the
­beliefs and behaviors endorsed by one’s
own culture
Endowed progress effect people are more
motivated to attain a goal when they are
provided with the illusion of a “head start”
even though the actual effort required to
reach the goal does not change
Endowment effect encouraging shoppers to
touch a product encourages them to imagine they own it, and researchers know that
people value things more highly if they
own them
Envy a negative emotion associated with the
desire to reduce the gap between oneself
and someone who is superior on some
dimension
Episodic memories memories that relate to
personally relevant events; this tends to
increase a person’s motivation to retain
these memories
Erogenous zones sexually arousing areas of
the body
E-sports a growing activity that involves
spectators who watch videogamers compete with one another
Ethnic identification the extent to which we
are emotionally attached to our own ethnic
group and to which we find our membership in that group to be a significant part
of our identity
Ethnocentrism the belief that products from
other places are inferior to local versions
Ethnography the study of people in their
­natural habitats for the purpose of documenting ­cultural similarities and differences
Etic perspective an approach to studying (or
marketing to) cultures that stresses commonalities across cultures
Evaluations positive or negative reactions
to events and objects that are not accompanied by high levels of physiological
arousal
Evaluative conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is paired with a
­series of different stimuli that all trigger
the same type of emotional response
Evaluative criteria the dimensions used by
consumers to compare competing product
alternatives
Evoked set those products already in memory
plus those prominent in the retail environment that are actively considered during a
consumer’s choice process
Evolutionary perspective human behavior
through the lens of biological evolution
and natural selection

488

Glossary

Exchange a transaction in which two or more

Fake news hoaxes spread by hackers or other

organizations or people give and receive
something of value
Executive control center the part of the
brain that we use to make important
decisions
Expectancy disconfirmation model states
that we form beliefs about product performance based on prior experience with
the product or communications about the
product that imply a certain level of quality: (1) if something performs the way we
thought it would, we may not think much
about it; (2) if it fails to live up to expectations, this may create negative feelings;
(3) if performance exceeds our initial expectations, we are satisfied
Expectancy theory the perspective that behavior is largely “pulled” by expectations of
achieving desirable outcomes, or positive
incentives, rather than “pushed” from within
Experiential hierarchy of effects an attitude
that is initially formed on the basis of a
raw emotional reaction
Experiment a controlled study that involves
holding constant everything except an independent variable to determine the effect
on a dependent variable
Expert power influence over others as a result
of specialized knowledge about a subject
Expertise special skill or knowledge that is
acquired by training, study, or practice
Explicit attitudes attitudes that consumers are
conscious of
Exposure an initial stage of perception during
which some sensations come within range
of consumers’ sensory receptors
Extended family traditional family structure
in which several generations live together
Extended self the external objects we consider a part of our self-identity
External incentives rewards to motivate people to do a specific activity in order to gain
a reward or avoid a punishment
Extinction the process whereby a learned connection between a stimulus and response
is eroded so that the response is no longer
reinforced
Extraordinary beliefs beliefs that either cannot
be affirmed by science or that even contradict established science
Extrinsic motivation when a person is pushed
by an external force
Extroversion how well a person tolerates
stimulation from people
Eyeball economy the argument that in today’s
media environment marketers compete for
consumers’ attention rather than their money
Fad a short-lived fashion

outsiders that lead many people to question the trustworthiness of even the most
respected traditional and social media
outlets
Family branding an application of stimulus
generalization when a product capitalizes
on the reputation of its manufacturer’s
name
Family financial officer (FFO) the individual
in the family who is in charge of making
financial decisions
Family identity the definition of a household
by family members that it presents to
members and to those outside the family
unit
Family life cycle (FLC) a classification scheme
that segments consumers in terms of
changes in income and family composition and the changes in demands placed
on this income
Fantasy a self-induced shift in consciousness,
often focusing on some unattainable or
improbable goal; sometimes fantasy is a
way of compensating for a lack of external
stimulation or for dissatisfaction with the
actual self
Fashion system those people and organizations involved in creating symbolic meanings and transferring these meanings to
cultural goods
Fashion the process of social diffusion by
which a new style is adopted by some
group(s) of consumers
Fast fashion inexpensive garments that are
manufactured and replaced quickly to
keep up with fast-changing trends to feed
the ever-changing tastes of shoppers
Fast thinking the system of decision-making
that is fast, autonomous, and intuitive
Fatshionistas plus-sized consumers who
are avidly interested in fashion and want
more options from mainstream fashion
marketers
Fattism a preference for thin people and/
or discrimination against overweight
people
Fear appeals an attempt to change attitudes
or behavior through the use of threats or
by highlighting negative consequences of
noncompliance with the request
Fear of Missing Out (FOMO) a popular explanation for the addictive nature of social
networks
Feature creep the tendency of manufacturers
to add layers of complexity to products
that make them harder to understand and
use
Feedback loop a strategy to help a person
regulate his or her behavior by providing

information about his or her actions in real
time, and then offering a chance to change
those actions
Female-to-male earnings ratio is 0.78,
which means that on average a woman
earns 78 cents for every dollar a man
brings home
Fertility rate a rate determined by the number of births per year per 1,000 women of
childbearing age
Field experiment experiments that take place
in the real world
Figure-ground principle the Gestalt principle
whereby one part of a stimulus configuration dominates a situation whereas other
aspects recede into the background
Filter bubble a self-confirming situation when
the broadcast media, websites, and social
media platforms we consult serve up answers based upon what they “think” we
want to see
Financial deprivation the sense that an individual doesn’t have as much money as
their peers
Financial literacy the possession of skills that
allows people to make smart decisions
with their money
Fishbein Model a widely-used perspective
that measures several attributes to determine a person’s overall attitude
Fixed-interval reinforcement after a specified
time period has passed, the first response
an organism makes elicits a reward
Fixed-ratio reinforcement reinforcement
­occurs only after a fixed number of
responses
Flaming a violation of digital etiquette when a
post is written in all capital letters
Flows exchanges of resources, information,
or influence among members of a social
network
Focus group a small group of people that discuss a topic or product, either in person
or online
Follower brands brands that enter a market
after another brand has already tested the
waters
Food desert a geographic area where ­residents
are unable to obtain adequate food and other
products to maintain a healthy existence
Food insecurity having limited access to a
healthy diet on a daily basis
Foot-in-the-door technique approach based
on the observation that a consumer is
more likely to comply with a request if he
or she has first agreed to comply with a
smaller request
Fortress brands brands that c­ onsumers
closely link to rituals; this makes it
­unlikely they will be replaced

Glossary

489

Framing a concept in behavioral econom-

Gender roles conforming to a culture’s ex-

Green marketing a marketing strategy involv-

ics that the way a problem is posed to
­consumers (especially in terms of gains
or losses) influences the decision they
make
Frequency marketing a marketing technique
that reinforces regular purchasers by giving them prizes with values that increase
along with the amount purchased
Fresh start mindset the belief that people can
change their own destiny and get a fresh
start, get a new beginning, and chart a new
course in life, regardless of their past or
present circumstances
Frugalistas fashion-conscious consumers
who pride themselves on achieving style
on a limited budget
Frugality a personality trait that describes
people who prioritize ways to save money
Functional theory of attitudes states that
attitudes exist because they serve some
function for the person; consumers who
expect that they will need to deal with
similar situations at a future time will be
more likely to start to form an attitude in
anticipation
Functionally illiterate a person whose reading
skills are not adequate to carry out everyday tasks
Game platform an online interface that allows
users to engage in games and other social
activities with members of a community
Gamification the process of injecting gaming
elements into tasks that might otherwise
be boring or routine
Garbology a technique that involves sifting
through trash to determine what residents
actually consume
Gartner Hype Cycle a framework to help analysts chart the progress of a technological
innovation
Gastrophysics the science of eating that
considers how physics, chemistry, and
psychology influence how we experience
what we put in our mouths
Gemba Japanese term for the one true source
of information
Gen X people born between 1965 and 1985
Gen Y people born between 1986 and
2002; also known as Echo Boomers and
Millennials
Gen Z people born between the late 1990s to
early 2000s
Gender benders people who don’t endorse
traditional sex roles
Gender binarism the classification of gender into two distinct, opposite, and
­disconnected forms of masculine and
feminine
Gender identity the elements of self-concept
that reflect sex roles

pectations about how their gender should
act, dress, or speak
Gender socialization elements of culture,
including advertising, that provide guidelines regarding “appropriate” sex role
­behavior for members
Gender-bending product a traditionally
sex-typed item adapted to the opposite
gender
General Data Protection Regulation a policy
instituted by the European Union which
requires websites to provide visible notice
regarding private information they collect
through cookies and to give consumers the
choice to disagree to such tracking
Genetic data personal data relating to inherited or acquired genetic characteristics
acquired through DNA analysis
Genre in the context of social gaming, the
method of play such as simulation, action,
and role-playing
Geodemography techniques that combine
consumer demographic information with
geographic consumption patterns to permit precise targeting of consumers with
specific characteristics
Gestalt meaning derived from the totality of
a set of stimuli, rather than from any individual stimulus
Gestation the first stage of the gift-giving
ritual where the giver procures an item to
mark the event
Gift-giving ritual the events involved in the
selection, presentation, acceptance, and
interpretation of a gift
GIGO “garbage in, garbage out”; a saying
that reminds us any research results will
be meaningless if the data that we collect
are not valid
Glamping a new trend that combines camping
with luxury travel
Global consumer culture a culture in which
people around the world are united
through their common devotion to brand
name consumer goods, movie stars, celebrities, and leisure activities
Goal a consumer’s desired end state
Golden triangle the portion of a website that
a person’s eyes naturally gravitate to first,
which makes it more likely that search results located in that area will be seen
Google effect (or digital amnesia) the tendency for people to rely too heavily on
the ability to readily access content online
and, as a result, be less likely to remember
certain details
Great Resignation when more than 30 ­million
Americans quit their jobs in the years after
the pandemic to rethink what they want
to do

ing an emphasis on protecting the natural
environment
Greenwashing when companies make false
or exaggerated claims about how environmentally friendly their products are
Greenwashing when companies make false
or exaggerated claims about how environmentally friendly their products are
Grit a combination of passion and long-term
perseverance toward one’s goals
Grooming rituals sequences of behaviors that
aid in the transition from the private self to
the public self or back again
Group dieting online forums devoted to
­encouraging people to go on crash diets
Guerrilla marketing unconventional marketing campaigns that place unusual messages in places where consumers don’t
expect to encounter advertising
Guilt an individual’s unpleasant emotional
state associated with possible objections
to his or her actions, inaction, circumstances, or intentions
Gyges effect the anonymity of the internet
can cause otherwise moral people to experience a loss of inhibition and post things
they would never say to a person in the
real world
Habitual decision making choices made with
little or no conscious effort
Habitus ways in which we classify experiences as a result of our socialization
processes
Halal food and other products whose usage is
permissible according to the laws of Islam
Halo effect a phenomenon that occurs when
people react to other, similar stimuli in
much the same way they respond to the
original stimulus
Happiness a mental state of well-being characterized by positive emotions
Happiness economy an economy based upon
well-being rather than material wealth
Haptic system the use of technology to act as
a form of touch communication between
an inanimate object and a human
Haptic touch-related sensations
Haul videos a genre of YouTube videos
that consists of a shopper who describes
in ­d etail apparel he or she has just
purchased
Health disparities systematic differences in
health as a function of socioeconomic
status, with higher rates of disease and
greater mortality amongst individuals
with the lowest levels of education and
income
Heavy users a name companies use to identify their customers who consume their
products in large volumes

490

Glossary

Hedonic consumption the multisensory, fan-

Homogamy the tendency for individuals to

tasy, and emotional aspects of consumers’
interactions with products
Hedonic escalation the increased liking of
each additional bite of a palatable food
Hedonic treadmill idea that an individual’s
level of happiness, after rising or falling in
response to positive or negative life events,
ultimately tends to move back toward
where it was prior to these experiences
Heuristics the mental rules of thumb that lead
to a speedy decision
Hierarchy of effects a fixed sequence of steps
that occurs during attitude formation; this
sequence varies depending on such factors
as the consumer’s level of involvement
with the attitude object
Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow’s) a model of
motivation that identifies ascending levels
of important needs
High tech new technologies such as augmented reality, virtual reality, and beacons, that allow retailers to turn the
shopping experience into an adventure
High-context culture group members tend to
be close-knit and are likely to infer meanings that go beyond the spoken word
High-involvement hierarchy the sequence
of attitude formation when a person
­approaches a product decision as a
­problem-solving process
Highlighting effect the order in which consumers learn about brands determines
the strength of association between these
brands and their attributes
Hispanic people whose geographic and/or
cultural origins are in Latin American
countries
Hoarding unsystematic acquisition of objects
(in contrast to collecting)
Hofstede Dimensions of National Culture a
measurement system that scores a country
in terms of its standing on six dimensions
so that users can compare and contrast
values
Home shopping party a selling format
where a company representative makes
a sales presentation to a group of people
who gather at the home of a friend or
acquaintance
Homeostasis a stable state of physiological
arousal
Homo economicus the perspective on h
­ uman
behavior that views people as cool,
­detached decision makers who carefully
evaluate the pros and cons before they
choose an option
Homo ludens the perspective on human behavior that recognizes the emotional and
more light-hearted aspects of consumption
that result in joy, fantasy, and creativity

marry others similar to themselves
Homophily the degree to which a pair of indi­
viduals is similar in terms of education,
social status, and beliefs
Horizontal mobility when an individual
moves from one position to another that’s
roughly equivalent in social status
Horizontal revolution a fundamental change
in how consumers communicate via ­social
media, whereby information doesn’t just
flow from big companies and governments; information flows across people
as well
Host culture a new culture to which a person
must acculturate
Household according to the U.S. Census
­Bureau, an occupied housing unit
Hub users social media users who have a
higher ratio of followers relative to people
they are following
Humor appeals a marketing message that
­relies upon humor to sell a product
Hybrid ad a marketing communication that
explicitly references the context (e.g., TV
show) in which it appears
Hybrid products items that feature characteristics from two different product domains
Hyperchoice the condition of having too
many choices, which can lead consumers
to make poor decisions
Hyperreality the becoming real of what is initially simulation or “hype”
Icon a sign that resembles the product in
some way
Id the Freudian system oriented toward
­immediate gratification
Ideal of beauty a model, or exemplar, of
­appearance valued by a culture
Ideal self a person’s conception of how he or
she would like to be
Identification the process of forming an atti­
tude to conform to another person’s or
group’s expectations
Identity a component of self-concept
Identity mindsets activated when an identity
cue, such as the language an ad uses or the
type of family that a commercial portrays,
is made salient, or noticeable
Identity negotiation the process that occurs
when both participants in an encounter
reach agreement about the role of each
person
Identity projects consumers who actively
­assemble consumption practices, ­products,
and brands to express themselves
Identity synergy the fact that the p
­ ersonal
and social selves can be activated independently raises the possibility that they
may combine synergistically to motivate
pro-group behavior

Identity theft the unauthorized use of personal

information
Ideology the mental characteristics of a peo-

ple and the way they relate to their environment and social groups
IFC (Incidental Food Consumption) people
who simply eat the same things; like, trust,
and cooperate with one another more than
those who don’t
IKEA effect the tendency for consumers to
like products more when they are involved
in building or assembling them
Illuminance the amount of light we perceive
on an object; for instance, brighter lighting tends to make people more alert,
which in turn ­encourages healthier food
choices inferences
Imbibing idiot bias the assumption that
­p eople who drink alcohol are less
intelligent
Implemental mindset focusing on how to
reach an outcome
Implementation intentions “if-then” plans
that may dictate how much weight we
give to different kinds of information
(emotional or cognitive), a timetable to
carry out a decision, or even how we will
deal with disruptive influences that might
interfere with our plans
Implicit attitudes attitudes that occur ­outside
of our awareness but still have a big
­impact on what we think, say, or do
Impression management our efforts to
“­manage” what others think of us by strategically choosing clothing and other cues
that will put us in a good light
Impulse buying a process that occurs when
the consumer experiences a sudden urge
to purchase an item that he or she cannot
resist
Incentive a reward offered to respondents
who participate in a survey or other kind
of research project
Incidental brand exposure motives that can
lurk beneath the surface and cues in the
environment that can activate a goal even
when we don’t know it
Incidental learning unintentional acquisition
of knowledge
Income inequality the extent to which resources are distributed unevenly within a
population
Incremental theorists people who view things
as more flexible and dynamic
Independent self thinking of oneself in terms
of unique personal traits and attributes and
de-emphasizing others
Independent variable in an experiment, a factor that is manipulated to determine if different levels result in a change in one or
more dependent variables

Glossary

491

Index a sign that is connected to a product

Intelligent agents software programs that

Knowledge bias the effectiveness of a source

because they share some property
Individualism the degree to which people’s
self-image is defined in terms of “I”
Indulgence versus restraint the extent to
which a society allows relatively free
­gratification of basic and natural ­human
drives related to enjoying life and
having fun
Indulgent parents lenient, compliant, accepting, affirmative, and nonpunitive in dealings with their children
Inertia the process whereby purchase decisions are made out of habit because the
consumer lacks the motivation to consider
alternatives
Influence impressions brand-specific mentions on social media posts
Influence network a two-way dialogue
­between participants in a social network
and opinion leaders
Influencer marketing a form of social m
­ edia
marketing involving endorsements and
product placement from influencers,
­people, and organizations who have a purported expert level of knowledge or social
influence in their field
Influencer resources follower networks,
­positioning, content, and follower trust
Infodemic the glut of messages on the internet that may contain a mixture of accurate
and erroneous information, causing confusion and unhealthy risk-taking
Information cascades an online communication process where one piece
of information triggers a sequence of
interactions
Information power influence over others because of the possession of inside
knowledge
Information search the process by which the
consumer surveys his or her environment
for appropriate data to make a reasonable
decision
In-group bias when consumers prefer brands
that satisfy their desire to connect with
what feels like “home”
Innovation a product or style that is perceived
as new by consumers
Innovators people who are always on the
lookout for novel developments and will
be the first to try a new offering
Instrumental conditioning also known as
operant conditioning, occurs as the individual learns to perform behaviors that
produce positive outcomes and avoid
those that yield negative outcomes
Instrumental values goals endorsed because
they are needed to achieve desired end
states or terminal values

learn from past user behavior to recommend new purchases
Interdependent self defining one’s identities
largely by their relationships with others
Interference one way that forgetting occurs;
as additional information is learned, it displaces the previous information
Internalization deep-seated attitudes become
part of our value system
Internet addiction compulsive overuse of
digital experiences to the detriment of the
individual
Internet of Things (IoT) the growing network
of interconnected devices embedded in
objects that speak to one another
Internet trolls people who experience a loss
of inhibition and post things they would
never say to a person in the real world
Interpretant the meaning derived from a sign
or symbol
Interpretation the process whereby meanings
are assigned to stimuli
Interpretivism as opposed to the ­dominant
positivist perspective on consumer
­behavior, instead stresses the importance
of symbolic, subjective experience and
the idea that meaning is in the mind of the
person rather than existing “out there” in
the objective world
Intersectionality describes the ways in which
competing identities combine to form
unique experiences
Interview a form of research that involves
one-on-one questioning
Intrinsic motivation when a person pulls from
their own inherent drives
Invidious distinction the use of status symbols to inspire envy in others through display of wealth or power
Involvement the motivation to process
­product-related information
Joint vs. separate refers to whether products
are presented as a group or independently
of one another
JOMO (joy of missing out) the feeling of bliss
and joy of not having to engage in social
events
Juggling lifestyle working mothers’ attempts to compromise between conflicting cultural ideals of motherhood and
professionalism
Just noticeable difference (JND) the minimum difference between two stimuli that
can be detected by a perceiver
Kansei engineering a Japanese philosophy
that translates customers’ feelings into design elements
Kin-network system the rituals intended to
maintain ties among family members,
both immediate and extended

decreases because we question his or her
knowledge about the topic
Knowledge function the process of forming
an attitude to provide order, structure, or
meaning
Knowledge structure organized system of
concepts relating to brands, stores, and
other concepts
Laddering a technique for uncovering consumers’ associations between specific attributes and general values
Laggards consumers who are exceptionally
slow to adopt innovations
Late adopters the majority of consumers
who are moderately receptive to adopting
innovations
Latent vulnerability the empowerment consumers feel when they realize that this
enchanting world is only possible because of deceptive and invasive practices
that create material and psychological
dependence
Lateral cycling a process in which alreadypurchased objects are sold to others or
exchanged for other items
Leaderboards an element of game design
that provides information about all participants’ progress in the game
Learning a relatively permanent change in a
behavior caused by experience
Legitimate power influence over others due
to a position conferred by a society or
organization
Leisure class wealthy people for whom work
is a taboo
Lexicographic rule a simple rule that selects
the brand that is the best on the most important attribute
Licensing popular marketing strategy that
pays for the right to link a product or service to the name of a well-known brand
or designer
Life course model model that accounts for
life event experiences that create physical, social, and emotional demands and
circumstances to which people must
adapt
Lifelog tiny cameras that allow us to create
a record of every event we experience
throughout the day
Lifestyle a pattern of consumption that reflects a person’s choices of how to spend
his or her time and money
Lifestyle brand a brand that attempts to embody the values, aspirations, interests, attitudes, or opinions of a group or a culture
for marketing purposes
Lifestyle marketing perspective strategy
based on the recognition that people
sort themselves into groups on the basis

492

Glossary

of the things they like to do, how they
like to spend their leisure time, and how
they choose to spend their disposable
income
Lifestyle segmentation typologies research
projects that cluster a large group of
consumers into a set of distinct lifestyle
groups
Lifestyle-based depletion a feeling that one
cannot keep up with the responsibilities
and expectations placed upon them
Liquid consumption ephemeral, access based,
and dematerialized use of products
List of Values (LOV) scale identifies consumer
segments based on the values members
endorse and relates each value to differences in consumption behaviors
Living off the grid an extreme aspect of the
simplification movement that includes
living without access to creature comforts
like electricity and plumbing
Locational privacy the extent to which a
person’s activities and movements in the
physical world are tracked by their devices such as smartphones
Locavore a lifestyle that emphasizes the
purchase of locally produced meat and
vegetables
LOHAS an acronym for “lifestyles of health
and sustainability”; a consumer segment
that worries about the environment, wants
products to be produced in a sustainable
way, and spends money to advance what
they see as their personal development
and potential
Long tail states that we no longer need to rely
solely on big hits (such as blockbuster
movies or best-selling books) to find
profits; instead, companies can also make
money if they sell small amounts of items
that only a few people want—if they sell
enough different items
Long-term memory (LTM) the system that allows us to retain information for a long
period of time
Long-term orientation values associated
with long-term orientation are thrift and
perseverance
Look-alike packaging package designs that
mimic the shapes and colors of wellknown brands
Looking-glass self the process of imagining the reaction of others toward
oneself
Loss aversion the tendency for people to hate
losing things more than they like getting
things
Lovemark a passionate commitment to a
brand
Low-context culture in contrast to high-­
context cultures that have strong oral

traditions and that are more sensitive to
nuance, low-context cultures are more
literal
Low-involvement hierarchy of effects the
process of attitude formation for products or services that carry little risk or
self-identity
Lurkers passive members of an online
community who do not contribute to
interactions
M2M (machine-to-machine communication)

artificial intelligence (AI) applications that
get better over time via machine learning
Machine learning a method of data analysis that allows a system to learn over
time by analyzing patterns from prior
experiences
Maladaptive consumption substance-related
addictions, like alcohol, tobacco, or opioids, as well as behavioral problems like
gambling, overeating, or overusing technology or social media
Market access the extent to which a consumer has the ability to find and purchase
goods and services
Market beliefs common assumptions about
relationships between product quality and
other factors such as price
Market maven a person who often serves as a
source of information about marketplace
activities
Market segmentation strategies targeting a
brand only to specific groups of consumers who share well-defined and relevant
characteristics
Market tests relatively small-scale product
launches or simulations to determine if a
larger rollout is likely to be successful
Marketplace sentiments consumers’
feelings about companies or market
practices
Martyrdom effect the tendency for people
to donate more to a cause if they also
have to sacrifice something or experience
discomfort
Masculinism study devoted to the male image
and the cultural meanings of masculinity
Masculinity a set of attributes, behaviors, and
roles associated with men and boys
Mass class a term analysts use to describe
the millions of global consumers who now
enjoy a level of purchasing power that’s
sufficient to let them afford many highquality products
Mass connectors highly influential members
of social media networks
Mass customization the personalization of
products and services for individual customers at a mass-production price
Material accumulation the instinct to earn
more than we can possibly consume

Material parenting a style of raising children

that involves giving and taking away of
possessions to shape behavior
Materialism the importance consumers attach
to worldly possessions
Materiality the visual texture and reactance of
the exterior surface of an object
Mature market countries that have the most
advanced economies and capital markets
Maturity refer to consumers who reject mass
luxury brands, preferring instead inconspicuous luxury products
Maximizing solution the extensive cognitive
decision strategies we use when we want
to identify the best possible choice
Meaning transfer process when consumers
bring brands into their lifestyles
Means–end chain model assumes that people
link specific product attributes (indirectly)
to terminal values such as freedom or
safety
Media literacy a consumer’s ability to access, analyze, evaluate, and communicate
information
Media multiplexity in a social media context,
when flows of communication go in many
directions at any point in time and often
on multiple platforms
Media snacker consumers who visit media venues about 27 times per nonworking hour—the equivalent of more than
13 times during a standard half-hour TV
show
Medical tourism a rapidly growing sector
of the global economy that encourages
consumers to travel to other countries for
surgical procedures that might be unavailable, more dangerous, or more expensive
where they live
Medication adherence the extent to which
people fill and actually take prescribed
medicines
Megachurches very large churches that
serve between 2,000 and 20,000
congregants
Megacity a metropolitan area with a total
population of more than 10 million
people
Megaphone effect the ability of individual
bloggers to share their opinions about
products with large numbers of online
followers
Membership reference group ordinary people whose consumption activities provide
informational social influence
Meme an idea or product that enters the consciousness of people over time
Meme theory a perspective that uses a
medical metaphor to explain how an idea
or product enters the consciousness of
people over time, much like a virus

Glossary

Memory a process of acquiring information

and storing it over time so that it will be
available when needed
Memory efficacy the belief that we will be
able to remember things that we are experiencing right now
Memory markers the idea that products can
serve as reminders of personal or collective experiences
Memory preservation when photos and memorabilia help make otherwise intangible
experiences easier to remember
Mental accounting principle that states that
decisions are influenced by the way a
problem is posed
Mental budgets consumers’ preset expectations of how much they intend to spend
on a shopping trip
Mental computation strategies mentally
tracking spending
Mental imagery when people are prompted to
use their imagination while they process
an ad
Mere exposure phenomenon the tendency
to like persons or things if we see them
more often
Mere urgency effect the tendency to pursue
urgency over importance
Mere virtual presence occurs when social
media reveals demographic information
about a brand’s online supporters
Message appeals informative or emotional
cues used in promotional messages to
persuade consumers’ feelings towards the
advertised service or product
Message involvement properties of the
medium and message content that
influence a person’s degree of engagement
with the message
Metacognitive inference when consumers
perceive themselves to be relatively distracted by a background advertisement,
they infer that the advertised brand must
be interesting
Metamotivation people’s understanding of
their own personal motivational states and
the best ways to motivate themselves
Metaphor the use of an explicit comparison
(“A” is “B”) between a product and some
other person, place, or thing
Metaverse a virtual-reality space in which users can interact with a computer-generated
environment and other users
Milieu in the context of social gaming, the visual nature of the game such as science
fiction, fantasy, horror, and retro
Millennials people born between 1986 and
2002; also known as Echo Boomers and
Gen Y
Mindfulness a movement related to the
practice of meditation that encourages

followers to slow down, tune out distractions, and focus on what they feel at the
moment
Minimal group paradigm the common finding
that even when people are arbitrarily assigned to a group they tend to favor those
who are placed in the same group
Minimalism practicing a simple lifestyle, with
an emphasis on getting rid of things you
don’t need
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
(MMPI) a widely used instrument to iden-

tify personality traits
Mixed emotions affect with positive and neg-

ative components
MMORPGs (massive multiplayer online
role-playing games) online role-playing

games that typically involve thousands
of players
Mobile shopping apps smartphone applications that retailers provide to guide shoppers in stores and malls
Mode in the context of social gaming, the
way players experience the game world
Modeling imitating the behavior of others
Moderator a trained interviewer
Modest fashion trend in women of wearing
less skin-revealing clothes, especially in a
way that satisfies their spiritual and stylistic requirements for reasons of faith,
religion, or personal preference
Modified rebuy in the context of the buy-class
framework, a task that requires a modest
amount of information search and evaluation, often focused on identifying the appropriate vendor
Mood congruency the idea that our judgments tend to be shaped by our moods
Moods temporary positive or negative affective states accompanied by moderate levels of arousal
Moral disgust the feeling you get when hearing someone has broken social norms or
moral codes
Morbid ink a tattoo that incorporates DNA of
a loved one into the ink
More a custom with a strong moral overtone
Morning morality effect people are more
likely to cheat, lie, or even commit fraud
in the afternoon than in the morning
Motivated forgetting trying to forget any
message that threatens our social identity
Motivation the processes that drive us to behave as we do
Motivational research a qualitative research
approach, based on psychoanalytic
(Freudian) interpretations, with a heavy
emphasis on unconscious motives for
consumption
Movements a tendency or trend with a group
of people that stand for the same cause

493

M-PESA a mobile-phone-based money trans-

fer service that is popular in parts of Africa
Multiattribute attitude models those models

that assume a consumer’s attitude (evaluation) of an attitude object depends on the
beliefs he or she has about several or many
attributes of the object; the use of a multiattribute model implies that an attitude toward a product or brand can be predicted
by identifying these specific beliefs and
combining them to derive a measure of
the consumer’s overall attitude
Multiple-intelligence theory a perspective that
argues for other types of intelligence, such
as athletic prowess or musical ability, beyond the traditional math and verbal skills
psychologists use to measure IQ
Multiscreening using another media screen
while watching television
Multitasking processing information from
more than one medium at a time
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator a widely-used
personality test based upon the work of
Carl Jung
Myth a story containing symbolic elements
that expresses the shared emotions and
ideals of a culture
Narrative product information in the form of
a story
Narrative transportation the result of a highly
involving message where people become
immersed in the storyline
Narrativity the extent to which a message tells
a story
National character the belief that a country
has a distinctive set of behavior and personality characteristics
Native advertising a new advertising strategy
that focuses on digital messages designed
to blend into the editorial content of the
publications in which they appear
Natural user interface a philosophy of computer design that incorporates habitual human movements
Near field communication (NFC) technology
that allows devices near to one another
(like a smartphone and an NFC terminal in
a store) to establish radio communication
Near-field communication (NFC) technology
that allows devices near to one another to
establish radio communication
Need a basic biological motive
Need for perfection an overwhelming fear of
making mistakes
Need for touch (NFT) the common sense notion that we’re surer about what we perceive when we can touch it
Negative reinforcement the process whereby
the environment weakens responses to
stimuli so that inappropriate behavior is
avoided

494

Glossary

Negative state relief the view that helping

others is a way to resolve one’s own negative moods
Negative word-of-mouth consumers passing
on negative experiences relating to products or services to other potential customers to influence others’ choices
Negativity spiral a process through which
negative messages inspire others to add to
the conversation
Neglecting parents style of parenting where
parents don’t respond to their child’s
needs or desires beyond the basics of
food, clothing, and shelter
Netnography a research technique that analyzes posts on social media platforms to
determine consumers’ thoughts and feelings about a product
Network effect each person who uses a product or service benefits as more people
participate
Neuroendocrinological science the study of
the potential role of hormonal influences
on preferences for different kinds of products or people
Neuromarketing researchers adapt techniques
that neuroscientists use to study psychophysiological reactions to brands that occur in the brain or elsewhere in the body
Neuromarketing the use of brain-scanning instruments to identify changes in the brain
when subjects are exposed to marketing
stimuli
Neuroticism how well a person copes with
stress
New task in the context of the buyclass
framework, a task that requires a great degree of effort and information search
NFTs (non-fungible tokens) a digital certificate of ownership with unique identification codes and metadata that distinguish
them from one another
Nodes members of a social network connected to others via one or more shared
relationships
Noncompensatory rules decision shortcuts a
consumer makes when a product with a
low standing on one attribute cannot make
up for this position by being better on another attribute
Nonconscious goals goals that we are not
aware of
Normative influence the process in which a
reference group helps to set and enforce
fundamental standards of conduct
Normative respectability displaying consumption choices that associate them with
desired social identities that are perceived
as “respectable”
Normcore a trend among young urbanites to
forsake hipster styles like skinny jeans,

wallet chains, and flannel shirts for bland,
suburban attire
Norms the informal rules that govern what is
right or wrong
Nostalgia a bittersweet emotion; the past is
viewed with sadness and longing; many
“classic” products appeal to consumers’
memories of their younger days
Nouveau riches affluent consumers whose
relatively recent acquisition of income
rather than ancestry or breeding accounts
for their enhanced social mobility
Nuclear family a contemporary living arrange­
ment composed of a married couple and
their children
Nudge a subtle change in a person’s
­environment that results in a change in
behavior
Object in semiotic terms, the product that is
the focus of a message
Objectification when we attribute sacred
qualities to mundane items
Observability in the context of diffusion of
innovations, the extent to which a new
product is something that is easy for consumers to see in use to motivate others to
try it
Observational learning the process in which
people learn by watching the actions of
others and noting the reinforcements they
receive for their behaviors
Occupational prestige a system in which we
define people to a great extent by what
they do for a living
One Percenter a label applied by the Occupy
Wall Street Movement to people who earn
the top 1 percent of income
Online community the collective participation
of members who together build and maintain a digital social network
Online gated communities digital social
networks that selectively allow access to
people who possess criteria such as wealth
or physical attractiveness
Open rates the percentage of people who
open an email message from a marketer
Open-ended questions survey items that ask
respondents to write their own responses
to questions rather than choosing numbers
on a scale
Openness to experience the degree to which
a person is open to new ways of doing
things
Opinion leader person who is knowledgeable about products and who frequently
is able to influence others’ attitudes
or behaviors with regard to a product
category
Opportunity costs alternative ways to use
one’s resources that lead people to see
the alternative option(s) as more valuable,

relative to the current option they are
considering
Oppositional brand choice a tactic in a close
relationship where a partner who feels he
or she has less power deliberately chooses
brands they know their partner doesn’t
like
Oppositional respectability displaying consumption choices that enhance or elevate
their blackness
Optimal distinctiveness theory the experience of tension between a need for assimilation (to fit in with others) and a need for
differentiation (to be distinct from others)
Organizational buyers people who purchase
goods and services on behalf of companies for use in the process of manufacturing, distribution, or resale
Outcome-oriented mindset focusing on what
an outcome will look like
P2P commerce the notion of doing business
with other consumers rather than with
companies
P2P payment systems part of the sharing
economy that allows consumers to give
and receive payments to and from one another for products and services
Paid influencer programs initiatives that attempt to start online conversations about
brands by hiring bloggers to write about
them
Pantry check a form of research that involves
the cataloging of the products in respondents’ kitchens
Paradigm a widely accepted view or model
of phenomena being studied; the perspective that regards people as rational
information processors is currently the
dominant paradigm, although this approach is now being challenged by a new
wave of research that emphasizes the
frequently subjective nature of consumer
decision-making
Paradox of choice the idea that consumers
tend to want more options, but too many
options can cause stress and problematic
decision-making
Paradox of fashion a brand has cachet because only a select group of people own
it; as more consumers outside of this inner
circle start to adopt it, it is no longer exclusive and its original meaning is insert,
the item is a victim of its own success
Paradox of low involvement when we don’t
care as much about a product, the way
it’s presented (e.g., who endorses it or
the visuals that go with it) increases in
importance
Paradoxical social dynamics contradictory
aspects in how members relate to each
other

Glossary

495

Parental yielding the process that occurs

PESTLE framework Political, Economic,

Postpurchase evaluation the final stage of

when a parental decision maker is influenced by a child’s product request
Parody display deliberately avoiding status
symbols; to seek status by mocking it
Pastiche mixture of images
Patriarchal masculinity viewpoint that advocates the superiority of masculinity over
femininity, or the authority of men over
women
Perceived age how old a person feels as
­compared to his or her true chronological
age
Perceived risk belief that a product has potentially negative consequences
Perceived typicality the extent to which an
influencer conforms (or fails to conform)
with the stereotypical consumer of the
brand
Perception the process by which stimuli are
selected, organized, and interpreted
Perceptual defense the tendency for consumers to avoid processing stimuli that are
threatening to them
Perceptual selection process by which people attend to only a small portion of the
stimuli to which they are exposed
Perceptual vigilance the tendency for consumers to be more aware of stimuli that
relate to their current needs
Peripheral route the tendancy to focus on the
more superficial components of a brand,
such as its packaging, who endorses it,
or the emotions it arouses in us that (we
believe) will tell us quickly whether it’s
something that we want
Permission marketing popular strategy based
on the idea that a marketer will be much
more successful in persuading consumers
who have agreed to let them try
Personality a person’s unique psychological
makeup, which consistently influences
the way the person responds to his or her
environment
Personality traits identifiable characteristics
that define a person
Personalization when retailers can personalize the messages shoppers receive at the
time of purchase
Persuasion an active attempt to change
attitudes
Persuasion knowledge model the theory
that consumers develop knowledge
about persuasion attempts and then call
upon this experience whenever they believe someone is trying to change their
mind
Persuasive design the use of “nudges” by an
organization to modify behavior

­ ocial, Technological, Legal, and EnviS
ronmental issues
Phantom Vibration Syndrome the tendency to
habitually reach for your cell phone because you feel it vibrating, even if it is off
or you are not even wearing it at the time
Phishing internet scams where people receive
fraudulent emails that ask them to supply
account information
Pioneering brand the first brand to enter a
market
Pitch-size effect the idea that pitch helps consumers make inferences about the size of
a product: lower pitch in voice or music
leads consumers to infer a larger product
size
Placebo effect the tendency for your brain to
convince you that a fake treatment is the
real thing
Pleasure principle the belief that behavior is
guided by the desire to maximize pleasure
and avoid pain
Plinking™ act of embedding a product or service link in a video
Plutonomy an economy that a small number
of rich people control
Point-of-purchase (POP) stimuli the promotional materials that are deployed in
stores or other outlets to influence consumers’ decisions at the time products are
purchased
Political orientation an orientation that characterizes the thinking of a group or nation
Popular culture the music, movies, sports,
books, celebrities, and other forms of entertainment consumed by the mass market
Pop-up stores temporary locations that allow
a company to test new brands without a
huge financial commitment
Positioning strategy an organization’s use of
elements in the marketing mix to influence the consumer’s interpretation of a
product’s meaning vis-à-vis competitors
Positive or negative frames a “positive”
frame is when a consumer obtains a gain
or avoids a loss by purchasing a certain
product, whereas a “negative” frame is
when they forego a gain or experience a
loss by not purchasing a particular product
Positive reinforcement the process whereby
rewards provided by the environment
strengthen responses to stimuli and appropriate behavior is learned
Positivism a research perspective that relies
on principles of the “scientific method”
and assumes that a single reality exists;
events in the world can be objectively
measured; and the causes of behavior can be identified, manipulated, and
predicted

consumer decision-making when we experience the product or service we selected
Power distance belief those who have a
higher acceptance of and tendency to endorse power or status disparities
Power posing standing in a confident way in
order to increase self-confidence
Power users opinion leaders in online networks
Practice diffusion when practices move from
one context to another, acquiring new
“carriers,” taking on new meanings, and
influencing other practice
Pre-attentive processing the ­processing of
information and development of positive
brand responses that occurs nonconsciously
Prediction market an approach based on the
idea that groups of people with knowledge
about an industry are jointly better predictors of the future than are any individuals
Prescriptive norms our beliefs about what
others think we should do
Presentation the second stage of the giftgiving ritual when the gift is presented to
the recipient
Prestige–exclusivity effect high prices create
high demand
Pretailer an e-commerce site that provides exclusive styles by prodding manufacturers
to produce runway pieces they wouldn’t
otherwise make to sell in stores
Prevention motivation a focus on responsibilities and duties as it prompts people to
think about avoiding something negative
in order to improve themselves
Primary data information that is collected by
the researcher for a specific purpose
Priming properties of a stimulus that evoke a
schema that leads us to compare the stimulus to other similar ones we encountered
in the past
Principle of cognitive consistency the belief
that consumers value harmony among
their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors and
that they are motivated to maintain uniformity among these elements
Principle of Least Interest the person who is
least committed to staying in a relationship has the most power
PRIZM (Potential Rating Index by Zip
­Market) clustering technique that classi-

fies every zip code in the United States
into one of 66 categories, ranging from the
most affluent “Blue-Blood Estates” to the
least well off “Public Assistance”
Problem recognition the process that occurs
whenever the consumer sees a significant
difference between his or her current state
of affairs and some desired or ideal state;
this recognition initiates the decisionmaking process

496

Glossary

Product complementarity the view that prod-

Punishment the learning that occurs when

ucts in different functional categories have
symbolic meanings that are related to one
another
Product curators influencers who select and
recommend merchandise on behalf of
manufacturers or stores
Product disposal choices people make regarding how to get rid of items once they
no longer are of value to them
Product involvement a consumer’s level of
interest in a particular item
Product line extension new products based
upon an established brand
Product placement the process of obtaining
exposure for a product by arranging for
it to be inserted into a movie, television
show, or some other medium
Profane consumption the process of consuming objects and events that are ordinary or
of the everyday world
Progressive learning model the perspective
that people gradually learn a new culture as they increasingly come in contact
with it; consumers assimilate into a new
culture, mixing practices from their old
and new environments to create a hybrid
culture
Projective techniques a form of research that
involves analyzing respondents’ oral or
written reactions to ambiguous images
Promotion motivation a focus on hopes and
aspirations as it prompts people to improve themselves
Prosocial behaviors voluntary behavior intended to benefit others
Prospect theory a descriptive model of how
people make choices
Provenance the origin of a product and a
preference for “authentic” items
Proxies indicators that give an approximate
indication of one’s position
Psychographics the use of psychological, sociological, and anthropological factors to
construct market segments
Psychological ownership consumers feel a
greater level of attachment to a product
after touching it, thus boosting what they
are willing to pay for it
Psychological time a person’s subjective
evaluation of the passage of time, which
may not correspond closely to the actual
time elapsed
Psychophysics the science that focuses on
how the physical environment is integrated into the consumer’s subjective
experience
Public self-consciousness a personality trait
that makes a person very aware of how he
or she appears to others

a response is followed by unpleasant
events
Purchase momentum initial impulses to buy
to satisfy our needs increase the likelihood
that we will buy even more
Pure play businesses that only operate online
Purpose-driven consumers people who
choose products and brands based on how
well they align with their values
Quantified self (QS) movement the self-­
recording of personal data
Queuing theory the mathematical study of
waiting lines
Racial stigma ethnic inequalities
Rational perspective the assumption that
people calmly and carefully integrate as
much information as possible with what
they already know about a product, painstakingly weigh the pluses and minuses of
each alternative, and arrive at a satisfactory decision
Reader-response theory an approach to understanding literature that focuses on the
role of the reader in interpreting a story
rather than just relying upon the author’s
version
Reality engineering the process whereby elements of popular culture are appropriated
by marketers and become integrated into
marketing strategies
Reality principle principle that the ego seeks
ways that will be acceptable to society to
gratify the id
Real-time bidding an electronic trading system that sells ad space on the web pages
people click on at the moment they visit
them
Recall the process of retrieving information
from memory; in advertising research, the
extent to which consumers can remember
a marketing message without being exposed to it during the study
Reciprocity norm a culturally learned obligation to return the gesture of a gift with one
of equal value
Recognition in advertising research, the
extent to which consumers say they are
familiar with an ad the researcher shows
them
Recommerce the practice of trading or reselling used possessions in the underground
economy rather than purchasing new
items from retailers
Red market the global market for body parts
Red sneakers effect whereby we assume
someone who makes unconventional
choices is more powerful or competent
Reference group an actual or imaginary individual or group that has a significant

effect on an individual’s evaluations, aspirations, or behavior
Referent power influence over others because they are motivated to imitate or affiliate with a person or group
Reformulation the third stage of the gift-­
giving ritual when the relationship
between the two parties is redefined
­following the exchange
Refutational arguments calling attention to
a product’s negative attributes as a persuasive strategy where a negative issue is
raised and then dismissed; this approach
can increase source credibility
Relatedness the experience of warmth, bonding, and care, which is satisfied by connecting to and feeling significant to others
Relational processing when we process a
stimulus in relation to the relationships it
has with other events, sensations, or images in memory
Relationship marketing the strategic perspective that stresses the long-term, human
side of buyer–seller interactions
Relative advantage in the context of diffusion
of innovations, the extent to which a new
product or service is an improvement over
alternatives that are already available in
the market
Religiosity degree of religious observance and
beliefs
Repetition multiple exposures to a stimulus
Reporting bias the effectiveness of a source
decreases because he or she has the required knowledge but we question his or
her willingness to convey it accurately
Reputation economy a reward system based
on recognition of one’s expertise by others
who read online product reviews
Resonance a literary device, frequently used
in advertising, that uses a play on words (a
double meaning) to communicate a product benefit
Respectability the state or quality of being
proper, correct, and socially acceptable
Response bias a form of contamination in
survey research in which some factor,
such as the desire to make a good impression on the experimenter, leads respondents to modify their true answers
Responsible marketing merging consumer
centricity, a focus on meeting consumers’
needs, with making a positive impact on
our communities—both in the small sense
(local communities) and in the broad
sense (our planet)
Restricted codes the ways of expressing and
interpreting meanings that focus on the
content of objects, which tend to be used
by the working class

Glossary

Retail theming strategy where stores create

imaginative environments that transport
shoppers to fantasy worlds or provide
other kinds of stimulation
Retail therapy the act of shopping in order to
improve mood or mental state
Retrieval stage the part of the memory process
when we access the desired information
Retrieval the process whereby desired information is recovered from long-term
memory
Retro brand an updated version of a brand
from a prior historical period
Reverse innovation the process whereby a
product is created initially to meet the
needs of developing nations and then is
adapted elsewhere
Reverse signaling refers to the type of signals we infer from associations between
a product or brand and people of a given
social class
Reward power a person or group with the
means to provide positive reinforcement
Rich media elements of an online ad that employ movement to gain attention
Rites of passage sacred times marked by a
change in social status
Ritual a set of multiple, symbolic behaviors
that occur in a fixed sequence and that
tend to be repeated periodically
Ritual artifacts items (consumer goods) used
in the performance of rituals
Ritual script a predetermined sequence of
effects that identifies how people should
interact with products and services
Robot companions artificial intelligence
platforms embedded in humanoid form
that carry out simple tasks
Role identities different components of the
self
Role theory the perspective that much of
consumer behavior resembles actions in
a play
Sacralization a process that occurs when ordinary objects, events, or people take on
sacred meaning to a culture or to specific
groups within a culture
Sacred consumption the process of consuming objects and events that are set apart
from normal life and treated with some
degree of respect or awe
Sadvertising advertising that uses inspirational stories to generate an emotional
response
Salience the prominence of a brand in
memory
Sandwich Generation a description of m
­ iddleaged people who must care for both
­children and parents simultaneously
Satisficing solution a decision strategy that
aims to yield an adequate solution (rather

than the best solution) to reduce the costs
of the decision-making process
Saving orientation people who are motivated
to exercise self-control to save money
and to monitor spending in a regular and
­consistent manner
Savings rate the proportion of income
­consumers put aside for future expenses
Schema an organized collection of beliefs
and feelings represented in a cognitive
category
Script a learned schema containing a
­sequence of events an individual expects
to occur
Scrum a component of agile marketing that
involves the use of small teams that run
quick “sprints” and frequently change up
their approach based upon rapid and honest feedback
Search engine optimization (SEO) the procedures companies use to design the content
of websites and posts to maximize the
likelihood that their content will show
up when someone searches for a relevant
term
Search engine software that examines
the web for matches to terms the user
provides
Secondary data information that others collect and we use or purchase
Secondary market places, or online platforms
where people sell used goods
Self-concept clarity indicates the extent to
which beliefs about the self are clearly and
confidently defined, internally consistent,
and stable over time
Self-concept the beliefs a person holds about
his or her own attributes and how he or she
evaluates these qualities
Self-congruity when a consumer sees their
self-concept reflected in a brand
Self-construal the degree to which we think
of our self as independent from others versus feeling interdependent with them
Self-determination theory the belief that humans are intrinsically motivated by the
innate psychological needs for autonomy,
relatedness, and competence
Self-esteem the positivity of a person’s
self-concept
Self-fulfilling prophecy when a person acts
according to the way he or she believes
others expect, thus confirming this
assumption
Selfie a picture a smartphone user takes of
himself or herself
Self-image the personal view that we have of
ourselves
Self-image congruence models research that
suggests we choose products when their
attributes match some aspect of the self

497

Self-monitors individuals who are very con-

scious of their behavior in social situations
Self-perception theory an alternative (to

cognitive dissonance) explanation of dissonance effects; it assumes that people use
observations of their own behavior to infer
their attitudes toward some object
Self-regulation a person’s deliberate efforts to
change or maintain his actions over time
Semantic network a knowledge structure
that depicts how concepts are related
to one another and illustrates how they
interconnect
Semiotics a field of study that examines the
correspondence between signs and symbols and the meaning or meanings they
convey
Senior market consumers over the age of 50
who control a large amount of discretionary income
Sensation the immediate response of sensory
receptors (eyes, ears, nose, mouth, fingers) to such basic stimuli as light, color,
sound, odors, and textures
Sensory marketing marketing strategies that
focus on the impact of sensations on our
product experiences
Sensory memory the temporary storage of
information received from the senses
Sensory overload a condition where consumers are exposed to far more information
than they can process
Sensory threshold the point at which a stimulus is strong enough to make a conscious
impact on a person’s awareness
Sentiment analysis a process (sometimes
also called opinion mining) that scours
the ­social media universe to collect and
analyze the words people use when they
describe a specific product or company
Serial reproduction a technique to study how
information changes as people transmit it
to another where each person has to repeat
the stimulus for the next person
Serial wardrobers shoppers who buy an outfit, wear it once, and return it
Service robots robots in personal or professional use that performs useful tasks for
humans or equipment
Service scripts the sequence of events a consumer expects to experience in a service
situation
Sex appeals marketing communications for
products that feature heavy doses of erotic
suggestions that range from subtle hints to
blatant displays of skin
Sex roles a culture’s expectations about how
members of the male or female gender
should act, dress, or speak
Sexbot robot that combines the physical realism of silicon dolls with AI functionality

498

Glossary

that allows the user to maintain an actual
relationship with the machine
Sexting the growing trend of young people
posting sexually suggestive photos of
themselves online
Sex-typed products products that reflect
stereotypical masculine or feminine
attributes
Sex-typed traits characteristics that are stereotypically associated with one gender
or the other
Shaping the learning of a desired behavior over time by rewarding intermediate actions until the final result is
obtained
Shared endorsements users who follow or
rate a product or service may find that
their endorsements show up on the advertiser’s page
Sharing economy a business model where
people rent or barter what they need rather
than buying it
Shop-along a form of observational research
where the researcher accompanies a respondent on a shopping trip to catalog
what they buy and how they react to what
they see in a store
Shopping orientation a consumer’s general
attitudes and motivations regarding the
act of shopping
Short-term memory (STM) the mental system
that allows us to retain information for a
short period of time
Showrooming the process lamented by traditional retailers whereby consumers shop
their stores to obtain product information
and then purchase the chosen product online at a lower price
Shrinkage the loss of money or inventory
from shoplifting or employee theft
Shrinkflation a continuous cycle, where at
some point the smallest package offered
becomes so small that perhaps they’re
phased out and replaced by the mediumsize package, which has been shrunk
down
Sign the sensory imagery that represents the
intended meanings of the object
Similarity principle a view that consumers
tend to group together objects that share
similar physical characteristics
Simile comparing two objects that share a
similar property
Simple additive rule select the option
that has the largest number of positive
attributes
Singularity movement followers believe that
we are headed toward a new era where
human intelligence will merge with computer intelligence to create a man/machine
hybrid civilization

Situational involvement the extent to which

Social identity priming attempting to influ-

a shopper is engaged with a store, website, or a location where people consume
a product or service
Situational self-image the role a person plays
in a specific social context that helps to
determine how he or she feels
Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon a popular game
that illustrates how closely linked people
are in our online culture
Slacktivism token expressions of support for
a cause that ironically may substitute for
more concrete actions
Sleeper effect the process whereby differences in attitude change between positive
and negative sources seem to diminish
over time
Slow thinking the system of decision-making
that is slow, deliberative, and analytic
Snackwave followers deliberately binge on
unhealthy foods as a way to rebel against
the messages they get about healthy eating
Sneakerheads people who collect and often
buy and sell rare sneakers
Snob effect lower prices reduce demand
Social capital organizational affiliations and
experiences that provide access to desirable social networks
Social change changes in human interactions
and relationships that transform cultural
and social institutions
Social class the overall rank of people in a
society; people who are grouped within
the same social class are approximately
equal in terms of their income, occupations, and lifestyles
Social comparison the basic human tendency
to compare ourselves to others
Social coupons coupon sets that include one
for self-use and one to be shared
Social default a shortcut to learning that involves the mimicry of others’ behaviors
Social distinction a system of social relations
embedded in judgments of consumption
tastes
Social dominance orientation the extent
to which a person wants their ingroup
to be superior to—and exercise power
over—outgroups
Social empowerment desire to feel an impact
on others
Social game a multi-player, competitive,
goal-oriented activity with defined rules
of engagement and online connectivity
among a community of players
Social graphs social networks; relationships
among members of online communities
Social identity unique identity-relevant behaviors, attitudes, and beliefs related to
the groups from which we derive our
sense of self

ence someone’s behavior by emphasizing
their being part of a certain group or being
a certain type of person
Social identity theory a perspective that argues each of us has several “selves” that
relate to groups; these linkages are so important that we think of ourselves not just
as “I,” but also as “we”
Social identity threat concern that people
have in which they perceive themselves as
independent versus interdependent
Social justice fairness as it manifests in society, such as the distribution of wealth,
opportunities, and privileges
Social loafing the tendency for people not to
devote as much to a task when their contribution is part of a larger group effort
Social marketing the promotion of causes
and ideas (social products), such as energy conservation, charities, and population control
Social media addiction dependency on interaction with social networking platforms to
the extent that signs of withdrawal appear
if the person is unable to connect
Social media firestorms a sudden increase in
negative word-of-mouth and complaints
against a company
Social media the set of technologies that enable users to create content and share it
with a large number of others
Social mobility the movement of individuals
from one social class to another
Social network a group of people who connect with one another online due to some
shared interest or affiliation
Social power the capacity of one person to
alter the actions or outcome of another
Social scoring both customers and service
providers rate one another’s performance
Social shopping an emerging form of ecommerce that allows an online shopper
to simulate the experience of shopping
in a brick-and-mortar store with other
shoppers
Social status refers to where we think we
stand in a society, and to assess that standing, we compare ourselves and what we
have with others and what they have, or
with our own situation in earlier times
Social stratification the process in a social
system by which scarce and valuable resources are distributed unequally to status
positions that become more or less permanently ranked in terms of the share of
valuable resources each receives
Social structure the way members of a culture maintain an orderly social life
Sociometric methods the techniques for
measuring group dynamics that involve

Glossary

tracing communication patterns in and
among groups
Sock puppeting a company executive or
other biased source poses as someone else
to tout his organization in social media
Sonic branding the association of a sound
with a brand
Sound signatures the use of sound to convey
brand characteristics
Sound symbolism the process by which the
way a word sounds influences our assumptions about what it describes and attributes such as size
Source attractiveness the dimensions of
a communicator that increase his or her
persuasiveness; these include expertise
and attractiveness
Source credibility a communication source’s
perceived expertise, objectivity, or
trustworthiness
Source derogation a possible downside to
comparative advertising because the consumer may doubt the credibility of a biased presentation
Spacing effect the tendency to recall printed
material to a greater extent when the advertiser repeats the target item periodically rather than presenting it over and
over at the same time
Spectacles a marketing message that takes
the form of a public performance
Spending implies wealth where consumers spend above their means as a form of
­impression management that makes others
believe they have the resources to splurge
even when (ironically) these excesses may
decrease their overall standard of living if
they reach the point where they can’t keep
up the illusion
Spending orientation people who do not exercise self-control to save money or monitor spending in a regular and consistent
manner
Spiritual-therapeutic model organizations
that encourage behavioral changes such
as weight loss that are loosely based on
religious principles
Spokescharacters the use of animated characters or fictional mascots as product
representatives
Spontaneous recovery ability of a stimulus
to evoke a weakened response even years
after the person initially perceived it
Spreading activation meanings in memory
are activated indirectly; as a node is activated, other nodes linked to it are also
activated so that meanings spread across
the network
Squander sequence the waste that occurs
from how consumers use or misuse food
products at the preacquisition/ purchasing,

acquisition, consumption, and disposition
stages
Stage of cognitive development the ability to
comprehend concepts of increasing complexity as a person matures
Stages of cognitive development psychologist Jean Piaget’s theory that children pass
through fixed stages of development, each
being characterized by cognitive structures that influence how they learn to process information
Standard economic model the view that
people are rational decision makers who
calmly and carefully weigh their choices
to be sure they make the best possible
decision
State-dependent retrieval people are better
able to access information if their internal
state is the same at the time of recall as
when they learned the information
Status crystallization the extent to which
different indicators of a person’s status
(income, ethnicity, occupation) are consistent with one another
Status hierarchy a ranking of social desirability in terms of consumers’ access to
resources such as money, education, and
luxury goods
Status pivoting signaling our status and
­success—but doing so in alternative
domains
Status seeking motivation to procure products and services that we hope will let others know we’ve “made it”
Status signaling the extent to which a brand
employs prominent signs of status such as
a well-known logo on merchandise
Status symbols products whose primary
function is to communicate one’s social
standing to others
Stimulus discrimination the process that occurs when behaviors caused by two stimuli
are different, as when consumers learn to
differentiate a brand from its competitors
Stimulus generalization the process that happens when the behavior caused by a reaction to one stimulus occurs in the presence
of other, similar stimuli
Storage stage the stage of memory processing
when we integrate incoming information
with existing data and store it until needed
Store image a store’s “personality,” composed of such attributes as location, merchandise suitability, and the knowledge
and congeniality of the sales staff
Straight rebuy in the context of the buyclass
framework, the type of buying decision
that is virtually automatic and requires
little deliberation
Street art paintings, murals, and other pieces
in public places

499

Strength of weak ties the referral process

that provides access to members of new
groups due to a slight connection to someone in that group
Subculture a group whose members share
beliefs and common experiences that
set them apart from other members of a
culture
Subjective norm (SN) an additional component to the multiattribute attitude model
that accounts for the effects of what we
believe other people think we should do
Subjective socioeconomic status directly
asking someone to provide indicators of
their own socioeconomic status
Subliminal perception the processing of
stimuli presented below the level of the
consumer’s awareness
Subscription boxes a new business model
that delivers an assortment of products on
a regular basis to consumers who sign up
Sunk-cost fallacy the belief that if we pay
more for something we should not waste it
Superego the system that internalizes society’s rules and that works to prevent the id
from seeking selfish gratification
Superfoods food products that maximize nutritional benefit while minimizing caloric
intake
Supportive arguments messages that present
one or more positive attributes about the
product or reasons to buy it
Surface color when consumers perceive a
product to be larger when it is presented
in a highly saturated color to a greater extent than a paler hue, and are even willing
to pay more for the saturated version even
though both sizes are in fact the same
Surrogate consumer a professional who is
retained to evaluate or make purchases on
behalf of a consumer
Survey a data collection tool that is administered to a sample of respondents in order
to summarize their thoughts and feelings
about a research topic
Susceptibility to interpersonal influence the
extent to which other people guide an
individual’s choices
Sustainability an emphasis on creating and
maintaining the conditions under which
humans and nature can exist in productive
harmony, that permit fulfilling the social,
economic, and other requirements of present and future generations
Swishing where or when should be added
here people organize parties to exchange
clothing or other personal possessions
with others
Symbol a sign that is related to a product
through either conventional or agreed-on
associations

500

Glossary

Symbolic interactionism a sociological ap-

Thinspiration communities that encourage

Trickle-across effect fashions diffuse hori-

proach stressing that relationships with
other people play a large part in forming
the self; people live in a symbolic environment, and the meaning attached to any
situation or object is determined by a person’s interpretation of these symbols
Symbolic self-completion theory the perspective that people who have an incomplete self-definition in some context will
compensate by acquiring symbols associated with a desired social identity
Synchronous communications interactions
that occur in real time
Synoptic ideal a model of spousal decisionmaking in which the husband and wife
take a common view and act as joint
decision makers, assigning each other
well-defined roles and making mutually
beneficial decisions to maximize the couple’s joint utility
Taste culture a group of consumers who share
aesthetic and intellectual preferences
Taste regime a system of norms that links
aesthetics to practice
Technology acceptance model (TAM) a
widely used approach to predicting
whether people will adopt a new form of
technology or information system
Temporal framing framing information in
a message as occurring at the beginning
or end of a time period to make ­products
oriented in a certain direction more
appealing
Terminal values end states desired by members of a culture
Terror management theory the idea that making people conscious of their own death
activates safety needs and motivates people to engage in healthier behaviors
The Google Effect the tendency for people to
rely too heavily on the ability to readily
access content online and, as a result, be
less likely to remember certain details
Theory of cognitive dissonance theory based
on the premise that a state of tension is
created when beliefs or behaviors conflict
with one another; people are motivated to
reduce this inconsistency (or dissonance)
and thus eliminate unpleasant tension
Theory of mind a cognitive skill that refers
to knowing and being aware of one’s own
and of other people’s mental states: understanding what they think and feel
Theory of reasoned action an updated version of the Fishbein multiattribute attitude theory that considers factors such as
social pressure and (Aact) (the attitude toward the act of buying a product), rather
than simply attitudes toward the product
itself

crash dieting, bingeing, vomiting, and
other actions to lose a lot of weight
Third gender movement the push to expand
the definition of gender beyond the traditional categories of male and female
Thrifting shopping for gently used items at
discounted prices
Tie strength the nature and potency of
the bond between members of a social
network
Tightness-looseness refers to the strength
of social norms, or the social pressure to
behave a certain way, and the extent to
which deviance from those norms is tolerated versus punished
Time frame the amount of time available to
complete a task
Time poverty a feeling of having less time
available than is required to meet the demands of everyday living
Timestyle an individual’s priorities regarding
how he or she spends time as influenced
by personal and cultural factors
Tiny House Movement followers downscale
their lives by moving into very small
homes
Tipping point moment of critical mass
Torn self a condition where immigrants struggle to reconcile their native identities with
their new cultures
Total quality management (TQM) management and engineering procedures aimed
at reducing errors and increasing quality;
based on Japanese practices
Trade dress color combinations that become
strongly associated with a corporation
Trait reactance an individual predisposition
to resist and oppose any influence perceived as a restriction on one’s autonomy

zontally among members of the same social group
Trickle-down theory the perspective that
fashions spread as the result of status
symbols associated with the upper classes
“trickling down” to other social classes as
these consumers try to emulate those with
greater status
Trickle-up effect fashions originate in a
lower-class group and diffuse into the
mass market
Triple bottom-line orientation business strategies that strive to maximize financial, social, and environmental return
Trophy wives attractive spouses that rich men
deploy as status symbols
tweens kids between 8 and 12; in between
children and teenagers
Two-factor theory the perspective that two
separate psychological processes are operating when a person is repeatedly exposed
to an ad: repetition increases familiarity
and thus reduces uncertainty about the
product, but over time boredom increases
with each exposure, and at some point the
amount of boredom incurred begins to exceed the amount of uncertainty reduced,
resulting in wear-out
Two-sided messages messages that present
both positive and negative information
Two-step flow model of influence proposes
that a small group of influencers disseminate information because they can modify
the opinions of a large number of other
people
Unboxing videos a genre of YouTube videos
that features consumers who show how
to unpack a new gadget it, assemble it, or
use it
Uncertainty avoidance a society’s tolerance
for uncertainty and ambiguity
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) a stimulus that
is naturally capable of causing a response
Underdog brand biography a communications approach that includes details about
a brand’s humble origins and how it defied
the odds to succeed
Underground economy secondary markets
(such as flea markets) where transactions
are not officially recorded
Unipolar emotions emotional reactions
that are either wholly positive or wholly
negative
Unplanned buying when a shopper buys merchandise they did not intend to purchase,
often because she recognizes a new need
while in the store
Upsell encouraging customers to buy additional items after they have made a
purchase

Transformative consumer research (TCR)

promotes research projects that include
the goal of helping people or bringing
about social change
Transmedia media from traditional media
platforms, like magazines and television,
to more novel and emergent ones, like digital media, videogames, and the metaverse
Transmedia storytelling telling a story across
multiple platforms
Transmedia world the complex web of places
where consumers can engage with brands:
the brand’s website, its store, whether
physical or in the metaverse, the communities of fans of the brand, social media
where conversations about the brand may
be happening, etc.
Trialability in the context of diffusion of innovations, the extent to which a new
product or service can be sampled prior
to adoption

Glossary

Upward mobility a movement upward on the

social ladder
Urban identification the effect invoked on

someone by the environmental, historical,
sociocultural, and spatial values
Urgency nudge a marketing strategy intended
to push consumers into buying almost
immediately
User-generated content consumers voice
their opinions about products, brands, and
companies on blogs, podcasts, and social
networking sites such as Facebook and
Twitter, and film their own commercials
that they post on sites such as YouTube
User-generated social media user-created
content, such as images, videos, text, testimonials, and audio, that has been posted
by users on online platforms
Utilitarian function states that we develop
some attitudes toward products simply
because they provide pleasure or pain
Valence the capacity of attitudes to range
from strongly negative to strongly positive
Value a belief that some condition is preferable to its opposite
Value co-creation the involvement of consumers both in the production and design
process and in the product use process
Value system a culture’s ranking of the relative importance of values
Value-expressive function states each individual develops attitudes toward products
because of what they say about him or her
as a person
Values and Lifestyles System (VALS2™) a
psychographic segmentation system
Vanity sizing deliberately assigning smaller
sizes to garments
Variable-interval reinforcement the time that
must pass before an organism’s response
is reinforced varies based on an average
number of responses

Variable-ratio reinforcement method in

which you get reinforced after a certain
number of responses, but you don’t know
how many responses are required
Variety-seeking the desire to choose new alternatives over more familiar ones
Vestibular system the “sixth sensory system”
that is responsible for balance and posture
Viral marketing the strategy of getting customers to sell a product on behalf of the
company that creates it
Virtual goods digital items that people buy
and sell online
Virtual makeover software that allows
­consumers to manipulate aspects of their
appearance in a photograph they post
online
Virtual reality (VR) provides a totally immersive experience that transports the user
into an entirely separate three-­dimensional
environment
Virtual support communities social networks
formed or facilitated through electronic
media
Virtue signaling the practice of publicly expressing sentiments intended to show
one’s good character or moral uprightness
Voluntarily childless women of childbearing
age who consciously decide not to have
children
Von Restorff effect techniques like distinctive
packaging that increase the novelty of a
stimulus and also improve recall
Want the particular form of consumption chosen to satisfy a need
Warming process of transforming new objects
and places into those that feel cozy, hospitable, and authentic
Wearable computing devices that integrate
digital interactions with the physical body
Web 2.0 the current version of the internet
as a social, interactive medium from its

501

original roots as a form of one-way transmission from producers to consumers
Web scraping a research technique that involves the use of software to collect and
summarize online social media posts
Weber’s Law the principle that the stronger
the initial stimulus, the greater its change
must be for it to be noticed
Weighted additive rule select the option that
has the largest number of positive attributes, but taking into account the relative
importance of the attributes by weighting
each one in terms of its relative importance to the decision maker
Willfully ignorant memory remembering only
those things we like about a brand
Wisdom of crowds a perspective that argues
that, under the right circumstances, groups
are smarter than the smartest people in
them; implies that large numbers of consumers can predict successful products
Wokewashing companies making false or inauthentic claim to be “woke”
Word of mouse digital terminology for “word
of mouth” refers to influence of product
information that individuals transmit to
other individuals
Word-of-mouth (WOM) product information
transmitted by individual consumers on an
informal basis
Word–phrase dictionary in sentiment analysis, a library that codes data so that the
program can scan the text to identify
whether the words in the dictionary appear
Worldview a perspective on social norms and
behaviors that tends to differ among social
classes
Zaltman metaphor elicitation technique
(ZMET) a market research tool based on

our tendency to think about something in
terms of the images and metaphors that
represent its underlying qualities

INDEXES
Page numbers with f represent figures, n represent notes, p represent photos, and t represent tables.

Name Index
Aaker, David A., 247n40
Aaker, Jennifer L., 25n26, 25n40,
122n73, 149n48, 281n26,
318n85, 318n86
Abe, Koji, 284n147
Abell, Annika, 86n49
Abelson, R. P., 189n21
Ablart, Damien, 85n3
Abraham, Chris, 452n110
Abrams, Rachel, 353n73, 451n81
Achenreiner, Gwen Bachmann, 121n37
Acquisti, Alessandro, 55n46
Adams, Peter, 218n4
Adamy, Janet, 56n113
Adaval, Rashmi, 122n85, 219n45
Addis, Michela, 392n60
Aden, Halima, 341
Adkins, Natalie Ross, 54n29, 54n30
Adler, G., 319n95
Adler, Keith, 86n31
Aggarwal, Pankaj, 87n90
Aghadjanian, Nina, 87n108
Agnihotri, Raj, 246n31
Agrawal, A. J., 392n68
Aguilera, Christina, 449
Ahlbom, Carl-Philip, 247n52
Ahluwalia, Rohini, 24n21, 351n13
Ahn, Hee-Kyung, 122n82
Ahonen, Elias, 87n116
Aiken, Clay, 299
Ajzen, Icek, 189n16
Akaka, Melissa Archpru, 451n91
Akinola, Modupe, 219n53
Aksoy, Lerzan, 54n2
Alavi, Sascha, 219n70
Alba, Joseph W., 85n19, 121n20,
122n47, 122n64, 122n70,
149n67, 450n17
Albanese, Paul J., 283n103
Albanesius, Chloe, 55n43
Albinsson, Pia A., 393n123
Alcántara, Ann-Marie, 87n107, 87n109,
87n110, 87n112, 87n113,
87n114, 87n119, 88n128
Alden, Dana, 418n51
Alderman, Jillian, 317n25
Alexa, Alexandra, 122n88
Alexander, Julia, 124n141
Algoedt, Nicolas, 150n105, 150n112
Al-Greene, Bob, 55n66
Ali, Ambreen, 353n92
Allan, David, 121n26, 189n52
Allem, Jon-Patrick, 189n32
Allen, Byron, 351
Allen, Chris T., 351n2
Allen, Douglas E., 418n25
Alpert, Lewis, 318n73
Alpert, Mark I., 190n84, 190n88
Alsop, Ronald, 218n14
Alter, Adam L., 419n60, 419n61
Altman, Irwin, 281n39
Alwitt, Linda F., 189n21
Amar, Moty, 55n83, 247n36
Amaral, Nelson B., 419n74
Ambler, Tim, 189n18
Ames, B. Charles, 392n96
Amirbayat, Safa, 192n142, 192n144,
192n147
Anaza, Nwamaka A., 393n100
Anderson, A. K., 247n43
Anderson, Bonnie Brinton, 87n83
Anderson, Chris, 219n59

502

Anderson, Erin, 393n105
Anderson, Hans Christian, 259
Anderson, Laurel, 354n137
Anderson, Paul, 318n63
Andrén, Tomas Oscar, 88n124
Andreasen, Alan R., 54n32
Andrus, Bruce W., 280n13
Andruss, Paula Lyon, 121n38
Angell, Robert, 123n91
Anghel, Irina, 282n99
Angier, Natalie, 450n42
Angle, Justin W., 189n12
Angwin, Joan, 354n127
Anniston, Jennifer, 125
Antioletti, Laura, 317n18
Antonidies, Trinske, 354n136
Appau, Samuelson, 25n34
Apperley, Thomas H., 393n125
Areni, Charles S., 246n22
Ares, Gastón, 87n98
Argo, Jennifer J., 86n39, 247n43,
247n71, 247n75, 248n77,
283n127, 351n6, 391n14
Arias, Robert A., 450n33
Ariely, Dan, 55n83, 149n71, 247n36
Armstrong, Gary, 121n39
Armstrong, Lance, 174
Arndt, Jamie, 148n34, 148n35
Arndt, Johan, 318n73
Arnold, M. J., 246n5
Arnould, Eric J., 25n32, 317n34,
354n134, 393n107, 393n110,
393n117, 450n1, 450n9,
451n58, 451n86
Aronoff, J., 317n3
Arora, Neeraj, 149n70
Arruda, William, 121n28
Arsel, Zeynep, 319n94, 419n93
Arthur, Lisa, 24n15
Arunachalam, S., 452n107
Arvidsson, Adam, 393n107
Ashford, Susan J., 280n13
Ashman, Rachel, 148n21, 283n133,
283n141
Askegaard, Søren, 148n22, 318n63
Aspara, Jaakko, 393n101
Assael, Henry, 319n110
Assmus, Gert, 189n46
Astor, Maggie, 354n128
Atalay, Selin, 86n70, 87n78
Atkinson, Claire, 191n116
Atkinson, R. C., 122n46
Aubrey Jade, 120
Audrey, Nicole, 319n116
Austin, William G., 390n4
Autry, Chad, 419n85
Avery, Jill, 319n122
Awad, Norah, 319n102
Baar, Aaron, 122n59
Babin, Barry J., 246n4, 246n32
Baby Ariel, 331
Baca-Motes, Katie, 56n102
Bagozzi, Richard P., 123n92, 452n92
Bahadir, S. C., 452n107
Bahl, Shalini, 121n43
Bahn, Kenneth D., 121n34
Bahr, Howard M., 451n59
Bain, Marc, 247n74
Bajaj, Aditi, 85n8
Bakalar, Nicholas, 87n84
Baker, Julie, 246n29
Baker, Stacy Menzel, 123n131
Baker, Stephen, 189n46
Balabanis, George, 451n82

Balconi, Michela, 317n18
Baldus, Brian, 246n30
Ball, Deborah, 450n36
Ball, Dwayne, 281n38
Bamossy, Gary J., 354n136
Banjo, Shelly, 246n23
Banks, Azealia, 316
Bannon, Lisa, 282n98
Baranauckas, Carla, 352n43
Barasch, Alixandra, 122n76, 123n130
Barbaro, Michael, 121n23
Barber, Robin, 247n46
Barboza, David, 452n127, 453n129
Bardhi, Fleura, 247n64, 418n48
Barger, Victor A., 86n35
Bargh, John A., 219n51
Barnes, Brooks, 85n2
Barnhart, Michelle, 352n65, 353n66
Baron, Robert A., 121n1, 188n1
Barra, Mary, 351
Barron, Kelly, 390n2
Barsky, Adam, 191n96
Barthel, Diane, 451n46
Bartlett, Frederic, 366
Barton, Roger, 86n73
Barton, Zachery, 191n118
Basil, Debra Z., 190n59
Bath, Vikram, 219n73
Batra, Rajeev, 86n72, 318n90, 351n7
Bauman, Z., 418n48
Baumeister, Roy F., 25n26, 25n40,
122n85, 148n18, 148n31,
149n39, 318n54
Baumgardner, Michael H., 122n63,
190n57
Baumgartner, Hans, 25n39, 218n2
Beaglehole, Ernest, 281n42
Bearden, William O., 219n42, 390n7,
391n31
Beatty, Sharon E., 189n19, 218n7,
392n90
Bechara, Antoine, 281n28
Beck, Joshua T., 54n11
Beck, Stan, 451n64
Becker, Hollee Actman, 190n68
Becker, Howard S., 417n13
Beeple, 11
Beitelspacher, Lauren, 247n52
Belch, George E., 191n104
Belk, Russell W., 25n32, 148n22,
281n43, 281n44, 282n72,
283n131, 317n34, 317n35,
319n121, 352n41, 352n42,
418n45, 450n35, 451n47,
451n71, 451n77, 451n80
Belkin, Lisa, 150n86
Bell, Simon J., 392n78
Bell, Stephen, 281n17
Bellenger, Danny N., 281n36
Belleza, Silvia, 417n14
Bellezza, Silvia, 391n27
Bellizzi, Joseph A., 85n12, 246n16
Belluck, Pam, 85n13
Bender, Thomas, 148n26
Benedek, David M., 419n63
Benhamou, Laurence, 352n57
Bereznak, Alyssa, 319n131
Berger, Arthur Asa, 87n96
Berger, Ida E., 189n21
Berger, J., 351n8
Berger, Jonah, 391n13, 391n26,
392n77, 392n78, 418n19
Bergner, Anouk, 219n63
Berkowitz, Leonard, 281n17
Berman, Ron, 219n53

Bernard, Russell, 419n99
Berning, Carol K., 247n73
Bernstein, Ruth, 352n57
Bernthal, Matthew J., 318n53
Berthon, Pierre, 55n59, 248n95
Beruchashvili, Mariam, 393n122
Beshears, John, 219n53
Bettencourt, Lance A., 317n26
Bettman, James R., 122n47, 123n94,
188n4, 218n11, 218n16, 218n17,
246n33, 281n29, 390n11
Betts, Dickey, 361
Beverland, Michael B., 25n34, 319n117
Beyoncé, 125, 174, 256, 315–316, 350,
438
Bezençon, Valéry, 219n70
Bezos, Jeff, 380
Bhagwat, Yashoda, 54n11
Bhalla, Gurav, 318n82
Bharadwaj, S. G., 452n107
Bi, Sheng, 219n49
Bickart, Barbara, 392n80
Bieber, Justin, 173, 299
Biehal, Gabriel, 123n110
Bilton, Nick, 283n136, 418n22, 451n88
Biraglia, Alessandro, 25n33, 450n10
Birau, M. M., 248n78
Birken, Emily Guy, 247n63
Biswas, Dipayan, 85n9, 86n49
Bjornn, Daniel K., 87n83
Blacharski, Dan, 352n63
Blackshaw, Pete, 217, 219n79
Blair, Margaret Henderson, 122n65
Blair, Sean, 54n36, 56n95
Blakeslee, Sandra, 188n10, 191n131
Blanchard, Simon J., 25n39, 148n8
Blanton, Dana, 283n129
Bloch, Peter H., 149n66, 218n5, 283n116
Block, Lauren G., 85n8, 85n24, 122n48,
248n78, 317n13
Bloom, Orlando, 181
Bloom, Paul, 451n66
Blue, Mary-Luise, 56n94
Blut, Markus, 219n64, 319n97
Böckenholt, Ulf, 218n20
Bodur, H. Onur, 86n70, 87n78
Boerman, Sophie C., 189n43
Bogard, Jonathan E., 219n53
Bohn, Dieter, 219n62
Boles, James S., 246n32
Bollinger, Bryan, 56n96
Bolton, Lisa E., 282n56, 450n17
Bond, Samuel D, 85n8
Bone, Paula Fitzgerald, 86n25, 391n42
Bone, Sterling A., 351n15
Bonezzi, Andrea, 391n53
Bonsu, Samuel K., 450n35
Boone, Pat, 329
Boote, Alfred S., 318n79
Borden, Richard J., 189n26, 391n33
Borders, Aberdeen L., 393n100
Bornschein, Rico, 55n42
Bornstein, Robert F., 191n107
Borraz, Stéphane, 418n48
Borst, Heidi, 124n139, 124n148
Bos, Maarten W., 86n64
Bosker, Bianca, 24n7
Bosmans, Anick, 218n2
Bottomley, Paul, 123n91
Boulding, William, 247n42
Bourdieu, Pierre, 396, 397, 398, 417n6
Bourjot-Deparis, Julien, 352n59
Boutilier, Robert, 354n132
Bower, Amanda B., 282n96
Bowers, Ed, 148n15

Index

Bowles, Nellie, 85n16
Bradford, Tonya Williams, 393n119,
451n49, 451n63
Brakus, J. Joško, 25n33, 450n10
Branch, John, 451n74
Branch, Shelly, 248n99
Brandimarte, Laura, 55n46
Brandt, Chris, 84
Brannon, Daniel Carlos, 318n49
Branson, Richard, 405–406
Brasel, S. Adam, 85n10, 86n35
Bray, Hiawatha, 352n61
Brehm, Jack W., 317n21
Brehm, Sharon S., 317n21
Brenner, Michael, 352n48
Bressgott, Timna, 55n55
Brick, Danielle J., 392n93
Brinkmann, Svend, 317n16
Brisco, Elise, 319n124
Briscoe, Kevin Michael, 354n140,
355n147, 355n150
Britt, Robert Roy, 54n28
Brock, Christian, 219n64, 319n97
Broniarczyk, Susan M., 371nii
Brooke, Zach, 190n70
Brooks, John, 419n77
Brough, Aaron R., 54n40, 282n80
Brown, Amber, 56n102
Brown, Anna, 25n25, 351n20
Brown, E., 54n24
Brown, Jacqueline Johnson, 391n50
Brown, Patricia Leigh, 354n113
Browne, Ray B., 452n117
Brownlie, Douglas, 148n33
Bruce, Grady D., 391n12
Brucks, Merrie, 121n39, 149n67
Brumbaugh, Anne M., 353n86
Brunjolfsson, Erik, 24n12
Brunk, Katja H., 122n81
Bruno, Hernán A., 121n11
Brusselmans, Guy, 123n90
Bryant, Adam, 85n11
Bryant, Charles W., 318n47
Bryant, Lena, 272
Buck, Stephanie, 452n104
Budiman, Abby, 353n99
Buechel, Eva C., 317n15
Buhrau, Denise, 189n34, 317n24, 352n52
Bulik, Beth Snyder, 122n53, 219n42
Bullard, Olya, 148n20
Bunge, Jacob, 453n131
Bunn, Austin, 191n123
Burchfiel, Anni, 57n133
Burke, Marian, 191n104
Burke, Raymond R., 122n60
Burks, Arthur W., 87n96
Burlat, Claire, 55n44, 55n45, 55n48
Burnett, Leo, 55n82
Burnkrant, Robert E., 390n3
Burns, Alvin C., 451n69
Burns, Neal M., 393n126
Burroughs, James E., 317n37, 317n43
Burrus, Daniel, 24n11
Burson, Katherine A., 148n13, 351n4
Burton, G., 354n112
Burton, Scot, 190n72, 247n41, 281n18
Busch, Paul S., 246n33
Bush, Ronald F., 451n71
Bush, Victoria D., 319n99
Buss, Arnold W., 280n15
Butler, Chris, 88n126
Buttenheim, Alison, 219n53
Buzzard, John, 55n52
Byers, John W., 247n66
Byrne, Simon, 150n93, 150n103
Byrne-Haber, Sheri, 54n16
Cacioppo, John T., 189n28, 189n35
Cadei, Emily, 148n27
Calantone, Roger, 246n30
Calder, Bobby J., 391n41
Caldwell, Marylouise, 417n5
Callahan, Chrissy, 354n103
Camerini, Anne-Linda, 317n12

Cameron, Claire, 148n15
Campbell, Colin, 55n59, 248n95, 392n71
Campomar, Marcos Cortez, 318n63
Cantor, Matt, 56n112
Cantril, Hadley, 87n92
Caplow, Theodore, 451n59
Capon, Noel, 188n4
Caporuscio, Jessica, 54n21
Cardi B., 320, 376
Carey, Benedict, 87n80, 87n85, 281n35
Carey, Mariah, 174
Carey, Rebecca M., 417n12, 418n34
Carlson, Les, 352n32, 352n33, 352n39
Carlzon, Jan, 217
Carmon, Ziv, 55n83, 247n36
Carrillat, Francois A., 391n19
Carson, Nick, 85n17
Carter, Erin Percival, 191n96
Carter, Nicola, 391n44
Carvajal, Doreen, 150n83
Carvalho, Sergio W., 351n10, 353n84
Castaño, Raquel, 281n28
Castillo, Stephanie, 86n66
Castrén, Sari, 317n10
Castro, Iana A., 86n40
Catlin, Jesse R., 248n77
Cave, Damien, 451n83
Cayla, Julien, 353n98
Celsi, Richard L., 149n59, 318n63,
450n39
Cerasoli, Christopher, 148n9
Chabris, Christopher F., 219n53
Chacko, Roger, 85n9
Chadwick, Bruce A., 451n59
Chae, Inyoung, 121n11
Chaiken, Shelly, 189n53
Chakravarti, Dipankar, 123n110
Chan, C., 351n8
Chan, Cindy, 391n26, 451n56
Chan, Eugene Y., 191n106
Chan, Lauren, 279
Chan, Steven S., 121n43
Chance, Zoe, 219n50
Chandler, Jesse, 284n149
Chandon, Pierre, 148n12
Chandukala, Sandeep R., 86n51
Chang, Hannah H., 188n9
Chang, Jenny, 56n128
Chang, Lulu, 55n63
Chaplin, Lan Nguyen, 25n27, 121n33,
121n36, 123n118, 281n30,
281n40, 319n112
Chapman, Gretchen B., 219n53
Chapman, H. A., 247n43
Chapoton, Boris, 189n34
Charry, Karine, 352n59
Charry, Tamar, 371ni
Chartrand, Tanya L., 189n29, 218n28,
219n51
Chatterjee, Promothesh, 219n72
Chatterjee, Subimal, 219n76
Chattopadhyay, Amitava, 85n12, 122n47,
122n64, 122n70, 123n115
Chaudhury, Sarita Ray, 393n123
Chebat, Jean-Charles, 246n14
Chen, Fangyuan, 25n31
Chen, Haipeng (Allan), 191n106
Chen, James, 218n30
Chen, Jiemiao, 418n26, 419n64
Chen, Rocky Peng, 319n101
Chen, Yu, 148n22
Cheng, Shirley Y. Y., 24n21, 281n30,
351n13
Chernev, Alexander, 54n36, 56n95,
218n20
Cherrier, Hélène, 450n7
Cherry, M., 247n69
Chestnut, Robert, 149n68
Chetty, Raj, 417n8
Childers, Courtney C., 191n130
Childers, Terry L., 86n36, 122n71,
122n75, 190n76, 317n17, 392n73
Chishti, Zarrar, 150n101, 150n107
Cho, Hyewon, 418n27

Cho, Joy (Oh Joy!), 399
Choi, Catherine, 218n33
Choi, Danny, 452n92
Choi, James J., 219n53
Choudhury, Saheli Roy, 123n109
Christensen, Glenn L., 351n15
Christie, Dianna, 123n106
Chu, Wujin, 393n105
Chugani, Sunaina K., 121n43
Chui, Michael, 353n94
Chun, HaeEun Helen, 392n78
Churchill, Gilbert A. Jr., 123n95,
246n30, 246n32, 247n42
Cialdini, Robert B., 189n26, 247n39,
391n18, 391n20
Cimino, Richard, 354n114
Cinelli, Melissa D., 123n119
Clark, Gary L., 56n116
Clark, Ronald A., 149n60
Clarkson, Joshua J., 123n119
Cleveland, Mark, 418n51
Clifford, Stephanie, 86n56, 149n83,
189n14, 248n103, 283n114,
392n59
Close, Christiane, 55n85
Cobb, Cathy J., 218n7
Cocanougher, Benton, 391n12
Codella, Daniel, 25n22
Coffee, Patrick, 87n109, 87n110,
87n113, 88n128
Cohen, Joel B., 188n3, 188n4, 390n3,
419n97, 419n99
Cohen, Noam, 317n42
Cohn, D’Vera, 352n62, 353n87
Cole, S. Jason, 281n45
Coleman, Catherine, 282n89, 282n90
Coleman, Nicole Verrachi, 351n1
Coleman, Richard, 417n3
Coleman, Richard C., 418n55
Coleman, Richard P., 418n29, 418n31,
418n33
Coleman-Lochner, Lauren, 282n83
Coll, Steve, 190n55
Colliander, Jonas, 188n6
Collins, Caitlyn, 352n29
Collins, Glenn, 85n7, 282n68
Collins, Janay, 86n31
Collins, Keith, 318n78
Comm, Joel, 149n71
Compeau, Larry D., 452n117
Cooil, Bruce, 54n2
Cook, Scott, 81
Cooley, Charles H., 280n7
Cooper, Tessa, 54n22
Cornelissen, Gert, 352n59
Cornil, Yann, 148n12, 281n29
Cornwell, T. Bettina, 121n33, 123n108
Cosby, Bill, 174
Costa, Paul T., 317n5
Costello, Erin, 124n136
Cotte, June S., 54n4, 86n32, 248n92,
318n58, 392n90
Coulter, Keith S., 86n31
Coulter, Robin A., 86n31, 149n42, 318n46
Coupland, Douglas, 335
Cousineau, Alain, 390n3
Cova, Bernard, 393n129
Cova, Veronique, 393n129
Covel, Simona, 191n111
Cowley, Elizabeth, 122n59
Cowley, Geoffrey, 452n99
Crandall, Christian S., 283n109
Crandall, Christine, 149n72
Crawford, Kate, 56n129
Credé, Marcus, 149n45
Creighton, Millie, 246n11
Creswell, Julie, 24n3, 121n23, 190n69
Crist, Carolyn, 148n1
Critcher, Clayton R., 190n56
Crocker, Kenneth E., 189n49
Crockett, David K., 25n34, 318n53,
450n8
Crolic, Cammy, 85n19, 86n48, 319n98
Cronin, J. Joseph Jr., 247n40, 392n97

503

Cross, Samantha N. N., 248n93
Crouse, Lindsay, 282n64
Crowley, Ayn E., 85n12, 85n22
Cuddy, Amy, 281n55
Cui, Shiliang, 247n37
Cummins, Eleanor, 121n32
Cunha, Marcus Jr., 123n126
Cunningham, Niall, 418n32
Currid-Halkett, Elizabeth, 417n9
Currier, Erin, 353n77
Curry, Steph, 360
Curtin, Richard T., 418n50
Cutright, Keisha M., 191n100
Czepiel, John A., 123n113
Dagogo-Jack, Sokiente W., 189n12
Dahl, Darren W., 56n100, 85n12,
86n39, 149n36, 247n43,
248n104, 280n9, 281n29,
283n127, 391n14, 391n15
Dahlen, Micael, 188n6
Dai, Hengchen, 219n53
Da L.E.S., 350
Dalton, Amy N., 122n66
Daltrey, Roger, 361
D’Anastasio, Cecilia, 87n106
Dance, Gabriel J. X., 318n78
Daniels, David P., 25n29
Danziger, Pamela N., 249n122,
249n124, 451n52
Danziger, Shai, 122n57
Darden, William R., 246n4, 246n32,
392n73
Darke, Peter R., 85n12
Darko, 391n35, 391n36
Darmon, Rene Y., 190n79
Daugherty, Terry, 393n126
Davenport, Thomas, 55n55
Daviet, Remi, 55n57, 283n140
Davis, Fred D., 452n92
Davis, Naomi, 350
Dawar, Niraj, 25n47
Dawkins, Richard, 452n99
Dean, Grace, 124n147
De Angelis, Matteo, 86n50, 391n53
DeBerry-Spence, Benet, 246n11
DeBono, Kenneth G., 189n50
Debter, Lauren, 56n119
DeCarlo, Thomas E., 391n41
Deci, Edward L., 149n37
Deci, Richard M., 149n37
DeGeneres, Ellen, 173
Deighton, John, 189n38
Deighton, Katie, 124n143, 124n149,
124n152
de Langhe, Bart, 219n55
Del Bucchia, Céline, 55n44, 55n45,
55n48
de Liver, Yael N., 189n11
DelVecchio, W. F., 317n4
Delzell, Emily, 55n58
Demby, Emanuel H., 318n73
DeMotta, Yoshiko, 54n34, 54n37
DeNavas-Walt, Carmen, 418n39
Denegri-Knot, Janice, 393n126
Deng, Xiaoyan, 87n86
DePietro, Andrew, 419n102
Dershowitz, Jessica, 450n25
de Ruyter, Ko, 283n120, 418n19
Desrochers, Debra M., 390n10
Dessart, Laurence, 189n39
Desta, Yohana, 247n51
Devine, Fiona, 418n32
Dewitte, Siegfried, 352n59
Dhar, Ravi, 148n6, 149n46, 219n50,
219n57, 219n75, 281n49,
319n118
Dholakia, Utpal, 318n50
d’Hombres, Béatrice, 121n10
Diamantopoulos, Adamantios, 354n121
Dichter, Ernest, 287, 317n6
Dickinson, Sonia J., 319n117
Dickson, Peter R., 149n67
Diddy, 125

504

Index

Diehl, Kristin, 122n76, 123n130
Diesendruck, Gil, 451n66
Dietrich, Daniel, 87n104
Dietvorst, Thomas F., 247n73
DiJusto, Patrick, 54n19
Dillard, James Price, 317n21
Dillon, Andrew, 451n73
Dimoka, Angelika, 123n96
Dion, Delphine, 418n48
Djordjevic, Milos, 353n70
Dobscha, Susan, 282n67
Dobson, Elise, 247n47
Dobson, Roger, 121n5, 121n6
Dodds, Peter Sheridan, 391n55, 392n57,
392n60
Dogg, Snoop, 173
Dolich, Ira J., 281n36
Dolliver, Mark, 56n105, 190n90
Donaldson, Scott I., 189n32
Donovan, Robert J., 246n14
Dooley, Ben, 391n29
Dooley, Roger, 121n26
Dormanesh, Allison, 189n32
Dornoff, Ronald J., 281n36
Dorrian, Patrick, 283n144
Douglas, Mary Twe, 318n68, 319n105
Doupnik, Elizabeth, 452n100
Dover, Philip A., 189n33
Dowling, Katharina, 218n34
Drake, 329, 337, 438
Draper, Kevin, 24n3
Drèze, Xavier, 122n56, 149n70, 419n61
Drenten, Jenna, 282n70
Dretsch, Heather Johnson, 393n108
Dröge, Cornelia, 190n79
Drolet, Aimee, 122n73
D’Rozario, Denver, 353n85
D’Souza, Giles, 191n103
Dubois, David, 280n4, 391n53, 419n68
Duckworth, Angela, 148n15, 149n43,
149n44, 219n53
Duhachek, Adam, 246n11
Duhigg, Charles, 124n134, 319n119
Duke, Duncan, 419n103
Duke, Kristen, 86n64
Dunn, Lea, 149n36
Durgee, Jeffrey F., 317n6
Durkheim, mile, 451n76
Dworsky, Edgar, 86n57
Dyer, David C., 190n83
Dylan, Bob, 118, 173, 444
Eagly, Alice H., 149n58, 189n53
Easley, Jonathan, 190n55
Easterbrook, Matthew J., 418n28
Eastin, Matthew S., 393n126
Echikson, William, 87n101
Eckhardt, Giana M., 25n34, 247n64,
318n60, 353n98, 393n107,
418n48
Edell, Julie, 191n104
Edell, Julie A., 218n16
Edelman, David, 393n106
Edmonds, Rick, 189n54
Edmondson, Brad, 246n19
Egan, Bill, 354n105
Eggert, Nalina, 282n101
Ehrich, Kristine R., 123n99
Eichinger, Isabel, 450n34
Eisend, Martin, 121n9, 189n19, 189n41,
189n43, 189n48, 190n89, 282n88
Eisingerich, Andreas B., 392n78
Ekstrom, Karin M., 392n90
Elad, Barry, 392n95
Elberse, Anita, 190n64
Elder, Ryan S., 85n6, 122n77, 149n82
El Hazzouri, Mohammed, 351n10,
353n84
Ell, Kellie, 284n155
Ellen, Pam Scholder, 86n25
Ellin, Abby, 283n126
Elliot, Stuart, 123n104
Elliott, Drew, 393n124
Elliott, Richard, 450n19

Elliott, Stuart, 191n120, 319n100,
354n102
Ellis, Andrew W., 123n127
Ellison, Nicole, 418n18
Ellison, Sarah, 220n83, 354n112
Eng, Dinah, 248n106
Engel, Larry, 122n79
Engle, Randall W., 121n3
Englis, Basil G., 87n82, 191n121,
280n5, 318n93, 354n136,
390n8, 391n14
Englund, Will, 355n144, 355n149
Epp, Amber M, 351n16, 351n17,
351n20, 451n77
Escalas, Jennifer Edson, 122n86,
122n87, 189n40, 281n29,
390n11
Escobedo, Patricia, 189n32
Esposito, Mark, 56n91
Esteban, Gabriel, 190n81
Etgar, Michael, 190n83
Etkin, Jordan, 149n48, 149n56, 218n32,
283n142
Etzel, Michael J., 390n7
Evan, 331
Evangelidis, Ioannis, 149n48
Evans, Chalanda N., 219n53
Evans, Nathaniel J., 191n129, 191n130
Faber, Ronald J., 248n87
Fackler, Martin, 56n108
Faraji-Rad, Ali, 351n7
Farganis, Sondra, 283n117
Farrelly, Francis, 319n117
Farris, Paul W., 190n79
Fay, Bradford, 354n132
Fazio, Russell H., 122n72
Feick, Lawrence, 392n80
Feiereisen, Stéphanie, 25n24, 319n120
Feiler, Bruce, 354n126, 393n134
Fein, Adam J., 56n117
Feinberg, Fred M., 121n11
Feirstein, Bruce, 391n15
Felton, James, 192n143
Fera, Rae Ann, 188n7
Ferdman, Roberto A., 452n120
Ferguson, M. J., 219n51
Fernandes, Daniel, 122n59, 354n119
Fernandez, Karen V., 450n37
Fernbach, Philip M., 219n55
Finkel, Eli J., 189n52, 392n92
Finn, Adam, 86n75, 123n93
Fischer, Eileen, 282n90, 392n70
Fischer, Marc, 54n38
Fishbach, Ayelet, 148n6, 149n46, 390n5
Fishbein, Martin, 188n5, 189n16
Fisher, Dan, 281n45
Fisher, Matthew, 219n57
Fiske, Susan T., 123n111, 391n18,
418n46
Fitzsimmons, Gráinne M., 189n29
Fitzsimons, Gavan J., 188n8, 189n29,
280n12, 392n93
Fitzsimons, Gráinne, 189n52
Fleming, John H., 353n81
Fleming, Kirsten, 450n4
Fleming, M. A., 189n20
Flynn, Leisa R., 149n60
Fodor, Eugene M., 149n40
Fogel, Jared, 174
Fombelle, Paul W., 351n11
Ford, Michael T., 148n9
Ford, Neil M., 246n32
Fordham, M., 319n95
Forehand, Mark R., 189n12, 280n2,
281n25
Foreman, George, 173
Fossen, Beth L., 191n115
Foster, Brian L., 391n50
Fournier, Susan G., 247n45, 281n32,
318n93, 391n47, 392n80
Fox, Craig R., 219n53
Foxall, Gordon R., 121n27
Foxman, Ellen, 392n90

France, Karen Russo, 219n76
France, Lisa Respers, 319n127
Frank, Mark G., 85n14
Frank, Robert, 419n81
Fransen, Marieke L., 317n23
Frederick, Shane, 452n104
Freeman, Stephen, 189n26, 391n33
Freiden, Jon B., 392n66
French, J. R. P. Jr., 392n61
Freud, Sigmund, 286, 287
Frick, Henry Clay, 408
Friedman, Gary, 245
Friedman, Sam, 418n32
Friedman, Vanessa, 452n94
Fromkin, Howard L., 149n41
Froomkin, Dan, 418n43
Frost, Aja, 55n51
Fugelsang, Jonathan A., 218n34
Fuller, Thomas, 452n114
Fung, Esther, 57n130
Furse, David H., 122n65, 149n77
Fussell, Paul, 418n53
Future, 84
Gal, David, 191n133, 282n80, 452n102
Galak, Jeff, 451n54, 452n104
Galinsky, Adam D., 280n4, 282n57,
419n68, 419n69
Galov, Nick, 352n51
Gamboa, Suzanne, 353n93
Gandhi, Linnea, 219n53
Gangestad, Steve, 281n18
Gans, Herbert J., 417n13
Gao, George, 353n76
Gao, Huachao, 282n76, 419n71
Garbinsky, Emily N., 25n26, 25n40
Garcia-Rada, Ximena, 451n45
Gardiner, Mark, 191n113
Gardner, David, 191n95
Gardyn, Rebecca, 417n7, 419n78
Garretson, Judith A., 190n72
Garvey, Aaron M., 282n56
Gasparro, Annie, 54n33
Gatersleben, B., 247n69
Gates, Bill, 35, 111, 143
Gatti, Elia, 85n3
Gatty, Ronald, 318n73
Gaydova, Christina, 150n113
Geary, Chris, 418n41
Geertz, Clifford, 450n5
Geisler, Markus, 452n106
Geldhof, John, 148n15
Gelfand, Michele J., 450n18
Geller, Martinne, 123n104
Gelles, David, 121n45
Gemvik, Alice, 188n6
Ger, Güliz, 354n110, 450n2, 451n78
Ger, Guliz, 148n22
Gerfuson, Tim W., 354n113
Germann, Frank, 282n56
Germano, Sara, 246n23
Gershoff, Andrew D., 149n52, 351n4
Gestsdóttir, Steinunn, 148n15
Geuens, Maggie, 247n50
Geyser, Werner, 248n94
Geyskens, Kelly, 283n120
Gha, Abhijit, 55n55
Ghose, Anindya, 149n70
Ghosh, Anastasiya Pocheptsova, 218n32
Giang, Vivian, 318n57
Gibson, Dani, 24n18
Gibson, Eunique Jones, 351
Giddens, A., 418n35
Giesler, Markus, 122n81
Gigi, 331
Gigova, Radina, 451n89
Gilbert, Daniel T., 391n18
Gilbert, Faye W., 319n99
Gilbreath, Edward, 354n113
Gillan, Tamara, 317n28
Gillett, Rachel, 218n22
Gilly, Mary C., 282n59, 352n65
Gilmore, James H., 149n70
Gilovich, Thomas, 85n14

Gino, Francesca, 391n27, 450n29,
451n61
Gips, James, 86n35
Girling, Rob, 219n50
Gittleson, Ben, 54n39
Givi, Julian, 451n54
Gladstone, Joe J., 419n73
Gladwell, Malcolm, 118, 204, 218n29,
451n85
Gneezy, Ayelet, 56n102, 86n64
Goasduff, Laurence, 150n106
Gobé, Marc, 85n15
Godek, J., 189n20
Godfrey, Andrea L., 54n2
Godfrey, D. Matthew, 450n2
Godin, Seth, 189n47
Goetz, Thomas, 218n21
Goff, Brent G., 248n89
Goffman, Erving, 280n6, 281n20,
281n52
Goldberg, Marvin, 452n118
Golden, Ellen, 390n3
Golden, Linda L., 190n84, 190n88
Golder, Peter N., 391n21
Goldman, Kevin, 124n133
Goldsmith, Ronald E., 149n60, 392n66
Goldstein, Noah J., 391n20
Goleman, Daniel, 451n55
Gollnhofer, Johanna F., 248n77,
393n109
Gollwitzer, Peter M., 148n16, 281n50
Golonka, Sabrina, 281n54
Gonzalez, Ana, 319n128
Gonzalez, Victoria, 354n111
Gonzalez-Barrera, Ana, 353n89
Gooch, Liz, 452n116
Goodman, Joseph, 218n20
Goodwin, Stephen A., 190n83
Goor, Dafna, 419n75
Gopaldas, Ahir, 351n14
Gordinier, Jeff, 353n77
Gordon, Sarah, 450n18
Gordon, Stephen, 245
Goren, Amir, 219n53
Gorlin, Margarita, 219n50
Gorn, Gerald J., 85n12, 121n12,
190n83, 452n118
Gorton, Matthew, 123n91
Gosling, S. D., 317n8
Goukens, Caroline, 283n120
Gould, Stephen, 451n48
Goulding, Christina, 281n22
Govaers, Kenji, 123n90
Grabenstetter, Jenn, 451n62
Graci, Heather N., 219n53
Graeff, Timothy R., 281n18
Graf, Nikki, 352n23
Graham, Ellen, 354n133
Graham, Jefferson, 283n132
Graham-Rowe, Duncan, 283n132
Grammer, Jennie, 148n15
Grant, Annetta, 281n43
Grass, Robert C., 190n74
Grayson, Kent, 189n44
Greenberg, Jamie L., 148n34
Greenberg, Karl, 450n32
Greenspan, Rachel E., 124n138
Greenwald, Anthony G., 122n63,
189n12, 190n57
Gregg, Brian, 353n94
Gresham, Alicia, 318n52
Grewal, Dhruv, 54n2, 55n55, 246n29,
247n52, 391n46
Grier, Sonya A., 121n43, 353n86,
393n119
Griffin, Dale, 122n73
Griffin, Mitch, 246n4
Grinstein, A., 248n78
Griskevicius, Vladas, 391n20, 419n79,
419n98
Groden, Claire, 86n60
Gromet, Dena M., 219n53
Gros, Nina, 281n29
Grossbart, Sanford, 352n32

Index

Grossman, John, 318n88
Grubb, Edward L., 281n34
Grube, Joel W., 189n42
Gruenewald, Tara L., 419n87
Grybaum, Michael M., 87n105
Gu, Flora F., 392n72
Guesalaga, R., 452n107
Guhl, Daniel, 218n34
Guns, William D., 318n83
Gutentag, Jolie, 56n91
Gutierrez, Manny, 265
Gutman, Evelyn G., 123n113
Gutman, Jonathan, 318n63
Habib, Rishad, 56n100, 56n101
Habich, John, 417n10
Hadi, Rhonda, 25n36, 86n42, 319n98
Häfner, Michael, 280n8
Häubl, Gerald, 148n8
Hadid, Bella, 331
Hagtvedt, Henrik, 85n10, 148n23
Hajjaji, Danya, 124n146
Hajo, Adam, 282n57
Hakim, Danny, 318n72
Hale, Jacob, 247n59
Hale, Kori, 353n95
Halliday, Jean, 190n85
Halzack, Sarah, 451n60
Hamby, Anne M., 121n31, 189n11,
189n42, 317n24, 352n52
Hamerman, E. J., 450n38
Hamilton, Rebecca W., 392n94
Hamilton, Ryan, 392n81
Hamza, Kavita M., 282n100
Han, Eunjoo, 149n52
Han, Kyuhong, 354n119
Han, Sang-Pil, 317n31
Hancock, Michelle, 283n118
Handelman, Jay M., 55n74, 281n43
Hansen, William B., 281n39
Hanson, Sara, 392n58
Haq, Sana Noor, 451n89
Hardcastle, Jessica Lyons, 56n106
Harding, Cortney, 219n67
Hardisty, David J., 56n101
Harkins, Stephen, 391n32
Harms, Peter D., 149n45
Harnish, Richard J., 189n50
Harrell, Eben, 25n28
Harris, Elizabeth A., 282n74, 353n73
Harris, James Edwin, 54n30
Harris, Ricki, 25n46
Harrison, Robert L., 282n70, 352n39
Hartley, Steven W., 246n30, 246n32
Hartmann, Benjamin J., 122n81
Hartmans, Avery, 418n57
Hasan, Mohammad, 24n8
Hasan, R., 452n107
Hasapopoulous, Tedi, 121n19
Hasford, J., 392n87
Hassay, Derek N., 248n86
Hastie, Reid, 392n57
Hastorf, Albert H., 87n92
Hatch, Amy, 246n8
Haugen, Frances, 390
Haugtvedt, Curtis P., 189n12, 191n108
Hauser, John R., 218n12
Havlena, WIlliam J., 123n100, 189n17
Hawgood, Alex, 283n105
Hawn, Allison, 283n130
Haws, Kelly L., 86n30
Hayes, Constance L., 24n14
He, Xin, 317n20
Heaslip, Emily, 150n96
Heath, Chip, 281n29
Heath, Rebecca Piirto, 318n75
Heath, Timothy B., 219n76
Heatherton, Todd F., 148n18
Heckler, Susan E., 122n71, 122n75,
122n88
Hedberg, Todd, 150n109
Heide, Jan B., 393n99
Heider, Fritz, 189n25
Hein, Wendy, 282n89

Heitmeyer, Jeanne R., 392n66
Heller, Jason, 393n106
Heller, Steven, 87n97
Heller, Susie, 452n96
Helm, Sabrina, 121n44
Hemetsberger, Andrea, 452n103
Henderson, Geraldine Rosa, 393n119
Henderson, Pamela W., 85n22
Henderson, Tim, 353n87
Henry, Paul C., 417n5, 418n47
Henry, Walter A., 123n107
Henthorne, Tony L., 190n91
Herbst, Kenneth C., 189n52
Herd, Kelly B., 452n102
Herhausen, Dennis, 391n46
Hermann, Erik, 282n88
Herr, Paul M., 122n72, 189n12, 190n59
Herrison, Brooke, 247n68
Herrmann, Andreas, 281n31
Hershfield, Hal E., 419n73
Heslin, Richard, 190n86
Hess, Abigail Johnson, 352n25
Hess, Amanda, 190n58
Hess, James D., 149n70
Hewer, Paul, 148n33
Hewett, Kelly, 391n40, 391n45
Higgins, E. Tory, 218n26, 218n28,
218n37, 219n38
Hiken, Asa, 87n123
Hilchey, Matthew D., 219n53
Hildebrand, Christian, 219n63
Hildebrand, Diego, 54n34
Hildebrand, Diogo, 54n37
Hill, Patrick L., 317n9
Hill, Reuben, 451n59
Hill, Ronald Paul, 149n38
Hine, Thomas, 318n84
Hines, Alice, 149n73
Hirsch, Alan R., 246n6
Hirsch, Paul M., 450n20
Hirschman, Elizabeth C., 122n70,
122n74, 123n123, 148n25,
190n75, 354n104, 418n54
Hite, Robert E., 85n12, 246n16
Hitt, Jack, 86n26
Hjellbrekke, Johs, 418n32
Hlaracek, James D., 392n96
Hmurovic, Jillian, 219n53
Ho, Foo-Nin, 418n23
Ho, Hung, 219n53
Hodges, Harry, 247n53
Hoegg, JoAndrea, 85n19
Hof, Robert D., 87n99, 451n84
Hoffman, Donna L., 24n10
Hoffman, Jan, 55n70
Hofstede, Geert, 424, 450n12, 450n13
Hofstede, Gert Jan, 450n13
Holak, Susan L., 123n100, 451n87
Holbrook, Morris B., 123n105, 148n25,
189n17, 281n17, 392n60,
417n10
Holden, Stephen, 352n49
Hollenbeck, Candice R., 282n60
Holman, Rebecca, 319n96
Holmes, Selina J., 123n127
Holt, Douglas B., 282n85, 418n21
Hong, Jiewen, 219n40
Hong, Sung-Mook, 317n21
Horne, David, 281n53
Hornik, Jacob, 86n37, 190n77
Horovitz, Bruce, 190n82
Horowitz, Julia, 282n102
Horowitz, Juliana Menasce, 352n23
Horwitz, Jeff, 124n142
Hosany, A. R. Shaheen, 392n94
Hosie, Rachel, 148n2
Houston, Michael, 122n75
Houston, Michael J., 190n76, 318n61
Howe, Neil, 353n67
Howery, Lil Rel, 269
Howland, Daphne, 284n163
Hoy, Mariea Grubbs, 191n130
Hoyer, Wayne D., 191n94, 218n7
Hrubenja, Aleksandar, 54n14

Hsee, Christopher K., 149n54, 319n106
Hsu, Michael, 54n2
Huang, Laura, 281n53
Huang, Li, 122n66
Huang, Peng, 218n6
Huang, Rong, 248n104
Huang, Xue (Irene), 86n29
Huang, Xun, 191n135
Huber, Frank, 281n31
Huber, Joel, 121n36, 218n28, 419n97
Huber, Stephanie, 281n31
Hudson, Kris, 247n51
Huffman, Cynthia, 148n29
Hughes, Douglas E., 246n30
Hughner, Renee Shaw, 317n26
Huh, Young Eun, 391n28
Huizinga, Johan, 218n31
Hull, Jay G., 280n13
Humphreys, Michael S., 123n108
Hunt, Shelby D., 247n41, 451n71
Hunton Andrews Kurth LLP, 57n132
Hupp, Gregg, 281n34
Hurd, Erin, 218n36
Husemann, Katharina C., 318n60
Hutchings, Emma, 452n104
Hutchinson, J. Wesley, 149n67
Hutson, Matthew, 319n118
Huyghe, Elke, 247n50
Hydock, Christopher, 247n37
Hyken, Shep, 219n78, 220n81
Ice, Ben, 191n114
Igini, Martina, 248n76
Ikeda, Ana Akemi, 318n63
Indvik, Lauren, 283n146
Inman, J. Jeffrey, 246n25, 247n52
Innes, Emma, 86n67
Insko, Chester A., 121n6, 189n23,
189n24
Irmak, Caglar, 123n98
Irwin, Julie R., 122n83, 123n99
Irwin, Tanya, 149n63, 391n56
Isaac, Mathew S., 282n80
Isaac, Matthew S., 189n44
Isaac, M. S., 123n115
Isherwood, Baron C., 318n68, 319n105
Ismail, Kaya, 392n69
Itani, Omar S., 246n31
Ives, Nat, 190n71
Iyengar, Raghuram, 149n70, 392n78
Iyer, Easwar S., 246n20
Izberk-Bilgin, Elif, 354n106
Jackman, Philip, 318n51
Jackson, Michael, 146
Jacob, Susannah, 191n105
Jacobson, Jenna, 247n68
Jacobson, Robert, 247n40
Jacoby, Jacob, 149n68, 247n73
Jaeger, Sara R., 87n98
Jafari, Aliakbar, 281n22
Jaffe, Rebecca H., 219n44
Jain, Shailendra Pratap, 248n83
Jambulingam, Thanigavelan, 283n137
James, LeBron, 79
James, William, 257
Janiszewski, Chris, 86n48, 121n2,
121n4, 123n119, 148n14
Jarvis, Cheryl B., 351n11
Jaworski, Bernard J., 149n77
Jayanti, Rama K., 393n118
Jayson, Sharon, 318n57
Jay Z, 141, 301, 426
Jenkins, Jeffrey L., 87n83
Jennato, Hailey, 247n55
Jenner, Kendall, 331
Jenner, Kylie, 331, 372, 390
Jensen, Eric, 353n88
Jhally, Sut, 318n71
Jia, He, 392n78
Jiang, Lan, 219n39
Jing, Bing, 149n70
Jiwan, Shireen, 452n101
Joachimsthaler, Erich A., 318n82

505

Jobs, Steve, 111
Johansson, Scarlett, 176
Johar, Gita Venkataramani, 190n88,
281n41, 450n38
John, Deborah Roedder, 25n27, 121n36,
121n37, 123n112, 189n31,
246n33, 281n40, 281n46,
281n47
John, Leslie K., 219n53
John, Oliver P., 317n11
Johnson, Alex, 354n130
Johnson, Allison R., 281n33
Johnson, Blair T., 149n58
Johnson, Clark, 317n19
Johnson, Eric J., 122n61
Johnson, Kirk, 318n53
Johnson, Michael D., 123n124
Johnson, Tara, 25n51
Johnston, Matthew, 248n81
Johnston, Wesley J., 393n100
Jonah, Berger, 281n29
Jones, Charisse, 54n25
Jones, Jeffrey M., 282n87
Jones, Nicholas, 353n88
Jones, Thomas F., 124n132
Jordan, Jillian, 419n65
Jordan, Michael, 143
Jost, John T., 354n118
Judkis, Maura, 189n36
Jun, Youjung, 218n26, 218n28, 218n37,
219n38
Jung, Carl G., 287, 292, 307, 319n95
Jung, Jihye, 354n119
Jung, Minah H., 190n56
Junqué de Fortuny, Enric, 391n16
Kaepernick, Colin, 7, 7f, 29, 29f
Kahle, Lynn R., 121n36, 189n19,
419n97
Kahn, Barbara E., 85n22, 87n86,
149n69, 247n61
Kahneman, Daniel, 25n30, 149n69,
219n76, 247n61
Kaikati, Andrew M., 282n60
Kainulainen, Tuomo, 317n10
Kaiser, Susan B., 282n69, 451n86
Kaji, Ryan, 120
Kalra, Ajay, 247n42
Kaltcheva, Velitchka D., 246n3
Kamakura, Wagner A., 418n30
Kambhampaty, Anna P., 190n69
Kamenetz, Anya, 352n34, 417n16
Kamins, Michael A., 190n84
Kaminski, Peter F., 56n116
Kangun, Norman, 190n79
Kanter, Rosabeth Moss, 318n68,
318n70
Kapitan, Sommer, 56n103
Kapner, Suzanne, 452n115
Kappes, Heather B., 419n73
Karababa, Emınegul, 450n2
Kardashian, Kim, 143, 173, 174, 442
Kardes, Frank R., 189n12
Karlamangla, Arun S., 419n87
Karlan, Dean, 219n53
Karmarkar, Uma R., 56n96, 190n87
Karrer, Holli C., 123n131
Kasser, Tim, 148n35
Katona, Zsolt, 123n115
Katz, Daniel, 155, 188n2
Katz, Josh, 319n115
Kaufman, Gil, 319n129
Kavas, Alican, 189n17
Kavilanz, Parija, 283n143, 394n144,
394n147, 394n152
Kay, Joseph S., 219n53
Kazman, Josh, 419n63
Keates, Nancy, 452n109
Keen, Andrew, 25n41
Keenan, Elizabeth A., 56n102
Keh, Hean Tat, 418n26, 419n64, 450n17
Keinan, Anat, 319n122, 391n27,
417n14, 419n75
Keiningham, Timothy L., 54n2

506

Index

Keith, Naughton, 419n70
Keller, Kevin Lane, 121n7, 123n110
Keller, Punam Anand, 218n16, 248n78
Kelley, James, 418n51
Kelly, Dennis R., 149n43
Kelman, Herbert, 189n49
Kemp, Elyria A., 393n100
Kemper, Joya A., 56n103
Kennedy, John F., 40
Kenrick, Douglas T., 419n98
Kentic, Jovana, 451n51
Kenton, Will, 24n2
Kern, Roger M., 419n93
Kernan, Jerome B., 281n41, 391n49
Keskin, Seray, 318n56
Kestenbaum, Richard, 150n85
Kettle, Keri L., 148n8
Key and Peele, 337
Keys, Alicia, 84
Khan, Uzma, 148n6, 149n46
Kharpal, Arjun, 451n57
Kidwell, B., 392n87
Kiehl, Kristin, 122n76
Killah, Ghostface, 426
Kim, D., 247n43
Kim, David, 246n22
Kim, Irene Anna, 419n104, 420n110
Kim, Junu Bruan, 352n53
Kim, Melanie, 219n53
Kim, Namwoon, 393n103
Kim, Youngseon, 450n14
Kiner, Deb, 452n119
King, Charles W., 392n66
King Bach, 331
Kinnear, Thomas C., 122n70, 122n74,
190n75
Kirkpatrick, Matthew, 189n32
Kirmani, Amna, 247n41, 317n23
Kirwan, C. Brock, 87n83
Kitayama, Shinobu, 280n10
Kitten, Tracy, 55n52
Kivetz, Ran, 149n47, 189n22
Klapper, Daniel, 218n34
Klara, Robert, 190n61
Klein, Jill G., 281n53, 451n50
Kleinberg, Adam, 54n35
Kleine, Robert, 281n24
Kleine, Robert E. III, 281n41, 351n2,
452n118
Kleine, Susan Schultz, 281n24, 351n2
Kleppe, Ingeborg Astrid, 282n73
Klesse, Anne-Kathrin, 281n29, 283n120
Kline, Stephen, 318n71
Knasko, Susan C., 85n22
Knoll, Johannes, 190n63
Knopp, Steven W., 55n60
Knowles, Beyoncé. See Beyoncé
Koch, Christof, 87n79
Koch, Wendy, 56n104
Koehler, Derek J., 218n34
Koenig, Harold F., 393n117
Koh, Yoree, 124n140, 124n151
Kohli, Sajal, 353n94
Kolata, Gina, 390n9, 393n127
Kolbe, Richard H., 283n103
Koltko-Rivera, Mark E., 148n30
Koltun, Natalie, 123n106
Kondo, Marie, 318n48
Konsko, Lindsay, 218n36
Kopytoff, Verne, 391n43
Korn, Morgan, 246n2
Kosaka, Hiroshi, 450n6
Kotler, Philip, 54n32, 246n15
Kottak, Conrad Phillip, 450n21
Kouchaki, Maryam, 122n67
Kozinets, Robert V., 55n74, 246n11,
317n7, 452n99, 452n103
Kramer, Thomas, 149n49, 450n30
Kratzer, Jan, 392n62
Kraus, Michael W., 418n27
Kravets, David, 283n132
Kravets, Olga, 450n21, 451n78
Kreps, Daniel, 191n112
Kressman, Frank, 281n31

Krishna, Aradhna, 85n5, 85n6, 85n20,
85n23, 122n77, 148n12,
149n82, 219n41, 283n113
Krishnamurthy, Parthsarathy, 218n1
Kristofferson, Kirk, 54n12, 280n9
Kroft, Steve, 353n75
Krogstad, Jens Manuel, 353n87
Kronrod, Ann, 391n52
Krosnick, Jon A., 189n21
Krugman, Herbert E., 121n8, 149n76,
191n104
Krush, Michael T., 246n31
Kucuk, S. Umit, 25n35
Kukar-Kinney, Monika, 248n87
Kulkarni, Eesha, 352n44
Kumar, Minu, 282n77
Kuntze, Ronald J., 317n26
Kupor, Daniella, 25n29
Kuppens, Toon, 418n28
Kurt, Didem, 148n24
Kurutz, Steven, 282n2
Kurzweil, Ray, 283n134
Kuse, Allan R., 122n65
Kusek, Kathleen, 248n118
Kwon, Mina, 219n45
Kyung, Park Ji, 281n46
Laakasuo, Michael, 317n10
Labroo, Aparna A., 86n29, 219n43
Lach, Jennifer, 246n24
Laczniak, Russell N., 352n32, 352n33,
352n35, 391n41
Lady Gaga, 299
Lafley, A. G., 217
Laibson, David, 219n53
Laird, Sam, 55n61
Lajos, Joseph, 123n115
Lamberton, Cait P., 219n53, 280n9,
391n25
Lambiase, Jacqueline, 282n84
Lampe, Cliff, 418n18
Landivar, Liana Christin, 352n29
Landrum, Sarah, 54n5
Langer, Ellen J., 121n42
LaPierre, Matthew, 120
Laran, Juliano, 123n126, 148n14
Larkin, Elizabeth, 318n48
Laroche, Michel, 418n51
Larsen, V., 87n96
Lasaleta, Jannine D., 123n102, 123n103
Lastovicka, John L., 317n26, 317n38,
318n82, 450n37
Latané, Bibb, 391n32, 391n33
LaTour, Kathryn A., 248n92
LaTour, Michael S., 190n91
Lattin, Don, 354n114
Lau-Gesk, Loraine, 281n16
Laurent, Gilles, 122n56
Laverie, Debra A., 281n24
Lawton, Rebecca, 317n9
Laycock, Richard, 218n33
Lazer, William, 450n6
Le, Ngan, 56n90
Lévi-Strauss, Claude, 427, 450n22
Leake, Lisa, 85n1
Leary, Mark R., 149n39
Leary, R. Bret, 54n13
LeBeau, Phil, 246n1
Leboeuf, Robyn A., 149n53
LeBoeuf, Robyn A., 284n148
Lecinski, Jim, 219n80
Leclerc, France, 319n106
Lee, Dong-Jin, 281n31
Lee, Jaehoon, 317n43
Lee, Jeffrey K., 391n16, 391n52
Lee, Julie, 418n51
Lee, Kang Bok, 419n85
Lee, Nathaniel, 418n38
Lee, Seung Yun, 190n78
Lee, Timothy W., 219n53
Lee, Wei-Na, 351n5
Lehmann, Donald R., 218n16, 218n28,
451n87
Leigh, Thomas W., 392n97, 450n39

Leippe, Michael R., 122n63, 190n57
Leiss, William, 318n71
Leizerovici, Gail, 248n93
Leonard-Barton, Dorothy, 391n37,
392n62
Leong, Siew Meng, 246n33
Leonhardt, David, 248n101
Le Roux, Brigitte, 418n32
Lessne, Greg, 392n88
Lettl, Christopher, 392n62
Leung, Fine F., 392n72
Lev, Michael, 86n58
Levine, David, 54n9
Levitas, Danielle, 247n49
Levy, Alan S., 280n13
Levy, Eric, 319n101
Levy, Karyne, 318n65
Levy, Michael, 246n29
Levy, Sidney J., 24n1, 122n80, 450n43,
451n55
Lewin, Tamar, 354n135
Li, Harold, 56n120
Li, Ren, 450n18
Li, Ruoou, 317n15
Li, Shenyu, 248n104
Li, Xiuping, 191n135
Li, Yaoiun, 418n32
Lichtenstein, Donald R., 219n55,
247n41, 281n18
Lichtenstein, Roy, 375
Lil Miquela, 84
Lima, Claudio, 452n124
Lin, Han, 191n106
Lin, Jeffrey, 451n81
Lin, Lily, 283n123
Lindzey, Gardner, 391n18
Lisjak, Monika, 419n90
Little, Todd, 148n15
Littlefield, Jon, 282n89, 450n11
Liu, Angela Xia, 391n21
Liu, Hongju, 219n55
Liu, Maggie Wenjing, 122n82
Liu, Ming, 150n95, 150n114
Liu, Wendy, 219n69, 452n102
Liu, Yeyi, 392n78
Livingston, Gretchen, 25n25, 352n23
Lizardo, Omar, 419n94
Lloyd, B.B., 123n115
Locke, Edwin A., 148n10
Loechner, Jack, 150n88, 392n66
Loewenstein, George, 55n46
Lofgren, Nils, 361
Lohr, Steve, 393n115
Lohrdec, Steve, 319n114
Lohrer, Robert, 351n16
Lohse, Gerald L., 86n76
Loken, Barbara, 121n19, 282n75,
419n74
Lopes, Lealis V. M., 282n100
Lopez, Jennifer, 173, 301
Lopez-Kidwell, V., 392n87
Loveland, Katherine E., 123n103
Lowe, B., 452n107
Lowe, Michael L., 86n30
Lowery, Tina M., 148n21, 283n133,
283n141
Lowrey, Annie, 418n40
Lowrey, Tina M., 86n32, 121n33,
121n36, 123n118, 319n112,
419n97, 450n23, 451n50
Lowry, Adam, 130
Luber, Josh, 451n68
Lucas, George, 443
Luce, Mary Frances, 218n11
Luchter, Les, 150n83
Ludwig, Stephan, 122n87, 189n40,
391n46
Luedicke, Marius K., 393n133
Luhrmann, T. M., 391n30
Lukovitz, Karlene, 191n127, 354n112,
354n115
Luna, D., 87n96
Lunts, Paul S., 418n31
Lurie, Nicholas H., 218n6, 219n55

Lusch, Robert F., 450n2
Lutz, Richard J., 188n2, 188n4,
284n148, 391n41
Lwin, May O., 85n20, 85n23, 219n41
Lyall, Sarah, 219n68
Lymon, Frankie, 329
Lynch, John G., 122n70, 218n2
Lynes, Russell, 450n20
Lysonski, Steven, 317n28
Ma, Alexandra, 55n65
Ma, Jingjing, 191n133, 282n80
Macarquhar, Neil, 190n55
MacGregor, James N., 122n55
Machan, Dyan, 390n6
Maciel, Andre F., 123n121, 281n48
MacInnis, Deborah J., 149n77
Maclaran, Pauline, 418n58, 419n59
Madden, Thomas J., 191n94
Madrian, Brigitte C., 219n53
Madzharov, Adriana V., 85n8, 85n24
Maeng, Ahreum, 122n51
Magrath, Allan J., 248n80
Maguire, Angela M., 123n108
Maheshwari, Sapna, 24n3
Mahoney, Sarah, 56n105, 282n79,
353n83
Maidenberg, Micah, 54n33
Maie, Erik, 55n42
Main, Kelley J., 351n10, 353n84
Maiso, Dominika, 189n12
Maister, David H., 248n100
Majid, Kashef Abdul, 247n67
Majmundar, Anuja, 189n32
Major, Derek, 355n145, 355n146,
355n148
Malhotra, Naresh K., 281n37
Manchanda, Rajesh V., 148n20
Mandela, Nelson, 111
Mandese, Joe, 354n115
Maney, Kevin, 56n115
Manis, Kerry T., 452n92
Manshad, Muhanad Shakir, 318n49
Manstead, Antony S. R., 418n28
Marciano, Laura, 317n12
Marcoolyn, Gilian, 246n14
Marcoux, Jean-Sébastien, 122n84,
451n47
Marin, Alexandra, 391n51
Markee, Nancy L., 282n97
Markoff, John, 354n125, 393n128
Marks, Lawrence, 191n107
Markus, Hazel Rose, 417n12, 418n34,
418n46
Markusand, Hazel R., 280n10
Marley, Bob, 116
Marmorstein, Howard, 122n47
Marr, Merissa, 450n25
Marshall, Greg W., 87n100
Martin, Brett A. S., 86n38, 148n7
Martin, Chuck, 24n9
Martin, Diane M., 393n110
Martin, Kelly D., 54n40, 149n38,
219n71
Martineau, Pierre, 317n6
Martinez, Suzanna, 54n24
Marx, Karl, 396
Maslow, Abraham, 130–132, 148n28
Matear, Maggie, 281n33
Mathur, Aditi, 55n78
Mathur, Pragya, 317n13
Mathwick, Charla, 418n19
Matthes, Jörg, 190n63
Matthews, Michael D., 149n43
Mattila, Anna, 246n15
May, Frank, 123n98
Mayer, Caroline E., 191n128
Maynard, Jake, 352n47
Mazariegos, Miranda, 282n61
Mazur, Glenn H., 86n44, 246n9
Mazzon, José A., 418n30
McAfee, Andrew, 24n12
McAlexander, James H., 390n2,
393n117

Index

McArthur, Leslie Z., 219n44
McCann, Maile, 282n65
McCarthy, Michael, 87n82
McCarthy, Niall, 192n148
McClelland, Kent A., 418n29, 418n33
McClelland, Megan, 148n15
McCracken, Grant, 318n89, 450n19
McCraie, Robert R., 317n5
McCrohan, Kevin, 248n80
McCue, TJ, 55n79
McFerran, Brent, 283n123
McGill, Ann L., 87n90, 392n81
McGinty, Bill, 419n105, 420n109
McGrath, Mary Ann, 450n41, 451n55
McGraw, A. Peter, 191n96
McGraw, Patrick F., 392n97
McIntyre, Hugh, 319n133
McKay, Betsy, 453n131
McMath, Robert M, 87n88, 87n93,
123n114
McQuarrie, Edward F., 122n78, 149n60,
149n66, 189n37, 191n101,
318n61, 318n92, 392n76
McQueen, Josh, 189n38
McQuiston, Daniel H., 393n104
Meacham, Matthew, 123n90
Mead, George H., 281n23
Meade, Katie, 270
Meadows, Susannah, 450n24
Medina, José F., 318n52
Medina, Lauren, 353n88
Mehl, M. R., 317n8
Melnyk, Valentyna, 391n19
Melnyk, Vladimir, 391n19
Memmot, Mark, 354n124
Mendoza, Martha, 282n71
Meng, Matthew D., 247n71, 247n75
Menoni, Tanya, 122n49
Mergenhagen, Paula, 419n84
Merkin, Sharon S., 419n87
Merton, Robert, 392n65
Meyer, Michelle N., 219n53
Meyer, Robert J., 87n87
Meyers, Alyssa, 419n89
Meyers, Tiffany, 352n36
Meyers-Levy, Joan, 122n62, 219n39,
282n75
Miao, Fred, 391n54
Michelangelo, 436
Mick, David Glen, 87n95, 87n96,
121n43, 122n78, 148n29,
191n101, 247n45, 318n58
Mikeska, Jessica, 352n39
Miles, Andrew, 418n32
Mileva, Geri, 87n110
Milfont, Tacioano L., 317n11
Milkman, Katherine L., 219n53
Miller, Claire Cain, 219n54, 284n150
Miller, George A., 122n54
Miller, Jessica, 392n76
Miller, Mark J., 122n68, 123n128,
283n144, 451n65
Miller, Steven, 418n42
Miller-Martinez, Dana, 419n87
Milne, George R., 121n43
Miltgen, Caroline Lancelot, 55n44,
55n45, 55n48
Minaj, Nicki, 426
Minkov, Michael, 450n13
Minton, Elizabeth A., 121n33
Miolsavljevic, Milica, 87n79
Mischel, Walter, 317n3
Mitchell, Deborah J., 85n22
Mitra, Sabyasachi, 218n6
Mittal, Vikas, 218n24, 282n76,
354n119, 392n80
Mochon, Daniel, 149n71
Modanu, Maria, 219n53
Mogilner, Cassie, 318n85, 451n56
Mohamed, Besheer, 354n107
Mohn, Tanya, 86n65
Moisio, Risto, 354n134, 393n122
Molander, Susanna, 282n73
Moldovan, Sarit, 219n56

Molesworth, Mike, 393n126
Molina, Brett, 318n66
Monga, Ashwani, 219n42
Monroe, Kent B., 247n41, 248n87
Montoya, Detra Y., 318n55
Moore, Elizabeth S., 390n10
Moore, Sarah G., 280n12
Moore, Shemar, 337
Moore, William L., 218n28
Moorman, Christine, 149n77
Morales, Andrea C., 86n39, 86n40,
188n8, 247n43
Moran, Simone, 122n57
Moreau, Page, 452n102
Morewedge, Carey K., 391n28
Morgan, J. P., 408
Morgan, Piers, 316
Morihara, Ryuta, 284n147
Morin, Amy, 352n60
Morrell, Roger W., 122n58
Morrin, Maureen, 85n20, 85n23, 85n24,
219n41
Morris, Ben, 452n123
Morris, Michael H., 392n97
Morriseey, Janet, 319n104
Morrison, Fred, 148n15
Morrissey, Janet, 452n98
Mortensen, Ditte Hvas, 86n33
Morwitz, Vicki G., 122n48, 282n76
Moss, Ben, 150n100, 150n112
Moss, Michael, 246n26, 280n14
Mowen, John C., 218n3
Mozur, Paul, 318n66
Mrad, Mona, 123n116
Muehling, Darrell, 190n79
Muhammad, Zia, 55n41
Mukherjee, Ashesh, 190n78, 191n94
Muldrew, Edward, 248n97
Mulroy, Clare, 418n56
Munichor, Nira, 149n53
Muñiz, Albert M. Jr., 393n117, 393n120
Munson, J. Michael, 318n61
Murata, Shoji, 450n6
Murphy, Samantha, 282n94
Murray, Jeff B., 54n32
Murray, Kathleen, 248n82
Murry, John P., 318n82
Murtagh, N., 247n69
Musk, Elon, 111, 405, 408, 423
Musk, Maye, 423
Muzellec, Laurent, 220n86
Muzellece, Laurent, 217
Nachbar, Jack, 450n26
Nafees, Lubna, 393n123
Nakkawita, Emily, 218n26, 218n28,
218n37, 219n38
Nam, Jimin, 219n53
Nancarrow, Clive, 354n136
Nancarrow, Pamela, 354n136
Napoli, Julie, 319n117
Nardini, Gia, 284n148
Narsey, Vanisha, 319n121
Narus, James A., 393n102
Nataraajan, Rajan, 248n89
Navalpakkam, Vidhya, 87n79
Nave, Gideon, 55n57, 283n140
Nayakankuppan, D., 189n20
Naylor, Rebecca W., 391n25
Nazim, Hafeezah, 452n96
Needleman, Sarah E., 88n127
Neff, Jack, 55n76, 55n78, 191n128,
283n145, 353n94, 393n130
Nelly, 426
Nelson, Emily, 220n83
Nelson, Leif D., 56n102, 452n104
Nenkov, Gergana Y., 189n30, 219n47
Nesdale, Andrew, 246n14
Netemeyer, Richard G., 218n2, 281n18,
391n31
Neuhaus, Carolin, 148n26, 188n10
Newman, Andrew Adam, 283n119,
450n44
Newman, Barry, 354n108

Newman, George E., 219n57, 219n75,
319n118, 451n66
Newman, L. S., 122n85
Ng, Sharon, 351n7
Nguyen, Lan, 352n31
Nicholson, Carolyn, 452n117
Nickel, Kristina, 282n77
Nickerson, Charlotte, 280n6
Nicklin, Jessica M., 148n9
Nicosia, Franco M., 247n45
Nield, David, 25n44
Nielsen, Jesper H., 86n61, 86n77,
219n43
Nieroda, Marzena, 123n116
Nigam, Akash, 85
Niño, María Carolina Josefina Pacanins,
338
Nishiura, Koichiro, 284n147
Nobel, Carmen, 188n10
Noble, Stephanie M., 247n52, 419n85
Noel, Hayden, 121n4
Noguti, Valeria, 391n22, 391n23
Nordfält, Jens, 247n52
Nordgren, Loran F., 123n120
Norman, Andrew T., 122n88
North, Adrian C., 219n48
North, Robert, 451n89
Norton, Michael I., 149n71, 450n29,
451n45, 451n61
Nøjgaard, Mikkel, 25n37
Nouri, Steve, 55n56
Novak, Thomas P., 24n10
Nowlis, Stephen M., 86n40
Nudd, Tim, 149n75, 192n145
Nunes, Joseph C., 419n61
Nuttavuthisit, Krittinee, 246n11
Oakes, William F., 121n6
Obolenskaya, Christina, 353n90
O’Brien, Jeffrey M., 219n61
Obrist, Marianna, 85n3
O’Connell, Vanessa, 246n10
O’Connor, Daryl B., 317n9
Odell, Patricia, 392n74
Ofir, Chezy, 190n77
O’Guinn, Thomas Clayton Gibson,
87n102, 248n87, 393n117
Oliver, Suzanne, 86n74
Olson, Jerry C., 149n59, 189n33,
318n63
Olson, Nicholas J., 24n21, 351n13
Olson, Parmy, 56n118, 56n122, 57n134
O’Malley, Gavin, 353n79
Omote, Yoshio, 284n147
O’Neal, Shaquille, 449
O’Neill, Molly, 450n40
Ong, Thuy, 190n55
Onink, Troy, 418n40
Onkvisit, Sak, 281n26
O’Raghallaigh, Eamonn, 217, 220n86
Orazi, Davide C., 191n99
Ordabayeva, Nailya, 354n119, 419n75,
419n90
Ordonez, Jennifer, 248n102
Orozco, Kimberly, 353n88
Orth, Ulrich R., 282n77
Ostberg, Jacob, 282n67, 282n72,
282n73
Ostrom, Lonnie, 351n11
Otnes, Cele C., 418n58, 419n59,
450n23, 450n33, 450n41,
451n50, 452n111
Ourahmoune, Nacima, 282n89
Outkast, 301
Ozanne, Julie L, 54n29, 54n30, 54n31,
54n32, 354n137, 450n11
Pabst, Paul, 391n17
Pae, Jae H., 393n103
Page, Julie, 354n136
Paharia, Neeru, 319n122, 417n14
Painter, James, 87n89
Painter, Kim, 192n141
Palan, Kay L., 352n36

507

Palan, Kay M., 352n35
Palmatier, Robert W., 219n71, 392n72
Palmer, Barclay, 319n125, 319n130
Palomäki, Jussi, 317n10
Pang, Jun, 391n21
Papadopoulos, Nicolas, 418n51
Pappalarado, Anthony, 451n83
Pappas, Stephanie, 55n49
Pareek, Shabdita, 190n80
Parekh, Rupal, 190n85, 282n81
Parguel, Béatrice, 352n59
Pariser, Eli, 218n9
Park, C. Whan, 218n8, 218n15, 246n20,
392n91
Park, Denise C., 122n58
Park, Ji Kyung, 189n31
Parker, Jeffrey R., 218n16
Parker, Kim, 352n26
Parker, Sarah Jessica, 174
Parmentier, Marie-Agnès, 283n106
Parnell, Justin, 449
Parthasarathy, Krishnamurthy, 218n1
Parton, Dolly, 174
Passy, Charles, 452n109
Patel, Mitesh S., 219n53
Patrick, Vanessa M., 148n23
Patten, Brigg, 150n99, 150n108
Patten, Eileen, 352n26
Pattison, Kermit, 148n28
Pavlou, Paul A., 123n96
Pavlov, Ivan, 90, 91, 94
Payne, John W., 218n11
Peachmank, Rachel Rabkin, 352n38
Pearson, Ian, 318n74
Pechmann, Cornelia, 190n81
Peck, Joann, 86n34, 86n35, 86n36,
317n17, 317n19
Peirce, Charles Sanders, 79, 87n96
Peloza, John, 54n12
Peñaloza, Lisa, 319n121, 352n65,
353n66, 450n3
Pendarvis, Nicholas J., 282n70
Pennebaker, J. W., 317n8
Pennings, Joost M. E., 246n28
Pennington, Bill, 191n128
Pennycook, Gordon, 218n34
Penteado, Claudia, 354n112, 354n131
Peña, Christian, 55n49
Peracchio, Laura A., 87n96, 123n117
Pereira, Beatriz, 148n13
Perera, B. Yasanthi, 393n123
Perkins, Andre, 189n12
Perkins, Andrew W., 189n12,
219n49
Perrone, Matthew, 192n149
Perry, Daryl, 418n56
Perry, Katy, 181, 253, 435, 438
Pervin, Lawrence, 317n11
Petak, Tess, 354n100
Peters, Jeremy W., 149n61
Petersen, Elaine L., 282n97
Peterson, Christopher, 149n43
Peterson, Richard A., 419n93
Petrakovitz, Caitlin, 283n139
Petrenko, Veronica, 282n65
Petroshius, Susan M., 189n49
Petrovici, D., 452n107
Petty, Richard E., 189n21, 189n28,
189n35, 189n51
Petty, Tom, 381
PewDiePie, 331, 334
Pfanner, Eric, 150n83
Pham, Michel Tuan, 188n9
Phelps, Michael, 174
Philips, Barbara J., 318n92
Phillips, Barbara J., 149n60, 189n37,
392n76
Phillips, Melodie R., 451n69
Piaget, Jean, 99, 121n34
Picchi, Aimee, 190n55
Pierce, Matthew, 147
Pieters, Rik, 86n72, 121n21, 218n2
Pimentel, Ronald W., 149n62
Pine, Joseph B. II, 149n70

508

Index

Pinelli, Federica, 218n26, 218n28,
218n37, 219n38
Pirouz, Dante M., 248n93
Pistorius, Oscar, 111
Pitt, Leyland, 55n59, 248n95
Pizzetti, Marta, 191n99
Plomion, Ben, 87n122
Plummer, Joseph T., 318n80
Poch, Rebecca, 148n7
Pollard, Chris, 55n68
Pollay, Richard W., 452n118
Pomiès, Anissa, 419n93
Poon, Leonard W., 122n58
Porter, Eduardo, 219n46
Porter, Michael, 219n60
Postrel, Virginia, 450n31
Powell, Martha C., 122n72
Pozharliev, Rumen, 86n50
Prahalad, C. K., 416, 419n95
Pratkanis, Anthony R., 190n57
Pratt, Beverly, 353n88
Prensky, Marc, 24n13
Presley, Elvis, 329, 434, 435
Price, Emily, 55n67
Price, Linda L., 149n42, 318n46,
319n121, 351n16, 351n17,
351n20, 354n134, 450n2,
451n77
Priester, Joseph R., 189n20, 189n51
Prince, 444
Prinstein, Mitch, 419n66, 419n96
Proctor, Bernadette D., 418n39
Prokopec, Sonja, 149n51, 218n1
Propsom, Pamela, 280n13
Proserpio, Davide, 247n66
Prossack, Ashira, 150n98, 150n104,
150n110
Proust, Marcel, 118
Puck, Wolfgang, 387
Punj, Girish N., 218n6, 218n7
Puntoni, Stefano, 122n59, 280n2
Puto, Christopher P., 392n97
Putsis, William P. Jr., 218n18
Quach, Sara, 219n71
Qualls, William J., 392n97
Queen Latifah, 426
Quenqua, Douglas, 283n104
Quinn, Patrick D., 149n44
Raasch, Chuck, 54n35
Rabe, Megan, 353n88
Rachamim, Matti, 190n77
Radford, Benjamin, 55n49
Rafaely, Vered, 122n57
Raghubir, Priya, 417
Rahinel, Ryan, 319n107
Rainey, Clint, 419n82
Rainwater, Lee, 418n29, 418n33,
418n55
Rakoczy, Christy, 352n22
Rama, Padmananda, 353n97
Ramanathan, Suresh, 85n8
Ramaswamy, Sridhar, 220n85, 391n41
Ramirez, Anthony, 87n91
Rampell, Catherine, 86n56
Rand, David, 419n65
Rand, Lindsay, 391n13
Rand, William, 391n40, 391n45
Rane, Zulie, 124n144
Rangel, Antonio, 87n79
Ranjan, Kumar Rakesh, 452n105
Ransbotham, Sam, 219n55
Ransdell, Eric, 450n27
Rao, Akshay R., 247n41, 354n117
Rao, Ram C., 191n103
Rasmussen, Eric E., 352n58
Rasolofoarison, Dina, 25n24, 86n70,
87n78, 190n65, 319n120
Ratner, Rebecca K., 149n69, 247n61
Ratneshwar, S., 148n29, 318n58
Raven, B., 392n61
Rayman, Noah, 123n116
Raymore, Leslie, 317n28

Rayome, Alison DeNisco, 121n25
Raz, Guy, 313
Régnier-Denois, Véronique, 189n34
Read, H., 319n95
Read, Stuart, 452n105
Reczek, Rebecca Walker, 86n69,
122n83, 123n99
Redden, Joseph P., 319n107
Reddy, Srinivas K., 86n51
Reece, Bonnie, 121n40
Reed, Americus II, 188n3, 188n4,
280n2, 281n21
Rehfeld, Barry, 391n17
Reichert, Tom, 282n84
Reid, Colbey Emmerson, 393n108
Reifler, Petra, 418n51
Reimann, Martin, 148n26, 188n10,
248n83, 281n28
Reingen, Peter H., 317n29, 390n3,
391n49, 391n50
Rella, Emily, 450n4
Remund, David L, 54n27
Rescorla, R.A., 121n3
Rethans, Arno, 191n107
Reynolds, Fred D., 392n73
Reynolds, Kristy E., 149n62, 246n5
Reynolds, Thomas J., 318n63
Rice, Berkeley, 318n81
Rich, Motoko, 191n117, 391n29
Richards, Katie, 452n125
Richards, Keith A., 246n30
Richardson, Chris, 191n110
Riche, Martha Farnsworth, 318n83
Richie, Nicole, 173
Richins, Marsha L., 149n66, 247n35,
283n116, 317n36, 317n39,
317n40, 352n31
Richtel, Matt, 86n66
Rick, Scott I., 148n13, 392n92
Ridgway, Nancy M., 218n5, 248n87
Riding, Alan, 452n108
Ridinger, Garret, 54n13
Riefler, Petra, 354n121
Riggs, Rachel E., 352n58
Rihanna, 79, 337
Rindfleisch, Aric, 317n37, 317n43,
319n94
Rink, David R., 56n116
Rippé, Cindy B., 451n48
Ritchie, L., 54n24
Ritson, Mark, 450n19
Ritz, Wendy, 393n102
Ro, Christine, 417n8
Roberts, Brent W., 317n4, 317n9
Robertson, Kim, 122n50
Robertson, Thomas S., 451n86
Roche, Sarah, 86n32
Rocklage, Matthew D., 123n120
Rodas, Maria A., 281n47
Rodgers, Joann Ellison, 248n89
Rodrigo, Olivia, 329
Rodriguez, Javier M., 419n87
Rodriguez, Salvador, 121n14
Roedder, Deborah L., 121n35
Roehm, Michelle L., 393n102
Rogen, Seth, 173
Rogers, Cole, 247n55
Rogers, Everett M., 392n60, 392n62,
392n64, 451n90
Rogers, Todd, 219n53
Roggeveen, Anne L., 190n88
Rokeach, Milton, 317n30, 318n61
Rokka, Joonas, 318n59
Romano, Andrew, 55n49
Romer, Daniel, 189n38
Rondina, Renante, 219n53
Ronis, David L., 122n63
Rook, Dennis W., 450n28, 450n43,
452n118
Rosa, José Antonio, 54n30
Rosalsky, Greg, 148n32
Rosario, Ana Babić, 393n121
Rosch, Eleanor, 123n115
Rose, Gregory M., 319n99

Rose, Randall L., 219n72, 318n53,
450n39
Rosenberg, B. D., 317n22
Rosengren, Sara, 188n6, 392n71
Ross, Ivan, 121n19
Ross, Spencer M, 121n43
Rossback, Andrew, 190n55
Rossi, Dario, 86n50
Rossignac-Milon, Maya, 218n26,
218n28, 218n37, 219n38
Rossiter, John R., 246n14
Roux, Dominique, 283n131
Roy, Rajat, 317n14
Rozema, Ralph, 87n117
Rubionstein, Ruth P., 283n116
Rucker, Derek D., 123n120, 280n4,
419n68, 419n69
Ruiz, Neil G., 353n99
Ruiz, Rebecca R., 121n17
Ruppanner, Leah, 352n29
Rusbult, Caryl E., 281n32
Russell, Cristel Antonia, 25n24, 55n44,
55n45, 55n48, 56n91, 87n104,
122n79, 122n80, 122n88,
189n11, 189n27, 189n34,
189n42, 190n65, 191n109,
247n67, 317n19, 317n24,
317n25, 317n44, 319n120,
319n121, 352n52, 391n22,
391n23, 393n121, 419n63
Russell, Dale W., 122n79, 189n42,
419n63
Russo, J. Edward, 122n61
Rust, Roland T., 391n40, 391n45
Rustagi, Nimish, 281n51
Ruvio, Ayalla A., 121n33, 282n72,
354n104
Ryan, Eric, 130
Ryan, Maxwell, 248n110, 248n111,
248n113
Saastamoinen, Jani, 317n10
Saatcioglu, Bige, 54n31
Sabar, Ariel, 56n111
Saccardo, Silvia, 219n53
Sacks, Danielle, 453n132
Saegert, Joel, 318n52
Saint Clair, Julian K., 281n25
Saint Louis, Catherine, 283n122,
452n122
Sakellariou, Alexandra, 319n111
Salerno, Anthony, 148n14
Salganik, Matthew J., 392n57
Samper, Adriana, 188n8
Sandberg, Sheryl, 279
Sandikci, Özlem, 354n110
Sands, Sean, 25n34
Sanger, David E., 247n70
Sang-Hun, Choe, 393n130
Sansink, Brian, 85n9
Santana, Shelle, 282n76
Santora, Jacinda, 392n67
Santora, Marc, 191n122
Santos, Neymar da Silva Jr, 449
Saranow, Jennifer, 246n12
Sass, Erik, 55n62
Sato, Junko, 284n147
Sauer, Abe, 282n92
Sauer, Johannes, 123n91
Sauermilch, Willow S., 352n58
Savage, Mike, 418n32
Savary, Jennifer, 281n49
Savary, Miklos, 123n115
Sawyer, Alan G., 121n4, 190n86
Sayler, Tim, 147
Sayre, Shay, 281n53
Scarborough, William J., 352n29
Schattke, Kaspar, 148n10
Schau, Hope Jensen, 25n24, 282n59,
319n120, 351n20, 352n65,
393n117, 393n120, 451n91,
452n103
Scheiber, Noam, 354n127
Scheurich, Jim, 318n82

Schilke, Oliver, 188n10
Schimmelpfennig, Christian, 190n62
Schindler, Robert M., 123n105,
123n115
Schleifer, Justin J., 282n66
Schlosser, Ann E., 122n78, 246n15
Schmidt, Lennard, 55n42
Schmidt, Susanne, 121n9
Schmitt, Bernd, 25n33, 87n102,
450n10
Schmitt, B. H., 319n93
Schneier, Wendy L., 191n108
Schoegel, Marcus, 391n46
Schopler, John, 189n23, 189n24,
280n15
Schor, Juliet B., 319n122
Schouten, John W., 248n77, 283n121,
390n2, 393n109, 393n117
Schreier, Martin, 450n34
Schultz, Ainslie, 149n42, 318n46
Schultz, Myrna, 86n31
Schultz-Kleine, Susan, 281n41
Schulz, Peter J., 317n12
Schumann, David W., 189n28,
191n108
Schwab, Katharine, 56n121
Schwartz, Barry, 218n19
Schwarz, Norbert, 284n149
Sciandra, Michael R., 247n52
Sciolino, Elaine, 149n78
Scott, Gavin, 150n91
Scott, Linda, 419n91
Scott, Maura L., 189n30, 219n47,
318n55
Scott, Travis, 84, 174
Sebastiani, Roberta, 317n18
Sedikides, Constantine, 123n102,
189n35
Seelye, Katharine Q., 190n93
Seeman, Teresa E., 419n87
Segran, Elizabeth, 282n86
Seiders, Kathleen, 54n2
Seidman, Stephen, 391n50
Sekhon, Tejvir, 392n80
Seligman, Dan, 391n48
Selyukh, Alina, 54n33
Semuels, Alana, 149n83
Sen, Sankar, 54n34, 54n37
Sengupta, Jaideep, 25n31, 87n103,
351n6
Serchuk, David, 149n80
Settle, Robert B., 190n84
Sevilla, Julio, 87n87
Seymour, Daniel, 392n88
Sezer, Ovul, 451n45, 451n61
Shah, Avni M., 218n16
Shakespeare, William, 306
Shanahan, Doreen, 393n121
Shankar, Avi, 25n34
Shapiro, Stewart A., 86n61, 86n77
Shapouri, Beth, 393n141, 394n145
Sharapova, Maria, 174
Sharif, Marissa A., 149n55
Sharma, Amit, 217
Sharma, Eesha, 419n60, 419n61
Sharma, Piyush, 317n14
Sharma, Rakesh, 24n17
Sharp, Abbey, 319n123
Shavitt, Sharon, 188n3, 317n31
Shavitt, Sharon Duo Jiang, 418n27
Shaw, John, 281n26
Shayon, Sheila, 54n34, 353n73
Sheeran, Paschal, 148n16
Sheldon, Kennon M., 148n35
Shen, Hao, 87n103
Shen, Lijiang, 317n21
Shepherd, Debra Lynne, 419n62
Shepherd, Marshall, 350, 355n141,
355n143
Sheppard, Sarah, 284n151
Sherman, Chris, 87n81
Shermohammed, Maheen, 219n53
Sherrell, Daniel L., 218n5, 451n69
Sherry, John F., 450n1

Index

Sherry, John F. Jr., 25n32, 246n11,
248n79, 451n47, 451n53,
451n55, 451n63
Sherwood, I-Hsien, 86n53
Sheth, Jagdish, 419n83
Shi, Xinzhan, 191n106
Shields, Joy L., 317n19
Shiffrin, I. M., 122n46
Shimp, Terence A., 121n3, 121n19,
189n17, 190n83
Shire, Emily, 451n64
Shiv, Baba, 218n28
Shoham, Meyrav, 219n56
Shoulberg, Warren, 248n114
Shove, E., 451n78
Shrum, L. J., 86n32, 121n33, 281n51,
317n43, 317n44
Shu, Suzanne B., 86n34, 149n55
Siamagka, Nikoletta-Theofania, 451n82
Sibley, Chris G., 317n11
Siddiqui, Yusra, 354n111
Sieczkowski, Cavan, 281n45
Siegel, J. T., 317n22
Siemens, Jennifer Christie, 55n60
Silk, Alvin J., 123n92
Silva, Jennifer M., 417n11
Silva, Lauren, 57n133
Silverman, Jackie, 122n76
Simanis, Erik, 419n103
Simmons, Joseph P., 452n104
Simmons, Shea, 393n142
Simpson, Bonnie, 391n14, 391n24
Simpson, Richard Neil, 121n22
Sims, Calvin, 452n112
Sinatra, Frank, 332
Sinclair, Upton, 40
Singer, Natasha, 55n47, 55n75, 56n114,
392n85
Singh, Jagdip, 393n118
Singh, Surendra N., 123n95
Sinha, Rajiv K., 393n117
Sinkula, James M., 393n98
Sirgy, M. Joseph, 281n31
Sirianni, Nancy J., 317n38
Sirsi, Ajay K., 317n29
Skiles, Sara, 419n94
Skinner, B. F., 95
Sloan, Lloyd Reynolds, 189n26
Slobin, Sarah, 247n74
Small, Deborah A., 392n92
Smit, Edith G., 317n23
Smith, Andrew N., 392n70
Smith, Daniel C., 246n20
Smith, James D., 248n80
Smith, Kel, 54n15
Smith, Malcolm C., 248n86
Smith, Paige, 318n45
Smith, Ray A., 124n145, 248n98
Smith, Robert E., 391n42
Smith, Robert W., 86n69
Smith, Rosanna K., 283n108
Smith, Ruth Ann, 451n72
Smith, Scott M., 218n7, 281n45
Smith, Terry, 149n40
Snider, Christopher K., 219n53
Snyder, C. R., 149n41
Snyder, Mark, 281n17, 281n18
Soleymani, Saber, 283n108
Solomon, Michael R., 54n15, 87n82,
87n100, 122n70, 122n74,
123n113, 123n116, 123n122,
123n123, 148n21, 190n75,
191n121, 191n124, 218n23,
218n27, 219n44, 246n7, 280n5,
280n15, 281n17, 281n20,
281n41, 282n58, 283n133,
283n141, 318n93, 319n109,
319n110, 354n136, 390n8,
391n14, 392n82, 393n126,
450n20
Solomon, Sheldon, 148n35
Soman, Dilip, 122n82, 219n53
Song, Reo, 450n16
Song, Tani, 190n67

Sood, Sanjay, 281n27
Sorescu, Alina, 87n102
Sørenson, Elin Brandi, 318n63
Soster, Robin L., 219n42
Soufani, Khaled, 56n91
Soutar, Geoff, 418n51
Spangenberg, Eric R., 85n22
Spann, Martin, 218n34
Sparks, Jehan, 219n53
Sparks, Johnny V., 191n132
Spell, Lindsay, 353n88
Spence, Charles, 86n47
Spence, J. T., 122n46
Spence, K. W., 122n46
Spiller, Stephen A., 218n2
Spiro, Rosann L., 247n34, 247n35
Spittaels, Steven, 393n106
Spotts, Harlan E., 191n94
Spreng, Richard A., 246n30
Springsteen, Bruce, 118
Sprott, David, 25n39, 219n49
Spry, Amanda, 56n103
Sreekumar, Arun, 450n33
Srivastava, Sanjay, 317n11
Srull, Thomas K., 122n60, 122n70
Staats, Arthur W., 121n6
Staats, Carolyn K., 121n6
Stäbler, Samuel, 54n38
Staelin, Richard, 218n7, 247n42
Stafford, Kat, 56n97
Stanton, Wilbur W., 281n36
Stasha, Smiljanic, 418n37
Statz, Augusta, 394n146
Steber, Carolyn, 280n1
Steenkamp, Jan-Benedict E.M., 87n102
Steffel, Mary, 218n13, 218n25, 218n28,
218n37
Stein, Joel, 247n65
Steinbach, Rae, 150n97
Steinberg, Brian, 190n60, 191n97,
191n127, 319n108
Steinberg, Earle, 281n36
Steinfield, Charles, 418n18
Steinfield, Laurel, 282n89
Steinhart, Yael, 219n56
Steinhauer, Jennifer, 419n76
Stephen, Andrew T., 148n19, 247n52,
319n98, 391n53
Stephens-Davidowitz, Seth, 417n15
Sterling, Greg, 25n43
Stern, Barbara B., 189n27, 189n37,
191n134, 282n84
Sternthal, Brian, 391n41
Stetzer, Ed, 354n113
Stevenson, Alexandra, 283n124
Steverman, Ben, 352n64
Steward, Michelle D., 393n102
Stewart, David W., 122n65, 149n77
Stewart, Shelley III, 353n94
Stich, Lucas, 218n34
Stilley, Karen M., 246n25
St. Louis, Molly, 55n47
Stoner, Jennifer L, 24n21, 351n13
Storm, Diana, 246n11
Story, Louise, 149n79
Stout, Hilary, 282n63, 282n74
Strathman, Alan J., 189n35
Straumsheim, Carl, 393n135
Strauss, William, 353n67
Strizhakova, Yuliya, 149n42, 318n46
Stuart, Elnora W., 87n100, 121n3
Stuenkel, J. Kathleen, 352n32
Subramaniam, Brintha, 121n44
Suhonen, Niko, 317n10
Sujan, Harish, 246n33
Sujan, Mita, 123n125, 218n17, 246n33
Sullivan, Bob, 55n53
Sultan, Fareena, 451n87
Summers, John O., 392n66
Sun, Yacheng, 219n40
Sun, Yalin, 121n29
Sun, Yixia, 450n30
Sung, Yongjun, 319n99
Sunstein, Cass R., 219n51, 392n57

Surowiecki, James, 452n103
Surprenant, Carol F., 123n113, 247n42
Susskind, J. M., 247n43
Sutherland, Anne, 124n137
Swaminathan, Vanitha, 87n102
Swan, John E., 247n42
Swasy, Jack, 122n79
Swasy, John, 191n107
Sweldens, Steven, 121n2
Swift, Taylor, 95, 329
Szbillo, George J., 190n86
Szocs, Courtney, 85n9, 86n49
Tabb, Michael, 247n74
Tabuchi, Hiroko, 353n73
Tadokoro, Koh, 284n147
Tagliabue, John, 86n45
Tahari, Elie, 272
Tajfel, Henri, 390n4
Takemoto, Mami, 284n147
Talpade, Salil, 392n90
Tam, Leona, 318n50
Tan, Jacinth J. X., 418n27
Tan, Yong-Chin, 86n51
Tangari, A. H., 248n78
Tani, Tomiko, 284n147
Tannenbaum, Melanie B., 418n27
Tanner, John F., 352n32
Tanner, Robin J., 122n51, 218n28
Tansuhaj, Patriya, 392n90
Tapia, Allena, 283n111
Tapscott, Alex, 247n54
Tapscott, Don, 247n54
Tarrahi, Farid, 189n19, 189n41, 189n43,
189n48
Tasaki, Lori H., 281n38
Tatham, Ronald L., 281n36
Tauber, Edward M., 246n5
Tayi, Giri K., 391n54
Taylor, Curtis L., 248n88
Taylor, Mark, 418n32
Taylor, Paul, 353n76
Taylor, Shelley E., 123n111
Taylor, Shirley, 246n29
Taylor, Steven A., 247n40
Taylor, Suzanne, 57n135
Teel, Jesse E., 391n31
Tellegen, Cassandra L., 123n108
Tetreault, Mary A. Stansfield, 452n118
Thaicon, Park, 219n71
Thaler, Richard H., 218n6, 219n51
Thomas, Erik, 350
Thomas, Lauren, 148n5
Thomaz, Felipe, 319n98
Thompson, Beth, 124n137
Thompson, Clive, 188n10
Thompson, Craig J., 25n32, 282n85,
318n62, 319n94, 450n9
Thompson, Scott A., 393n117
Thompson, Stephanie, 352n37
Thomson, Matthew, 281n33
Thorbjørnsen, Helge, 188n6
Thorne, Avril, 189n26
Thornton, Jim, 248n88
Thorwid, Christian, 188n6
Thunberg, Greta, 360
Tierney, John, 392n79
Tighe, D., 353n72, 353n80
Tinkham, Spencer F., 319n99
Titlow, John Paul, 86n28, 191n125
Tobin, Ariana, 354n127
Todd, Samantha, 56n89
Todorov, Georgi, 353n71
Ton, Lan Anh N., 283n108
Toney, Heather McTeer, 350, 354n138
Torelli, Carlos J., 24n21, 351n13
Tormala, Zakary L., 190n87
Touré-Tillery, Maferima, 122n67
Touzani, Mourad, 354n104
Towns, Marlene Morris, 354n120
Townsend, Claudia, 219n69, 281n27
Toy, Daniel R., 189n33
Tracy, Ryan, 124n150, 124n153
Traiknor, Kevin J., 246n31

509

Travis, Terry, 350
Trawick, I. Frederick, 247n42
Treise, Debbie, 452n111
Trentmann, F., 451n78
Triplett, Tim, 318n87
Troester, Maura, 318n62
Trost, Melanie R., 391n18
Trout, Jack, 219n74
Trudel, Remi, 54n4, 148n8, 148n24,
247n71, 247n75, 248n77,
392n80
Tse, David K., 247n42, 247n45
Tse, Terence, 56n91
Tsiros, Michael, 218n24
Tsukayama, Eli, 219n53
Türe, Meltem, 450n7
Tuk, Mirjam A., 149n51
Tulving, Endel, 122n52
Tunison, Michael, 451n67
Turley, L. W., 246n14
Turner, John C., 390n4
Turner, Jonathan H., 417n3, 417n4,
418n35
Turner, Marcia Layton, 248n117,
248n118, 248n119
Tuttle, Brad, 282n78
Tversky, Amos, 25n30, 219n76
Tybout, Alice M., 391n41
Tyko, Kelly, 354n103
Tynan, Michael C., 149n45
Tyrrell, William Blake, 450n26
Ubel, Peter A., 218n16
Ulku, Sezer, 247n37
Umiker-Sebeok, Jean, 319n110
Underwood, Anne, 451n70
Urbany, Joel E., 149n67
Ursano, Robert J., 419n63
Uysal, Ertugrul, 219n70
Vakratsas, Demetrios, 189n18
Valenzuela, Ana, 25n36, 54n34, 54n37,
86n42
Vallen, B., 248n78
Van Boven, Leaf, 351n8, 391n26
Vance, Anthony, 87n83
Van den Bergh, Bram, 149n51
Vanden Bergh, Bruce, 86n31
Van den Bulte, Christophe, 219n53
van den Hende, Ellis A., 122n87,
189n40
Vanderbilt, Tom, 393n136
Vanderbilt, William, 408
van der Pligt, Joop, 189n11
van Harreveld, Frenk, 189n11
van Heerde, Harald J., 391n40, 391n45
van Horen, Femke, 121n21
Vanhuele, Marc, 122n56
Van Ittersum, Koert, 87n89, 246n28
Van Kerchkhove, Anneleen, 247n50
van Laer, Tom, 121n31, 122n87,
189n40
Vann, Lee, 353n91
van Osselaer, Stijn M. J., 121n2,
122n59, 450n34
van Raaij, Fred, 418n49
van Reijmersdal, Eva A., 189n43
Van Treuren, Ronald R., 280n13
Vargo, Stephen L., 451n91
Varman, Rohit, 418n45
Vasos, Todd, 417
Veblen, Thorstein, 408, 415, 419n72
Veeck, Ann, 123n131
Velasco, Carlos, 85n3
Vellequette, Larry P., 150n84
Veloso, Andres R., 282n100
Veludo-de-Oliveira, Tania Modesto,
318n63
Vembar, Kaarin, 452n95
Venable, Beverly T., 319n99
Venes, Simon, 85n4
Venes, Susan, 85n4
Venkatraman, Meera P., 392n63
Venkatraman, Vinod, 123n96

510

Index

Venturella, Irene, 317n18
Veresiu, Ela, 283n106
Verlegh, Peeter W. J., 317n23
Verleun, Jeroen, 190n64
Verma, Rahul, 56n123
Verstraeten, Julie, 247n50
Vi, Chi Thanh, 85n3
Victoria Lyn, 307
Victorino, Lara P., 282n100
Vidal, Leticia, 87n98
Vikas, Ram M., 418n45
Vines, Brian, 417
Viswanathan, Madhubalan, 54n30
Vo, Khoi, 123n96
Vogel, Nadine, 54n15
Vogt, Christine A., 391n42
Vohs, Kathleen D., 25n26, 25n40,
121n33, 123n102, 318n54,
318n85, 392n81, 450n29,
451n61
Volpp, Kevin G., 219n53
Vosgerau, Joachim, 391n28
Voss, Glenn B., 54n2, 246n29
Vranica, Suzanne, 25n38, 121n30,
191n127
Vredenburg, Jessica, 56n103
Vuleta, Branka, 352n24
Wakabayashi, Daisuke, 25n45
Wakefield, Kirk L., 246n25
Walden, Haley, 150n94, 150n110
Walden, Stephanie, 150n92
Waldman, Alexandra, 280
Walker, Beth, 318n63
Walker, Marcus Randall, 189n26,
391n33
Walker, Orville C. Jr., 246n30, 246n32
Walker, Rob, 191n126
Wallace, Amy, 318n77
Wallace, Scott G., 149n56
Wallace, Wallace H., 190n74
Wallendorf, Melanie, 123n121, 281n48,
317n34, 318n63, 417n2, 450n1,
451n47, 451n58
Walsh, Ann, 352n32, 352n33
Walsh, Kristen, 351n20
Wan, Echo Wen, 319n101
Wan, Lisa C., 282n95
Wan, Xuehua, 450n30
Wang, Cheng, 219n64, 319n97
Wang, Kaitlyn, 419n104, 420n110
Wang, Liangyan, 191n106
Wang, Pengyuan, 283n108
Wang, Qingliang, 391n54
Wang, Wendy, 354n116
Wang, Yajin, 419n79, 450n29
Wang, Yitong, 248n77
Wansink, Brian, 87n89, 246n28
Ward, Adrian F., 86n64
Ward, James, 121n19
Ward, James C., 317n29, 351n11,
391n50
Ward, Morgan, 418n19
Warhol, Andy, 375
Warlop, Luk, 121n20, 280n2, 352n59
Warner, W. Lloyd, 418n31
Warren, Caleb, 191n96, 219n53
Warren, Nooshin L., 54n11
Warren, Wendy L., 191n108
Warshaw, Paul R., 452n92
Waterworth, Kristi, 87n118
Watkins, M., 247n69
Watson, George F., 54n11
Watson, John, 317n28
Watts, Duncan J., 391n55, 392n57,
392n60
Watts, Randy, 247n62
Weaven, Scott, 219n71
Webb, Andrea, 86n35
Weber, Bernd, 148n26, 188n10
Weber, Max, 396, 403, 418n36
Weber, Megan, 219n53
Weber, Thomas E., 393n131
Webster, Fred E., 392n86

Wechsler, Pat, 391n34
Wedel, Michel, 86n72
Weeks, Clinton S., 123n108
Weijo, Henri A., 248n77, 393n109,
393n110
Weinberg, Charles B., 190n83
Weinberger, Marc G., 191n94
Weinberger, Michelle F., 417n11
Weingarten, Mark, 452n104
Weisenstein, Kara, 24n19
Weiser, Deborah, 450n26
Weisfeld-Spolter, Suri, 451n48
Weiss, Allen M., 393n99
Weiss, Geoffrey, 86n68
Weiss, Liad, 281n41
Weiss, Michael J., 417n10
Weiss, Paul, 87n96
Weitz, Barton A., 246n3, 246n33,
393n105
Wellman, Barry, 391n51
Wells, Georgia, 124n142
Wells, William D., 54n32, 318n73,
318n79
Wernerfelt, Birger, 218n12
Wertenbroch, Klaus, 351n3
Wertley, Chad, 352n32
West, Kanye, 332
West, Patricia M., 371nii, 391n25
Westerman, Marty, 354n101
Whitaker, Walter W. III, 452n117
White, Erin, 283n112
White, John, 123n91
White, Katherine, 54n12, 56n100,
56n101, 149n36, 351n6,
391n14, 391n15, 391n24
White, Tiffany Barnett, 281n30
Whitley, Sarah C., 148n24
Whitney, John C. Jr., 123n112
Wicklund, Robert A., 281n50
Wiertz, Caroline, 418n19
Wiggins, Jennifer, 317n17
Wilcox, Keith, 148n19, 391n53
Wilk, R., 451n78
Wilkes, Robert E., 352n36
Wilkie, James E. B., 282n80
Wilkie, William L., 149n67, 190n79,
390n10, 419n97
Wilkinson, Jack, 451n64
Williams, Alex, 452n93
Williams, Elanor F., 218n13, 218n25,
218n28, 218n37
Williams, Jerome D., 351n15
Williams, Kaylene C., 247n34, 247n35
Williams, Kipling, 391n32
Williams, Margaret M., 451n59
Williams, Patti, 351n1
Williams, Pharrell, 426, 438
Williams, Robert M., 477
Williams, Wendy, 316
Williamson, S., 248n78
Wilson, Andrew D., 281n54
Wilson, Antonia E., 317n9
Wilson, Chip, 302
Wilson, J. P., 317n3
Wilson, Marianne, 284n161, 284n162
Wilson, Rinie, 220n84
Wilton, Peter C., 247n42, 247n45
Wind, Jerry, 55n57, 283n140
Wind, Yoram, 392n86
Wingfield, Nick, 25n45
Winkelmann, Mike, 11
Winter, 139
Winterich, Karen Page, 122n83,
419n71, 450n15
Wirtz, Jochen, 246n15
Wirtz, John G., 191n132
Witkowski, Terrence, 25n37
Woelbert, Eva, 121n10
Woermann, Niklas, 318n59
Wojdynski, Bartosz W., 191n129
Wolburg, Joyce M., 452n111
Wolfinbarger, Mary, 352n65
Wolny, Julia, 148n21, 283n133,
283n141

Woltman Elpers, Josephine L. C. M.,
191n94
Wong, Jared, 418n23
Wong, Nancy, 317n37, 318n50
Wood, Andy, 189n53
Wood, David, 56n125, 56n127
Wood, Natalie T., 54n15, 393n126
Wood, Stacy, 86n32
Wood, Stacy L., 392n90
Wood, Zoe, 394n150
Woodard, Colin, 354n122
Wooley, Kaitlin, 390n5
Woolf, Jake, 451n67
Woolston, Chris, 192n140
Wooten, David B., 352n54
Worchel, Stephen, 390n4
Wortham, Jenna, 123n101
Wright, John L., 450n26
Wright, Peter, 247n41
Wright, Richard L., 123n127
Wright, Webb, 87n120
Wu, Eugenia C., 191n100, 280n12
Wu, Freeman, 188n8
Wünderlich, Nancy V., 219n64, 319n97
Wulf, Jochen, 391n46
Wyckham, R. G., 190n79
Wyer, Robert S. Jr., 122n85, 282n95
Xia, Lan, 87n94
Xie, En, 391n54
Yamashita, Toru, 284n147
Yan, Li, 418n26, 419n64
Yang, Guang, 353n85
Yang, Haiyang, 55n83, 247n36
Yang, Yang, 149n54
Yao, Julie L., 281n32
Yazdani, Elham, 283n108
Yegoryan, Narine, 218n34
Yi, Tracey, 85n12
Yoffe, Emily, 280n3
Yoo, Jinyoung Jinnie, 351n5
Yoon, Song-Oh, 149n49
Yoon, Sunyee, 318n50
Yoshinaga, Kendra, 353n87
Youn, Nara, 319n102
Youn, Soo, 54n10
Young, Neil, 118
Yuan, Hong, 121n33, 392n58
Yzerbyt, Vincent, 352n59
Zablocki, Benjamin D., 318n68, 318n70
Zaichkowsky, Judith Lynne, 121n22,
148n26, 149n57, 149n65,
188n10, 281n28
Zajonc, Robert B., 191n102
Zammit, Alessandra, 218n2
Zand, Delara, 452n94
Zane, Daniel M, 86n69, 123n99
Zaretzki, Russell, 419n85
Zaslow, Jeffrey, 150n87
Zauberman, Gal, 122n76, 123n130
Zavisca, Jane R., 417n11
Zaydenberg, Izabella, 283n107
Zayer, Linda Tuncay, 282n89, 282n90,
450n33
Zeithaml, Valarie A., 247n42
Zendaya, 331
Zervas, Georgios, 247n66
Zhang, Meng, 191n135
Zhang, Yan, 121n29
Zhang, Yinlong, 282n76, 392n80,
419n71, 450n14, 450n15
Zhang, Yuanyuan, 317n13
Zhang, Z. John, 149n70
Zhao, Min, 87n94
Zheng, Jianqing (Frank), 25n31
Zheng, Yanmei, 85n19
Zheng, Yuhyang, 149n47, 189n22
Zhou, Qiong, 248n104
Zhou, Xinyue, 318n54
Zhu, Meng, 149n54
Zhu, Rui (Juliet), 219n39
Zimbres, Thais M., 191n132

Zipkin, Amy, 319n104
Zmuda, Natalie, 56n110, 353n68
Zuckerberg, Mark, 11, 405
Zydinoğlu, Nilüfer Z., 283n113

Company and BrandName Index
3Com Ergo Audrey, 381
7 For All Mankind, 103
7-Eleven, 448
16 and Pregnant, 311
24 Hour Fitness, 458–459
A Wanted Man, 265
A&W, 373f
ABC, 182, 380
Abercrombie & Fitch, 51, 243, 331, 367
Access, 103
Accord, 221
Adidas, 92, 99, 174, 331, 346, 423f, 455
Aetna, 447
AG Jeans, 74
AHALife, 375
Air Huntress, 263
Air Jordans, 5, 434
Air Nikes, 429
Airbnb, 180, 202, 203, 235, 236, 244
AirCar, 440
Airinum, 46f
Airtime, 331
Alcoholics Anonymous, 383
Alexa, 10, 23–24, 212, 215, 274, 327
Alexander McQueen, 261
Alexander Wang, 444
Alibaba, 431
Alka-Seltzer, 119, 308
All in the Family, 434
Allied Market Research, 147
Allstate, 175
Alpha M.O.S., 67
Alpine Butterfly, 272
Altoids, 364
Amazon, 23, 52, 209, 211, 212, 327,
335, 336, 375, 380, 383, 400f,
423f, 473
Amazon Marketplace, 36
Ambi Pur, 265
American Eagle, 331
American Express, 63, 95, 316, 473
American Idol, 448
American Iron, 359
Amy’s Kitchen, 336
Android, 69f
Angry Birds, 384
Anheuser-Busch InBev, 80, 141
Apple, 62, 69f, 79, 138–139, 167, 180,
217, 306, 313, 334, 336, 375,
438
Apple Music, 65
Apple Newton, 381, 383
Apple Pay, 118
Apple Watch, 130, 274, 438
Aqua Teen Hunger Force, 22
Arby’s, 243
Are You Smarter Than a Fifth Grader?
105
Aristotle, 327
Arizona State University, 164
Armani, 139
Asics, 455–456
Aston Martin, 310
Atlanta Falcons, 143
Audi, 8, 170
Aunt Jemima, 32–33, 339, 340
Aveda, 334
Avengers, The, 263
Axe, 143, 182, 269f, 277
Backer Spielvogel Bates, 298
Balmain, 84

Index

Banana Republic, 299
Barbie, 182, 185, 263, 268, 329
Barcalounger, 89
Barkley Pet Hotels, 328
Barnes & Noble, 211
Baskin Robbins, 72f
Bass Pro Shops, 225, 227f
Batman, 426
Battlestar Galactica, 274
Bayer HealthCare Pharmaceuticals, 40,
156, 308, 447
BBDO Worldwide, 428
Beach Boys, 118
Beatles, 89
Beauty & Pin-Ups, 270f
Bellagio, 398
Ben & Jerry’s, 29
Ben’s Original, 33, 340
Bentley, 94, 94f
Best Buy, 244
Betty Crocker, 71, 71f
Bic for Her, 264f
Big Ass Fans, 306
Big Bang Theory, 193
Big Brother, 448
Big Gulp, 83
Big Macs, 174
Bing, 210
Birchbox, 375
Birchbox Ipsy, 144
Bitcoin, 232
Black & Decker, 75
Black Crown, 141, 444
Black Widow, 263
BlackJack, 103
Blade Runner, 274
Blair Witch Project, The, 182
Bliss, 307
Blue Apron, 375
Blue Crush, 286
BMW, 8, 8f, 257, 311, 398
BMW MINI, 381
Book of Mormon, 340
Bookmooch, 235
Boston Red Sox, 100, 139
Bounce Pure Sport Fabric Softener
Sheets, 264f
Bounty, 81
Brain Box, 104
Brand Loyalty, 147
BrandAsset® Archetypes, 307
Braniff, 340
Breitling, 147, 148
Bristol-Myers Squibb, 67
Brooklyn Nets, 426
Budweiser, 159, 168, 362, 429, 444
Bugchaser, 441
Build-A-Bear, 227f
Bump, The, 326f
Bungie Studios, 381
Burger King, 64, 74f, 182, 243
Burning Man Festival, 400f
Burt’s Bees, 93f
Buzz Lightyear, 426
Cadbury Schweppes, 118
Cadillac, 301, 403
Callard & Bowser, 364
Calvin Klein, 84, 261
Campaign for Real Beauty, 270
Campbell’s, 94, 437
Canada Goose, 400f
Candy, 84
Candy Crush, 384
Cap’n Crunch, 89, 185
Care Bears, 185
Carnival, 105
Carolina Herrera, 338
Carvana, 222f
Casera, 320
CBS, 160, 380
Chainsmokers tequila, 173
Chanel, 111
ChapStick, 239

Charlie the Tuna, 179
Charmin, 40, 142f, 143
ChatGPT, 37
Cheerios, 439
Cheesy Wiki, 380
Cheetos, 308, 436
Chester Cheetah, 175, 308, 308f, 426
Chevrolet, 80, 180, 311, 403
Chex, 182
Chex Quest, 110f, 182
Chick beer, 264f
Chick-Fil-A, 139, 307, 329
Chinese Cherry, 340
Chipotle, 47f, 84, 147, 148, 294
Chippendale, 310
Chiquita Banana, 119
Chobani, 312, 315
Chocolate, 103
Chrysler, 143
Circus Circus, 398
Citroën, 387
Clearasil, 185
Clinical Therapy, 370
Clueless, 335
Coach, 129, 224, 410
Coca-Cola, 12, 51, 67, 80, 81, 92, 110f,
118, 130, 162–163, 162f, 168,
176, 185, 236, 336, 340, 376,
427
Coffee-Mate, 102
Coldplay, 141
Colgate, 155, 417
Comedy Central, 311
Comme des Garçons, 280
Conair, 201
Consumer Reports, 211, 417
Converse, 303
Coopers & Lybrand, 118
Coors, 53, 340
Coors Light, 228, 442
Corona beer, 347
Corvair, 28
Costco, 244, 410, 416
Cougar, 118, 427
Cracker Jack, 264f
Cracker Jill, 264f
Crayola, 185
Crazy Blue Air Freshener, 441
Crazy Rich Asians, 339f
Crazy Taxi, 182
Cream of Wheat, 339
Crest, 155
Crocs, 329
CrossFit, 307f
Culture Brands, 350–351
Curry Flow 9, 360
Curves, 342
CVS, 161, 161f, 269, 416, 417
Daily Show, The, 311
Daimler AG group, 8
DaimlerChrysler, 160
Dare, 103
David Lerner, 224
DDB World Communications Group,
298
Decentraland, 84
Decoy, 103
Dell, 180, 233
Delta Airlines, 29
Despicable Me, 72
Destiny’s Child, 315
Diane von Furstenberg, 261
Diet Coke, 156, 271, 377
Diet Pepsi, 377
Digiorno pizza, 53
Disney, 80, 160, 225, 347, 427
Disney World, 225, 421, 427
Disneyland, 225
Divergent, 263
Dockers, 81
Dog Vacay, 235
Dogtown and Z-Boys, 437
Dolce & Gabbana, 84

Dole, 94
Dollar General, 244, 416–417
Dollar Shave Club, 144, 375
Dollar Tree, 227, 416–417
Domino, 206
Domino’s Pizza, 80, 147
Dommelsch, 226
Doom, 182
DoorDash, 204
Dora the Explorer, 100
Doritos, 341
Dove, 268f, 270, 277, 336, 347, 365
Dr. Pepper Ten, 264f
Drake, 173
Droga5, 84, 141
Duck Dynasty, 311
Dunkin’ Donuts, 113, 143
Duracell, 417
Durex, 80
EasyJet, 63
eBay, 226
Echo, 23
Eco-Scale, 46f
Egg Banking, 142–143
e.l.f., 329
Energizer, 417
Entourage, 362
Equifax, 37
Escalade SUV, 301
Esso, 287, 288f
Estée Lauder, 84
Ethan Allen, 224
Euro Disney, 446
Euromonitor, 13
eventricity Ltd., 217
Evermore, 95
Expedia, 233
Extra Strength Maalox Whip Antacid,
77
Extreme Makeover: Home Edition, 182
Exxon, 79
Exxon/Mobile, 287, 288f
FabFitFun, 144
Facebook, 9, 11, 12, 35, 38, 53, 89, 94,
109f, 120, 147, 170, 172f, 197,
261, 262, 279, 302, 346, 347,
367, 368, 369, 381, 388, 390,
398, 399, 400f, 415, 434, 442
Facebook Groups, 383
Factcheck.org, 36
Fairy soap, 347
Fam, 331
Family Dollar, 416
FarmVille, 38
Fashion Nova, 372
Fast ‘n’ Loud, 311
Fat Bastard, 306
Febreze, 265
FedEx, 79f
Ferrari, 84, 94, 160
Fitbit, 128f, 129
FlipShot, 103
Folgers, 65
Foot Locker, 185
Footjoy, 303
Forbes, 316, 350, 416
Ford, 81, 387
Forever 21, 84
Forrester Research, 388
Fox News, 197, 460
Free People, 331
Friday the 13th, 432
Friends, 105, 108
Friendster, 399
Frito-Lay, 160, 201, 264f
Frozen, 120, 263
Full House, 325
Fuller House, 325
Gablinger’s, 422
Galaxy, 195, 443
Gallup, 266

511

Galpin Motors, 433
Game of Thrones, 311
Game Show Network, 211
Gap, 84, 334, 436, 442
Garmin, 381
Gartner, 147
Gatorade, 167, 256f
Geek Chic, 303
GEICO gecko, 174, 175, 308
GEICO insurance, 311
General Electric, 94
General Mills, 312, 312f, 439
General Motors (GM), 28, 177, 350,
351
Genies, 85
Getty Images, 279
GfK Consumer Trends Global Survey,
13, 464
Ghost Stories, 141
Gillette Sensor, 130
Gilligan’s Island, 335
Gilt Groupe, 233
Girl, 426
Glyde, 103
Go Girl, 264f
Godzilla, 83
Gold Dust Twins, 339
Golden Arches, 427
Golden State Warriors, 100, 360
Goldman Sachs, 417
Golf, 348
Google, 24, 32, 69, 105, 118, 120, 160,
197, 210, 217, 313, 335, 365,
375, 400f, 442
Google Goggles, 69f
Google Home, 212, 215
Google Maps, 105
Google Pay Send, 232, 241
Google Street View, 311
Goya, 320
GQ, 294
Grateful Dead, 118
Graze, 144
Green Valley, 112
Grenade Coffee, 175
Grey’s Anatomy, 40
Grubhub, 204
Grumppuccino, 175
Grumpy Cat, 175
Gucci, 84, 311, 328, 408, 442
Gucci Town, 84
Guess, 43
Guiness, 429
H&M, 45, 278, 280, 316
Häagen-Dazs, 436
Hairbrella, 81
Halo 2, 381
Hamburglar, 426, 427
Handi-Wrap, 110
Hapi Food, 306
Happy Meal, 72
Hardee’s, 83
Harley-Davidson, 19, 62, 139, 139f,
180, 328, 358–359, 381, 381f
Harry Potter, 307
Harvard University, 399
Havaianas, 226
Haven, 384
Health Club Media Network, 243
Healthwalkers, 303
Heineken, 436
Heinz, 94
Hello Kitty, 299
Henning, 279
Henry the Hippo, 228
Hermès, 375
Hershey, 185, 216, 225f
Hershey’s Kisses, 216
Hewlett-Packard, 405f
High Tide, 116
Hoarding: Buried Alive, 240
Holga, 381
Holiday Inn, 229

512

Index

Hollywood Stock Exchange, 381
Home Depot, 416
Honda, 146, 221
Honey Maid, 72
Hooters, 277
Host Foods, 225f
Hot Topic, 280, 334
House of Deréon, 316
House Party, 331
How I Built This, 313
HP, 313
Huggies, 228
Hugo Boss, 64, 447
Humans, 274
Hunger Games, The, 263, 331
Hush Puppy, 442
HVLS Fan Company, 306
Hydrox, 139
Hyundai Motor America, 351
Hyundai Motor Company, 350–351
I Love My Car! 23
IBM, 52, 167, 212, 447, 473
i.Con, 275
IHOP Restaurants, 80
IKEA, 141, 306, 328, 384
Impala, 311
Infinity Burial Suit, 433
Injun Orange, 340
In-N-Out, 380
Instagram, 9, 89, 109f, 112, 120, 168,
170, 174, 329, 331, 365f, 372,
383, 389, 390, 437, 449
Instinct, 103
Intuit, 81
iPhone, 138, 195, 227, 257, 438
iPods, 185
It’s Always Sunny in Philadelphia, 311
Ivy Park, 174, 316
Izod Lacoste, 91–92, 91f
J. Peterman Company, 312
Jack Link’s Beef Jerky, 175
Jameson Irish Whiskey, 146
Janoski, 437
JCPenney, 20, 244, 415
Jeep, 81, 381
Jeni’s Splendid Ice Cream, 174
Jeopardy, 274
Jetty Girl, 285
Jolly Green Giant, 7f, 179, 308
Jones Soda, 139, 381
Joy-Walkers, 303
JS Roundhouse Mids, 346
Juicy Couture, 328
Juicy jeans, 5
Juke, 103
Kahr, 265
Kay Jewelers, 186
Keebler Elves, 308
Keeping Up with the Kardashians, 294
Kellogg’s, 65
Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC), 72,
182, 340, 366, 436f
Keurig, 336
KFC China, 212
Kickass Cupcake, 306
Kimberly-Clark, 40
Kimono, 442
KIND, 147
Kitchen Aid, 306
Kiva Day Spa, 226
Kleenex Mansize, 264f
Kmart, 185
Knot, The, 212, 326f
Kodak, 447
Kraft, 72, 120, 312, 364
Krispy Kreme, 215
Kroger, 416
LA Fitness, 458–459
Land’s End, 66, 328
Lane Bryant, 272

Layar, 69f
League of Legends (LoL), 299
Led Zeppelin, 118
LEGO, 444
Lending Club, 235
Lennar, 325
Leo Burnett, 364
Lever Brothers, 339
Levi Strauss, 95
Levi’s jeans, 81, 89, 141, 436
LG, 103
Like Mike, 429
Limited Too, 51
LinkedIn, 9, 359, 390, 415
Lipton, 435–436
Listerine, 94
L’Oréal, 81, 135, 308, 316
L’Oréal Paris, 277
Lomo, 381
Lord of the Rings, 307
Louis Vuitton, 11, 334, 374, 400, 408,
410, 424f
LowerMyBills.com, 74
Lululemon, 4, 89, 113, 302, 307, 329
Lush, 389–390
Lyft, 95, 202, 235
M&M, 147
Mack trucks, 231
Macy’s, 11, 231
Major League Baseball, 435
Malibu, 403
Malibu Barbie, 182
Man with a Plan, 325
Manolo Blahnik, 139
Marilyn Manson, 335
Mario Kart, 182
Marks & Spencer, 201
Marlboro, 92, 92f, 424f
Marley Coffee, 116
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(MIT), 167, 259
Mastercard, 53
Match.com, 381
Matrix, The, 13f
Mattel, 182, 268, 327
Maybelline, 231, 265
Mayhem Man, 175
Maytag, 311
Mazda, 67
McDonald’s, 61, 72, 76, 92, 111, 119,
120, 147, 174, 243, 316, 426,
427, 447
McFlurry, 61
McKinsey & Company, 84, 85, 351
MediaHub, 84
Mediamark Research & Intelligence,
372
Media.Monks, 84
Meek Mill, 61
Meister Brau beer, 110
Mercedes-Benz, 8, 182, 215, 374, 398,
408, 447
Merck, 342
Mercury, 118
Meta, 11, 53, 94, 120, 468
Metamucil, 178
Method, 130f
MetLife, 175
MeUndies, 266
Miata, 67
Michael Kors, 261, 280
Michelin Man, 308
Microsoft, 52, 118, 210, 233, 375
Milka, 94–95
Miller Beer, 53, 135, 422
Miller Lite, 135, 422
Milton Bradley, 185
Mindful Lotus tea, 100
Mindful Meats, 100
Mindful Mints, 100
Mini Cooper, 182
Minions, 72
Mintel, 13

Mixed Chicks Haircare, 102
MMUK Man, 265
Moda Operandi, 233
ModCloth, 280
Modern Family, 311
Modi, 308
Molson Export beer, 301
Mondelēz, 449
Money Smart, 141
Monopoly, 141, 147
Monster Burger, 83
Moon Pies, 61
Mountain Dew, 110f, 180, 373f
M-Pesa, 444
Mr. Clean, 426
Mr. Goodwrench, 179
Mr. Peanut, 110, 308
MRI Simmons, 455, 458, 460
Mrs. Butterworth’s Syrup, 327
MSNBC, 198
MTV, 336
Mugs N. Jugs, 277
Mulan, 111
Mustang, 387, 427
My Strange Addiction, 23
My Subscription Addiction, 144
MySpace, 399
Nabisco, 72
Nair, 430
Nair Pretty, 430
Nantucket Nectars, 313
NASA, 37
National Football League, 94, 299, 433
Native deodorant, 44, 45f
Natural Beauty campaign, 277
Nature’s Pride, 315
NBC, 380
Nerf, 263
Nespresso, 237
Nestlé, 178, 436, 468
Net-a-Porter, 233
Netflix, 211
New Balance, 312, 455–456
New Coke, 163
New York Life, 447
New York Times, 368
New York Yankees, 435
NHL, 254
Nike, 7, 7f, 29f, 80f, 84, 185, 303,
307, 329, 341, 346, 380, 423f,
428, 429, 434, 436, 437, 442,
455–456
Nintendo, 185, 316
Nivea, 347
NJM Insurance, 81
Noisôme, 81
Nokia, 436
Nordstrom, 280, 316
North Face, The, 212
NPD Group, 331
NPR, 313
Nytol, 201
Oakley sunglasses, 94
Obesity Help, 382
Ocean Spray, 98
Oculus Rift, 231
Oculus VR, 69
Ogilvy & Mather, 298
Oil of Olay, 430
OKAY Hyundai, 350–351
OKCupid, 381
Old Navy, 244
Old Spice, 110f, 265
Older Brother, 266
Omni hotels, 62
ooVoo, 331
Open Table, 203
Orange Is the New Black, 64
Oreos, 15, 60, 61, 102, 185,
448–449
Ørsted, 44
Oui, 312, 312f

Owens-Corning Fiberglass Corporation,
62
OXFAM International, 266
Pandora, 185
Pantone, 13, 64
Parkay Fun Squeeze Colored
Margarine, 437
Patagonia, 16f, 26, 29, 44, 238f, 334
Paul Mitchell, 328
Pawn Stars, 311
Pay as You Drive, 52
PayPal, 232, 233, 241
Peace Corps, 132
Pearl Milling Company, 33, 340
Peloton, 125, 133, 180, 196f
Pepsi A. M., 114
Pepsi MAX, 341
PepsiCo, 65, 67, 80, 110f, 114, 118,
120, 162–163, 162f, 176, 185,
215, 228, 236, 316, 333, 333f,
341, 373f, 436
Perdue, 340
Perfect 365, 262
Perry Ellis, 84
PetSmart, 328f
Pfizer, 342
Phish, 299
Piccadilly Circus, 53
Picoo Z, 365
Pillsbury, 339
Pillsbury Doughboy, 7f, 175, 311
Pimp Juice, 426
PINK (Victoria’s Secret), 226, 331
Pink Friday, 426
Pink Panther, 62
Pinterest, 10, 212, 390, 399
Pizza Hut, 185
Planet Fitness, 458–459
Planters Fresh Roast, 78
Planters Life-Savers Company, 78
Planters Peanuts, 110
PlayStation, 185
Plenitude, 81
Polo, 310
Polygamy Porter, 341
Pop-Tarts, 10
Porsche, 160, 439
Post Malone, 173
Pottery Barn, 108
Powerful Yogurt, 264f
Prada, 84
Premium Care Hemp Calming Chews,
329
Premium Saltines, 72
PriceWaterhouse-Coopers (PwC), 118,
235
Pringles, 143
Pro Tattoo Tech Gear, 434
Procter & Gamble (P&G), 40, 79, 130f,
143, 217, 265, 267, 288, 468
Progressive, 52
Prudential, 79, 179f
Puma, 102
Purell, 185
Qiaobi, 347
Quaker Oats, 305, 305f, 307, 340
Qualtrics, 473
Quarter Pounder, 174
Queen, 426
Queer Eye, 266
Quiff and Co., 265
Quividi, 53
R. J. Reynolds, 347
RadRunner, 376
Ralph Lauren, 92, 310, 328, 405f
Range Rover, 69
Rastus, 339
Ray-Ban, 180
Rebelle Heartbreaker Exclusive Golden
Edge Bow, 263
Red Wing, 410

Index

Reebok, 455–456
Reflect Digital, 147
RelayRides, 235
R.E.M., 118
Rent the Runway, 404f
Restoration Hardware (RH), 245–246
RJR Nabisco, 77
Road Glide Custom, 358
Roblox, 11, 84
Roche, 67
Rolex, 43, 311
Rolling Stones, 118
Ronald McDonald, 427
Rosie the Riveter, 265f
Rowenta, 201
Roxy, 286
Rubik’s Cube, 104
RVL7, 226
Ryan’s World, 120
Saatchi & Saatchi, 334
Safeway, 342
Samsung, 69, 84, 103, 180, 195, 316,
336
Sasquatch, 175
Sassy Bitch, 306
SB Dunks, 437
SC Johnson, 46f
Scandinavian Airlines, 217
Schick, 232
Sears, 415
Seattle Seahawks, 100
Sephora, 234f
Seventeen, 278, 329
Sex and the City, 139, 180, 259f
Share Now, 8
Sharp, 437
Shearson, 110
Shine, 103
Sierra Mist Ruby Splash, 373f
Sigg, 303
Silverlit Toys, 365
Simpsons, The, 437
Sims, The, 384
Siri, 10, 274
SitOrSquat, 142f
Six Degrees of Separation, 367, 381
SKIMS, 442
Slack, 34, 93
Sleep Pretty in Pink, 264f
Smucker’s, 342
Snapchat, 9, 109f, 118, 329, 390
SnapGoods, 235, 244
Snapple, 307
Snoopy, 175
Snopes.com, 36
SodaStream, 176
Sonos, 65
Sony, 69, 185, 334
Sony BMG, 146
Sony Pictures, 37
Sophia (robot), 34, 275
Soul Surfer, 286
South Park, 311
Spanx, 273
Speaking Roses International, 143
Speedy Alka-Seltzer, 308
Spic and Span, 79
Sports Authority, 43
Sports Illustrated, 341, 423
Sprint Guy, 311
SRI Consulting Business Intelligence,
410
Staples, 43
Star Trek, 428f, 434
Star Wars, 217, 426, 443
Starbucks, 29f, 79, 80, 95, 139f, 148,
226, 227, 365f, 421
Steam, 110f
Steppenwolf, 118
StockX, 382f
Stonyfield, 112
Stranger Things, 193
StriVectin, 381

Style Room, 375
Subaru, 335
Subway, 174
Sudoku, 104
Sun Maid, 94
Sunkist, 115f, 118
Super Size Me, 28
Supreme, 129
Surge, 110f
Survey Monkey, 473
Suzuki, 342
Swanson, 201
Swatch Instant Store, 226
Swiffer, 336
Swimsuits for All, 272
Swiss Legend, 185
Sycamore Partners, 280
Taco Bell Chihuahua, 311
Tampa Bay Buccaneers, 230
Target, 37, 130f, 231, 244, 280, 334
TaskRabbit, 235
Tate Museum, 61
Tate Sensorium, 61
Taurus, 265
Teddy Grahams, 77
Teen Mom, 311
Tesco, 201
Tesla, 81, 111, 115f, 147, 365, 408,
423, 443
Threadless, 443f
Thriller, 146
Tide, 102
TikTok, 9, 10, 34, 53, 89, 98, 146, 307,
329, 331, 390, 399, 437
Tilted Kilt, 277
Times Square, 225f
Tinder, 95, 241, 254
T-Mobile, 146
Tod’s loafers, 94
Tommy Hilfiger, 84, 316
Tootsie Rolls, 185
Torrid, 279–280
Tory Burch Ella, 395
Toyota, 316
Trader Joe’s, 112, 336
Travelers Cheques, 95
Tribe, 331
TripSense, 52
Trivial Pursuit, 105
Trulia, 182
Twin Peaks, 277
Twitter, 12, 35, 80, 111, 118, 141, 336,
367, 374, 380, 387, 390, 400f,
415, 449
Tyson, 342
U2, 118
Uber, 95, 202, 235, 400f
Uber Eats, 437
Uggs, 112
Uncle Ben’s, 32–33, 340
Under Armour, 162f, 360, 375
Unilever, 44, 270, 277
Uniqlo, 374
Universal Standard, 280
Universal Studios, 61
UpStage, 103
Uptown, 347
Vans, 84, 133
Vaseline, 370
Venetian hotel, 226
Venmo, 241
Versus Systems, 147
Victoria Bitter, 265f
Victoria’s Secret, 173, 259, 280, 331,
442
Victoria’s Secret PINK, 226, 331
Villa M, 84
Vince Camuto, 223
Virgin America, 66
Visa, 147
Visvim Ballistic, 400

Vogue magazine, 84, 294
Voice, The, 311
Volkswagen, 177, 177f, 178, 257, 348,
447
Von Dutch, 410
Voyager, 103
Vu, 103
Walgreens, 52–53, 416
Walmart, 10, 11, 41, 47, 217, 226, 244,
280, 387, 415, 416, 423f, 473
Walt Disney Co., 120, 288
Walther, 265
Warby Parker, 233, 262
Watson®, 212, 473
WebMDBaby, 347, 388
webuyanycar.com, 119
Weight Watchers, 135, 382, 383
Wendy’s, 50–51, 84
West Elm, 212, 310
Westworld, 274
Wet Seal, 334
Whirlpool, 146, 306
White Castle, 147
Whole Foods, 46f, 303, 312
Wikipedia, 32
Wild Cherry Pepsi, 228
Wizard of Oz, The, 259, 434
Wonder Bread, 110
Wonder Weeks, 347, 388
Wonder Woman, 263
World of Warcraft, 381, 384, 384f
Wrigley’s gum, 81
WTRMLN WTR, 316
Xbox, 381
Xena: Warrior Princess, 381
Yahoo! 37, 210, 212
Yankelovich, Skelly & White, 298
Yaz, 40, 41f
Yeezy, 434
Yellow Pages, 63
Yoda, 426
Yoplait, 312
Young & Rubicam (Y&R), 307
YouTube, 12, 97, 120, 210, 269f, 331,
334, 335, 341, 347, 363, 365,
380, 388, 389, 390, 449
YouTube Kids, 120
Zac Posen, 261
Zappos, 375
Zara, 45
Zing, 263
Zipcar, 235, 235f, 244
Ziplock, 343
Zippo Manufacturing Co., 94
Zoom, 34, 156, 326

Subject Index
A/B test, 474
Absolute threshold, 70
Acculturation, 423
Achievement motivation, 127
Achievers, 305
Activism
consumer, 28, 40, 47, 380
corporate, 29–30
corporate sociopolitical activism
(CSA), 29–30
slacktivism, 30
Activity stores, 227f
Actual Moment of Truth (Amot), 217
Actual self, 253
Adaptation, 76
Adaptive clothing, 30, 30f
Addictions, 239
drug and alcohol, 239, 242
gambling, 38, 240
to gambling, 242

513

internet, 50, 240
to tech and social media, 38, 240, 242
Adoption rates, 437
Advance-fee fraud artists, 42
Adventure seeking, 223
Advergaming, 182
Advertainment, 181
Advertising
and advergaming, 182
advertainment, 181
anti-smoking, 187–188
on billboards, 53, 341
Black, 351
bogus ads, 109
celebrity endorsement, 173–174
and children, 32, 92, 100, 119–120,
186
for Coke, 12
and color, 75
comparative, 159, 176
and contrast, 75
corrective, 40, 41f
covert, 186
disclaimers, 172
exploitative, 40
fear appeals, 187–188
and ideals of beauty, 267–269
illegal and unethical, 27
message appeals, 175
message involvement in, 142–143
naming competitors, 176
native, 181
negative, 172
negative results of, 41
neuromarketing, 160
nonhuman endorsers, 174–175
and novelty, 75–76
outdoor, 76
for pet products, 460–463
political, 172
pop-up, 61
and position, 75
and pre-attentive processing, 73
and product placement, 181–182
and psychographics, 301–305
and reality engineering, 182
regulation of, 40
and rich media, 74–75
sadvertising, 159
and size, 75
and subliminal perception, 72–73,
72f, 82
targeting Black consumers, 350–351
teaser ads, 74
on television, 75, 176
tracking, 14
virtual billboards, 84
visual aspects of, 106, 107f
Advertising account executives, 470
Advertising copywriters, 470
Advertising Research Foundation
(ARF), 477
Advertising weariness, 92
Advertising wear-out, 92
Aesthetic bias, 64
Affiliation, 321
African Americans, 52, 338–339
Age cohorts, 332–336, 345
Baby Boom Generation, 332, 333t,
335–336
Generation Alpha, 332
Generation X (Millennials), 332,
333t, 335
Generation Y, 332, 333–334, 333t,
345
Generation Z, 147, 332, 333, 333t,
345
Seniors, 335–336, 345
Silent Generation, 332
War Baby Generation, 332
Ageism, 270
Agentic orientation, 264
Aggressive people, 229
Agile marketing, 380

514

Index

Agreeableness, 289
AI (artificial intelligence), 10, 23–24,
37, 212, 213
AIOs (activities, interests, and
opinions), 302–303, 303t, 313
Alcohol abuse, 239
Algorithm bias, 37
Alienation, 337
Allegory, 179
Alternate reality games (ARGs), 141
AMA (American Marketing
Association), 17, 477
Ambivalence, 160
American Academy of Pediatrics, 120
American Anthropological Association,
17
American Association for Public
Opinion Research, 17
American Association of Family and
Consumer Sciences, 17
American Economic Association, 17
American Marketing Association
(AMA), 17, 477
American Medical Association (AMA),
185
American Psychological Association
(APA), 478
American Statistical Association, 17
Amplification, 372
Analytical psychology, 287
Androgyny, 265, 265f
Angel investors, 471
Anonymity, 14
Anorexia, 270, 276
Anthropology, 18t, 19, 19f, 468
Anthropomorphism, 215, 310
Anti-consumption, 260–261
Antifestivals, 432
Antifragility, 81
APA (American Psychological
Association), 478
Approach-approach conflict, 134–135
Approach-avoidance conflict, 135
AR (augmented reality), 68–69, 69f,
231
Archetypes, 287, 307–308, 309f
ARF (Advertising Research
Foundation), 477
ARGs (alternate reality games), 141
Arrogant brands, 310
Artificial intelligence (AI), 10, 23–24,
37, 212, 213
Asian Americans, 52, 339
Aspirational class, 398
Aspirational reference groups, 360, 361
Aspirations failure, 407
Aspirations gap, 407
Assertive people, 229
Assimilation, 337, 366, 407
Association for Consumer Research, 17
Associative network, 110
Associative norms, 362
Associative reference groups, 360
Atephobia, 295
Athletic shoe market, 455–457
Athletic shoes, 434f
Atmospherics, 226–227
Attachment, 257
Attention, 73–76
Attitude, 182
attributes of, 157
changing, 165–169, 183
cognitive and affective components,
156–157
and cognitive focus, 157–158
crafting persuasive communications
strategies, 169–182
ego-defensive function, 156
explicit, 160
fast/slow, 156–157
formation of, 162–165, 183
functional theory of, 155–156
implicit, 160
knowledge function, 156

multiattribute models of, 157, 158t
power of, 155–161
utilitarian function, 156
valence of, 160
value-expressive function, 156
Attitude object, 155
Attractiveness, 171
Augmented reality (AR), 68–69, 69f,
231
Aunt Jemima, 32
Aurophobia, 295
Authenticity, 14, 312, 389–390
Authoritarian parents, 328
Authoritative parents, 328
Autodriving, 472
Automobile Information Disclosure
Act, 42t
Autonomous vehicles, 10
Autonomy, 132, 275, 321, 330
Autotelic, 291
Avatars, 85, 85, 261
Avoidance selves, 253
Avoidance-avoidance conflict, 135
Babies for sale, 31
Baby Boom Generation, 332, 333t,
335–336
Backstory, 313
Badges, 384
Bait-and-switch, 27
Balance theory, 164–165
Basking in reflected glory, 164
Beacons, 231, 232f
Behavioral economics, 18t, 19, 19f,
205, 207
Behavioral learning theories, 90
Being space, 226
Belief systems, 292
Beliefs, 157
Believers, 305
Benevolent halo effect, 33
Benevolent paternalism, 215
Biases
aesthetic, 64
algorithm, 37
behavioral, 204–205
binary, 211
default, 209
ingroup, 323
knowledge, 172
memory, 109
reporting, 172, 177
response, 109
Big Circle Influentials, 372
Big Data, 10–11, 21, 471, 475–476
Big Five Inventory, 289–290, 289t,
290t, 342
Bigorexia, 269
Binary bias, 211
Binary opposition, 427
Biohackers, 129
Biometric measures, 109f
Bitmojis, 261
Black Americans, 338–339, 403
Black Lives Matter movement, 7, 28,
29, 32, 412
Blink (Gladwell), 204
Blockchain, 232
Bloggers, 373–374
Blood donation, 31, 47
Body decoration, 272–273, 276
Body image, 267
ageism and sexism, 270
body decoration and mutilation,
272–274
body positivity, 271–272
distortions of, 270–271
ideals of beauty and stereotypes,
267–271
and identity, 276
and the mechanized body, 274–275
of men, 269
and obesity, 273
Body image distortions, 270–271

Body modification, 273–274
Body positive movement, 125
Body positivity, 125
Boomerang kids, 326
Botnets, 37
Bottom of the pyramid (BOP), 411, 416
Bounded rationality, 205
Boycotting, 261
Brain drain, 73
Brand biography, 313
Brand communities, 381–382
Brand equity, 92
Brand loyalty, 5, 23, 140, 204, 312, 385
Brand managers, 469
Brand narrative research, 312
Brand personality, 305–307, 305f
Brand prominence, 408
Brand purpose, 44
Brand resonance, 307–308, 308t
Brand secret microcollectives, 380
Brand storytelling, 312
Brand transparency, 312
BrandAsset® Archetypes model,
307–308, 309f
Brandfests, 381–382
Brands, 307
arrogant, 310
attributes of, 81
and authenticity, 312
celebrity endorsement, 143, 316
competitors, 81
conceptual meanings of, 99
congruence between consumer and
brand, 310, 314
consumer relationship to, 7
contact points, 13
contestation of meanings, 81
country of origin, 81
cultural impact of, 7
family branding, 94
follower, 115
fortress, 428
globalization of, 12
incidental exposure to, 167
and lifestyle, 81, 310–312
luxury, 410–411
meanings of, 80–81, 82
memory of, 112
occasions, 81
pioneer, 115
and price leadership, 81
product class, 81
and product placement, 107–108
quality, 81
retro, 110
roles of, 305–313
sensory cues to, 7–8
spokescharacters for, 7, 175, 308
that encourage envy, 254
users, 81
Brazil, 9, 268, 402
Breastaurants, 277
Bridging function, 368
Bring your own bags (BYOB), 46
Bulimia, 270, 276
Bureau of Transportation Statistics
(BTS), 350
Burial rituals, 433f
Business ethics, 27
Business Source Complete, 477
Business-to-business (B2B) marketers,
378, 379f
and agile marketing, 380
Buyclass theory of purchasing, 379
Buyer personas, 302
Buyers, 376, 470
Buying center, 379
Buzz, 365, 367, 442
BYOB (bring your own bags), 46
Camino de Santiago pilgrimage, 297
Cancel culture, 33
Capital, 396–397
cultural, 397, 397f

economic, 397, 397f
online, 397–398, 398–399
social, 397, 397f, 398f
symbolic, 396
Cart abandonment rate, 230
CARU (Children’s Advertising Review
Unit), 100
Category exemplars, 115
Cause marketing, 33, 48
CE (circular economy), 45, 45f, 49, 236
CECP (Chief Executives for Corporate
Purpose), 29
Celebrity endorsement, 143, 316
Cell phones. See Smartphones
Centers for Disease Control (CDC),
187–188, 279
Central route, 166, 167
CEO pay ratio, 411
Charging deserts, 350
Charitable giving, 47
Chatbots, 37
ChatGPT, 37
Chief Executives for Corporate Purpose
(CECP), 29
Child labor, 40
Child Protection Act, 42t
Childfree by Choice, 325
Children
and advertising, 32, 92, 100,
119–120, 186
and obesity, 51
sale of Oreos to, 449
Children’s Advertising Review Unit
(CARU), 100, 186
China, 9, 43, 216, 268f, 425, 431
Chinook tribe, 272
Chipped, 274
Choice overload, 201
Chunking, 103, 175
Circular economy (CE), 45, 45f, 49, 236
Circularity, 45
Circularity Gap Report, 45
Cigarette Labeling and Advertising Act,
42t, 187
Claritas 360, 479
Class consciousness, 406
Classical conditioning, 90–95, 90f
marketing applications of, 92–95
Climate change, 44, 44f, 49
Climate change crisis, 242
Climate crisis, 236–239
and product disposal, 236–237
Clinical psychology, 18t
Cliques, 367
Closed-ended questions, 473
Closure principle, 78
Cloud computing, 234f
CMMC (Communication & Mass
Media Complete), 477
Co-branding strategies, 311
Co-creation, 141
Coercive power, 371t
Cognitive dissonance reduction,
134–135
Cognitive learning theory, 98–99, 116
marketing applications, 101
Cognitive matching, 257
Cognitive psychology, 18, 18t, 19f
Cohabitate, 325
Collaborative consumption, 235
Collaborative filtering, 212
Collabs, 174
Collecting, 434
Collective decision-making, 375–376
in households, 376–377, 385
in organizations, 378–379, 385
Collective unconscious, 287
Collective value creation, 382
College students, spending by, 334
College wage premium, 403
Color
forecasting, 13, 64
in interior design, 63
in marketing, 75

Index

marketing applications, 63, 64t
and sensory marketing, 62–64
surface, 63
trademarking, 62
Color forecasts, 13, 64
Color palette, 63
Commercial Alert, 186
Commercials. See Advertising
Commitment, 162
CommSearch, 477
Communal orientation, 264
Communication
about brands, 374
celebrities as sources, 173–174
consumer-to-consumer, 170
content of, 372
M2M (machine-to-machine), 10
near-field communication (NFC),
232, 241
options for, 170–171
and persuasion, 169–170
on social media, 9, 21
and source attractiveness, 173
and source credibility, 171–172
see also Persuasion
Communication & Mass Media
Complete (CMMC), 477
Communications model, 169–170, 170f
Community, 342–344, 344t
and geodiversity, 342–344
grouping by zip codes, 343
online gated, 399
PRIZM clusters, 343–344
rituals and, 428–429
and social networks, 367–369
Comparative advertising, 176
Comparison-shopping phone apps, 231
Compatibility, 440f
Compensatory consumption, 260
Compensatory rules, 199–200
Competence, 132
Competitors, 114–115, 176
Complexity, 440–441
Compliance, 162
Compulsive shopping, 239
Compulsive shopping disorder (CSD),
239
Computer science, 19, 19f
Concentrated repayment strategies, 127
Conditioned response (CR), 91
Conditioned stimulus (CS), 91
Conditioned superstition, 429
Conditioning, 116
Conflicts
approach-approach, 134–135
approach-avoidance, 135
avoidance-avoidance, 135
Conformity, 363
Conjoint analysis, 474–475
Conjunctive rule, 200
Connexity, 334
Conscientiousness, 133, 289
Conscious consumerism, 44
Consensus language, 368
Consideration set, 198
Conspicuous consumption, 408
Conspiracy theories, 35–36
Consumed consumers, 31–32
Consumer activism, 28, 40, 47, 380
Consumer addiction, 37–38
Consumer behavior
anticipation of, 8
attitudes in, 182
“bleeding edge” of, 13
commitment, 162
consumption choices, 27
and culture, 421–444
deciding, 194–212
defined, 5–6, 20
disciplines that inform research on,
18–19, 19f, 21
diverse focus, 19
dramaturgical perspective, 255–256
and the environment, 49

facets of, 6f
factors influencing, 404–405,
416–417
gender differences in, 263–265
and identity, 321
influence of personality traits on,
290t
interdisciplinary research issues, 18t
macro focus, 19
micro focus, 18–19
as ongoing process, 6
and social identity, 344
study of, 17–19, 468–470
understanding, 8
values related to, 293–298, 293f, 313
see also Decision making
Consumer centricity, 17
Consumer collectives, 380
Consumer communities, 385
brand communities, 381–382
consumer collectives, 380
gaming communities, 384
online communities, 382–383
support groups, 383
Consumer confidence, 404–405
Consumer confusion, 95
Consumer culture, global, 436
Consumer Culture Theory movement,
17
Consumer fairy tales, 427
Consumer Goods Pricing Act, 42t
Consumer identity, 259f
see also Identity
Consumer identity renaissance, 332
Consumer insights specialists, 469
Consumer needs, 129–133
Consumer Product Safety Commission
(CPSC), 43t
Consumer Products Safety Act, 42t
Consumer Protection Act, 42t
Consumer research
careers in, 468–470, 470f
data mining and Big Data, 475
ethnography, 472
experiments, 474–475
focus groups, 472
interviews, 472
methods, 471–476
netnography, 472–473
neuromarketing, 475
qualitative methods, 472–473
quantitative methods, 473–475
shop-alongs, 473
stories, photos, and diaries, 472
surveys, 473–474
transformative (TCR), 32, 48
Consumer researchers, 20, 32
Consumer Review Fairness Act of
2016, 42t
Consumer satisfaction
assessing and projecting, 23–24
and business ethics, 27
Consumer theft and fraud, 42–43
Consumer trends, 13–14
Consumer tribes, 387
Consumer-packaged-goods (CPG), 336
Consumers
aging, 331–332
bad behavior by, 41–43
consumed, 31–32
disabled, 30–31
legislation to enhance the welfare
of, 42t
low-income, 411–413, 412f, 416–417
luxury, 399–400
moderately knowledgeable, 196
Muslim, 340–341
proactive, 12–13
purpose-driven, 412–413
and rituals, 428–429
as sources of innovations, 444
teenagers, 328, 329–330
Consumption, 6, 20, 21
Consumption choices, 5

and the family, 324–329
and identity, 6
and religion, 340
responsible, 15
and social class, 413
and social justice, 412–413
Consumption constellations, 113, 258,
311, 313
Consumption practices, 324
Consumption rituals, 428–434, 445
Contact points, 13
Contamination, 230, 434
Contamination effect, 67
Context effects, 206–207, 213, 226–227
Continuous innovation, 439–440
Control groups, 474
Convergent thinking, 322
Conversational robo advisors, 212
Copywriters, 470
Core values, 292
Corporate activism, 29–30
Corporate social irresponsibility (CSI),
33
Corporate social responsibility (CSR),
33, 48
Corporate sociopolitical activism
(CSA), 29–30
Corporate storytellers, 428
Corrective advertising, 40
Cosmetic surgery, 273–274, 276
Cosmetics, 231, 265, 272, 277, 331,
422, 423
Cosmopolitanism, 343, 405
Council of Better Business Bureaus, 40
Counterargument, 167, 178
Counterfeiting, 43–44
Counterscammers, 42
Counterspace, 383
Country Commercial Guides, 478
Country of origin (COO), 436
CR (conditioned response), 91
Credibility, 171
Credit score, 401
Cross-modal effect, 65
Crowdsourcing, 443f, 444
Cryptocurrency, 232
CS (conditioned stimulus), 91
CSI (Corporate social irresponsibility),
33
CSR (Corporate social responsibility),
33, 48
CSA (Corporate sociopolitical
activism), 29–30
CSD (compulsive shopping disorder),
239
Cult products, 139
Cultivation theory, 293
Cultural appropriation, 442–443, 446
Cultural capital, 397, 397f
Cultural creatives, 48
Cultural distinctiveness, 12, 323
Cultural fusion, 337
Cultural gatekeepers, 426
Cultural stories and ceremonies
Bachelor’s Day, 431–432
the best man, 433
burial rituals, 433, 448
Christmas, 340
gift-giving rituals, 430–431
giving away the bride, 433
grooming rituals, 430
Halloween, 432
holiday rituals, 431–432
Passover, 340
Ramadan, 340
Single’s Day, 432
tailgating, 433
throwing rice, 434
tossing of the garter, 433
Cultural systems, 307, 421–422
Cultural values, 292
see also Values
Culture
defined, 421–422

515

global, 8
and hierarchy of needs, 132
learning about, 423–425
meaning creation and movement,
425–426, 425f
myths, 426–427
as personality, 421–422, 445
products and cultural meaning,
434–436
ritual artifacts and scripts,
429–434
rituals and community, 428–429
and style, 426
tight vs. loose, 425
value systems of, 292
Culture jamming, 28
Culture of participation, 380–381
Culture shock, 422
Customer affairs representatives, 470
Customer journey, 224f
Customer relationship management
(CRM), 379f
Customer reviews, 211
Customer satisfaction/dissatisfaction
(CSD), 229
Cyberbullying, 14, 38–39, 39f
Cyberidentities, 349
Cybermediaries, 212, 213
Cyberspace themes, 226
Cyborg, 274
Dark design, 240
Data
accuracy of, 35–36
Big Data, 10–11, 21, 471, 475–476
biometric, 52–53
collection and analysis of, 469
genetic, 37, 275
primary, 471
qualitative, 472–473
quantitative, 473–475
secondary, 471, 477–480
tracking of, 34–35
velocity of, 11
volume of, 11
Data analytics, 10–11
Data breaches, 37
Data hacking, 14
Data mining, 475
Data privacy, 34
Decay, 104
Deceleration, 297
Decision making, 194–195, 213
alternatives for a TV set, 199t
avoiding regret, 203
behavioral biases, 204–205
and choice overload, 201
collective, 375–377
context effects, 206–207, 213
and decision paralysis, 203–204
evaluating alternatives, 198–200
factors influencing, 376
fast thinking, 194–195,
204–210, 213
and feature creep, 201, 201f
and framing, 207
group, 376
habitual, 204
heuristics and mental accounting, 205
in households, 376–377
information search, 196–198
and nudging, 209–210
online, 210, 210–212
and opportunity cost, 198, 198f
postpurchase evaluation,
202–204
and priming, 207–209
problem recognition, 195–196
product choice, 200–202
rational (slow), 194–204, 213
and social scoring, 202–203, 203f
stages of, 196f
in-store, 227–228
Decision paralysis, 203–204

516

Index

Decision rules, 199–200
compensatory rules, 199–200
conjunctive rule, 200
elimination-by-aspects rule, 200
lexicographic rule, 200
noncompensatory rules, 200
simple additive rule, 200
weighted additive rule, 200
Declaration of Consumer Rights, 40
Decluttering, 14, 293f
Decoded (Jay Z), 141
Deep processing, 104
Default bias, 209
Degree of connectedness, 383
Delayed gratification, 127
Demography, 18t
Dependent variables, 474
Desacralization, 435–436
Descriptive norms, 362
Design thinking, 224, 224f, 230
Determinant attributes, 199
Diasporic, 340
Dichotomous thinking, 291
Differential threshold, 70
Diffusion of innovations, 437–444, 445
consumers as sources of innovations,
444
diffusion of consumption practices,
441–442
factors influencing diffusion,
440–441
fashion system, 442–443
Gartner hype cycle, 439, 439f
types of adopters, 438, 438f
types of innovations, 439
Digital amnesia, 105
Digital assets, 241
Digital assistant software, 23–24
Digital assistants, 10
Digital currencies, 232–233
Digital divide, 412f
Digital environment, 261f
Digital nanny, 327
Digital natives, 10, 333, 335
Digital selling assistants, 212
Digital selves, 261–262
Digital virtual consumption (DVC), 384
Digital wallets, 232, 241
DINKs (double income, no kids), 325
Directories, 212
Disabled consumers, 30–31
Disclaimers, 172
Discontinuous innovation, 440, 440f
Discrimination, 76
Dispreferred marker effect, 374
Dissertations & Theses Global
(ProQuest), 477
Dissociative groups, 360–361
Dissociative norms, 362
Dissonance, 230
Divergent thinking, 322
Diversity, 14, 21
in the marketplace, 350–351
in the U.S., 337, 343
Diversity seeking, 337
Divorce, 325
DIY (do it yourself), 141
DNA tests, 37
Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and
Consumer Protection Act, 42t
Doing Business Project, 478
Dopamine, 74, 241
Doppelgänger brand image, 307
Double income, no kids (DINKs), 325
Downward comparison, 406
Downward mobility, 403
Dramaturgical perspective, 255–256
Drive, 127
Drive theory, 127
Drug abuse, 239
Drunk shopping, 204
Dumpster divers, 380
DVC (digital virtual consumption), 384
Dyadic encounters, 229

Dynamic speed displays, 202f
Dynamically continuous innovation,
440
Early adopters, 438, 445
Eating disorders, 270–271, 276
Echo boomers, 333
Eco-label systems, 46f
Ecology, 423
E-commerce, 241
see also Online shopping
Economic capital, 397, 397f
Economic environment, 30–32, 48
Economic exchange, 431
Economy, 334
Eco-wakening, 44
Ego, 286
Ego-defensive function, 156
El Norte, 343
Elaboration, 104, 167
Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM),
166, 166f, 183
Electric vehicles (EV), 350–351
Electronic mouth, 67
Elimination-by-aspects rule, 200
Elite, 402
EMarketer, 479
Embodied cognition, 261, 261f
Embodied cultural capital, 397
Embodied knowledge, 114
Emerald Management Journals,
477–478
Emergency reserves, 137
Emergent service workers, 402
Emojis, 80
Emotion profile, 321
Emotions, 159, 299
Employee theft, 43
Empowerment
of consumers, 404
social, 369
of women, 279–280
Encoding stage, 101, 102–104
Enculturation, 423
Endowment effect, 66
Entity theorists, 290
EPA (Environmental Protection
Agency), 40, 43t, 44, 350
Episodic memories, 102–103
ESOMAR (European Society for
Opinion and Marketing
Research), 479
E-sports, 298, 298f
Established middle class, 402
Esteem
need for, 131
self-, 253, 253f, 324
Ethical living, 14
Ethical purchasing, 47
Ethnic identification, 336–337
Ethnocentrism, 436
Ethnography, 422, 472
Ethos, 423
Euromonitor International, 479
European Society for Opinion
and Marketing Research
(ESOMAR), 479
Evaluation, 157
Evaluative conditioning, 91
Evaluative criteria, 199
EVHybridNoire, 350
Evoked set, 198
Evolutionary perspective, 410
Expectance disconfirmation model, 229
Experiencers, 305
Experiential gifts, 431f
Experiments, 474–475
Expert power, 371t
Expertise, 113
Explicit attitudes, 160
Export.gov Market Intelligence Library,
478
Exposure, 70–73, 76
Extended family, 324–325

Extended self, 258, 258f
community level, 258
extended, 258f
family level, 258
group level, 258
individual level, 258
External incentives, 127
Extinction, 91, 97
Extraordinary beliefs, 429
Extrinsic motivation, 126
Extroversion, 289, 291
Eye tracking, 76, 109f
Eyeball economy, 73
Face, 425
Face masks, 364
Facial analysis, 52–53
Facial expression, 107f
Facial recognition, 35, 52–53
Fair Packaging and Labeling Act, 42t
“Fake news,” 35–36, 36t, 172
Family, 324–329
boomerang kids, 326
and collective decision-making,
376–377, 385
consumption practices in, 324, 345
extended, 324–325
nuclear, 325
and parenting, 327–329
pets, 328
sandwich generation, 326
teenagers, 328, 329
tweens, 330–331
Family branding, 94
Family identity, 324
Family life cycle (FLC), 326
Family networks, 324–326
Fan clubs, 212
Fantasy camps, 361, 361f
Fashion system, 442–444
Fast fashion, 44–45
Fast thinking, 156, 194–195, 194f,
204–210, 213
Fat Acceptance Movement, 272
Fatalism, 429
Fatkinis, 272
Fatshionistas, 271–272
FCC (Federal Communications
Commission), 43t, 187
FDA (Food and Drug Administration),
40, 43t, 49
FDIC (Federal Deposit Insurance
Corporation), 141
Fear appeals, 178
Fear of God, 178
Fear of missing out (FOMO), 262f,
322, 407
Feature creep, 201f
Federal Communications Commission
(FCC), 43t, 187
Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation
(FDIC), 141
Federal Meat Inspection Act, 40
Federal Trade Commission (FTC), 36,
40, 49, 120, 140, 176
Feedback, 183
Feedback loop, 128f
Feelings and cognition, 47
Female-to-male earnings ratio, 403
Femininity, 424
Field experiment, 474
Figure-ground principle, 78, 79f
Filter bubble, 197–198
Financial deprivation, 406
Financial literacy, 32, 127, 141
Financial planning, 32
First moment of truth (FMOT), 217
Fishbein Model, 157–158
Fitness, 458–459
Flaming, 383
Flammable Fabrics Act, 42t
Flavor houses, 67
FLC (family life cycle), 326
Flea markets, 238f

Flows, 368
FMOT (first moment of truth), 217
fMRI (functional magnetic resonance
imaging), 130, 160, 160f, 257
Focus groups, 472
Follower brands, 115
Follower networks, 372
Follower trust, 372
FOMO (fear of missing out), 262f,
322, 407
Food and Drug Administration (FDA),
40, 43t, 49
Food deserts, 31
Food insecurity, 31, 31f
Food waste, 236, 238t
Foot binding, 272
Forced labor, 31
Fortress brands, 428
Forums, 212
Frames
negative, 135
positive, 135
Framing, 207
temporal, 208f, 209
Framing effect, 135–136
Framingham Heart Study, 387
Fraud, 42
French fries, 458–459
Frequency marketing, 98
Fresh start mindset, 133, 293
Frugality, 291–292
FTC (Federal Trade Commission), 36,
40, 49, 120, 140, 176
Functional illiteracy, 32
Functional magnetic resonance imaging
(fMRI), 130, 160, 160f, 257
Functional theory of attitudes, 155–156
Functionally illiterate, 32
Fusiform face area, 160
Gambling, 240
Gambling addiction, 38, 240
Gamification, 141, 146–148
Gamification marketing, 147
Gaming communities, 384
Garbage in, garbage out (GIGO), 474
Garbology, 473
Gartner hype cycle, 439, 439f
Gastrophysics, 68
Gatekeepers, 375–376
cultural, 426, 426f
Gay Pride, 267f
Gemba, 224f, 225f
Gender equality, 266–267
Gender fluidity, 265–266, 268, 331
Gender identity, 263, 276
and body decoration, 272
and ideals of beauty, 268
and information processing, 264
Gender justice, 266–267
Gender roles, 14, 424
Gender socialization, 263
Gender-bending products, 265
General Data Protection Regulation, 34
General lifestyle segmentation study,
301
Generalized opinion leader, 370
Generation Alpha, 332
Generation X (Millennials), 332, 333t,
335
Generation Y, 332, 333–334, 333t, 345
Generation Z, 147, 332, 333, 333t, 345
Genetic data, 37, 275
Genetically engineered food, 40
Geodemography, 342
Geodiversity, 342–344
Gestalt, 78, 82
closure principle, 78
figure-ground principle, 78, 78f
joint vs. separate presentation, 79
similarity principle, 78
Gestation, 431
Ghana, 272, 402
Gift-giving rituals, 430–431

Index

GIGO (garbage in, garbage out), 474
Glamping, 400
Glasses, 272
Global consumer culture, 436
Globalization, 12, 334
Goal specificity, 137
Goals, 126, 126f
avoidance, 134
completion of, 135–137
conflicts, 133–135, 134f
and emergency reserves, 137
framing of, 135–137
nonconscious, 127
setting and reaching, 133–137
time frames for, 136–137
valence of, 133
Google Effect, 105
Government agencies, 40, 43t
Government regulations, 40
Graduate Record Exam (GRE), 167
Grasscycling, 363
Gratification seeking, 223
Great Resignation, 131
Greater Appalachia, 343
Green marketing, 46, 49
Green products, 407
Greenwashing, 47
Grit, 133
Grooming rituals, 430
Group dieting, 271
Group influences, 385
and conformity, 363
consumer communities, 380–384
cultural differences, 364
reference groups, 359–360
and social norms, 361–364
sources of, 359
and susceptibility to influence, 364
types of reference groups, 360–361
Guam, 402
Guilty pleasures, 259
Guyliner, 265
Habits, 47
Habitual decision making, 204
Habituation, 76, 180f
Habitus, 398
Hair donation, 31
Halal food, 340, 341
Halo effect, 93–95, 115, 173
Happiness, 15
Haptic sense, 66–67
Haptic system, 291
Harpaxophobia, 295
Health disparities, 412f
Healthy living, 14
Hedonic consumption, 129
Hedonic escalation, 68
Hedonic function, 223
Hedonic needs, 129–130
Hedonic treadmill, 407
Herding behavior, 369
Heuristics, 205, 206–207, 206t
Hidates (American Indians), 272
Hierarchical value maps, 297
Hierarchy of needs, 130–131, 131f, 399
High tech, 144
High-involvement medium, 142
Hip-hop, 426
Hispanic Americans, 338, 403
History, 19, 19f
Hoarding, 240, 434
Hofstede’s dimensions of national
culture, 424
H.O.G. (Harley Owners Group), 358,
381f
Holiday rituals, 431–432, 432f
Homeostasis, 127
Homo economicus, 204
Homo ludens, 204
Homogamy, 396
Homophily, 370
Horizontal mobility, 403
Horizontal revolution, 9

Households, 325, 376–377
Hub users, 369
Human trafficking, 31
Humor appeals, 178
Hybrid products, 113
Hybrid-electric vehicles (HEV), 350
Hyperchoice, 14, 201
IBISWorld, 479
ICC (Interstate Commerce
Commission), 43t
Id, 286
Idea shopping, 223
Ideal of beauty, 267–269, 279
Ideal self, 253
Identification, 162
Identity
and anti-consumption, 260–261
and the body, 267–275
and body image, 267–275, 276
communication of, 6
and community, 342–344
and compensatory consumption, 260
concept of, 6
consumer, 259f
and consumer behavior, 321
and consumer objects, 259, 259f,
260, 276
cultural, 321
cyberidentities, 349
and the digital self, 261–262
and embodied cognition, 261
ethnic and racial, 336–340, 345
expression of, 260–263
expressions of, 5
family, 324–329
and gender, 14, 263–267, 276
and impression management,
253–254
Islamic, 340–341
and lifestyle, 298–305
local, 322
and the malleable self, 255–258
religious and political, 340–342, 345
role identities, 256
and the self, 252–275
self-, 5
and self-concept, 253
and self-consciousness, 255
and self-construal, 254–255
sex-role, 272
social, 5, 321–336
treatment based on, 324
unique, 323
see also Self; Social identity
Identity mindsets, 322
Identity negotiation, 229
Identity projects, 258
Identity synergy, 323
Identity theft, 36–37, 38f
Identity-based treatment, 324
Ideology, 423
IFC (Incidental food consumption), 359
IKEA Effect, 141
Illiteracy, 48
functional, 32
Implemental mindset, 136
Implementation intentions, 128
Implicit attitudes, 160
Importance weights, 157
Impotent reactors, 404
Impression management, 407
Impressions, 388
Impulse buying, 227, 378
Impulse items, 227, 229f
Incentives, 472
Incidental food consumption (IFC), 359
Incidental learning, 89
Income inequality, 14, 411, 411f, 414
Incremental theorists, 290
Independent self, 254
Independent variables, 474
Index, 79
India, 9, 404

Individual self, 47
Individualism, 424
Indulgence vs. restraint, 424
Indulgent parents, 328
Inertia, 204
Influence impressions, 388
Influence network, 369
Influencer marketing, 372
Influencer resources, 372
Influencers, 369, 376
children as (kidfluencers), 119–120
teachers as, 375
Infodemic, 36
Information. See Data
Information cascades, 369
Information power, 371t
Information processing, 69
Information search, 196–198, 197f
In-group bias, 12, 323
Initiator, 375
Innovation trigger, 439
Innovations, 437, 444f
continuous, 439–440
discontinuous, 440, 440f
dynamically continuous, 440
ingredients for successful, 440–441,
440f
see also Diffusion of innovations
Innovators, 305, 445
Insider Intelligence, 479
In-store slack, 227
Instrumental, 291
Instrumental conditioning, 90, 95–98
marketing applications, 97–98
Instrumental values, 297
Insurance fraud, 41
Integrated Public Use Microdata Series
(IPUMS), 478–479
Intelligent agents, 212
Intensity, 76
Interaction styles, 229
Interbellum Generation, 332
Interconnection, 14
Interdependent self, 254
Interferences, 77, 104
Internalization, 162
International Communication
Association, 17
Internet addiction, 240
Internet of Things (IoT), 10, 14, 274f,
275
Internet Tax Freedom Act, 42t
Interpersonal need, 376
Interpretant, 79
Interpretation, 76–79
Interpretational biases, 78–79
Intersectionality, 324
Interstate Commerce Commission
(ICC), 43t
Interviews, 472
Intrinsic motivation, 126
Introversion, 291
Invidious distinction, 408
Involvement
of consumers, 137–139
message, 141–143
product, 139–141
situational, 143–144
types of, 139–144
IoT (Internet of Things), 10, 14, 274f,
275
Ipsos, 479
IPUMS (Integrated Public Use
Microdata Series), 478–479
Ireland, 188
Japan, 274, 364, 402, 423, 437f, 442
Jinba Ittai, 67
JIT (just-in-time) inventory control, 442
JOMO (joy of missing out), 291
Journal of Consumer Research, 17
JSTOR, 478
Judgment and decision making (JDM),
18, 19f

517

Juice, 464–467
Jungle, The (Sinclair), 40
Just noticeable diffference (j.n.d.), 70
Just-in-time (JIT) inventory control, 442
Kansei engineering, 67
Kidfluence/kidfluencers, 119–120
Knitting, 259f
Knock-offs, 43
Knowledge
and brand identification, 112
brand-specific, 112
communication-specific, 112
embodied, 114
evaluative reactions, 112
levels of, 112
organization of, 104, 111–112
persuasion, 168–169
of the product, 197f
product category, 112
Knowledge bias, 172
Knowledge function, 156
Knowledge structures, 110
Kosher food, 340
Laddering, 297
Laggards, 438, 445
Landscape themes, 225
Lanham Act, 95
Late adopters, 438
Latent vulnerability, 35
Lateral cycling, 238
Leaderboards, 384
Learning
about culture, 423–425
behavioral theories of, 90
and classical conditioning, 90–95
cognitive theory of, 98–101, 116
and conditioning, 116
incidental, 89
and instrumental conditioning, 95–98
and knowledge organization,
110–112
observational, 98–99
Left Coast, 343
Legal environment, 40–44, 49
Legitimate power, 371t
Less than zero moment of truth, 217
Leveling, 366
Lexicographic rule, 200
LexisNexis Uni, 478
LGBTQ+ community, 266, 383
Licensing, 11
Life course model, 326
Lifelog, 9
Lifestyle, 313
connexity, 334
and consumer identity, 298–305
metro/emo, 299
Lifestyle brands, 310–312
Lifestyle marketing perspective, 300
Lifestyle profile, 301
Lifestyle segmentation typologies, 304
Lifestyle-based depletion, 295
Lifestyles of Health and Sustainability
(LOHAS), 48, 49
“Likes,” 241
Limbic system, 119
Liquid consumption, 233–234, 235
Literacy
financial, 32, 127, 141
media, 32, 168–169
Literary criticism, 18t, 19
Literary theory, 19f
Little Red Riding Hood, 427
Living off the grid, 293f
Location, 115
Locational privacy, 37
Logo signaling, 411
Logos, with subliminal messages, 72f
LOHAS (Lifestyles of Health and
Sustainability), 48, 49
Lohasians, 48
Long tail, 211

518

Index

Long-term memory (LTM), 103, 104,
116
Long-term orientation, 424
Look-alike packaging, 94
Looking-glass self, 254
Loss aversion, 207
Low-involvement medium, 142
Loyalty programs, 97–98, 97f, 147, 406
LTM (long-term memory), 103, 104,
116
Luxury goods, 410–411, 438
counterfeit, 409f
M2M (machine-to-machine) communication, 10
Machine learning, 10
Macroculture, 336
Macro-influencers, 372
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 76
Magnuso-Moss Warranty-Improvement
Act, 42t
Major League Eating/Federation of
Competitive Eating
(MLE/FCE), 61
Makers, 305
Maladaptive consumption, 239, 242
Malware, 37
Managing by walking around (MBWA),
442
Manscara, 265
Marathon runners, 409
Market access, 30–31
Market mavens, 385
Market tests, 474
Marketers
business-to-business (B2B), 378
positioning of brands, 80–81
and role identity, 256f
as storytellers, 168
Marketing
agile, 380
gamification, 147
influencer, 372
of myths, 427–428
permission, 171
and religion, 341
selection of medium, 181–182
slogan blunders, 340
structuring the argument, 176–180
and superstition, 429
tribal, 387
using racial/ethnic symbolism,
339–340
viral, 365, 374
see also Advertising
Marketing applications
of classical conditioning principles,
92–95
of cognitive learning principles, 101
of consumers’ knowledge structures,
114–116
of consumers’ memories, 109–110
of instrumental conditioning
principles, 97–98
of the multiattribute attitude model,
158–159
of repetition, 92–93
Marketing ethnographers, 18f
Marketing Science Institute (MSI), 477
Marketscape themes, 226
Masculinity, 424
Mass connectors, 388
Mass customization, 141
Mass Media Articles Index, 477
Massive multiplayer online role-playing
games (MMORPGs), 384
Mate attracting mode, 411
Mate guarding mode, 411
Material parenting, 327
Materialism, 293–294, 327
Materialists, 293
Mature market, 331
Maturity, 399
Maximizing solution, 205

MBWA (managing by walking around),
442
MC (motivation to comply), 161
Meaning transfer model, 425
Meaning transfer process, 307
Means of production, 396
Means-end chain model, 297
Meatpacking industry, 40
Media literacy, 32, 168–169
Media multiplexity, 368
Media platforms, 143
Mediating figures, 427
Medical tourism, 273
Medication adherence, 161
Megachurches, 342
Megacities, 9
Mega-influencers, 372
Megaphone effect, 374
Member contributions, 383
Memes, 442–443, 445
Memory, 101–102
aids to, 105–108
biases in, 109
creating a narrative, 107–108
external, 52, 108
false, 109
internal, 101
lapses in, 109
long-term (LTM), 103, 104, 116
marketing applications, 109–110
for marketing messages, 108
measurement of, 108–109
organization of, 110–112
and salience, 105–106
sensory, 103, 116
short-term (STM), 103, 103–104, 116
and social media, 109f
visual vs. verbal cues, 106–107
willfully ignorant, 109
see also Remembering
Memory efficacy, 105
Memory markers, 106
Memory preservation, 106
Mental accounting, 205–206, 213
Mental budget, 194, 227
Mental computation strategies, 228
Mental health, 15
Mental imagery, 180
Merchandisers, 469
Mere exposure phenomenon, 180
Mere urgency effect, 136–137
Mere virtual presence, 363
Message appeals, 175, 176t
Message involvement, 141–143
Metacognitive interference, 74
Metamotivation, 126
Metaphor, 187
Metaverse, 11, 17, 21, 68–69, 84–85,
442
Metaverse Fashion Week, 84
#MeToo movement, 412, 447
Metro, 299
Micro-influencers, 372
Middle class, 402
Military service, 325
Milk, 60–61
Milk Industry Foundation, 61
Millennials, 333
see also Generation X (Millennials)
Mindfulness, 100
Mindlessness, 100
Mindscape themes, 226
Minimal group paradigm, 323, 359
Minimalism, 293
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory (MMPI), 286
Mintel Reports, 479
Misinformation, 35–36, 36t
MIT Sloan Management Review, 478
Mixed emotions, 105–106
MMORPGs (massive multiplayer online
role-playing games), 384
MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic
Personality Inventory), 286

Mobile shopping apps, 231, 241
Modeling, 98
Moderators, 472
Modest fashion, 341
Modified rebuy, 379
Moments of truth, 217
Money, values related to, 295
Mood congruency, 159
Moods, 159
Moral disgust, 43, 230
Mortality salience, 132
Motivated forgetting, 104
Motivation, 126
achievement, 127
extrinsic, 126
and goals, 126f
individual differences in, 132–133
intrinsic, 126
Maslow’s theory of, 130–132
and the placebo effect, 127
prevention, 128
promotion, 128
push vs. pull, 126–127
and self-regulation, 128–129
setting and reaching goals, 133–137
Motivation to comply (MC), 161
Motivational drive, 127–128
Motivational research, 287–288
Movement of meaning, 442
Movements, 380
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), 76
see also Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
MRI-Simmons, 479
MSI (Marketing Science Institute), 477
Multiattribute attitude models, 157, 158t
Multiculturalism, 14, 21, 337
Multiple-intelligence theory, 100
Multiscreening, 74
Multitasking, 73–74
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, 292
Myths, 426–428
marketing, 427–428
urban, 387
Nag factor, 327
Nano-influencers, 372
Narrative transportation, 168
Narratives, 107–108
Narrativity, 168
National Advertising Division (NAD),
40
National Environmental Policy Act, 42t
National Hispanic Consumer Study, 480
National Retail Federation (NRF), 43
National Rifle Association (NRA), 29
National Traffic and Safety Act, 42t
Native advertising, 181
Native Americans, 272
Natural environment, 44–48
Natural user interface, 66
NB (normative belief), 161
NBER Working Papers, 478
Near-field communication (NFC), 232,
241
Need for assimilation, 407
Need for differentiation, 407
Need for perfection, 291
Need for touch (NFT), 66, 291
Needs
for assimilation, 407
for belonging, 132–133
for differentiation, 407
for esteem, 131
fresh start mindset, 132–133
hedonic, 129–130
individual differences in motivation,
132–133
interpersonal, 376
Maslow’s hierarchy of, 130–132,
131f
for perfection, 291
physiological, 131
for power, 133

for safety, 131
self-actualization, 131
self-transcendence, 131
social, 131
for touch (NFT), 66, 291
understanding, 130–132
for uniqueness, 133
utiltarian, 129–130
Needs vs. wants, 15
Negative sentiment relation, 164
Negative state relief, 159
Negative word of mouth, 365–366
Negativity spiral, 367
Neglecting parents, 328
Neo-Freudian theories, 287
Netnography, 472–473
Network effects, 383
Neural activity, 18
Neuromarketing, 160, 160f
Neuroscience, 18, 19f
Neuroticism, 289
New affluent workers, 402
New Media Study, 480
New Netherland, 343
New task, 379
NFC (near-field communication), 232,
241
NFT (need for touch), 66, 291
NFTs. See Nonfungible tokens (NFTs)
Nielsen/NPD, 479
Nodes, 111, 367–368
Noncompensatory rules, 200
Nonconscious goals, 127
Nonfungible tokens (NFTs), 11, 11f,
84, 233f
and fashion, 84
Nonstandard beliefs, 205
Nonverbal cues, 472
Normative belief (NB), 161
Normative influences, 161
Normative respectability, 338
Normcore, 442
Norms, 361–364
associative, 362
descriptive, 362
dissociative, 362
prescriptive, 362
social, 361–364
Nostalgia, 109
Nostalgia index, 110
Nouveaux riches, 400, 406
Novel stimuli, 142
Novelty, 75–76
NRA (National Rifle Association), 29
NRF (National Retail Federation), 43
Nuclear family, 325
Nudging, 209–210, 209f, 213
with text messages, 210f
Numeracy, 32
Nutrition Labeling and Education Act, 42t
Obesity, 51, 273, 408
Object, 79
attitude, 155
Object-attribute linkages, 157
Objectification, 434
Observability, 441
Observational learning, 98–99
Occupational prestige, 402, 402f
Occupy Wall Street movement, 411
OKR (Open Knowledge Repository), 479
Old money, 405
1% for the Planet, 26
One percenters, 411
Ongoing search, 196
Online capital, 398–399
Online gambling, 38
Online gated communities, 399
Online network, 398–399
Online shopping, 210–212, 213,
230–234, 261f
comparison-shopping phone apps,
231
digital currencies, 232–233

Index

mobile shopping apps, 231
pretailers, 233
showrooming, 231
Open Knowledge Repository (OKR),
479
Open rates, 296
Open-ended questions, 473
Openness to experience, 289
Operant conditioning. See Instrumental
conditioning
Opinion leaders, 370, 373, 384
generalized, 370
heterophilous, 370
homophilous, 370
monomorphic, 370
polymorphic, 370
scale to identify, 373f
Opinion mining, 475
Opportunity costs, 198, 198f
Oppositional brand choice, 377
Oppositional respectability, 338
Optimal distinctiveness theory, 407
Orange County Marketplace, 239
Organ donation/trafficking, 31, 47
Organizational buyers, 378
Organizational climate, 378
Outcome-oriented mindset, 136
Ownership, and the sharing economy,
235–236
P2P (peer-to-peer) commerce, 235–236
P2P (peer-to-peer) payment systems,
232, 241
Package schematics, 77
Pantone, Inc., 480
Pantry check, 473
Paradigms, 20
Paradox of choice, 202
Paradox of low involvement, 167
Paradoxical social dynamics, 383
Parental restrictiveness, 328
Parental yielding, 328
Parenting, 327–329
styles of, 327, 327f
of teen consumers, 328
Parody display, 410
Participatory action research (PAR), 32
Passport GMID, 479
Patriarchal masculinity, 263
Peak experiences, 131
Peak of inflated expectations, 439
Peer pressure, 364
Peer-to-peer (P2P) commerce, 235–236
Peer-to-peer (P2P) payment systems,
232, 241
Perceived risk, 139, 140f
Perceived typicality, 361
Perception, 62
attention, 73–76
exposure, 70–73
interpretation, 76–79
stages of, 69–79, 82
Perceptual selection, 75
Peripheral cues, 166f
Peripheral route, 166f
Permission marketing, 171
Personality, 285–292, 313
Big Five Personality Traits,
289–290
culture as, 421–422
measurement of, 286–288
motivational research, 287–288
Neo-Freudian theories, 287
and trait theory, 289–292
Personality tests, 292
Personality traits, 289–292
agreeableness, 289
conscientiousness, 289
conservative vs. liberal, 342
extroversion, 289
frugality, 291–292
need for perfection, 291
need for touch (NFT), 291
neuroticism, 289

openness to experience, 289
reactance, 291
Personalization, 14, 143–144
Personas, 302
Persuasion, 165, 183
appeals using narrative devices,
179–180
central route to, 166, 167
changing attitudes, 183
communications model, 169–170
fast, 166–167
fear appeals, 178–179, 187–188
humor appeals, 178
medium used, 183
and the message, 183
narrative, 168
peripheral route to, 166–167
refutational argument, 177
repeating the message, 180
selection of medium, 181–182
and sex appeals, 177–178
slow, 167
and the source, 183
structuring the argument, 176–180
supportive arguments, 177
two-sided messages, 177
see also Communication
Persuasion knowledge model, 168
PESTLE framework, 27–28, 27t, 48
economic environment, 30–32
legal environment, 40–44
natural environment, 44–48
political environment, 28–30
social environment, 32–33
technological environment, 34–39
Pets, 328, 432f, 460–463
Phishing, 37
Phonemes, 65
Physical health, 15
Physiological needs, 131
Physiological tracking, 18
Pioneer brands, 115
Pitch-size effect, 65
Placebo effect, 127, 261
Plateau of productivity, 439
Pleasure principle, 286
Plug-in-hybrid-electric vehicles
(PHEV), 350
Point-of-purchase (POP) stimuli,
228–229
Political environment, 28–30, 48
Political orientation, 341, 345
Popular culture, 13
Population Reference Bureau (PRB),
478
Pop-up stores, 226
Portals, 212
Positioning, 372
Positioning strategy, 80–81, 114
Positive or negative frames, 135
Positive reinforcement, 96, 96f
Positive sentiment relation, 164
Positive unit relation, 164
Postdecision dissonance, 135
Post-purchase dissonance, 230
Postpurchase evaluation, 202–204, 202f
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD),
31
Potent actors, 404
Poverty, 411–413, 416–417
Power, 376
Power distance, 424, 424f
Power distance belief, 408
Power posing, 261–262
Power users, 388
Practice diffusion, 441–442, 441t
Practices, 441
PRB (Population Reference Bureau),
478
Pre-attentive processing, 73
Precariat (precarious proletariat), 401
Prefrontal cortex, 119
Preparing for battle, 428–429
Prepurchase search, 196

Prescriptive norms, 362
Presentation, 431
Pretailers, 233
Prevention motivation, 128
Primary data, 471
Priming, 207, 208–9, 213
social identity, 322
Principle of cognitive consistency, 163
Privacy issues, 35
and facial recognition, 53
and genetic data, 275
locational privacy, 37
PRIZM system, 343–344, 344t
Proactive interference, 104
Pro-ana movement, 271
Problem recognition, 195–196
Product categories, 112–113
basi1¡c level category, 112
category exemplars, 115
cognitive structure of, 114
cult products, 139
cultural, 426
and cultural meaning, 434–436, 445
gender-bending, 265
levels of categorization, 112–113,
113f
low-calorie, 200
luxury, 438
sacred/profane, 434–436
sex-typed, 264
subordinate category, 112–113
super-ordinate category, 112
too attractive, 159
Product complementarity, 311
Product curators, 375
Product disposal, 236–237
Product involvement, 139–141, 376
Product labels, 201
Product line extension, 94
Product placement, 107–108, 181–182
Product-specific profile, 301
Product-specific segmentation study,
301
Profane consumption, 434–436
Projective techniques, 472
Promotion motivation, 128
Prosocial behaviors, 47, 49, 425
Prospect theory, 207
Proxies, 400
PsychINFO, 478
Psychographics, 301–305
and AIOs, 302–303, 303t
dark side of profiling, 302
and personas, 302
Psychological ownership, 66
Psychological time, 297
Psychology, 468
Psychophysics, 70
PsycTests, 480
PTSD (post-traumatic stress disorder),
31
Public relations specialists, 470
Public self-consciousness, 255
Punishment, 96
Q Scores, 480
Qualitative methods, 472–473
Quality of life, 15
Quantified self, 275
Quantified self (QS) movement, 129
Quantitative methods, 473–475
Queuing theory, 229
Racial identity
Asian American, 52, 339, 345
Black/African American, 52,
338–339, 345
Hispanic American, 338, 345
Racial stereotypes, 32–33
Racial stigma, 338
Rational perspective, 195
Rationalization, 135
Reactance, 291
Reality engineering, 182, 183

519

Reality principle, 286
Recall, 108
Recall tests, 108
Reciprocity norm, 431
Recognition, 108
Recognition tests, 108
Recommerce, 239f, 242
Recycling, 237–239, 242, 363
Red market, 31
Red sneakers effect, 363
Reference groups, 359–360
creating associations with, 361
types of, 360–361
Referent power, 371t
Referral behavior, 367
Reformulation, 431
Refutational arguments, 177
Regret, 203
Regulatory agencies and
responsibilities, 43t
Relatedness, 132
Relational processing, 77
Relationship formation, 376
Relationship maintenance, 376
Relative advantage, 441
Relative difference, 71
Relevance, 76
Religion
and consumption, 340
and identity, 340–342
Religiosity, 291
Remembering
encoding information, 102
information-processing approach, 101
and memory, 101–102
see also Memory
Repetition, 91, 92–93
marketing applications, 92–93
Reporting bias, 172, 177
Reputation economy, 399
Resonanced, 180
Respectability, 338
Response bias, 109
Responsibility, 376
Responsible business, 15
Responsible marketing, 17, 21
Retail buyers, 470
Retail managers, 469
Retail theming, 225–226
Retail therapy, 127
Retailainment, 245
Retailing as theater, 245
Retrieval stage, 101
Retro brands, 110
Retroactive interference, 104
Reverse signaling, 409f
Reward power, 371t
Rich media, 74–75, 74f
Ridicule, 330
Risk, perceived, 139, 140f
Rites of passage, 432–433, 448
Ritual artifacts, 429
Ritual scripts, 429
Rituals
and community, 428–434
of consumption, 428–434, 445
cultural, 428–434
death, 448
and food, 448–449
gift-giving, 430–431
grooming, 430
holiday, 431–432
as rites of passage, 432–434
at universities 446
wedding rituals, 433–434
see also Cultural stories and
ceremonies
Rodeo culture, 422f
Rokeach Value Survey, 297
Role identities, 256
Role play, 223
Roper Center for Public Opinion
Research, 478
Royal family, 406

520

Index

Sacralization, 434
Sacred consumption, 434–436
Sacred events, 435
Sacred people, 435
Sacred places, 435
Sadvertising, 159
Safety, need for, 131
Saint Mary’s College of California, 389
Salespersons, 229, 241
Salience, 105–106, 322
Salient beliefs, 157
Sandwich generation, 326
Satiation, 140
Satisficing solution, 205
Saudi Arabia, 34, 34f, 275f
Saving orientation, 295
Savings rate, 405
Scent, 64–65
Schema, 76–77
Scopus, 478
Scripts, 112
Scrum, 380
Search engine optimization (SEO), 210
Search engines, 210
Second moment of truth (SMOT), 217
Secondary data, 471
sources of, 477–480
Secondary market, 236
Secret pleasures, 259
Securities and Exchange Commission
(SEC), 40, 49
Selective search, 197
Self
actual, 253
avoidance, 253
digital, 261–262
extended, 258, 258–259
ideal, 253
identity and, 252–275
impression management, 253–254
independent, 254
individual, 47
interdependent, 254
looking-glass, 254
malleable, 255–258
and others, 253–255
personal, 20
quantified, 129, 275
sense of, 6
social, 20
torn, 256
see also Identity
Self-actualization, 131
Self-concept, 253
and social norms, 361
Self-concept clarity, 260, 276
Self-congruity, 310
Self-consciousness, 255
Self-construal, 254–255
Self-control, 253
Self-determination theory, 132
Self-esteem, 253, 253f, 324
Self-expression, 332
Self-fulfilling prophecy, 198f, 254
Self-image congruence models, 257
Self-image-consistent product
perceptions, 257
Self-monitors, 255
Self-mutilation, 272
Self-regulation, 128–129
Self-segregation, 337
Self-signaling, 257
Self-transcendence, 131
Semantic network, 102
Semiotics, 18t, 19, 19f, 79–80, 80f, 82
Seniors, 345
Sensation, 60–69, 60f, 63f, 64t, 66f,
67f, 68f
Sensory input, 5
Sensory marketing, 62–68, 81
color influences, 62–64, 64t
illuminance, 62
locational privacy, 63
materiality, 63

odors, 64–65
shape, 62
sound, 65
surface color, 63
taste, 67–68
touch, 66–67
vision, 62–64
Sensory memory, 103, 116
Sensory overload, 73
Sensory threshold, 70
Sentiment analysis, 475
Sentiment relations, 164
SEO (search engine optimization), 210
Serial reproduction, 366, 366f
Serial wardrobers, 43
Service robots, 212, 310
Sex appeals, 177–178
Sexism, 270
Sexting, 263
Sex-typed products, 264
Sexual abuse, 39
Shadows, 308
Shaping, 95
Sharing economy, 14, 235–236, 235f,
241–242
Sharpening, 366
Shepard’s Citations, 478
SHIFT framework, 47, 49
Shoes, 259, 259f, 272
Shopaholics, 196, 239
Shop-along, 473
Shoplifting, 41, 43
Shopping experience, 222–230
and customer satisfaction/
dissatisfaction, 229–230
and design thinking, 224, 224f
e-commerce, 230–234
factors affecting the pre-purchase,
purchase, and post-purchase
experience, 222f
factors influencing, 241
hedonic function, 223
and liquid consumption, 233–234
online, 261f
physical and social environment,
223–224
and point-of-purchase stimuli,
228–229
retailing as theater, 224–226, 245
secondary markets, 236, 238
and store atmospherics, 226–227
in-store decision making, 227–228
in-store tech, 231–232
thrifting, 236
utilitarian function, 223
Shopping orientation, 223
Short-term memory (STM), 103–104,
116
Showrooming, 231
Shrinkage, 43
Shrinkflation, 72
Sign, 79
Sikh Coalition, 443
Silent Generation, 332
Silent Spring (Carson), 28
Similarity principle, 78
Simile, 187
Simmons Brand Catalyst, 479–480
Simmons Consumer Research
Information Resources, Inc.
(IRI), 479
Simmons Insights, 480
Simmons National Consumer Study,
480
Simmons OneView, 480
Simple additive rule, 200
Simplification, 14
Singularity movement, 275
Situational involvement, 143–144
Skateboarding, 437
Slacktivism, 30
Sleeper effect, 172, 185
Slope of enlightenment, 439
Slot machine effect, 241

Slow thinking, 156, 194–195, 194f, 213
Smartphones, 9, 34f, 437
addiction to, 38
color of, 63
comparison-shopping phone apps,
231
GPS-enabled, 37
mobile shopping apps, 231, 241
Smoking, 187–188
SMOT (second moment of truth), 217
SN (subjective norm), 161
Sneakerheads, 434f
Snow Crash (Stephenson), 84
Social capital, 397, 397f, 398f
Social change, 413
Social class, 395–398
and class consciousness, 406
communication of, 407–411, 414
and consumption, 406–410, 413
haves and have-nots, 396
marketing messages targeting, 403
measurement of, 400–401
resources provided by, 396–398, 397f
Social comparison, 254, 406
Social conduct, 272
Social contagion, 387
Social coupons, 369
Social default, 363
Social desirability bias, 160
Social distinction, 398
Social dominance orientation, 323
Social empowerment, 369
Social environment, 32–33, 48
Social games, 384
Social graphs, 368
Social identity
and consumer behavior, 344
and cultural distinctiveness, 323
dynamics of, 321
facets of, 321
and family, 324–329, 345
and group influences, 359, 384
and intersectionality, 324
salient identity cues, 322
threats to, 322–323
Social identity priming, 322
Social identity theory, 359, 389
Social identity threat, 322–323
Social inequality, 411–413, 414
Social influence, 47, 49
Social justice, 27f, 32, 411–413, 414
Social loafing, 363
Social marketing, 32
Social media, 9–10, 21, 34
addiction to, 38
breaking up with, 367, 390
and children, 120
craving “likes,” 241
effect on Gen Y, 334
“fake news” on, 35–36
and hub users, 369
influencers, 113, 120, 372
and memory, 109f
and mere virtual presence, 363
and status symbols, 398
user-generated, 365
and virtual consumption, 384, 385
Social media addiction, 38
Social media firestorms, 367
Social media managers, 470
Social mobility, 402–404, 413
Social needs, 131
Social networks, 367
and information cascades, 369
structure of, 367–368
tie strength, 368–369
Social norms, 361–364
Social power, 370
types of, 371t
Social pressure, 161
Social psychology, 18t, 19, 19f
Social responsibility, 413
Social scoring, 202–203, 203f
Social shopping, 14, 223

Social status, 406
Social stratification, 401
Social structure, 423
Society for Consumer Psychology, 17
Society for Personality and Social
Psychology, 17
Sociocultural environment, 5
Socioeconomic status, subjective, 407
Sociology, 18t, 19, 19f, 468
Sociometric methods, 367
Sociopolitical issues, 29
Sonic branding, 95
Sound
music genres, 226–227
and musical pitch, 65
and sensory marketing, 65
Sound signatures, 95
Sound symbolism, 65
Source attractiveness, 173
Source credibility, 171–172
Source derogation, 176
Source effects, 171
South Korea, 50, 273, 299
Souvenirs, 107
Spectacles, 143
Spending implies wealth, 408
Spending orientation, 295
Spendthrifts, 295, 377
Spiritual-therapeutic model, 383
Spokescharacters, 7, 175, 308
Spreading activation, 111
Squander sequence, 236
Stages of cognitive development, 99
Standard economic model, 205
Standard of comparison, 196
Standards of behavior, 382–383
Star power, 173
Statista, 480
Statistics Canada, 479
Status groups, 396
Status hierarchy, 402
Status pivoting, 409
Status seeking, 407
Status signaling, 408, 409f
Status symbols, 398, 407–408
Status threat, 409
Stimulus generalization, 94
STM (short-term memory), 103–104, 116
Storage stage, 101
Straight rebuy, 379
Strength of weak ties, 368
Strivers, 305
Strugglers, 305
Styles, 426
Subcultures, 321, 345, 422, 426
Subjective norm (SN), 161
Subjective socioeconomic status, 407
Subliminal perception, 72, 72f, 82
Subscription boxes, 144
Sunk-cost fallacy, 207
Superego, 286
Superstition, 429
Support groups, 393
Supportive arguments, 177
Surface color, 63
Surfboarding, 441t
Surrogate consumer, 374–375
Surveys, 473–474
Susceptibility to interpersonal
influence, 364
Sustainability, 44, 44–45, 46, 49
Sustainable business model, 44
Suya, 272
Swishing, 239f, 242
Symbol, 79
Symbolic capital, 396
Symbolic interactionism, 256
Symbolic self-completion theory, 260
Syndicated surveys, 298
Synoptic ideal, 377
Tailgating, 433, 433f
TAM (technology acceptance model),
442

Index

Tangibility, 47, 49
Target market, 303t
Taste, 67–68, 398
Taste regime, 398
Tate Museum, 61
Tattoos, 274, 276
Tchikrin (American Indians), 272
TCR (Transformative Consumer
Research), 32, 48, 236
Tea, 435–436
Technical middle class, 402
Technological environment, 34–39,
48–49
Technology
addictions to, 37–40
beacons, 231, 232f
life cycle of, 439, 439f
lowering transaction costs, 235
near-field communication (NFC),
232, 241
in school systems, 375
and situational involvement, 144
smartphones, 9
virtual makeover, 261–262, 262f
virtual reality (VR), 69
wearable computing, 274
Technology acceptance model (TAM),
442
Television, 193, 199t
Temporal framing, 208f, 209
Terminal values, 297
Terror management theory, 132
Theft, 43
Theory of cognitive dissonance,
134–135, 163
Theory of mind, 99
Theory of Reasoned Action, 161
#TheseCurves campaign, 280
Thinkers, 305
Thinspiration, 271
Third moment of truth (TMOT), 217
Thrifting, 236
Thumb culture, 334
Tie strength, 368
Ties, 367
Tightness-looseness, 425
Tightwads, 295, 377
Time
allocation of, 300f
perspectives on, 296
planning orientation dimension, 296
polychronic orientation dimension,
296
psychological, 297
social dimension of, 296
temporal orientation dimension of,
296
values related to, 295–297

Time frame, 136–137
Time poverty, 296
Timestyles, 296
Tiny House Movement, 294f
Tipping point, 437
TMOT (third moment of truth), 217
Torn self, 256
Total quality management (TQM),
224f, 442
Touch, and sensory marketing, 66–67
Touchpoints, 224
Tourette syndrome, 99
TQM (total quality management), 224f,
442
Trademarks
color, 62
sound, 62
Traditional working class, 402
Trait theory, 289–292
Transformative Consumer Research
(TCR), 32, 48, 236
Transmedia, 12–13
Transmedia storytelling, 13
Transmedia world, 313
Tree-huggers, 47–48
Triads, 164
Trialability, 440
Tribal marketing agency, 387
Trough of disillusionment, 439
Truth campaign, 187
Truth-in-Lending Act, 42t
Turkey, 402, 422, 435–436
TV dinners, 422, 423f
Tweens, 330–331
Two-factor theory, 180, 180f
Two-sided messages, 177
Two-step flow model of influence, 369
Ubiquitous moment of truth, 217
UCLA Anderson Forecast, 477
UGC (user-generated content), 12
Umami, 68
Uncertainty avoidance, 424
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS), 91
Underground economy, 237–239, 238f,
239
Unilever, 44
Unipolar emotions, 106
United Kingdom (UK), 406, 448
United States Census Bureau
Data, 478
Unplanned buying, 227
Unsafe at Any Speed (Nader), 28
Upsell, 212
Upward comparison, 406, 409
Upward mobility, 403
Urban centers, 9
Urban identification, 342

Urban myth, 387
Urgency nudge, 209f
US (unconditioned stimulus), 91
U.S. Department of Agriculture
(USDA), 31, 40, 49
U.S. Department of Education, 32
U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, 39
User groups, 212
User-generated content (UGC), 12
User-generated social media, 365
Users, 376
Utilitarian function, 223
Utilitarian needs, 129
Utilitarian function, 156
VA (Veterans Affairs), 31
Valence, 160
VALS2™ (Values and Lifestyles
System), 304, 304f, 480
Value co-creation, 444
Value shopping, 223
Value systems, 292
Value-added, 223f
Value-expressive function, 156
Values, 292–298
and belief systems, 292
core, 292
instrumental, 297
and the means-end chain
model, 297
related to consumer behavior,
293–298, 293f, 313
related to money, 295
related to things, 293–294
related to time, 295–297
relative importance of, 292
syndicated surveys, 298
terminal, 297
toward more simplicity, 294
understanding, 297
Values and Lifestyles System
(VALS2™), 304, 304f, 480
Vanity sizing, 271
Variety-seeking, 140
Vestibular system, 68
Veterans, 31
Veterans Affairs (VA), 31
Viral marketing, 365
Virtual currencies, 241
Virtual goods, 384
Virtual makeovers, 261–262, 262f
Virtual reality (VR), 69, 84–85, 231
Virtual support communities, 383
Virtue signaling, 407
Vloggers, 373
Voice recognition software, 10
Voluntarily childless, 325

521

Volunteering, 47
Von Restorff Effect, 105
VR (virtual reality), 69, 84–85, 231
Wake Forest University, 389
Wants (vs. needs), 15
War Baby Generation, 332
Warnings, 76, 169
Wavy dots, 241
Wealth gap, 28
Wearable computing, 274
Weariness, 92
Wear-out, 92
Web 2.0, 12
Web portals, 212, 213
Web scraping, 475
Weber’s Law, 71
Wedding rituals, 433–434
Weight loss, 270–271
Weighted additive rule, 200
Werewolves, 427
Wharton Research Data Services, 477
Willfully ignorant memory, 109
Wisdom of crowds, 444
Wokewashing, 47
WOM. See Word of mouth (WOM)
Women
in China, 268f
empowerment of, 279–280
evolutionary perspective, 410–411
female-to-male earnings ratio, 403
and gender roles, 14, 424
mate guarding/mate attracting mode,
411
objectification of, 27
South Asian, 383
stereotypes of beauty, 267–270
Word of mouse, 364
Word of mouth (WOM), 364–365,
369, 384
negative, 365–366
Working class, 402
World Bank DataBank, 479
World Bank Open Knowledge
Repository (OKR), 479
World Economic Forum, 45, 404
World Health Organization, 30, 36, 38
World Wildlife Federation
(WWF), 44
Worldview, 423
Yankelovich Monitor™, 298
Yellowstone National Park, 178
Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation Technique (ZMET), 287–288, 297
Zero Moment of Truth (ZMOT), 217
Zip codes, 343–344