THE MILITARY

TECHNOLOGY OF CLASSICAL

ISLAM

VOLUME 11

David

Nicolle

Thesis presented
to the University
of Edinburgh
for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
1982

5qz.

PART THREE

Tactical
and the Military

Developments
Technology

of

Islam

1 ei

..

Lx xx1

II
vi
X
(.,XX

-1r"

.

WWI

1,

z55
CHAPTER 1

TACTTCS TECHNfILf)CY AND MILITARY ORGANIZATION IN PRE-ISLAP"If: ARRPIR

Of all
less

world,
in

those
is

known about

the original

exception
are virtually

North

the

the dating

of much supposedly

Even those

verses that

along

with

of

the

the

rest

Arabian

Arabs

example,
the

coat

external
of northern

from

indicate

the
that

as more backward
quite
of mail

influence.
Arabia

nor

of

some widely
they

the helmet.

2

thoroughly

the

or only

cultural
background

partially
tho

accepted

Others

portray

viewn

were.

that

they

It

has,

the military
like

for

knew neither
one

avercmphaaize

flyzantine

Arabs'

technology.

military

really

Thus some say that
were

be regarded,

when studying

been maintained

recently

JähilTyah

the general

than

neighbouring,

standpoint

than

debatable.

1

as o whole.
from

the

most usefully

rather

while

is highly

verse

as illustrating

was borne

material

background

These sources
the

Islam

itself,

came from

should

the possible

with

else,

representations

pro-Islamic
certainly

the Muslim

of

and organization

peninsula

may be the most reliable

cultures

general

Pictorial

such poetry,

peninsula

Descriptive
Arab,

of

anywhere

Arabian

they

that

in which

situation

almost

so into

are probably

than

Africa.

from

unknown

technology

military

Arab homeland
Berber

of

were to become parts

that

areas

traditions
Syria

and Egypt,

1.

(London
U. Montgomery Watt, Tha Ma jestythnt
Islnm,
1974),
was
C. Pellat,
"Jewellers
pp. 77-78 and 90-92;
with Words, " in
7hc) World of Islsm
(London 1976), pp. 143-145.
0, Lewis edit.,

2.

A. ä. 1'lelikian-Chirvani,
Asintiaues,
XXII (1970),

"La Roman do Varga at
pp, 38-39,

Coln

h,

Arts

-z56
with

lamellar

short

and that

shields,
3

Arabia,,
the

fought

long

the predominant
by maintaining
of

role

of

the military

Arabia.

a tendency,

encouraged

to portray

4

Some tend

to

to emphasize

on one source
among the ancient
that

helmets,

with

5

Arabs.,

Arab archery

or

was inferior

to

find

the

to earlier

a more reasoned

equipment

Yet even here,

return

and organization
there

I believe,

by the Muslim's

analysis

own view of his

of
remains
cultural

"simple,

pagan Arab as excessively

" that

backward.
The nomadic,

Arabia

3.

and lances.

one must often

capabilities,
7

style

and

6

perhaps,

pre-Islamic

is

relying

central

Yemen, Hijäz

Sassanian

swords

such as A. van Kremer

scholars

origins,

the

and round

common in

were

Arabia,

qualification

foes.

Surprisingly,

of

in

hauberks

mail

armours

of western

archery

without

their

mail

straight

by apparently

oversimplify

to that

the Arabs

frontiers

hauberks,

cuirasses,

Hellenistic

that

or

Syrian

mail

and scale

and the

semi-nomadic

Fertile

Crescent

and settled

Arab tribes

were almost

certainly

of

northern

more sophisticated

M. V. Gorelik
"Oriental
Near
Middle
the
East
Armour
and
of
,
from the eighth
to the fifteenth
as shown in works
centuries
(London
Arms and Armour, R. Elgood edit.,
art, " in Islamic
19,79), p. 31.
v

4.

M. Lombard, Les m6taux bans l'ancien
(Paris
1974), p. 35.
siecle.

5.

D. J. F. Hill,
Journal
of the

monde du Ve au XIe

"Some Notes on Archery in the Roman Worlds"
(1958)i
1
Society
Archer
Antiquaries.
p.
of

6.

D. D. Latham, "The Archers of tho Middle
Background"
(1970),
Iran.
VIII
p. 97.

7.

A. von Kremer,
(Vienna
1875),

Culturgeechichte
p. 78.

of

East:

des Orients

2.

The Turco-Iranian

unter

den Chalifen,

r

257
than

militarily

was in

culture

of

it

those

Iranian

general

ioned.

side,

the Ulpiao

tribes

By the

4th

were playing

cnuivocall
1iý

in

the

JazTro

Mu'ta
at

in

the

Potraeorum,

a far

more prominent,
the

area,

5assanian

10

could

form

629 AD.

12

Arab troopop
these

the bulk

of

though

to be ment-

One possibly

and To2hlib

ßakr

occasionally

and the Byzantine

apocryphal

archers,
and even to

limp

century

a Byzantine

the

Arab infantry

in particular

Oyzentine

and

come from

the

ß

role

the Hellenistic

frontier

fly the 7th

such positions,

Arab area.

of presumably

of

the

military

vital

references

cavalry

other
is

are among the earliest

light

century

their

the

within
the

cohorts

six

of

material

been emphasized

between

detailed

where

that

of

and south

warfare

their

while

to overstate

to defend

were a1co recruited

and pagon.,

north

in

between

role

command in

rarely

Most of

Romano-ßyzentine

9

however,

tribes

worlds.

archers,

version

Would be hard

northern

cousins,

a poorer

between

contact

Similarly,
of

southern

What has,

neighbours.
degree

their

Arabs,

Christian

that
as
such
army
source

oven has a

K.

G. al Acali,,
CE
South Arnhia
in the 5th and 6th centuries
(Unpub.
to rplationi
Ph.
Arabia
t.+ith reference
Central
+7,
with
thesis,
St.
"ilyzantino-Arabico:
Andrew's
Univ.
I. Shahid,
1968);
Thc; Conference
Wear E'nstern
1D 524, " 3ournal
of Roi1a,
of
(1964),
Studies.
XXIII
130.
p.
ß

9.

"Rote sur los carps
Von Hubert van de W'eerd and P. Lanbrechts,,
I
d'äýrchers
cu klaut Empire, " in Din Araber in der Alten trielt
(Berlin
F, Altheim
1964 t p. 663.
and R. 9tiek1
edits.,

10. F, Altheim
persischen
11
kielt.

"Die Araber an der bsträmisch.
and R. Stiehlt
" in Die Ar: xbnr in
Grenze im 4. Jahrhundert,
(Derlin
1965), 9 pp. 324-. 327.

der

11. F. Altheim and R. Stiehlt
11ýn"pr II und die Araber, " in Die
!'.rater in der Alten 4x'elt. II, (Derlin
1965), p. 344.
12.

A. J. Cutler
pp. 150-151.

The Arnb Concuent

of

EctYpt.

(Oxford

1902),

Alten

L-x xxix

>C C.

zý8
Christian
force

in

Arab

defending

Byzantine

Such evidence

might

than

an ill-equipped

this

same evidence

might

homogeneous whole

as far

those

Fertile

Crescent.

This
of

from

that

Arab

troops

could

were partially,

in

of

they

is

14

fortifications

Arab peoples
of

Ibid.,

of

these

sources.

of

the

begun.

sea,

both as essentially

AD, there

2nd century

areas

of

of the
were sophisticated
semi-nomadic

and neighbouring
bedouin

were ideally

The Nabateans,

for

horsemen

himself.
placed
example,

could

drive

whom were horse-

many of

archers,
Trajan

surrounding

as Syrian.

the

life

from

recruited

traditions

meanwhile,

and

armed forces

their

although

be regarded

bedouin

Falmyra

be seen as

could

centuries,

the

centuries

earlier

of the military

in

while

threatened

true

but

bordering

areas

has been considered

In open battle,

archers,

considering

had hardly

region

still

rot

flere,

Ronan cavalry

is
one
ahom

mixed

manned by townsfolk

peasantry.

were

even predminantly,

should

Arab and as a melting
cast.

just

were not a

capabilities

military

particularly

the

by contrast,

Ilatra,

Semitic

as their

the Arabs

that

be more

Nevertheless,

auxiliaries.

indicate

also

an Arab

perhaps

tribes,

tribal

of

3rd or 4th

the

islands13A

Aramaic

13.

invasion

and linguistically

culturally

Dura Europos,

variety

Muslim

one must specify

when the Arabization

back

the

suggest

rabble

Clearly

concerned.

Arab

during

13

Egypt,

in

Tinnis

"Roman" and Arab

Coptic,

a mixed

coauaoandof

ls

Clearly

to

learn

probably

the
from

a

adopted

P. 353,

13%. F. Altheim
"K)dainat und I'almyra, n in
and R. Stiehl,
in der Alten Welt, II,
(Berlin
1965), pp. 269-270.
14,

F. Altheim
and R. Stiehl,
welt g IV9 (Berlin
1967),

15.

Ibid.,

p.

249.

"fdatra,
p. 244.

" in

Die Araber

in

Die Araber

der Alten

the war-horse
lot

from

tactics

of

camels

their

ßC they

century

repeated

and-Iran,

an their

military

such a strategy

for

thehoavy

thair

for

in

the

l7

in Yemen. the

the

both

using
reflect

age-old

loaned

otherwise

lß

storing

and their

of s4Ira uere
in

engines

Sobacon kings

the

full

in

their

upon

the trnbs'

to build

already

may
military

limited

himself

3rd century.

were also

it

drawing

supposedly

command were unable

farmer

Thema arrnnganent3

t3elisarius

uarfaro.

has

did much the camc+

between

contradiction

between
dependent

It

the

the takhmids,,

of

line

struggle

much war naterial.

nnd Anbar,

some spheres

in a long

to have remained

merely

war,

cavalry

CUkbarä'

his

in

The Snsseniens apparently

Arab rulers
siege

may also

appear

for

time-of

ns siege

under

complicated

1G.

in

en apparent

in cuch, nreas

t¢hercas

even they

catcphract

canahilities

gabs

to ba, involved

the ßyzantines

nrsen. ia, ut

account

the

that

at turn,

w.n farr,

rind Laakhmids were the last

protectors.

equipment

ararnal

karr

though

yet

respective

been auggpated,

bedouin

own essentially

and retreat:

Arab : Mates

Hellenism

their

as they

16

influence.

client

As early

neighbours.

attack

The Chaasänids
of

Syrian

had evolved

and cavalry

Parthian

z5-q

skills
that

otntcd

fortificationsij.

known to be using
20

For to

known to hove built

the south,
fortresses

äcf. pp.
Ib.,.,.,
ý
fruchtbaren
Altheim

im
296 .-297, ý.. tlarkalj
"ErF3te Festsetzungen
ý;
T,
Flslbmond$'n in hic-1 tirfiher in- rlor Alten Welt,
(nerlin
1964)9 pp. 299-301.
end ß. Stiehl
edits.:

Althein,
ýrn
1ý
t'elt

end ri; 3tiehlj'
`J 1 "(Perlin

and Sticahl,

Althviry

19.

O. P. Portiington,,
A Niator
( Canbridr, o 1960). p. 106.

20s

Ibid.

109.
P.
ý

"
Me
in
"Dhü tv'uL;
räsp
197-0)t p. 316.

" Sopür II ' 'nnd die Arnbers"

IS*-

of

Grprk

Firs

19

Arr+ber in der

pp. 351-352.

snd Cunnnwdar,

z6o
21

or so lnter.

Eacentury

Certain

though

specifically,

characteristics

however,

were,

be seen again

during

and EjTra,

example,

for

the

first

and Smarr-s'22
and tactics,,
time

refrain

24
oddo. 0
all
towards

fror

"25

latter

f?uslim

from nomadic
Küfa,

maximum force

But were
they

these

shoot

at

rest1

like

descriptions

pose as nany question,

the Porthians

settled

neighbours,

Arabian

warriors.

Arabia.

are

largely

For less

tevertholess,

all

in

the

and
and if

horse-archers$

such contemporary

as they answer.

build

areas

their

the eyes of
of

up a picture

may be said
these

bow among

probably

perhaps,

seen through

we can thus

the

of

or cavalry,

Typically,

impossible

attitude

Gyzantine

like

the same

of

in archery

life

infantry

raiders

face

the

rational

their

who pass

on ruses

and at

by a Syrian,

or in notion

Though they

in

was the primacy

who were described

and

3achdad

emphasis

an, eminently

there

Hatra

encampments

QayrawSn,

"a l'outronce"

Finally

These would

expansion.

an exceptional

indicate

as "Saracens

did

wave of

to exercise

resisting

of which

appearing.

of

was also

a desire

Arabs

century,,

raiding.
the

23

warfaro.

the desert
5th

There

Arab military

solely,

already

developed

may be seen as the prototypes

not

wore

in

north

and southern

central

of

these

more

close

sufficiently

21.3.

f°1onr+rchi us r+n Arnbin P'eridionale
ftyct: n,ar.a.v L' institution
P. 231.
awint L' lslram. (Louvain19a1).

22.

F. Althain
and R. Stiehl.
(0erlin
1966). p. 7.

23.

N. Lmmens.
"Les AhäbTa et 1'organi5ation
" ýrnal
`."ecquR au Oincle dä 1'tiicgira.
(1916),
VIII
432.
p.
o

24,

t'ontgomery

25.

A, ti1, ii. Oonec.
Trade of Asia

tJatt.

op,

cit.,

Die

pp.

Arnbor

in

dcr

Alten

,nilitairo
Asiatic, ue,

Welt,

III,

de lo
11 sar.

32-34.

"Asian Trodc in Pntiquity.
(Oxford
1970). P, 6,

" in

Ia1nmnnd

the

Xc

xcýI

i

xcil1

z6(
for

contact

them to have probably

The Nebatenns
trade

from

routes

were
in

long

of

Arabian

is

Such

cultural

Yemeni

the

would

similarly

nttnck

under

the armies

4th

early

rg ,Ipür

of

Yeneni

south

the linited

available

inscriptions

mounted

warriors.

obliged

to request

king.

32

a force

Such Sassaninn

2G.

Al Asalip

27.

Shahid.. loc.

26.

Al Asali,

29.

Ibid.,

30.

Ryckn . ns,

o2,

31.

Al

no.

32,

Ibid,

pp.

Asall,
p.

Iranian

refer

one Yeneni
of

regular

heavy

of

ums, in

were$

in

pp.

52-55.

ci t

pp.

134 and 231.

cit. ý

pp.

101-102.

fact,

counter-

and perhaps
Plthough

and auxiliary
tribes,

to infantry

cavalry

entire

cavslry.

/rnbion

cavalry

south.

27

differentiate

troops

heavy

the

outsides

3a3senion

southern

ns airn

55-59.

304.

lack

leader

ci. t.
cit..

the

only

f-97.

op.

of

to

influences

military

deeas howeveri

those

role

an apparent
the

oubsenuent

Yemeni and central

Indeed

which

penetrated

perhaps,

employed

from both

through

and even,

the

a vital

peninsula

during

was the south's

kings

the

across

Arebin

central

played

reinforced

28

from

contingents

31

been

One feature

This

regions.

lýTra

a centre

during

Arabia

with

influences

century,

11,29

northern

Sabnenn rule

facts,

Arabia

central

have been felt

central

under

may have

of

link

trnns-desert

with

links

Lakhmid

and military

contacts

in

in

was,

cultural

domination

Palmyrn's

a direct

traditions.

ninny military

concerned

Similarly,

having
Vira

vitally

while

26

standing,

Iranians

area

courses

the Gulf,

south.

that

Gulf

of

politics,

tIinyorite

also

were,

shared

30

and camel-

desperation,

fron

the

stationed

Sassnnian
in

Z

Oman.

The arrival

lords"

followed

province
in

the

6th

in

known,

however,
the

acorn until
that

here

conquerors

of

the Byzantine
Nuccesü

Gh3acänida

their

/rib

political
traditions

the 6th

Yemen,

34

sphere

against

35

various

both

of

of

with
the

of

The least

central
feed

being

into

the

coast

we often
of

north-south

and the Ethiopian
course

employed

with

foes,

the

Arabian

peoplPS

camel-

the PFd Sea

across

distorted

mirror

9eceuse

of

know more about

its

of
close

the military

the Red Sea than we do of

Oman,," :Inurnal

within

cavalry

and no mobile

as cavalry

Yemen end ýltjnz.

which

Arnbia"

were of

southern

bo seen as n rather

riyzcntiuv,

western

also

and Nubian

Ethiopian

in

peoples

rnd

ý-?
iat

to dominate

via

channel

filtered

Both

military

one may assume

Arab t; hassnnids

which

influence.

thoir

reasons,

neighhouro

the

between

recorded

of Oman,

Arab leadership',

rind obvious

probably

Sassanian

unclear.

and in a way complementary,

in particular

links

century.

the

and continued

authority
33

of

is

or local

ulnndn

"marcher

landed

Arab aristocracy

important

interesting,

Persian

of

or

parts

and settled

class

Sassanian

technology

infantry.

may, for

this

the

of

was another

waa that

mounted

that

collapse

!Another

great

is

military

coastal

the local

the end of

Sasscnlan

link

How for

and mar. zibnp

a reorganization

the

is

influenced

survived

Is

that

century,

aristocrats

nsntArn

khusrau Ar icvnn'

iazün,

of

Iranian

of

the

Oman Studies,

33.

J. C. Wilkinson,
"The ]ulAnda
I (1975)s pp. 99 and 103-104,

34,

I. Shah'fdi "Ghassän. " Encyclopedia
.....
22ý pp, 1020-1021.

35,

the
Earl
Con
in
The Plobilit
Armips
TJ. R, Hill,
the
rst3
Arab
of
(Unpub. C".Litt,
thesisj,
Univ, of nurham 1953)p p. 13; F. Altheim
.
in
Altan
der
in
Arnher
Die
tielp
"Das
R.
;
Aksüm"
and
christliche
it.
'ºOhassan#" loc- .
h'elt
V/79 (ßerlin
1969)9 p. 232; Shnhldt

of

of

Ialtým.

of

second

edition!

z63
Like

eastern.

36

The D; ja and nomadic northern

Elder primarily

as archers.

also used large

numbers of camels in their

to Arab tradition

the bow from the FJubianc.
use of

made extensive
It

has also

the area

to serve
though

attack,
Introduces
so-named

4-0

the

and west

of

the

perhaps also having
traditions,

above-mentioned
cavalry
arrive.
36.

nab

reached the area,
actually
41
At that period, as later,

and Stiehl,

37.

Althain,

3Ei.

üdiý,
Al Maa

39.

Lem cans' lac

4I3,

41.

lac.

D. 11. F. Nilli

ap,

soldiers
were apparently

further

to reinforce

east

for

the control

on southern

asvarän)

of Yemen, and
Arabian military

is come doubt that

heavily

DayiamT infantry
these traops

the

armoured Persian
did

certainly
had a fine

reputation

cit

"Dag christliche
1,
L
VO

Rksücnp" p. 226.

303,
382..
pP.
cý__it..
it.

Larxtens
aa.,,.
"Ahäbiahýx" EncXclo
A. ChristQnman$
p. 362,

This

and combat styles

While there

(Pahlavi:

unknown.

39

counter-

common.

own influence

was Saasanian

in

remained

In Vernon they

traditions

apparently

the Yemen.

h« Were the

is likely

it

the Ethiopicns

Iran.

is

eh

or Ethiopians?

the military

its

the

of

in

warriors

or cavalry

Red Son had much in

Competing with

how to use

Arab and Sassanien

the

after

question
Arabs

according

while

learned

cparations

their

many of

Whatever tho answer,
that

contention

that

as infantry

the Hijmz

In

their

during

as mercenaries

difficult

Ethiopians

As mentioned above, the Ethiopiana

cavalry

whether

the

the letter.

30

been suggested

warfarel37

of Yemen and Hijäz

the tribes

the

were regarded by Pliny

the Ethiopians

Arabs,

pp.

W. Montgomery
433 and 441-442;
III*
Is1am.
second editionp
oß

L+ Iran saus les
.... ...

Snsaonides,
---

Gtattv
pp* 7-Go

(Copenhagen

1936), ý

6ýz
and fought
throughout

documentary

Io generally
involved

spnrco,

43

long-hnired".

warriors

such as Hatra
be useful

barely

related
there

3rd

is

of

already

Joseph"

description

could

it

has also

it

42).

is of little

origin

suggest

on the other
the

subject,

23)p
the

that
that

the

as

such as the

throne

ivory

(Fig.

otherwise

might

such a written
long-haired

figure

in

subject
question

21).
that

the wearing

was characteristic

value when attempting

of

two swords,

of the pro-Islamic

or

Arabs.

of much of the Arab area,
Itself

the fashion

and was widespread

throughout
to identify

is,

the east.

I. believe,
Hence it

a subject.

Organization
under the ßüyida of
XVIII. "XIX (1965-1966),
p. 147.

42.

C. E. Cosworth, "!Military
Persia and Iraq, " Drip

43,

Cutler,

44,

N. Snyrig, "Armory et costumes ; renione
XVIII (193? ), p. 30 and 30 n. 9.

op. cit.,

between

of

Arab

hair-styles

of

Whore,

evidence

at Matra and elsewhere,

of Iranian

In specifically

or whore a story

Arab subject

may Indeed have been typical

appearing

°1

Byzantine

century

been suggested

of a sward and a dagger,
Uhile

(Fig.

as most other

art,

links

were

possible

similarities

and 28).

1.27

can only
(Fig.

an Arab

represent
It

an Ishmoolite

Saracens

of

as to the nationality

on a 6th

Elsewhere

croppect

cultural

of

may be used as further

an Arab.

the

that

works

Arabia,,

as evidence

some doubt

suggest

closer

and south

Dura Europos

century

"Selling

available

to be

peoples

the warriors

ences to

refo:

cone use when identifying

of

(Figs.

Arab wnrfare

pro-13lamic

ccncerning

One such status

limited

appear
z,
a
,

may only

is

the

is

to make famous

42

descriptive

purely

This

in

Arab warriors

in

evidencc

are even more so.

regions

they were later

much of the Muolim world.

tJhilo

hand,

the weapons that

with

151.
15-.
pP.
do Pelmyre, " Syriý

44

Xc

ýu

>CCu

2-65
There are indeed
be said

to show Arab Warriors,

are overwhelmingly
this

few pictorial

Iranian

in style.

which was used by an elite

flared
with

hilts.

military

Iranian

limited

to some very rusted

arrowheads of types

A horse-bit

Central

associated

with

the simple

snaffle

iron

with

a long

fl,

strenge,

bit

sleeveless

information.

Hellenistic,

rather
a scale

skirt

Various

hoad-b&nd of a supposedly
forms throughout

In contrast
ordinary

north

Arab captives
(Fig.

S2).

(Fig.

at the front
lot

century

weapons are
plus bronze

spearheads

Ist

while

perhaps

time generally

extent

Iran,

century

tribesmen

For the

of 2nd
boss

31) have been excavated.
(Fig.

statuette

26)

in facts

such as the

bust in Mosul Pluseum will
Islamic

of Hotro,

period

persist

(Fig.

we may see

among those unfortunately
"Triumph"

than

rather

A fragment

a few styles

much of the early

in a rock-carved

at Hatra iss

of Hatra costume wills

elite
to the Irani. zeo(
.'

Arabian

both tang

scale haubork under a

or a short-sleeved
aspects

often

though

a mass, and a domed bronze shield

be echoed in Umayyad works of arts

in various

26),

the
in
Rome
and
west.
used

or bridoon

tube or spike

shirt.

simple or

24,, 29 and 30).

Surviving

typo at that

Asia and to a lesser

fused into

mails

wears either

iron

also excavated

armour of Hatra we have even less
century

sword.

2nd century

(Figs.

(Fig.
appear

baldric

of the snaffle-paalion

significantly,

longs

with

As Bs C, P1and T, two- and throe-blZrdeds

types.

and socket

in the surviving

reflected

scabbard-. slide

an Iranian-type

carries

that

slung from a loose sword-belts

dons the Mediterranean.
-style

even here it

at least

equipment,

who are probably

They are generally

a characteristic

Rarely

One nay, however, assume that

Hera swords are long and straights

sculptures.

can definitely

except some in Yemen. Those of Matra

so of Hatto'o

was equally

that

sources

disarmed

of flahrZm II at flrhäpür

28).

z66
From the other

aide of the desert
(Fig.
area

from the Ruhaydoh

carving

or the Suwayda Museum considers
No reason for

this

the carving's

very simplified

Islamic

(Fig.

dark-faced
typical

sword does have similarities

is

this

this

although

with

is

early

quiver

passible
less well

I take to indicate

mutllnted

to the right

than their
that

beneath

it

should

period.

the camel-riding

(Figs.

infantry

the only

warriors
as Arab,

to be of much use.

largo-bladed

45

They arc generally

hip.

that

Other equally

spears,

and in one case n

flanks,

Sabnoan carving

counterparts,

in San'

that

is

too

undated and crude carvings

of evidence

öI
ämn
Tlusaum (Cat. No. 31.300.1751)0
c Arnb
(ßoirut
2n1äm,
V
al
al
qnbi
vo1.
..,..,......

as

I have found from

Arabian
such south

the wealth

which

not warriors

Yemen show spears and an apparently

The finest

considering

10,11 and 32).

or cavalry

camel rider

be.

might

century,
Islamic

first

helmet.

a pointed

here we have armed traders,

from Sabaoan or Himyarita

surprisingly

in origin

is on an undated

(Fig.
2).
edged sward

the

clung on the animnlst

Unfortunately,

south Arabia

as a

unarmoured men, armed with

on a baldric

equipped

to be regarded

pälmyrene and Dura Europos sculpture

not necessarily

round shields

as a

the 7th

alone we may regard

of 2nd and 3rd century

These are apparently

for

"Sale

appears

as the representation

from

probably

among evidence

By association

in equipment if

crude

the

showing

trader

Ishmaoilite

a head-cloth

and wears

textile

textile

a mace, later

armed with

an Arab warrior,

be placed

perhaps

Hero the

136).

horseman

Out since

45.

a Chaaaänid warrior.

might portray

we have a Coptic

period

Arab weapon,

Surely

such.

13) which the directorship

weapons.

Joseph"

small

comes an undated

appears to have been published,

attribution

From a. later
of

barrier

frieze

against

single--

shows,

the widespread

oA1T,
Tnr*fkh
in Jawad
1956).

2-'6-7
use or horses in the Yemen, a cavalryman with
Inadequate

in

weaponry,

In certain
tribes
neither

of evidence might be, it

partial

both

into

overrunning

drive

political

a selected

victims

for

an imperial
the

they

their
banner

frontiers

military

and to keep in
of

civilization.
similar

to put
Iranian

or

were

namely

backward

"trained"

to act
chock

German

Ironically,

who locked
who did

their

efports

defences.
by their

future

"untamed"
the

and souths

In both

troops

as auxiliary

those

north

all

organization.

but

capabilities,,

and a reason

few such tribes
own ends,

supposedly

I

in military

nor

3).

ocpecially

Horn were peoples

Romano..ayzantino

seems to havo been strangely
by two centuries.

the

frontier.

basic

cohesion
the

technology,

parallel

nor

does,

and south to be , PDt

in military

Rome's northern

lack

from

nor

respects

along

cases

total

show the Arabs of north

suggest,
poor

as this

a long spear (Fig.

under

tribes

final

further

result

though

separated

26ý
CHAPTER 2

THE FIRST

It

is

generally

organization
time
of

Marwän

II,

as marking

forces
Eastern
that

suggest

than

is,

forces

that

would

have,, of
while

1.

cAll

early

Since

661

in
AD,

the
and

as a relatively

of

it

the

reforms

are

similarly

crmies

to

among their

regarded

more

pro-

sophisticated

investigation

would

changes

rather

moment

another
Muslim

at

which

Arab

armies

more

cosmopolitan,

date

offers

from

itself
be necessary

may
history

political
the

of

early

establishment

consequent

straightforward
n

dynastic

their

equipment

Islam.
the

of

state,

choise.
the early

already

have analysed

period,

been studied
the war-like

The Mobility
of the Arab
"The Role of the
Hill.,
passim;
Fries,
Arab Conquests p" passim;
Hill,

tribal

no obvious

grounds,

year

in

armies

course,

others

Syria,

and certainly

them.

be an obvious

Muslim

The military

military

justify

to

tactical

or

Caliphate

thus

from

considerably

a closer

reflected

cavalry-dominated,
succeeded

of

Yet,

difficult

a convenient

The death

a place

infantry-dominated

on technological
select

Arab

take

reforms

of

and

them.

the

possibly

Cnliph

contemporaries.

technology

revolution,

primitive

could

however,

separate

Umayyad

from

tactics,

developed

sid

Umayyad

1arwän's

those

to

last

that

stimulating
It

to

the

the

armies

CAbb;

the

a change

fessional
Middle

Muslim

Muhammad to

of

that

agreed

the

of

NIUSLI11 ARMIES

in

by a number of

detail
verses

in
Armies
Camel and
op. cit.,

and tactics,

of

the
the

those

Early
Horse

passim.

scholars,

Arabs of

Arabia

Conquests,
in the Early

1

26q
who filled

the

Rarely.,

however,
both

relation
Illustrated

artifacts

it

hardly

to

of

potentially

or

conquered

of

such

useful

illustrated

Islamic

military

the

civilization

that

7th

been

relatively

Arabia

families

of

fact

These clan

merchants'

domination

tribes,

of

Schwarzlose,
Jarhüc,
op.

3.

Lombard,

Q.

Ibid..

op,
cit.,

of

those

153.

from
to

actual

a handful

neighbouring
developments

see
better

barely

Hijäz

of

stores

of

were warriors.

in houses

that

were veritable

arms and armour
that

routes

were also
subordinate

arms.

El Gindi.,

253-255.

these

small

almost

4

importation

its

have

the

Such stores
from

suggested

like

trade

vital

been

and may indeed

of

the

of

traditions

military

considering

lived

city,

aspect

recently

weapons,

proportion

by tribute

pp.

on this

has

neighbours,

passim;
cit.,
j2! ssim.

LPS Mstaux.
p.

the

or

and by a steady

in

a high

tribal

increased

2.

the

known

the
It

poor

Renaissance

territory.

or

light

Islam,

its

that

an Italian

arsenals.

replenished

Yet

be possible

a little

Hence,

the

describe

do survive

be outlined.

than

bourgeoisie

bedouin-controlled

question.

in

shed

was not

richer

The merchant

in

technology

non-existent,

and authenticity.
to

may also

periods.
is

decades

tried

sources

in

subject

subsequent

early

equipment

it

to

date

have

century

must

and the

populntion

to
7th

of

century

few

this

Caliph3.2

era.

attempting

culture

these

Räshidün
see

and

doubtful

pictorial
while

material

of

and

cultures,

Umayyad

Before

from

that

troops

made to

cultures

best

at

and the

been

an effort

material

the

early

Prophet

neighbouring

are

of

the

of

surprising

appearance

of

has

Islamic

while
is

armies

Not all

op.

cit.,

feuding

the

ensured

lay

across

constantly
families

or

weaponry

passim"

need

Al

3

z7o
have been imported
made from

local

from a distance,

ores,

non-metallic

recorded

in use at

the

leathers

mentioned

by early

the

near

Arabian

Although
to

guide
does
the

the

fought

without

warrior

would

hide,

hauberk,
have

horsemen
and the

still

also

armour

Al

Tabarip

6.

Al

Jarbüc.

7.

El

Gindi,

8,

Al

Oarb, uc,

9.

El Gindi,,

or

In

battle..

that

he

such

cases

a

perhaps

foot

and

Qnyayed

in

such

armour,
6

but

,

as the
that

of

basic

the

dire

latter
9

were in most warrior

melee

of

cavalry

warfare

made a cavalryman

the

in

must

themselves,

but

from

CA11
in

rare

ape

vo1. I0

op.

cit.

pp.

j

p.
t.

cit.,

.jp.

p.

quafter

societies,
more

than

was a

even

greater

ranks.

Muhammad

_c

an unseen

poetry

upon

cit

from

might
Of course,

as they

blow

camel-

sword-play.?

among infantry.

than

in

noting

a shield,

helmets,

cit

op.

worth

Arabia,

far

o.

it

it

abundant

in

cA1i

op.

were

armour

and

used

without

verses

by

5.

in

Arabia,

century

elite

based

was

vrrious

produced

have

that

suggest

fighting

the

arms

a particular

he was on

worn

and 7th

considered

example,

to an unexpected

Statistics

that

that

common among cavalry

confused

produced

of

as a literal

be regarded

6th

in

presumably
if

were an

than

arms

armour

and shields

were probably

cannot

poetry

during

armour

foot-soldier

caution

Arab poets,

thesis

for

poet,

more

vulnerable

been

the

was often

been

Arab

support

verses

5

the Prophet,

situation

particularly

Similar

such as felt

equipment

of

from local

Apart

course.

peninsula.
early

one

area.

time

military

seem to

of

early

p.

219-220.
170.
227.

97.

al

1541.

be treated

with

interesting
some
Gindi,
7th

and
century

these
Arabia.

results

have
suggest

again
In

the

Z71
available
swords

compared

the

of

how.

No less

indicate

that

hauberk

was1

and

armour

known

been

as tribute

to

where

the

domesticated

6th

century.

to the Muslims,

horses

in

desert

Fertile

conquests

14

abundant.

but

anything

from

region
spread

beyond

would

a subordinate

in

it

The Muslims,

10,

Ibid.,

11.

Al

Asali,

12.

Al

Bal8dhurI,

13.

Ibid.,,

p.

14.

Ibid.,

p. 93.

p.

while

role
still

149A,
op.

op.
137.

pp.

cit.,
cit

204-205.
p.

98.

least

that

the

more

had

Some decades

time

was acutely

owned

later,

enough
12

including,

their

Horses

perhap3

the Gulf

coast.

peninsula

naturally

were

surprisingly,
13

When
the

became more

first

Muslim

armies.

z,

own

towards

could

the Hij;

only

to be demanded

cavalry

to

Even

when

before

these

settled

probably

and armours.

Arabian

in

richer

were

warriors

of horses

limited

at

was unknown.

horse

areas

and booty

must

peninsula

were plentiful

the

only

and

their

cavalry

Yamämah along

be a long

but

11

other

of

tribute

Crescent,

were

Arabian

to camels

numbers

similar

primarily

tt, e Muslim

say

Arabs

some leading

centuries,

as the

the

that

not

surprising.

but

battle-field

than
the

mentions"

common.

that

that

this

Surely,

quite

is

a few

more

even

are

the

population

dispute

demanded as tribute

also
the

for

n fell

tiajr;

be argued

This

as early

mounts

could

*

would

10

domineted
forms,

of

armour

shields.

various

Arabia,

btouthern

to

spear

head

thirty-four

and only

were made to hauberks,

its

horses.

of

three

spears

of

mentions

and seventeen

to

relating

and

per

few

neighbours,

in

sword
in

of

references

and

it

While

short

seventy

helmets

one hundred

ninety-two

with

The numbers

than
to

seven

arms

he noted

poetry

apparently

play

fought

z7z
in

close

but

outnumbered
foes.

pagan
cold

for

ranks

deeply

Such

the

unlike

were

came into

regarded
Arab
infantry

up to

four

in

foe.

ranks

Behind

weapons

fýanks.

ýg

of

amount

shields.
it
but^was

armour

worn

this

In part
just

by

15.

Moraes

16.

Al Jarbüo,

Farias,
op.

op.
cit.

relying

cit.,
_p

a poverty

229.

247;

18.

Lombard..
Military

Les m6taux,
0rqanization,

o.

Lombard,

Les Metaux,

p.

pp.

spears

who hurled
have

been

been

on the

inspiration

for

reduced

instead

their

the

on larger

greater

mobility,

resources.

It

812.

p.

p.

Ibid.

heaviest

an approaching

already

of metal

spears

the

means

have

may have been a move towards

17.

19.

infantry,

to reflect

as likely

had

warfare.

the

with

the

early

with

may also
to

cErtainly

The Qyzentines
their

century

against

Archers

more

were almost

ideas.

military

are

in

javelin-men

likely

opposing

Graeco-Roman

By this

psili

scutati.

they

although

Such tactics

Muhammad's

the

of

6th

hedge

the

to have been highly

those

ranks'

flanks.

the

stood

Ferias,

before

infantry

a deadly

present

heads

late

of

close

on the

or

scutati

the

here,

stationed

four

Moraos

earlier

updated

needs

to

prefeesional

mentioned

shield-bearing

in

could

these

over

scutati

front

rarely

already

the

meet

long,

metres

four

all

to

had

the

15

seem not

only

are

in

a battle,

of

start

Yet they

they

Byzantium

their

standing

armour

for

formations

now placed

16

contact.

17

the

at

their

defeat

lohich

normal

time.

the

of

to

able

according

were,

Muhammad's

apparently,

formations,
were

but

practice

used

as weapons,

verses.

They

Arab

were

infantry

Iran

means,

warriors

casualties,

and

normal

Javelins

forces

committed

higher
Byzantium

of

By this

support.

disciplined

accept

armies

of

moral

Haldon,
20 and 23.

148.

Some Aspects

of

Py7antine

19

z73
may even have led
than

their

to Byzantine

first

Muslim

7th

the
of

two

been

760

the

AD),

armies

from

identical

the

to

Doubtful
bamboo bow,
Topkapu

20

The role

cavalry.

the

most religious

have belonged

(Fig.
the

Hijäz

of

before

a very

had,

to

by

the

Ibn

Is'häq
before

of

an infantry

tactical

concept

must be,

relics

and now in

to the Prophet

is

105),

"Sarecenoi"

flanks

Again

of

simple

the widespread

stirrup

in

242

the

by this
this

overrun
Jä iz,

by al
but,
This

chapter.

in Pnuhammad's first

cavalry

that

provinces

a later

21

of

was skirmishing

the

protecting

dating

probability

use it.

Hijäz

as the

covered

as indicated
the

the

and

antithesis

written

Byzantium.

of

mirror

the period

first

in

6th

type

the

that

adoption

one

may well
the

of

bow.

composite

In all

archers

these

rccordinq

Prophet,

in

have been used in

course,

the

then

and

the

where

evolved

Reliquary

armoured

exact

as archers.

of

enemy's

to

well

in

an almost

that

said

less

javelin

Arabia,

century

of

the

is

characterized

role

closed,

bow to

sources

biography

surviving

formation

is

mid-7th

long

course,

earliest
(d.

in

situation

the

of

Byzantine

century

being

foes.

The subordination
early

infantry

for

existing

empires,

chapter,

i1uýlim

cavalry

did

was not

by Islam.
that

the

will

even known in

be discussed

The Life of i'ýFuhamnad, Apostle
Ibn Is'ýag,
(London 1964). p, 94.
trans.
$

21.

Ibid.,

22.

Al J; hizy

pp.

decision

in greater

107,
Tabyýn,

and the

horsemen

pagan Mecca was richer

Al aayän tiiall

Arabia

first

made a conscious

1920.

Throughout
use stirrups.

hand there

Muslim

of

not

On the other

20.

p.

not,

Eastern

many years,

Since

could

Middle

device

suggestion

armies

is
did

a possibility,
know of

not
detail

to
in

in horses

than

of /Allah

E, ý2ehatsek

Muslim

Z-74P1ad!nah,

cavalry

for

it.

Nevertheless.,

subsequent

decades

first

hand,,

other
or

engage

an enemy

to

ready
If

the

foe

and

In 7th

century

the

retiring

if

the

latter

hover

admitted
in

defeat,

their

any

this

era

cavalry

weapon.

Biddle

long

bcdouin
are
7th

lance

into

date

century,

victory

in

20th

unknown.

virtually

it

would

comes
at

al

infantry,
24

enemy.
to

seek

break

situation.

to attack,

be expected

later

which

particularly

of

art

from

Egypt

Coptic
during

very

the

two styles,

from
uncertain,

(Fig.
Muslim

all

almost
27

weapon.

used

and were

illustrations

One example

cavalry

shown in

is

cubits

eleven

medieval

century'

Ghamr,

the best

have come in

probably

length

cubits'

appear
the

Rather

military

was considered

and a much longer

art,

spears

well

a cavalry

five

weapon of

Eastern

these

the

Among the bedouin

the normal

then

into
to

expected

then

would

a camel

on army

among the

cohesion

a dangerous

would

being

the opposing

infantry
is

led

and waiting.

of

of

from

On the other

have

not

and

or became disorganized.

foe broke

In such situations
26

flanks
loss

any

though

prepared

were

on the
of

Arabia

24

.

23

1f.

might

cavalry

territory,

advantage

contact,

off

if

that

its"

combat

these

to battle

led

than

rather

in

were war-horses

the

for

Islam

against

were generally

indicate

would

take

they

hostile

across

the horsemen

so valuable

mounted

sources

battle

appeared

that

or a mule and only

fighting

Although
by

the

earlier

times

though

possibly

A verse

135).

of

conquest

celebrating
Palestine,

ýý

23,

24.

25,

"The Role of
Hill,
Conquests"
p. 36.
Al Jarbüc,
op. cit
Horse in the Early
"The

Hill,
Conquests"

26.

Ibid.

27.

E1 Gindi,

Role
p.

of
37.

the

Camel and the Horse

op. cit _. p.
ý,

Camel

151.

and

the

"The Role of
p. 3?.

p. 239; Hilly
Arab Conquests"
thr

in

the

Horse

in

Early

the

the

'.rah

Camel and the

Early

Arab

z75
indicates

also

that

the weapon used by other
to

In addition

such

multi-weapon

from

the

7th

and

early
8th

long

javelins.

to

early

centuries

may be worth

It

of

who,

may

that

notLnn

in

developed

while
3yzantium

the

included

course,

the

in

failed

troops

such

centuries,
new foes

against

been

had

cavalry
7th

Arab cavalry

early

or short,
`

archer-lancer
6th

than

longer

was generally

28

warriors.

spears,

haue used bows or

also

lance

a horseman's

Arabs.
The 7th

century

the most effective
of

short

formations

seven

separate

in

units

him from

ranks

the

ambitious

aware of

Khaybcr

and the

Al 0alädhuri,
Hill,
Conquests"

30.

Lombard,

31.

Altheim

Les rnetaux.
and Stiehl,

flank

the enemy's

tt,.

and

or prevent

Muhammad

was ever

from

was obviously

the offensive.

to go onto

possible,

this

area'

such

copying

the

levying

that

the

plus

booty

of

conquest
from

135.

Camel

p.

before

horses

and., where

income

p.

cit.

of
39.

Additional

has even been suggested

It

subsequent

Role
p.

hnrseS

31

Prophet

Islam

if

cavalry

oo

many more
the

yet

of

turn

consist

30

needed

tactics,

as tributs.

"The

attempt

own.

the purchase

to

would

and more manoeuverable

flanks.

on their

Strateaikon

formations

lighter

with

cavalry

sending

to the

such cavalry

lancers

also

the need for

more animals

entailed.

According

Muslims

cavalry

Ho ordered

wastage

Arabs,

cavalry

offensive

that

inevitable

formations

one's

field

to

the

unlike

were rot,

afford

Maurice,

individually

perhaps

not

period,

could

of

looser

would

turning

Clearly

29.

Emperor

or eight

horse-archers

2ü.

infantry

to the

attributed

of

the

and accept

this

of

Thus they

prepared

against

of

cavalry

horses.

though

Syzantines,

and

the

Horse

147.

"Dhü Nuwäs, " p.

320.

in

the

':-arty

Arab

2-76
defeated

Jewish

Muhammad to raise
this

in Wadi al

tribes

Islam's

and maintain

means the Muslims

Qüra.. Taymar and Fadak,

last

were at

first

enabled
32

force.

cavalry

to counter-attack

able

By

their

enemies,
Once

Islam

went

successfully

These

naturally

arose.

fortified

towns

At first,

however,

some specifically

to

these

with
superior
anc( more
Camel-ridingkmobile

bypass

use

the

of

their

their

33

position.
indeed,
of

foes

A lack

of

area

Crescent
source

compar3d

and Egypt.
of

howovcr,
It

that

36

cavalry

the

33.

Hill.,
"The Role of
Conquests, " p.
7.
?.,

34.

Ibid.

35.

Ibid.

36.

A. Crohmann'

37.

Canards, "L'Expandion
pp. 316-317.

in

the

army of

largely

to battle

of

of

some role

in

in

the Arab conquest

of

Egypt

of

Egypt

might,
conquest
Fertile

is

a

still

s primarily

al

37

the

a

armoured

infantry,

scholars

agree,

All

brilliant

this

out-

enemy to attack

Islam's

heavily

on camels?

widespread

places

Iran34

of

successes

CAmr ibn

Muslims

a good defensive

numbers in

Arab conquest

consist

played

Ibid..

campaign.

that

the Muslims

368-369.

pp.

p.

it

riding

32,

adequate

immediate

Was the

during

was also

its

In fact,

or did

known as thagla - h,,

in

and

forcing

entailed

armies

times

at

the
the

upon

infantry

the camParab\'Qslowness

with

conto versy.

force#35

cavalry

for

battle

manpower,

enabled

based

Muslim

besiege

Arab

strictly

strategy

gave

to

need

tactics

had dismounted

camels

the

of

Arabian

this

when the latter

have accounted

this

thus

and

Usually

own choosing.

Arab infantry

shortage

problems

camel.

manoeuvered

an acute

new problems

offensive,

from

primarily

sprang

from

and

the

onto

the

Camel and the

Horse

in

the

Ferly

r.reh

33.

From the World

of

Arabic

Arabes; ' (during

Per?.
questions

(Cairo
after

1952),
his

p.

paper),

114.

Z77
suffered

their

some of

case defending

Oyzantine

inferior

undeniably

to
they

rind enoinsering,
the

siege

of

T; 'ifs

of

cowhide

in

castles
their

and

This

use

engine

used in

the

ultimately
it

Hira

Muslims

the Middle

in

the

the

at

3rd

'j, it

the

of

Byzantines

it

not

the

until

from
learned

via

the

Al Oalädhurf,,

40.

Althein

41.

Fries.,

42.

Schwarzlose,
p. 202,

43.

Partington.,
loc.

ap.

44,

D. R, Hills
Civilization.

"Nechanicý-, il Technology,
" in
(Oxford
J. R. Hayes edit,,

45.

Howard-Johnson,

cif..,

p.

cit..

74;

Fries.,

"Dhti Ptiuwäsý" ap.
p.

42

Iranian-

being

used

invented

century

44

via
45

Iran,

when,
Arabs,

and which

was a more

o

c? t.

pp.

35-56.

366--367.

56.

o R. cit,

F.

cit..,

92.

and was widely

What the

Avara,

39,

op.

Yemen.

41

293.

p.

and Stiehl,

12th

Asia

central

Butler,

op.

in

was probably

which

38.

cit

manganels.,

with

and strongly

known as the man anIa.

had learned

40

c Umar I. 43

Caliph

app©or

had probably

op,

acted

)evernI

was certainly

trebuchet,

was also

Yemen or HTra,

Arabian,

north

century,

time

did

have

latter.

origin

mnntiet

or

Sassanians

Chinese

of

During

art.

was known as the magganon or mannnnikon.

counter-weight
East,

the

were

engines

might

equipped

from

sieve

a dabbnbah

the

this

Muslims

the

The former

operatiny

learned

of
of

both

apparently

may have been known in

conYusin5ly
in

were

terms

ignorant

manganel.

been

where

in

men used

or

Hijäz

fops

in

artillery,

the early

While

entirely

Yomenis

have

might

The true
in

not

those

was perhaps

influenced,
by the

were

the

Byzantium

it

While

their

of

man anon

for

38

Alexandria.
most

from

casualties

f^uhammad's

the

and

as a protection
tribal

heaviest

p.

Cit

321;

E3usworthj

189; $osworthy-

p.

303.

"Armies

"Armics

of

of

the f'rophetp"

the Prophets"

The Genius
of Arab
1976),
pp. 175.187.

z79
primitive

mangonel

by

the

of

such man-powernd

combined

TarstsT
they

in

were

engines
the

pulling

the
clearly
the

of

in

the

torsion
for

same as the

The mangonel,
high

many

on the

be,

however,

and indeed

very

the

Byzantine

effective

"mild

the

against

might

sound,

torsion
throurahout

popular

This

ballista

range,

one of

R9s al

Arab besiegers.

cAin

example,

a small
range,

a larger

to do the

weight
destroyer

for

of

for

stint

hurled

open battle.

Arabia,

was,

while

earliest

rock
so

missile
damage.

the ballista

carrädah
The
its

be
in

abandoned

and had great

trajectory

to

continued

and

ass")

own plunging

defence

by a1

existing

had been

they

49

used in

have been known in

was during

known

was a fortification
was,

become

to

had limited

rock's

the

forms

Various

men.

as such engines

still

Aramaic

a low

of

over

after

onagros.

along

As such the ma.ngonel
could

centuries

by contrast,

and relied

were

(orig.

46

Islam.

eastern

Byzantine

and fast

accurately

Primitive

and were

engines

Carrädah
The

Europe.

48

but

counter-weight.,

descr; bed in deta11

as an improvement

areaand

Islam

were later

century.

seen

Nediterraneen

8 team

of

47

Roman world,

Earlier
used

strength

man3jTq

12th

by a released

not

operated,

may not,
mentions

when the weapon proved

51

assimilate

Elite,
bourgeois
could rapidly
with
urban
equa Ily urbanizes(
the
foes,
its
the weapons and technology
problem of
of

46.

Hill.,

"tt'echanical

47.

Al Tarst

48.

Thruat of the
"The Crusades and the Technological
L. 'w'hite, Jnr.,
p
J.
V.
East
the
in
Middle
Society
West, " in War. Technolo
and
(London 1975), pp. 101-102.
Parry and V1, E. Yapp edits.

49.

Oosworthjl

50.

Fries,

51.

Al

hlhile

Islam,

I,

op,

Oalädhuri,

its

op.

cit.,

"Armies
cit,

'' 1cc.

Technology,

of
p.

opci.

p.

120.

". e Prophet,, " p.
57.
t.,

it.

pp.

242-243.

2C7.

^[
/ý

inhdequate

nanpower-. was not'so

apparently

getting

644-AD),

theýmawälT,

or'newly

asservants

these
54

or. -batman,
Umayynd times.

role-by

but

55

these

as heavily

as horsemen

Now was also
58

organized.

use of limited
Islamic

but-also-an

military

to-set

These Byzantine

merely

a means of

the regional
in this

may themselves

reforms

in the early

garrisoning

aspects of

hava been inspired

Ibid.;

0osworthi,

54.

Croneý

op,

cit.,

were

7th century.

53.

of

mentioned

by
Constantinople's
case

Remarks on the Mamlük Military
Ayalon,, "Preliminary
in Islam"
pp. 44-45.
the

also

and armies could

52,

"Armies

mostly

armies

Like, so many other

theme farces

up regional

Prophet:

" p.

by Sassanian
Institution

203.

93.

p.

554,

Ayalon., "Preliminary
in Islam-"
loc.
cit.;

4
..,.
ýý
,.
Institution
Remarks on the Mamlük Military
pp. - 27 and 92»93.
Crones apR6 cit`..

56,

Ayalon! '"Preliminary
50;
in Islam"
p.
al

Remarks on, -the Mamlük Military
7aberft
vo1. II, p.
op, citlý

57.

Al JaÄiz$ Al Bayn

58,

Montgomery
"Armies of

wall

Watt, Thesty
the Prophet"

bytn,
7aý,

p.

7th

to make-the most effective

organization,

by'Byzantium,

the later

are

und or regional

attempt

manpower resources.

have been inspired
attempt

not

perhaps,

military

57

and javelins.

when the

tima

This'was,
"

a vast new empire,

early

the

the ranks

me
ewalT troops
they

of

a vital

of

part-

official

had entered

although

speers

with-short

given

evidence

fully-fledged

infantry#55

armoured

fighting

the

from

The militarization

playing

some were clearly

Judging

and subsequentýcnnturies,
fought

new Fluslims

latter

foes,

defeated

" was also

"frsedmenj,

converted

52

was

CUmar (634-

Caliph

of Islam's

being encour9ged.
-was

53.
At-first
->

blessing.

of. the

the recruitment

of Persians,

The situation

solved.

by the-reign

serious

at, which°time

icularly

easily

Institution
464.

p. 22.
that
203.

Islam,
bias

p.

50;

Bosworth,

7I
(

cT

2.8a
military

and it

organization,
the

copied

were not

to be so organized

horse-raising

of

the

role

Räshidun

in

the

been in

as their

possession

horsemen

of

finest

breed.

Syrian-Arab

It

it

was both

which

Iranian

and light,,

the

time

a more important
the

rich

have

Arabs might

is

foes.

heavy-cavalry
from

for

clear
for

compensated

between

was a cross

the

This
but

small

Originating

horse.

the

combining

tactics

Arab cavalry-versus-cavalry
to have differed

first

Even in

in

62

if

the written

by the iuslims'
was the
strong

North

in northern

advantages

of

its

63

two forebears*

centuries:

would soon have

mount available.

cavalry

swift

region

been
to
have
as heavily
seem

rarely

Barb and the heavier

African

started

and t3yzentine

Sassenian

the

first

themes

so an ever-increasing

to play

than
have
been
to
more
seems

it

the

were acquired.

But however

a disadvantage,

was indeed

sources,

Syria.,

their

arms,

armoured
this

armios

60

widened,

control

cavalry
Islam.

of

the

61

steppe-lands

Caliphs,

Arabs

Although

Thu- the-Muslims

Muslim

area under

59

Islam,

of

eruption

the

that

possible

the Persians.

was Anatolia.

bocnme aware of the idea.

number of

the

before

completed

equally

from

directly

concept

tho
As.

is

from those that

traditional

be used against

throughout
another

"La Tacticrie

at this

time,

seem

had been, and would remain for many
the Middle

East.

Spears would

horsemen, a sword only being drawn

59,

Darko,

60.

Haldon,

61.

D. T. Bice2 The Byzantine-q.

62.

Canerdt

"L.'Expanoion

63.

L.ombard$

The Golden

Aspects

do not,

p. 136.

TouraniannesIlý"

of Byzantine

Military

Adml.nistration,

(London 1962)s pp. 47-50.

Arabe$" pp., 316-317.
Age of

Islam,

pp.

163-170,

pp. 97-101x,

1
12-V
64

later.

Full
is

revolution

equipment
unlikely

mounted
hauberk

and ba/dah
thread,
It

652 AD,

Muslim

an awls

Unfortunately.,

than

other

136) of

basic

needless

rarely
cA1! (ee

it

sources,

mentioned

in

Part. Two

115).

by an
Nubia

raiairig

while

of

possible

early

show any obvious
does,

however

was to become widespread

that

as the only

weapon on a

that

or Syria,

One of the figures

Although

was

on

might have been the
camm-udd
is
the

bedouin
been
to
have
weapon and
a
seems

use by regular
c

65

was described

Palestine

C
dir
of the 7th and 8th centuries.

noted in early

of

ca üd
appears

Russia (Fig.

in central

smaller

sources

a type

from 7th century

dish$ probably

five

135 and 136) do not

(Fig.
mace
This

shields

illustrations

these

entirely

as turn

dish may wear a scale hauberk of a type that

this

is

(Figs.

One of

among Umayyad cavalry.

discovered

coats

the helmet.

show a long-hafted

silver

of mail"

- available

t'rom Egypt

cavalry

armour

down with

that

the 7th

0
dir

and a basket.

a nose-bag
cavalry

of

a small.

of

needles

a packing

plus

such heavy

as "loaded
66

by al E'aiädhurT

scissors,

was probably

Arab poet
in

was listed
helmet,

as part

the Umayyad

before

just

the rest

during

probably

on a raids

this

forces

linen

to have changed

When going

century.

an Arab horseman

for

Muslim

troops

until

the

Caliphate

tptertwo).

Elsewhere horse-riding

annsir warriors

who took part

in the

in 656 AD were described as armed with swords
67
These
iron
of
in
might,
men
"bristling"
armour.
and

Day of the Camel battle
on baldrics,

infantry.
been
have
mounted
coursep
64.

Al galädhuri,

65,

Ibid.,

66.

Shir, nieq op. cit..

679

üdTj
Al P9as

cit.

o.

Other troops

p. 129.

p. 445.

op

p. A.
t.i

IU,, p. 309.
vol*
_

the
some
on
were,

zýz
occasion,
while

specified

had iron

some also

They were armed with

as cavalry.

were trained

Whereas in Byzantium

armour.

to

fight

as once-only

armoured horsemen could

fight

just

cavalry

would do if,
could

for

example,

fight

also

freedom

greater

movement if

of

657 ADS heavily

armoured

to fight

a duel

between

retained

their
tightened

covered

all

The champion

ewlyah's
Mu

df.rc of cca1Q armour.

spear

victorious.,

and with

While

the

indeed

in

the

armies

of

Darko,

69.

Hill,
The Mobility
p. 188.

70.

Al fasüd!

time

"La Tactique

71.

Ibid.,

72.

N. A. Faris

l,

op.

a aword.
and wore a

dominated the

still

behind one of medieval

for

with

the

of

the Räshidün

the

an infantry

weapon,

vol. V, pp.

vol. V, p.

n72

may well

when Islam
in

while

the
the

did

Arab
spear

II, " pp. 130-131.

of the Arab Armies in the Early

cites,

Prophet

earth.
it

The bow was,

earth.

Touranianfle,

Caliphs

Islam's

said,

them was your

to have been genuine,

unlikely

primarily

68.

apparently

a sword

ye have conquered

might

seem to be conquering
time,

infantry

might lie

Arab bow,

their
is

the

that

coif

they

wore a dirt

in which the Prophet reportedly

and the

statement

have originated

side

wielded

show that

clearly

hadTths

"Use ye the

time

this

and was armed with

eyes,

army also

Such a situation
military

a mighfar

in

71

Such incidents

favorite

his

except

from

5iffTn

of

as dismounting

though

cAli's

for

armour

recorded

armies#

The champion

face

from

battlefield.

the opposing

Arab horsemen

At the battle

also

were

by a maahzsmbelt,

his

70

Arab

This they

69

their

abandoning

required*

68

on fcot.

and outnumbered.

ranks,

horsemen

armour.

hauberk

in

such heavy

chock-troops,

as effectively

surrounded

as infantry

rum0h- lances

Conquests.

55.

49.500

snd R. P. Elmer,

Arab Archery.
.

(Princeton

1945), p. Be

zs'3
was used by all

troops.

Considering
prophet

the

and the

of Muslims,

it

Räshidün

in

blades

now preserved

fact,

the

Arabs'

Both

sides

found

to defend

Reliquary

Nor was it

462, and carried

inflicted

to put

necessary

wore normal long-sleeved

hauberks like

shields,

to shoulders,

hands and bodies.

this

With the exception
on most of

perhaps illustrated

side once again largely
76
ranks.
73.

A. R. Zaki.

victims

74.

R. Levy.

75.

Hill.

The Social

The Mobility

Thordeman
Armour
pp. 149-209.

in

of the most commonly

the least

common

of

such wounds are similar

the battle

of

cÄlim

al Isl
of Islam,

Wisby.

(Cairo
m'f,

fighting

1957).

Battle

in

pass-

(Cambridge 1957). p. 432.

in
the
Early
the
Arab
Armies
of
the

In

the losing

encounter,

infantry
of armoured

Structure

from

This

troops

'Conquests,,

P, 143.
76.

front

be
°uite understandable.
would

Scandinavian

consisted

Al Sayf fTtl

foes.

Arrow wounds to the face were also

grim 14th century

singularly

rear.

that

of the latter,

the

the

the

such front-ranking

to legs and feet,

were suffered

in

If

then an analysis

In

Byzantine

infantry
to

cavalry,

infantry.

their

of

who stood

74

Muslim

worn by all

wounds, drawn up by D. R. Hill,

found

very

are certainly

armoured

of Siffin.

hurts

to those

to

those

or otherwise,

that

so protected

Most frequent

75
common.

generations

was not given

have been among early

was much like

not

the

of

swords

73

might

was the case in the battle

Fig,

r' re emphasis

the Topkapu

situation

those

by later

that

universal.

it

were preserved

attributed

106-114),

not

supposed

which

Genuinely

as armour

was clearly

ranks

in

(rigs.

Abundant
it

hr dTt s.

pious

indeed

early

Caliphs

seems surprising

swords

the

reverence-with

of Wisby.

1361,

vol.

Is

zF4CHAPTER3

THE (1ILTTARY CONTRIBUTION OFCONnuEnro

Throughout
many non-Arab
This

the

history

peoples

naturally

meant

and equipment
to a greater

to the military

or lesser

traditions

differing

drawn into

were

the Muslim

beyond,

strength

Islam.

of

of military

orbit,

the

towards

degree

and indeed

Arab expansion,

of

contributed
that

AND NEIGHBOURING PEOPLE'S

organization

each contributing
Muslim

of

evolution

military

technology.
Syria
Among the
that

is

those

Byzantine

first

inhabitants
before

rule

they,

descendants

possibly

1

combatants

Malik

al

Other
but

later

Syrians,

settlers,

for

the

the

to

their

conquest

Egyptian

or aarajimah,
Limitenei,

their

number later

against

1T,
became ma
w

some of

of

counterparts,
Not only did

their
at

In 716/7

who were

first

under

enlisted

erstwhile

masters

AD YazTd ibn

and

Muhallab

rather
while

the

as non-

apparently

and Tabaristan,

domination

Muslim

resist

locals
been
have
may
whom
Ourjän

under

a major role-in

the Umayyad period.

as soldiers.

Syrians,

who had lived

Crescent

Byzantine

fight

way were the

Islam.

of

like

many of

Syrians

recruited

1.

but

some decades*
GAbd

of

this

were never to play

during

passive

in

Fertile

such as the Mardaitea

warriors

allies.

coming

history,

military

Caliph

the

Syrians

were not entirely

for

the

of

Although non-Arab
Islamic

local

to be incorporated

than

Arab

indigenous

Arabes, " Revue
H. Ahrweiler,
"L*Asie
Mineure et lea invasions
Histariciuc,
CCXXVII (1962),, pp. 5-6; E. W. Brookes "The Arabs in
Asia Minor,
Studip9.
from Arabic Sources, " Journal
of Hellenic
(1898),
XVIII
pp. 25--26.
oe. cit.,
p. 203; Howard-Johnson,

z3S
Syrians

the

Arabs

Islamic
the
of

fact,,

period,
ruslims

Syria

these

not

only

the pro-

in

Syria

were

by

made the absorption

influences
military

and traditions

structure

much easier.

very

and Nubia

both

under

in by the

the 5th

day Nubia
Nubians

penetrate

Romano, from

Nubian

Coptes

some of

was minimal

their

southern

their

thumb or
of

centuries

draw.

rather

2.

R. Levy, An Introduction
1933), Pp. 271-272.

3.

P. L. Shinnie,

4.

Al ElalädhurT,

5, A1MaaaüdT,oýci

the

eyes"

Medieval

the

of

to

reed,

Sociolo

(Khartoum

331.
p.
.,

t ,, vni. I1, pp. 3$2-353.

tell

whether

the

Arabs.

accurate
4

They

and at least

arrowss

Isalam

they

army to

Muslim

"curiously

of

of

the

foes,

exceptionally

armoured

as having

Nubia,

first

of

the

than lighter

the

Blemya

we cannot

tales

with

called

of present-

conquest

their

Like

Egypt

of

south

the oases west

Their

Certainlyl

were described

ov.
_cit.

3

view

of

who were probably

home in

though

Aswan returned
out

the peoples

Nubians

Blemya.

archers,

finger

wooden nabl,

of

original

by 530 AD.

the point

and from

last,

They were the

troublesome

bowmen who "put

shot with
in later

the

was completed

south

the

century

were accomplished

the

but

the most important=

history

to crush

Nile,

is

that

Egyptir`nsf

and Umayyad rule,

an the scene.

arrived

true

of

were more active.

During
Islamic

role

Byzantine

neighbours

used

say that

by Romano-Byzantine

the existing

of

The military

of

that

but

to

be true

probably

influenced

greatly

first

Egypt

in

would,

into

Muslim raids

2

Armenia and Anatolia.
It

in early

involved

were almost certainly

shaped" bows5
II

1954),, p. 2.

(London

2.g6
and bowstrings

that

Christians
troops
civil

Nubians

the Governor

in
tgypt,
war

although

the bulk

Ethiopians
of block

Subsequently

The bulk

of
they

Alexandria
of

could,

fought

for

accepted

Egypt.

Coptic

levies

Many such are mentioned

during

the Muslim

in

fayyüm

and Mier

had at its

in Alexandria

army defending

Tinnis.

of the bucellerii

continued

11

the early

6.

Faris and Elmer

7.

Lurnraena, acs. cit.

C.

Butler,

9.

Ibid.

opt

7

0Amr ibn

such Umayynd

presumably

appear

to have been infantry.
Egyptian
a local

infantry
militia

10

A

Copts in a mixed Byzantine

may or may not have formed
Egypt,

for

12

internal

but they certainly

Under local
security

pannarchs
and low

p. 94,

2,
442
I
441-442
n.
and
pp.
and
r
p. 257.

pp. 102 and 222-224.

10.

Ibid$

p. 330.

11.

Ibid

p. 353.

12.

H. I. B3e11, "The Administration
or
7eitschrift.
XXVIII
Elyzantinioche
"Un Gouverneur Cmayyad: d'Egypto
f
tss4 s cur
les papyrus Araber 11 in
On

(Beirut

marched with

Muslim period.

op. citt.,

the Nijäz,

named Constantine.

forces

and nomarctues they were responsible

formed

in Mecca and MadTnah,

conquest.

also has

Native

in

John#9 while

head an officer

who garrisoned

into

well

would

by a certain

source in Masud!

semi-legendary

part

were led

probably

Islam.

local

of

0

Byzantine

have been

also

The latter

reportedly
of

conquest

the last

course,

the Umayyads bath

troops

such black

of black

corps

during

the pagan Quray h,

serving

have already

would

warriors

troops

the fuslim

during

alýAn

the elite

or pagan Eritreans,

others

a thousand

woven from grass.

have formed

might

who served

Christian

while

were probably

6

1930).

pp. 319--320.

"
Egypt under the Umayyad Khnlifß,
(1926),
H. Ls mmena,
pp. 270.260;
ýarIk
d'epres
Qorra ibn
»
In 5i? ýc1e dh+s 0mnyya d a.
-

2g7
13

enforcement.
off

Byzantine

various

Egyptian

The Coptic

population

Coptic

visual
in

Byzantine

variations.

The Iranian

On the other

hand the originally

and fundamentally

Central

of

variation

in 9th

seems to reappear

(Figs.

period

much Coptic

of

grew in

sword-blade

pre-Islamic

may in

arts

fact
is

dating

and,

long,

the

the

end of

the

the uncertain

given

from

have resulted

the Muslim

problem

in Egypt.

concerning

the last

a particular

14).

manuscripts

East$

towards

and 141)

local
(Fig.

the back

Coptic

the Middle

popularity

10,137

Such uncertain

conquest.

in

hilt

One possible

across

century

appear.
long

scabbard-slide,,

scabbard

and 10th

As elsewhere

143 and 145).

round-ended

of

the

local

minor

examples

pommel do.

angled

to

Egypt

of

with

for

does not,
Iranian

Asian

may be the wearing

though

equipment,

sword-belt

troops

show the

sources

their

be basically

dating

the manning

the Umayynd era was in

during

the main

course,

14

Meanwhile,

(Figs.

of

althoughs

counter-attacks

contribution

the fleet.

This

also

beat

the Muslims

helped

The Maghrib
both

Informations
pre-Islamic
we are better

written

centuries

in

served

for

the Maghrib
the earlier

al ternativ e, in this

warriors

feature

were clearly

of the population

sparse

the

in

Whilo

period.

it

traditions,

extremes
is
one

Berber cavalry

was a tradition

dangerous
6S

of riding

and their

than infantry
bare-back.

These

drawn from the nomadic or semi-nomadic

and normally

13.

Ibid.

14.

M. A. Shaban, Islamic
(Cambridge
1971}f p.

though

case.

More is known about early
most obvious

is

in military

to assume too much continuity

lithe

and pictorials

fought

History.
123.

as light

AD 600-750,

cavalry,

section

harassing

A New Interpretation,

z,88
but

and surrounding,
the aerbera
bedouin

followed

Arabs,

Another

to operate

which

to create

animals

to have been true
iron

heads

be the

Berbers'

of

15.0.

16.

mentioned,
Islamic

in

or

is

feet.

19

periods

11a2hrib

only

and this

javelins

fact,

the Muslim
tribes

20

conquest.
the

of

late

to form

prea sort

to be the most

the widespread
from

to

continued

Camels proved

dates

medium-

carried

also

used pack-animals

yet

appears

These weapons had

in

Herber

such a situations

the western

tactics.

The javelin,

nomadic

era was their

The cavalry

after

and

17

and cavalry.

in open country.

encampment
in

infantry

Berbers

encampment as a base from

va farr

weapon long

chief

beasts

suitable
camels

shields.

and early

defended

both
butts

leather

As already
Islamic

of

the

of

unnecessary

the Islamic

the
weapon was

Berber

and iron

round

sized

karr

In this
that

the nomadic

a "fortified"

essentially

A characteristic

into

to

similar

between

well

foes.

to avoid

concern

similarity

persisted

their

with,

of warfare

a comparable

nomadic Arabs that
pack

closing

a tradition

with

16

casualties.

use of

rarely

Is

a westward

raising

of

migration

in der
Ourian,
"Die einheimische
Nordafrikas
Bevölkerung
Spätantike
bis zur Einwanderung
der Wandalen, " in Die Araber
(Berlin
der Alten !,1ß1t, V/1, F. Altheim
edits.,
and R. Stiehl
1968), pp. 2; 6 and 248

in

P. F. de Moraes Farias,
"The Almoravids: Some Questions concerning
the Character f the Movement during its period of Closest Contact
'Institut
Fnndamentel
,
the
de
Bulletin
Western
Sudan"
with
d' Afrinue

Noir,

(1967)0
13,
XXIX
ser.

p.

810.

17.

(London
lome,
1978),
the
P. Connolly,
Enemies
Hannibal
of
end
"
Chinahandel,
Marot's
"Der
41;
Untergang
Altheim
p.
and Stiel,
"
410.
Fetes,
do
Adargues
301-303;
"Les
E3uttin,
p.
pp.

1g.

Moraea Farias,

opcitt.

19.

Connolly,

cit.

20.

fleshir,

loc.
op.

cit.,

pp.

p. 811.

67-70;

Morass

Farins,

op.

cites,

pp.

810-811.

Z919
of Lawate tribes
that

largely

in the 6th century.

before

a century
Arm,Pnin

the arrival

was Armenia.

and Byzantium.
in

the

reigns

particularly

Armenians
Maurice

of

first

Imperial

Elite

guard

units

in

might

prove

more reliable

The two princes
which this

of

art

for

the

written

sleeves.

than mail

defence

Iran

as cavalry,

important

They were,
the eastern

of

served

5assanian

regarded

Constantinople

a somewhat archaic

and zabns of Byzantine

flexible

the

in

23

role
fact,,

provinces

fighting

probably

sources.

illustrates

generally

fashion,

Armenian

early

cavalry

of

the

similar

on the Cathedral

problem is apparently

is rarely

to

to the lor

kilns

Note also the Iranian-style

Scale armour, being essentially

or lamellar,

art

frontier

at Mren appear

on the carving

scale hauberkss

padded or quilted

of both

24

military

Armenians

an increasingly

and Hereclius.

The riders

wear long-sleeved

27.

plain

25
kt.
onalaity

Muslim

239).

played

during

Whereas the

(Fig.

the armies

in

on Muslim

period

farmer, they were highly

prominent
the

against

levies

In tht

the latter

influence

In the pre-Islamic

and local

as mercenaries

region

pressure

22

the Muslims.

of

their

in the Tunisian

civilization

to have a noticeable.

` area

-

technology

during

It was.. In fact,

and Byzantium

An..

while

Byzantine

obliterated

21

illustrated

less
long sleeves.

with

of Piren, however, wear hauberks
solved by leaving

parts

in

of the

t
ýn
týe
4yes;
}}frr'ca
idc41ý,
Eurc}'ý
td. N. C. Frendp ,"7ýo,rth
Early M
and
the
Royal.
SocieCy,
Sth,
ý
(IqS
),
Nisiorical
ser.
actions o

PI

.6

4-7-6

5,

22,

I,bid.

23.

Christensen,,

24,

Haldonf

25.5haban,

-mý,

op,

Aspects
opt

cites,
of

it,
c_
_

,rrIt5

pp.

pyzantine
p.

26.

201-203;
Military

Lombard,

Les t1etnux,

Administrati

on,

pp.

p,

34.

17 and 19.

2: ct0
Such long scale hauberks,

elbow area unscaled.
front

as they do, may correspond
dur,,,,
r

non-protective
an this

Armenian

raised

pommel,

but

that

suggest

under greater

Byzantine

influence.

an the

Caliphate,

agree.

But Byzantium

had far

of

What Byzantine

technology.
came from
the

rest

importer
to

its

Syria,
of

the Empire.

of

influences

eastern

less

the Muslims,

traditions,

had for

remained for
military

who rapidly

technologies,

there

in

military

their

evolved

the

field

than

influence

area probably
different

in relation
in

developments

10th centuries
own synthesis

of foreign

that

they undertook

from

much more an

at least

than did Byzantium.

sources

of military

this

remained

adapters

a role

illustrations

all

almost

was in

Byzantium

7th to early

more to offer

some centuries

had a profound

was an exporter,

East Roman Empire from the late
that

A

technology

was in many respects

Indeed,

neighbours.

such

in military

upon which

to offer

In facts
it

26

a distinctly

In general

also

a fact

which

than

the

and perhaps aouthern, influencu:

influence

a province

having

unique,

cantle.

administration

the

armies

like

which,

down the front.

Caucasus were,

Iranien,

military

slit

also

unflarad

and the

at least,

is

carving

a flat

Armenia

Byzantine

to the Arab dlr

h, was probably

saddle

opening down the

the

suggest
of military

The Byzantines

and usually

hostile

successfully

for

military

tradition

a thousand years.
Iberia

At the other
also had its

end of the Mediterranean

influence

the
Visigoths
set

apart

upon Islam.

another

While an emphasis on cavalry

from most other

Germanic barbarians,

27

with

26,

Al Agsar-oti'* o2,
pp. 17 and 321; 0. G. Navas Arabi EEnglis
_cit.,
(Qeirut
Dictionary,
1899).

27.

Naffmeyarp
ap. c it.
pp,
r,
viaigoda, 9" p. 101.

77. »78; SsnchezwAlbarno2r

"La Caballeri

21I
the exception
Islamic
(Fig.

Iberia.
61),

customary
This

They are

numbers

law insisted

that

28

infantry

levies

German in

The fact

that

non-Vioigothic

the

states
Visigoths

subjects,
impression

garbate

the

and it

origins

Andalus

al
of

the

in 711 AD consisted

probably

These troops

were not

and indeed

there

the

of

reigns

troops

to

referred

also

define

seems to be no specific

disnppeared.

32

Indeed!

in

more notably,

up their
for

accounts

but

reference

of

at

serfs.
military
inspiration.

infantry,

to cavalry

need not

Arab historians

his

or

the

Ziyäd

Byzantine

cavalry

either

Yet this

Wambe and Ervogild.

Visigothic

and demoralized

elements,
unreliable
units
Elite/of
obvious
various
ä as being

men

the

by Täricj Ibn

Wambe nay have recruited

refQrms

free

all

to call

were obliged

of unwilling

slaves

33

the north.

army defeated

the

survived
and,

to

century.,

many javelin-throbjersq

that

tradition

and even slaves,
that

as Visinothic

of

included

art

obligations.

7th

lote

and one-tenth

in Muslim

Christian

the

probably

29

and slingers.

both

availaole

men had military

t lamba., in

Such infantry

sub-Visigoth`.

widespread

free

population

to persist

collapse

King

by Kinq

was essentially

limited

may have been considerable,
all

in pre-

be ignored

cannot

shown on the

Romano-Celtic

archers

fought

infantry

clearly

and their

the

as wall,

flio

Lombards.,

lout was extended

include

the

the

of

mean that

the Muslim

during
such
conquest

75-76.

28.

Moffmvyer,,

29,

Ibid.

30.4..

d
Spain. " Post
for Uar s Medieval
LouriQ,, "A Society
Organized
preaent,
y
XXXV (1966).
p. 60; C. Sanchez--Albornoz, o "Ei Ejecito
716-1037,, " in nrdinramenii
in Guerra en el Reino Asturieonea!
dal
SettifnRno
di
Studio
in Occidente
Medipp
i~tilitnri
os
no11'Alto
xU 1( Spolata
1960),,
di Stitdi aull' nlta Medioeva
Cnntra Italiana
p. 299.

31.

NcPfmeyer., Ioc.

32,

Sanchez-Albarnoz,

02,

cit.,

pp.

-cit
"La Caballeria

Visigoda,

" pp. 102-103.

31

zaz
make it

clear

cavalry

forces,

insisted

that

their

citizens

troditionel

his

and warriors

Visigoths

political

including
foes,

Two well-preserved
492 and 493).

a for

reins,

more advanced

a curb
specimen,

correct.

Here the psalions

curb-bit,

and its

become typical

also

have a profound

contained
leoneso

a strong

impact
Spanish

its

though

if

its

this

of

It

34

(Fins.
is

in

may have been
The second

curb

bit
is

dating

century

half-. way to becoming
has the

mornle

cavolry.

period

WAtize.

0th

for

high

lack

psaliono

early

In Pict,

Rio Parbate

or a martingale.

rein

a true

part

of

that

will

later

horse-furniture.
would

successor

element,

of

Asturias.

al

Andalus

while

warfare

merely

indeed

be etrongly,

kingdom

on Muslim

and the Umsyyad Emirate

from

lEnding

33

sincgultirly
any

to King

certainly

Eastern

Christian

through

not

survive

traditions

military

by the

retained

south-piece

of Middle

Visigot

are

the

and

belonged

type,

cheek-curb

to extra

and

horse-bits

one supposedly

straightforward

is

treachery,

of

the

of
the

as cnvnlry.

the battle

in

defeat

rick's

that

indicnte

fought

cavalry

chronicles

while

peninsula

of nnny cities

infantry

Muslim

attached

the

of

R
n

army as mounted,

the !lu^lims

provide
King

of

accounts

met large

raiders

by Tärie,

t/isigothhrebels,

seemed to have failed

reasons,

their

the

Arab conquest

subsequent

Muslim

the main invasion

allies,

of

The first

had not.

and before

the core

describe

of

they

Similarly,

cover.

the

that

reinforced

consciously,

35

They would

whose armies
between
simileritias

the

soon
Asturoin

the

33,

! bids

34.

following
rl. Cnnord, "L'r"xpansion
C. Sanche2»Albormoz
in di3cusßion
ýirrýbo-Is1r: rai,c uý t
in L'Expansion
Arabe: le problemv militoires"
,
Satti: nnne di Studio del Centro Itral. inno di stucii
sescussions,
1955ýý pp. 316-317,
XII ( Spoleto
cull"nl. tc medioeva,

35.

Sýnchet-Albornozg
"El Ej©ci*. o y in
716-1037#"
p. 301; Beeler,, op, cit

pp,

103-105,

Guerra an el
p. 1513,

Reino

t'+sturleoneep

zq3
role

of

its

cavalry,

Although

east

and

were

also

North

would

terms

least,

at

certainly

to

not

In

the

degree

it

in

Muslim

the

states

of

that

this

crag

alone,

The Pose,

in

military

eel ^,ndalus

Muslim

nlmost

between

existed

already

traditions,

kingdom

9yzantine

Iberi=n

world.
into

evolved

century,

both

Visigothic

military

Lombard

8th

from

evolved

Frankish

the

successor

similarities

Muslim

early

exist

the

organization.

by

distinct

another.

into

which
the

had,

Germanic

one

be drawn

and

a limited

the
from

reflected

Visigothic

made it

Africa,

with

and proto-feudal
Europe

that

different

however,

did

Mediterraneen

traditions

military

armament

3

that

similarities

and which

be found

only

could

Italy.

Iran
For to

the

the militnry

esst,

some distinctive

raises

in

Asian

a small

degree

in

its

to have

fought

in

a manner not

all

horse-archers,

as did
rapidity
survived
also

the

in

Turks.

than

its

up toy

37

ranks

their

and perhaps

penetration.

made use of massed infantry

charges,

may have been more common in mountainous

36.

"E1. EJcýcito
Shnchoz-Albornoz,
p
718-1037,9" pp. 301-304.

37.

Aussaresses'

38.

Ibid.
r_. __..

oZ.

cit;,

pp.

y in

fact,

the 3yzcntines,

who in

neighbours,

caosanian

acted

as heavy

cavalry,

individually

known more for

however,

the Muslim

to

seem, in

command, not

Thin

Cmpire
very

and only

forces

and also

ussl,

beyond,

of

at

Sassmnian

tactics,

eastern

and shoot

Their shooting

power of

that

unlike

much from

orderly

its

the

army was not

9assanian

organization.

many of whom wore mail

advance

would

or in

organization

learned

probability

of

The rassanian

problems.

Central

its

technology

was a feature
conquest.

though

36

this

latter

areas

rather

than

Guorrß

en ei

Roino

its

that
Sassßniann
tactic
in

the

týgturleoncs1

zq4plains

where

cavalry

Traditional
the

Sassanian

elephants,,

accounts,

to

were supposedly

nor

the

to outflank:

Other
into

no nund or

and possibly

As has already
were not

averse

warfare,

although

combat horsemen
elite

the

the later

finest

clearly

heavy

reflected
the

produced

devastating
hardened
blow

either

their

long-sword

weapon.

edge that

42

Its

infantry

39.

Christensen,

40.

Ibid.

41.

Altheim

42.

Auasaressee,

and Stiehlo

into

II's

40

pp.

case where

close-

one thouscnd
the

with

characteristic

and their

known world,

koennoss,

equipment

advances

perhaps

reliable
a for

enabled

their

as

that
most

and with

a

more powerful

enabled

a swordsman

on horseback

without

leaning

for

too

201--213.

vv
"SBpQr und die
pp.

cavalry

Such osvar; n were regarded

strong.,

also

monarchs

even in

first

or verged

long blade,

length

ap_`__,
_eit.

banner,

tactics,

them with

its

cit_u

and its

5assanian

provided

also

all,

such

Those technological

more effectively

a,

first

Shäp r

then

status.

retained

of

Sasssnian

include

to have been the

army.

the

in

Its

the

41

evolved

cavalry

unit

smallest

appears

Sassanian

unit

rieht
orininnl

the

of

and these

Romano-Byzantine

only

unshielded

particularly

or smaller

in

presumnbly

features

eras

been mentioned,

to be struck,

to combat

as the

were concerned.

of

amvar n

dry

corps,

this

cavalry

wither

by war-

Horse-archers

rear.

an enemy's

organizational

to adopting

heavy

expose,

describe

followed

formations#39

cavalry

the Muslim

var ht

also

by cavnlry,

up the

however,

were,

army were to persist
terminology

of

and this

Iranian,

solely

led

bringing

loft

Such formations

side.

as being

infantry

to dominate.

seem to be based on fact,

which

battle-ordor

and with

an effort

have been expected

could

50-53.

Arober'l"

p.

140.

from

his

2R5
At a time

saddle.
a distinct
that

play

was very

from horseback.
sort

of

a style

of

in, 9th

east

Azarbayj

spread

and 10th

is

The illustration

just

century
theory,

although

Magyar

influences

the western

Kulagysh
if

not

and ere
The bast

from

the

Trnnsoxania
in

sources

in military

(Fig,

a feshion

representation

is to be found,

in

it

is

10th

an early

this

or perhaps

the

of

swordsmen,

47

contradict

Muslim

and 14th

tiestward

context

fencing.

of

the role

9anü Merin

centuries

merely

however,

442),

of east
Here the
strong

suggesting

of many items

of

or mid-

tend to show a
exampled

for h¬ silver
equipments

k' f beJieVe to b2
wk? C.

"flared"

an European

sword-play

13th

Its

by Muslim

adoption

in

west

the
data
from
early
sources

illustrative
The ý few later

period.

.

in

representntions

ccnturiea.

earlier

and that

a good golf

and further

660) need not
that

the

to be soon further

style

of

sword-

trend.

an existing

Asian influence

Central

(Fig.

were at work

Most surviving
Sacsanian

Italian

or

indicate

Mediterranean

in

that

such a style

might

its

wos

givne

the earliest

13th

and

of

fact

manuscript
it

12th

of

one quillon

Turkistän,

a result

as a Spanish
of

Carolingian

the

by the

reinforced

over

this

weapon when used

be compared with

Chinese

in

certainly

regarded

reinforced

a finger

was subsoouently

century
Spain

shows a style

are probably

that

Iran,

in

such n long-bladed

could

plates

sword-play

was almost

generally

in

that

n stroke

n and even

and this

for

suitable

These Sasaanian

owing.

metalwork

In such sources

power to

of

Sacaanian

advantage.

to appear

had yet

when stirrups

Iranian

swords

are

Indian

lato-Sassanian

on the mounted warrior

carving

ntrongor

dish

from

origin
shorter

influences.
equipment

o.
T
at
-i--Bustnn

.............

43.

Metala+orký"
J. F. Haskin3.9 "týorthern
5ass4nian
Origins
,rtibua
of
to
XU (1952)2 P. 258 n. 2; A* B, Hoffmayer. 9 "Introduction
Anise
(1961)9
51.
the
1
the History
"
GladiUa
European
Sword,
pr).
of
"52.

2q6
(Fig.

330).
In addition

of

Sassanian

labarl.

drawing

is

been written

Yet there

Haliodorus

a helmet

had iron

to knees,

while

his

horse

there

was a metal

his

or lamellar

scales

to protect

for

the animal's

are normally

felt

of

be as likely

would

and feet

its

horseshoes

to plate-like

cavalryman

from

as to protect
his

knemidea

Fetal

at

44

that,

iron

of

or cstivals

as iron

and is

worn as a defence

sometimes

For

Such estivals

a horse's

sources

wore

shoulders

bard

and a blanket-like

and rare

micundorstood

In h

by chausses.

are also mentioned.

or leather,
to injure

has here

Heliodorus

feet

tons

an aventail.

armour

and flanks.

not
later

author

sources.

were protected

chamfrom
back

its

indicates

probably

is

centuries

that

original

or lamellar

scale

Tho second

several

to suppose

descriptions

n contemporary

a Snssnn1nn heavy

that
This

or bronze

is

hand.

Arabic

now loatp

face.

legs

in

reason

reports

his

covering

He also

is

though

an raliable,,

Aethic2icn

by !1eliodorus,
to be first

unlikely

having

contemporary,
by at

it

ti+e have two vitol

sources

The first,

n.

nsv

though

account

to illustrated

armour

legs.

Perhaps

really

referring

against

scattered

cal traps.
Al Taborits
in

the aid-6th

century

in

of

factor
stirrups.
or
a
his

favour

his

heads while

arm defences.

Haliodorus,

however,

Arabic

which
his

is

reliability

does'

Al Tabarl

awehan cuirass

of

the men mustered

limbs

the

as; uirnh,
to

reached

His

"Aethiopicas

horse

would

by san
then

of

hauberk

A mi ghfarr

the knees.

were protected

mentions

the equipment
as o_rc

the

cit,

nsvaran,

worn over
coif

chaussoe

bo protected

IXs 15,,?' in Esdias a

AnüshTrv5n

Another

he 'nvxhere

that

list

by Khusrnu

Heliodorus.

in no way contradicts

as he was known in

sä°3dayn

44,

description

at on
and

by atP

u. 1ý0.

2q7
bard

or cnparison,
turn

sýyyf oword,
archer

shield,

such a warrior

of tWitty
two

arrows

tied
s

strLi

to

Most late
indicate

the

loft

T!, q-. i--0ust7an

as his

feat,

it

would,

long-sleeved.
FTrüzäbad,,

however,

In other
though

equipment
p/features.
ocffý

He wears
but
mail

which

is

hauberks

Iranian

do,

sources.

by a horacº-archer
probably,
certainly

however,

(Fig.

the

might

339),

have been known no xi_rth.
whothor

mail

comparable

of

a type

on other

region.

7th

is

335).

wins

those

with

rsian

Short-sleeved
century
is

and is

knee-length

(see1flow

Durn Europos,

I.

or 8th

at

of his

Central

seen at

Such mail

right

whether

hauberk

be to the waist,

only

hin

the rest

Ardnshir
of

sources

a spear-bearing

and generally

Another
(fig.

his

hcvertheleas,

Triumph

appear

this

to check

As he is

is

art

330) has lost

that

it

oventoil

by an infantryman

of

of

seem likely

One, which

The question

armour

more advanced

from

(rig.

basic

longer.

a mail

locking

Iranian

shield.

respects

a little

shows various

Muslim

rider

his

two spare

early

and I have been unable

beneath

arm exists

warrior

the

kept

4ar

saddle.

and very

to have remained

mail

arm as well

rcýor of his

had their

weapons already
also

an

bowcaor, with

and a kncn

side,

is

ncbnh quiver

n

with

need the rider

case of

lance,

o rumh

carry

and tnb. -+rzTn battle-nxe.
IN-----------

These latter

left.

Sassanian

Unfortunately

his

right

the

nlso

be equipped

worn on his

in

would

nnco,
also

but

strings

c urz
should

nws bows on his

tr
urnw

the rider

while

hauberks

west
worn
worn,
would

almost

45

or not

the

scale

haubork

continued

to

45.

trans.,
t1l. H. 7otenberg
"Tmrlkh a1 qu^vl wall C;ulüks"
Al TabarT
I
"Cavalry
(Paris
1867)= a. 228; n3var,
Chriýrhirua de Tnbar3s11
75-?
75
Frontier;
'*
?
Cuphrntes
the
Equipment and Tactics
vr.
on
and 291,

469

Elivar., "Cavalry
p. 291.

Equipment ard Tactics

on thp Euphrntes

Frontierg"

?
zcl
be used in

Iran

is

mare difficult.

the Romano-Byzantine
Iranian.
is,

the

lamellar
the

centuries

to

Sassanian

of
442),

worn

the

but

also

final

illustrated
is

obscure

of

both

in
of

pictorial

(Fig.

336),

a coif

material

sources.

Calf

helmet.

This

crude

Although

this

may account

piece

of

its

does not help uss to interpret

it

where on aventoil
the

art

can at
it

(Figs.

48,500,51,5311

Tisq-i-Eiustan

invariably

lies

(Fig.

330),

upon the

(Fig.

is either

Unfortunately,
the more

some of

of

or

point.

one at

that

to have been

attached

to such a
once painted.

surface

detail,

Floe-

in question,

strongly

suggested

is

clearly

quite

In no case does it
of

are well

are a case in

the head-covering

shoulders

Iran

was probably

and 442),

arnour,

332).

explain

lack

century
though

lamellar

more likely

apparent

of mail or scale

of Mid-7th

specimens.

an aventatl

stucco-work

for

f2(11

post-Sassonian

appear

than

or cap,

the

Sassanian

and eventail

head-covering

a helmet

in

have

construction,

west

to help

and an immediately

does the

under

for

seem to

until

and bronze

and by surviving

art

written

in one source,

Only

iron

such mixed

the

head protections

the

does

fashion

only

was known reasonably

and other

a lack

not

fashions

4siaan
.

we have a fragment

indicates

which

it

Helmets

there

Forunately,

shape,

that

Transoxenien

or

final

The lamellar

hauberk,

a nail

heartland

these

technology.

military

31t')),

traditions,

course

Central

of

(Fig.

lrsninn

west

Of

the

with

3ras:annin n specimen

Csian

the

era.

revival

over

Iranian

lamellae

not

Sassanian

saw a pronounced

Sassaniane.

Iranian

the

of

in

thnn

horse

Central

strong

with

associated

rather

Tmp-i-Oustan

abandoned

also

on east

the

of

been

end

(Fig.

remained

have

the

their

very

many aspects

jnuishnn

by

carried
with

generally

and the best-known

simpler,

Parthians,
seems

until

in

that

course,

After

is

is

Arab worldo,

and perhaps

Lamellar

of

It

another

join

in

shown

the hauberk;

garment,

whether

2ýý

of

armour

or not.
for

preference

of

former
of

between

a clash

form

early

(Figs.

curved

Only

been added.

Elsewhere

(Figs.

worn underneath

show the

outlines

i'n' others

while
place
is

equally

are

production

probably

survival

is

of
far

admittedly

(Figs.

51,

neck-guard

an extra

has

ring or plume,

is

construction

a spangenhelm

suggested,

their

no

helmet
they

by which

into

a time

at

large-

iron

would

of

The

capabilities.

Ielamic

early

construction

when the

sheet

a single

lower

in,

kept

are

times

from
ewer
embossed

clearly

their

coverings,

a leather

sources

metallurgical

existing
style

these

surface
from

Cap shape,

the Parthian

In some such cases

other

beaten

from

edges and a symmetrically

though

of

emonth unriveted

this

spnngenhelm

in

and SOC).

In yet

helmets

later

outline

of

perhaps

or headbands

apparent.

whether

a low-domed

are

flexibility

laces

of

of

The

Cap shape,

outline

330)

something

Cap.

40,500

have been beyond

probable
by that

the

(Fig.

helmet,

apparent

by their

argued

scale

a tell

lower

is

art.

40) or or the

covering,

caps or hoods

leather

indicate

outlines

the Parthian

of

way reminiscent

decorative

the helmet

and here

shown,

(Fig.

T&.. i-Oustmn

at

Parthian

in most cases

though

the

and most of

shows a similar

art

or some form of

attached

clearly

the

Iranian

there

concerned,

have straight

All

and 339),

are

so-called

construction

Some of

comb.

the

of

55 and 56).

53A, 530,337
is

tall,

this

confirm

40 and 41).

specimens

surviving

two-piece

simply

themselves

helmets

are generally

the

(Figs.

aventails
as the

As far

helmets

Surviving

is

suggested

Hamadan (Fig.

335).
The lacing
in

coverings
T q-i-austän
Already

it

or headband
is

position
(Fig,

330)!

had acquired

loather
such

hold

that

aoen on helmets
though

also

a decorative

niono,

elsewhere
function

or

fabric

halmet-

most obviously
(Figs.
over

as

331 and 337).

and above its

3 00
original

purposo

head.

the

As such,

become a very

tightening

of

headband

of

it

although
"Persian"

to

in

the

t:or was the

eastern
either

the growing

or the

impact

the

their

the mountains

of

south

large

infantry

they

and traditional

Qivar,

"Cavalry

48.

t3oswortht "Military
an a( Iraq, P14-7,

model.

elementss

peoples
no cavalry.

as well

Sea were always
also

The men of

the most

operate
Sijintan

as would

apparently

Equipment

famous remained

as a contingent

though still

47.

who are believed

as a
were

contingents

from the Cnucnsug, Ccdusinns from Azarbey j; n,

been mentioned

times

would

and

cress,

the more warlike

Caspian

they

late

reflect

could

infantry
were
the

of

(Fig.

origin
both

Byzantine

from

pieces

Sassanien

conquerors

infantry.

Of these

Kirmän.

of

though

mounted

and Abkhazions

who have already

regions

warriors,

to have included

from

enlisted

It

appears

other

general,

in oast

on the

firmly

frontier

likely

shields

Arab ruelim

thumb--draut.

also

Iranian

and 442).

influence

Asian

levies

mobile

art

It

in which

in

s the
47

Asian.,

Iran.

an east

might

illustrated,

4reatises,

Central

has,

330,339

archery

highly

In Sassanian

Iranian

first

tribal

force

suggest

than

was regarded

military

bronze

wearer's

suhsertiently

clear

are

finger-draw

to western

Sascanian

(Figs.

as infantry

and Päriz

the

its

arms and armour.

In less

Iran

Byzantine

strongly

Sessanian

of Albanians

Islamic

of

Sossanian

that

Central

of

Among the

renowned

would

century

century

associations

Cay1,aM! s from

lacing

limited

and costume

various

or enlarged

"Roman'. It or more nccurate2y

5th

to have based

around

thumb and finger-draws

The thumb draw in

331).

of

6th

finger-draw

on a probably
equipment

Both

has been argued
style

oaposod

in

archery

have been expected.

lining

feature

characteristic

The role

a helmet's

fought,

as later,

to
with

Daylamis,

the Yemen.
swords,

javelins.
ZhU2Tn
obscure
somewhat

an± Tactics.,

Organization

sent

the

" po.

284-285-

Persil
the
i)üyids
45f
under

40

3o1
Many troops
the

Caucasus

imediatoly

is

colours

no c©nf irrit

as h

simply
than

tion

Islom.

odopted

the

Cädis! ya in

of

so

that

nrnn.
asvý_,

Theas letter

increased

rapidly

to Zufa,

adopted

up in

even to Egypt.

rivalries.
others

the f'uolim

to those

of

north

äwiyatz
I1u

to

the

later

J3zTro

complexions

heavily

armoured

then

split
to

nunbvra
flocked

armies

and promptly

or west

r.uslims

Their

Sassanian

there

got

caught

up by sending

Syria,

and some

52

Ex-Sassanian
with

51

allegioncr

were known'

fir-3t

as c57.

pon5iona

were allocated

the

than

of

thounh

paler

presumably

defeated

to enlist

their

as they

known to the

Arabic

Znliphate

Daylnmis

followed,

dnylann,

cavalry

the

of

as elements

inter-Arab

somo to Oa ro,

lighter

were known in

Islam,

thousand

who changed

al

with

the

such troops

Others

troops,

foreigners

probably

49

hrryr

Sassanian

"red"
were

635 AD.

these

all

Other

ror

Arabs,

to have been four

for

fought

The first

own bodyguard

I exclude

from which

also

conquest.

Iraq's

of

heartland,

now Afghaniatän,

appear

governor

the battle

after

is

the Muslim

after

the Persian

Sasoanion

the

and what

Muslim

under

from

the

ns; wirnh

53

conquerors*
Arab Muslims

also

are

mentioned

specifically

They then
themselves,

I., p.

enjoyed
which

rates
rust

of

as enlisting
pay superior

demonstrate

their

441.

49,

dhurls
Al E3ca7,;

5o.

"clilitary
posworths
Iraq, " pp. 146-147;
Institution
i, ilitary

51.

the
"nmlük
;
Remarks
"Preliminary
Inc.
an
Al ßalndhurTs
Ayßlon!
cit.;
6tudcýs
Institution
in Islam! " loc.
our
Military
cits, ý t. mmnensý
le Sii cla des omeyyndps,
p. 131.

52.

Lewis, o.
loc, cit.

53.

Al ßclädhurl,

cit.

op.

cit :

vol.

Persi:
the
Süyids
Organization
of
a and
under
Remarks of the "ýaralük
AyFalon., "Preliminary
in Islam. " pp. 44-45.

6tudQS
Sipcle
le
60;
Lammens;,
sur
P,
y
oat cit.

vol.!,
"

Iit
180
val.
and
p,

dps nm.
ýý"`aa

p. 109.

302
fine

training

equipments

Many Persinns

Islam

early
if

and reputation,

of

the

conquering

is

still

unclear,

the

of

Iranian,
Outj\nn

first

while

military

been completely
Yüsuf

peoples

later

during

The Saseanian
from

levies

particularly
effective

Kupans

army,

cavalry

the

they

but

as the

for

wasi

example,,

invasions

the

of

I'ovies

mob in

city.

Iraqis

had a minor
to have

680s Nay ºajJej
from

Islam

56

ibn
detribalized

These people re-emorgr
and later

Jurjän,

still

OaQhdäd, known as

as

curt,

57
earlier,

as mentinned
peoples

of

reforms

various
of

in present-day

tribal

recruited

also

frontier

Khusrau

from
to
have
come
seem

from Bactris

in some or

are unlikely

Iraq,

of

conquest

ferocious

the

army in

standing

the military

and thionitos

even

!'.ne-

involved

Iranians,

as early

the

the more Warlike
after

in

part

were similarly

rule,

first

in dofence of their

fighting

Iraq

townsmen from lower

armed but

a primitively

of

for
the

Arnb6 and non-tribal
some decades

took

role

servants.

Transoxasnia

in

status

soon had a military

invade

later

Unlike

pacific,

was recruiting

oxact

as non--conbatdnt

army to

Sassanian

under

they

Their

supposed

a5

conquests.

role

but

many Khurasanis

and ; abaristan,

earlier

Arab tribes.

enlisted

t1uslin

The Semitic
these

seem to have become ta?aar...... or

also

most were originally

fifth

54

I.

regions,
The most
and included

the east,

Afhenistän,

northern

54.

llyttlon: "Pr®lirtin3ry
Remarks on the Marnlük rilitary
in Islam,, to loc. cit .
-

55.

levys MajLttAf
in CentrRl
Asia

5r.

Shahan, o2. city, ý p. 105.

57.0.

"The Military
Roforrn
Ayalon,
background
and consequence, " in
(Jerusalem
Dp hi
1963)ß p. 11.

Institution

The
Armb
Cnnoupsts
Gibbs
R.
271-272;
H.
A.
pp.
(London 1923)s pp. 15 and 40-41.

Vu'taýim,
Caliph
al
of
Congress of Oripntnlists

the
in

Flout

303
58

and even a few Huns,
Kushans at least
Another
the

was the

Not much is
their

for

Agss,

armoured
Iranian

in"the

this

in

Sasasnian,

reasons and not for
Tukharistan'

the

B; niyan$

dealing

a certain
Mails
svailable

While
this

with

example,

sources

from

some significance,

under

the

7th

quite

for

this

is

]. oc.

traditions
though for

were
different

provinces

Fundukist

and

areas

and Chinese

of

written
studicc(

available.
in

(rig.
n

the
333).

the

was essentially

of

Indian

strong

the western

distinctly

modieval

characteristics,

many centuries.

already

as to be one of

53.

cultural

been insufficiently

have as yet

century

producI. nq contras

T. T. Rico'

for

under
'

Indian

appears

of the early

59.

Many traditional

these eastern

the mostly

evidence

name of Ghür'

Christenson,,

as

from

area

pictorial

for

be of

were to be described

differed

had always

amount of

the

military

and Ghür

times,

much of

Caucasus

Equally,

3uzjan

Empire.

Sassanian

sources

so long.

59
05C,

century

Muslim

pro-Islamic

pre-Islamic,

were noted

1st

throughout

in what is now Afghanistan,

influences,

Buddhist

the

of

or at least

to persist

similarly

part

that

in later

centre

as other

as well

whose

and Armenia.

as the

of many nations.

annals

cavalry.

Albanians,

except

as early

inhabitants

warlike

styles,

were to persist

Georgia

traditions

and leather

heavy

were drewn was

came the

after

arms-producing

its

while

military

levies

to be known as Caohistän

a major

cavalry

region,

military

metal

of

area,

was to remain

that

their

tribal

such

the

but

as closo-combat

the main range

of

of

known of

this

Middle

third

armour

In fact

from which

From south

have been horse-archers,

would

to have fought

seem also

frontier

Caucasus.

kingdom

luny

the most

mtislim world.

limited
This

same area

may
that,

famous arms-

It was also

ýcit.

1'tnciAnt

Arte

of

Centr. ii

Asi

(

York
I'lcm

1965), v p.

253.

30ythat,

on area

after

an essentinlly

non-Islamic

a thigh-length

mail

beneath

a tight

the

and

hauberk,

at

His

weapons

are

of

features

to

number
Islamic

world,

carries

a mace with

European

for
the
first

influence

in

60

land.

east

rush
the

in

foreshadow
the

of

.i

eastern
certainly

Such weapons

may already

in

to acouire

were later

worn

was a horscaan.

the

61,

Oibbq

62.

Fries,

63.

Gibbs

were to retain

Islam

Iran

after

various

their

with

brought

west

century.

170,
02a al
op.
atý
ý,

cit.
ciýi`

pP.
p.
p.

40-. 42.
41.
19.

the

sides
military

to Basra

of

this

Arabs

of

^uslim

large

frontier.

warcry,

numbers

61

like

2

by

rrainous
moue

this

setback.,

identity,

cultural

advance

a steady
culture

The

Buddhist

soon recruited

own particular

63

to

temporary

though

both

separate

their

the
and

faith

provinces

from

warriors

before

centuries,

the

fallen

a distinct

itself.

was to $can a peak of

conquest,

both

conquered

temporarily

having

neighbouring

Si, jistäniS

thp mid-7th

now ffohanistgn

such a prolonged

Iranian

idYp.
Ib

is

and 9th

changed

of

60.

of

0th

KhuräsanT cavalry
thousand

is

He almost

head.

winged

as they

after

to have kept

appear

or

what

of

Despite

governors
of

first

fresco

sword-hanging

they

as

Islam.

much of

his

haubErka,

characteristic,.,
of

many centuries

finally

Islam

become

mail

interesting,

very

associations,

region,

their

in

also

his

of

from

retained

cultures.

identity
of

frsnt

a fluted

The warriors

bulk

the

In this

sleeves,

short

judging

time,

a long

for

even longer.
with

wearer,

latterly

and

have had regal

probably

Its

slit

for

culture

tunic.

small

Miuslim conquest

resisting

;',any

those

or the several

cltbd
by
a1 , ahrZn

Ibn

ý,amura

xcviti

xcviI

I

><-CI)<

305
The )soso nian
to

entirely
been

also

in

had

Islam

one

Empire
during

the

of

technology.
as the

this

',:hi1e

that

believe

it

it

Thus

of

their

is

to

that

Transoxania
for

the

the

of

Iran
and

the

to

militir.

y

r-'-+

-inc! -rmcur.

"n--yynW

er,,,,

'sinn

to

hive

those

militz

collnpsnri.

orovincns

wr

should

on the

ry

rm-chrr+

saniann

that

rrabs'

of

3F;ir1 centuripr.

fl

influences

Ialnmic

classical

the

inr'

rrr-,

'--Pntril

particularly
by

', r"n

seemed

before

persisten

and

C^bb.

hart

worlr'
trrm,

nrm~

the

continuing

just

in

h. i

rdurinn

influences

connuered

important

most

technology

in

Irin

fnli
it

knowr

ýrJvnnrrrý

early

under

the

1!-,1r, rnic

true
the

rnilitary

Asin,

were

most
that

been

so during

peaks
Central

the

to

st-Ar,

centuries,
of

on aarly

been

sinrlc'

powrrs

of

have

was not

t

connuerinq

therefore,

fact,

Iran had itself
iasr,? nine
de!
ow)1
See
Transoxanian
pressureC
another

one

influence

in

mey,

first

wonder,

important

lirge,

military

been

7,mnll

most

its

major

m-my respects

the

was

of
look

military

world.

Turkistän
Transoxania
of

aspects
fmü

)ary3'

the

ruslim

civilization.

beyond

the

in

mountains
c"uslims

Under

head-uaterc

of

iar

north

of

the loop

south

had

the

`' nbbäaids

the

of

the upper
the

Sir

Aral

Sea.

in

Dnrym,

in

the

, hnn
'4-rr

"that

north-east,

which

the lower
in

reaches

the upper

Isbij7b

or

ondy somewhat on its
Khwarazm around

is

heyonri

the
amid

;Jadakhshan

included

5Tr Oaryä,

Tian

common culturally.

"Jahr,, or

Uhrusana

and

rinny

the

beyond

Pamir

conouest

al

this

ks D4rytt rivers,

of

the

Su hd along

and a dministrativoly,
of

much

high-tide

lands

various

upon

effect

a profound

and over

knew as ^'ä !r!orä'

hýnä alcna

geographically
delta

Daryä,

the 7rnü faryý,

and Ka

Zarafshän
volley!

they

have

Those

already

their

reached

the river".

sir

Kashgaria,

in a province

tc

was certainly

of

the

Zarafshän

h-a'$h just
own both

the Amu Darya

306
N'ot only
fragmented

in

fragmented

this

araa,

early

"iddle

was
the

the

since

independence

connuest,

for

diction
to

ship

orea

rule

r'ä Tara'

a situation
of

that

Turks

and more
'While

little

the

, uslim

before

is

illuminate

the

however,,

we have

Mat

and thus

that

regions

fell$

unlike

Those essentially
In

the

north-west

":uslim

to ;:utoyba

submitted
cup from

64)

to that

Su hd,

bit.

and what

appear
this

Unfortunately
tunic

Su2hdisn

F,4.

E.

65,

Ib id.

Knobloch,

1

pp.

of

with

broad

fla and

26--27.

less

to be the

revers,

"xus,

ity

inized

cannot,

as 712/3

than

a year

that

their

of

his

(London

rule.
he ignort'r.

assisting

military

19?? )y

the

themselves
ýine
silver
,

eauinment

quiver

a cheek-curb

horse

were

Iranian

t'nst

earlier.

but

evv n

, reps

that

AD, having

the new box-type

while

those

course,

were

warriors

psalions

from

7asnanipn
of

is

situation

comes

than

to

Fortunately,

to other

has no armour,

rider

the

evidence

as early

suggests

Ir^ni;

survives

area.
This

under

whose

with

vital

similar

areas

Vuslim

Kh-inrazm (Fig.

was similar
a belt,,

ibn

r'ivrr7,

immedi'tely

m=aterial

rntht'r

Transoxenia,

Transoxanin

of

conquest

Turkistan

of

this

such

oresumebly

Khw2razm.,

was

culturrl

Iraaninno,

east

written

elite,

Iranian

"uch

cpnturi:,;.
tho

evidence.

of

by a Turkish

and 4th

history

of

bulk

lerr'er-

nxistinry

reinforced,

pictorial
the

the

'slnmic

Turks.

technology

because

Iranian

strictly

p jurisi,dhrm?

8th

less

even

excellent

dominated

wert'

under

hetwenn

the

of

conquest,

military

fortunate

more

known

tß. on cf

Khur7nan3,

"Turkish"

specifically

troO;
1

noliticilly

thn

the

in

divided

already

64

rulP.

been

also

after

and presumably

was

hnd

permitted

^;nhr

al

it

culturally

many waysy

or

r.,rnerally

reflected,

an area

governors

ff11,

but

in

turkistän,

of

Kushnn

of

continued.,

''uslimc

this

most

!g is,

collanse

political

the

like

slung

from

snaffle-

he does wear a
lacks

nn.

the erually

ý'-ýtý

307
typically

Turkish

the warriors

they

is

Nore
city,

^lukharä.

dated

from,

thoucand
took

highly

regarded

fought
the

on 'Suhdian

they

by the

first

time

Puslim

the military
of

quality
to coin

AD.

was
of

war

as his

67

he does

"the

that

that

states
make

As city

it

clear

as horse-archers

in

from

forging

of

Iran

at

its

Islam

alre^dy

LUIS

5ughhd, " to describe

Gibb, op. cit.
(Unpub. Ph..

fiC.

^1 ý4bari,
(Leiden

during
h; +ri

The super1'tive
led

Eaaykand traditionally

67.

44.

are

disposal.

ilitary
ýternarks on the ý',arnlük 1-,
A; a1cn, 'If-relirninary
in ?slam' 11pp. 51-52.

p.

information

Were captured

66.

ý

r:entrnl

as well.

This

the F,m+ iiary,

Sassanian

probably

and one must rprnember

Weaponry,

across

men wfxrF

they

amount of

famous nrsenal

and its

his

whether

Turkish

persistent

Ziyad

after

thase

dwellers

a

ihn

guard

personal

not

1-noire

U'bnydullnh

becomes available.

as rich

arras and armours

c

chief
fashions

"chevmenid

an increasing

conquest,

of

,

under

fought

traditions

resources

ºabarl

Al

an are'

expedition

the

its

and of
habitsand

Iranian

Sued

or an foot.

ßnykord

a phrase,,

of

from

probably

Arabs

at

at least

soldiers

`.uähd

of

into

but

in

military

by the

thnt
the

though

the fuslim

After

regarded

674

on horseback

influence

Asian

in

ns archers,

latter,

province

incorporation

prisoners

Bukhär-a

as mama

Islam

f'C'

a pre-eninence

It

Incidentally,

to have adopted

enslaved

the

earlier.

thousand

throat-lash.

appear

period.

about

area's

years

of

they

known
Here

defeat

did

cAbbasid

the

two

do not

were r2portodly

the early

until

its

beneath

Khwirazn

of

for

once,

tassel

the

rrahs

excellent

Institution

Pprlod.
the
L+mnyyad
ir
The
Pina+nlT
19;
P.
Crone,
p.
CkýSis,
Univ. of London 1975), pp. 25-2'=.

Tarikh

ük,
;
ýu1,
wall
al
vsül
11379-1901),
pp. 643

Ii.
nnd

.
464;

::.

de `'oeýi"ý cýciit. f
tý
i,
Fries,
op.1rýý,;,

3o8
69
weaponry.
the

This

truth=

the

gther
or

was probably

compora-five
indicate

sources

military

aristocracy

influences.

the

infantry

guards

the

of

first

.`jus7im

Kh-atün

or

n variety

dß'hotanL2.,

oi'

:ukhrar

on

attack

culturnnl
tr.,:., prc, V12ui3bly

,

scj, eWhnt

4ppeor,

raueen

the

of

aprenroncc'

betrayed

5u hd!

of

During

the

that

whatever

egk+Pment
undisputed.

military
u hdian/is

of

abundance

but

exaggeration,

a poetic

inc, ly,

ourpri
7

to

have

1 century
as in

later

the

than

swords

"from

other

warlike

dihc

from

representatives

China

probably

a basic

probably

by just

direr

yet

or

Such evidonce
wealth

n4 wore dagners

troubled
72

The embassy

found

themselves

for

of

4+nc

authorities.

when bottled
desperately
fifty

prices,

and no less

a shield,

nueation

than

up in
short

dirhams

of
fr_r

seven hundrar+

73

mail.

seems to
in

inflated

rth

-3rea rather

the fuslim

against

themselves,

hands at

in

tht,

and weapons

the

of

belts,
in

early

armour

stcte

rising

indicate

economic

that

rather

arms and armour

may have been imported,

Farcyhana,

was a major

which

requested

their

at

that,

The fact

even the Muslims

sixty

a coat

its

another

such a rising,

fifty
for

reflected

resourcea,

These changed

weapons.
a spear,

of

representing

In 706 an, hovavAr,
dukh7re

the

on baldrics.

shoulder"

Bukharä

reflected

poverty

the

71

illustrations.

available

century,
fron

their

carried

g

Suchd's

than

arms manufacturing

tcrms.

productive
from

probably

in weaponry

wealth

centre

ý°nst.

neighbouring
throughout

this

era.

69.

Pam-asa 1,349,

70.

ThP ! dstor
v,arshakhT,
P,,
Qas. 1954), p. 9.

71.

Ibid.

72.

Mahlnr,,

73.

Narahak! ti*f,, op.

p.

Freytag

edit.,
of

'I'»khnrn

61.

o2t

cit,

p.
cit.

71.
p.

in

46.

'sitab,

anýt,

;.

°'. Frye

pn.
trans.,

:33-34.
; : ari`)r. idqr.

30«
Further
It

to

appears

Iranianized

this

been

Turkish

elite

its
a peak

city
The

in

appear
Post

turbans

frescoes

of

Piandjikent

although

members

(rig.

the

Emperor

time

this

firm
any

conclusions,

somewhat

richer
to

closer

than

Far. Qhän;,

as producing

the

Turkish

74.

Iiice,,

75.

!"ahler..

76.

Ibid,

cit..

p. 73.

fell

Arab embrassy

sparSe

that

much such

later

ruler
justiry

cannot

UshruscnR
It

crab

wns,
arms

wns

sPter

nll,

and armour.

geographer

and horse-rurniturP;

the

was sent

Chinese

evidence

to

delegation,

another
the

by the

rnthrr

warriors

presented

of

however,

, smarnanc

wesponry.

<nre,-).

whorens

iuondd^ri.
-archonrl

76

and

of
P,

the

fall

ýentral
71.

at

lesst

of

, smarnand

".ain,

throughout

disturbed

remained

va11Ay

Khngän betwenn

1lrt,

of

pnr, F:rýnce

are,

"uslim

that

ý:,hrugýný'z

of

and wear, apr. arently,

figurines

indicate

source

rebellions

with

op.

terms

harness

Zarafshän

Ancient

in

rr)nrquE'st,

Pfräsip',

nearby
maces

after

might

recorded

was so recorded.

period,

it

view

different

the

first

Such

ranH

proSprrPd.

class.

the

75

or

74

early

years

assumed

only

arms,

The entire
Umoyyad

the

itself

Scmargand was not

certainly

Su,2hd

urslim

carry

Samargand,

though

tt, r

These

later

hauberks.

mail

of

r_k'ntury

5th

"nllnwinr;

warrior

N few
from

specifically

a number

with

Iranian

Chino,

ý,th

from

and may represent

of

the

an entirely

441).

in 712 AD and a year

r,uslims

'uns.

an unparn1le1vc'

give

by a vrry

ruled
lite

and °'ukh'irä

on horseback,

are

though

as U.shrusnnn.

they `! rphth.

7th.

figurines

clay

a local

of

in

of

known

an nren

from

the

warriors

of

western-looking

than

to

}mmargnnd

head-cloths

or

population,

in

ns

latter

in

founded

was

prosperity

a number

by

descended

declined

these

of

very

of

valley

Iranian

capital,

elite,

military

Zarnfsh3n

have

Piandjikent,
reached

the

up

pn.

one major

incursion

thr
by

in 712 An and the

97 -nd

177.

310
start
al

cAbbasid
the

of

first

Nahr at

accepted
that

UshruaTya

half

the

within

group

chbb7sid

puddhist

ancestor3

as mounted
though

archers.

they

do not

A bowcase
lie

arrows

are on horseback

or on foot,

ore rarely

shown being

by cavalry

or infantry.

.
horsemen, judging
to suggest
In either
first

from their

battle

in

this

hips

and right

(Fig.

palace.

in which

quiver

they

whether

applies

scenes,

the latter

Most of

Cows

428).
however,

either

dismounted

are probably

May
though ittbe more correct

equipment,

of Piandjikent

to fight

were content

the
to
Caliphs'
be
they
As such
comparable
would
cAbbäsids'3
later,
strictly
troops, though being unlike the

evidence

would

horseman
thrusting

in

Piandjikent

(Figs.
weapon

used cavalry

elite

of
but

used stirrups,
technique

that

suggest

among the military

handed

or not

left

Piandjikent,

fashion.

the most widely

Every

these

used in

at

recruits.

Art

expect

warriors.

largely

frescoes

This

wear armour

the warriors

that

eastern

Turkish,

carried

are

by most Piandjikent

respectively

appear

on the

latter

as ffghting,

historians

bows end a box-type

two unstrung

uppermost,

as their

battle

numerous

a distinct

in the

Iran

fought,

such warriors

the

threat

in 751 AD.

Tales

in

by Chinese

Certainly

to
have
soon
seems

soon formed

and appeared
they

Ma Warn'

from a Chinese
of

Ushrusana

Perhaps

dominate

for

points

army,

were reported
76

in 747 AD

resulted

the battle

from

77

the ©th century.

of

this

at

warriors

Khuräsän

to the Umayyads but

Perhaps

came to grief

eventually

Certainly

loyal

remained

CAbbasids.

the

in

revolution

of

429 and 430),

lance-play

this
is

fact

area.

the older

preferred,

was

spear

as one would

and urbanized

a settled
despite

the

at least

twoby

...........

77,

Military
Remarks
the
"Preliminary
ramiük
Ayalon,
cn
in Islam, " 10.,,.,
c.:...
"

70,

P1ahlerp

aiC" " p.
_..
. _p.

69.

Institution

311
the

(Fig.

artists

round

probably

shield,

though

it

also

and west

east

14th

Europe,

of medieval

by its

19th

Tatar

it

would

on its

Note that

effective.
such as types
western

of

characteristic
The sword)
and then
mirrors

early

spears,

then

that

the

in

only

written

These TurkistänT

swords

iconographic

two-handed

as late

as the

couched

lance

79

It

by

cannot
is

effectiveness
forms`into
for

this

adopted such weapons from their
15th
of

century

gave sufficient

of lance-play
styles

forms

of

such as types

the Muslim

invariably

rest

of

F and

seems rarely

carried,
(Fig.

spearhesc4

(Fig.

Turkistan

eastern

was considered

and the

Piandjikent

Hence,

onwards.

Turkistan

are
61A).

to be used

430).

Such a tactic

period

such as the

began their

or maces when their

sometimes

the

spear.

simple

in

Turkistan,

were responsible

style

always

Nero champions almost
moved to swords

the

relatively

from

the

at least

continuing

an emergency

sourcos

that

unlike

armour

this

almost

of

be a case of

could

the

Chinese-influenced
thouyt

the art

a somewhat modified

more complicated

generally

Shahnsmah.

from

D and C) predominate

Turkistan)

all

lancers

foes

whereas

in

world

themselves

and that

own,

(Reception

with

in

by such cavalry,

carried

proves

and its

Polish

having

seem more likely

protection

fencing

a small

damaged panel

lance-play,

of

tactic

and Turkish

This

the Muslim

Europe.

the pales

revivalsCO
various

are rare

reintroduction,

century

very

is

429)

clearly

evidence

entailed

as a primitive

indicated
early

used in

Such a style

century.

also

454 and 463).

was still

regarded

shields

(rig.

one case

one other

Yet documentary

conservatism.
technique

in

In fact,
(Figs.

in

Only

on a guige,

appears

VI/26).

Nall:

430),

spears

duals with
had shattered.

seem to have been magnificent

weapons

"The Impact of the European Couched Lance on Muslim
Tradition"
pp. 6..7.

79.

Nicolle,
Military

800

"Influence
Z. S. Lonkiewiczj
Europep"
Gindius.
Western
on

of Polish
XU (1980),

Arms# Armour and fiilitaria
02.
p.
g

3t2
with

long»

extremely

long

are generally
hilts

sometimes

The trofoil

pormel*

appears.

of Central
however,

Asian

hidden

often

This

style

of

Central

Asian

waist.

The limited

both
battles

in

long

more than
of

swords

the

type

fashion

following

they

in the
and China,

broken,

"oxparsding"

indicate

curved

Hoffrioycrs
Rp" 4 fi-4i3.

these

line

blades,

"Introduction

It

is

falchions

According

of

to

the

the

same

to Muslim

written

and mace bent.
parts

were kept

among these

History

which

to be used after

defends

in

430,, 439 and 440)0
also

weapons were

or may have shared

swords

scabbards(Figs.

persisted

They may indeed

nr.

single-edged

as in many other
small

in

whether

single-edged

small

sward blunted

Piandjikents

such single-edged

shsped

81.

spear
of

art

that

reality

Crusades

last

were a warrior's

were spents

arrows

such a tradition

Age acramasax,

Dark

sources

4300 4380 439 and 440).

European

the

the

across

such weapons

carried

I believe

medieval

428 and 436).

pictorial

of

to be known as the khsn

as the European

ancestry
sources

of

and multitude

They were in

later

They are.,

hung horizontally

(Figs.

Islam.

of

so characteristic

on an even more typical

indicates(that

also

the

dagger

a feast

(Figs.

rosettes

from

slung

bulges,

originla1

430) but

429 and 430).

appears

generally

daggers.

simply

also

sources

at

coming

be tho original
come into

or

decorative

the large

warriors

romances

the

after

hanging

written

armours

Muslim

Early

behind

weapons

that

confirm

(Figs.

sword-furnishings

small

D-shaped

of

a pair

Iranian

(Fig,

invariably

are

scabbards

to

handles.

umbrella

vory

are occasionally

by two straps

sword-belts

Such curved

to hove been of

considered

Decorated

like

Hilts

blades.

430 and 436),

as to look

generally

be long.

also

could

(Figs.

so extreme

Quillons

tapering

and perhaps

and curved

are

also

slender

of

early

the

of

Turkistän

strangely
which

might

khan ar5 that

Europoon

Suords"

one

313
tends

to

find

non-symmetrical

to be seen on similar
daggers

or small

Piandjikent.
the

in

Muslim

appear

out

The military
tk? t& at

area of

eastern

technology

of

Turkistän

this

latter

their

of

Yet we may see comparable,

Turfan

435) of

a type

that

these

large

Unfortunately,

weapons.

do not

swords

(Fig,

quillons

scabbards

curved,

(Figs.

462,465

area was, of

at
in use

blades

often

were

and 465),

course,

very

similar

to/Uahrusana.
Another

Piandjikent

Ages it

weapon
the

was

common in
remained

art

relatively

until

in weapons,

construction
of

of

a standard

(Figs.

frescoes

information

Central

Asian
shape.

but

techniques

single

sheet,

make a segmented

either

be of

fixed

true

to an exterior

segments

are linked

specimens

the

Some are

clearly

frame,

of

of

Iran

armour

than

and

with

are

are
type

by their

of

an overall

This

most likely.
large

style
Both

is
as

from

such helmets

in which

for

evidence

segments

in

which

forms

confirmed

of

a
could
are

smaller
construction

by surviving

101).

shown with
This

Helmets

Nevertheless,

a splinted

Asia,

detailed

suggested

only

hammering

form

on the

they

of a spangenheim

to one another.

(Fig.

in

a lack

construction

Central

Crimea

as to be useless.

conquest

unsurpassed.

and I39).

or of

directly

is

this

spangenheim

Many such helmets
so small

is

capable

were known in pre-Islamic
from

become

not

provide

defences

coupled

metallurgical

the

they

430,431

to a point,

rises

Saljüq

characteristic

would

even richer

generally

(Figs.

appearance

shape that

are

and the

428 and 429),

fluteo

the

Fiddle

early

particularly
It

peoples.

the

at

even then.

rare

pointed

Throughout

as a device

after

be illustrated

to

origin

436).

and Mongol

The Piandjikent
are

(Fig.

by non-Turks

Turkish

Islamic

Turkish

clearly

lossoo

was regarded

the nomadic

of

of

is

nusalo,

perhaps

but

another

these
artistic

often

seem
convention

319(Figs.

429 and 439),
(Fig.

full-length
cases

mail

is

Secondly,
432)

been caught

a type

European

not

a number of

leaving

wearer's
By great

good fortune

m`il

hauberk

and the
length

three-quarter
its
an
worn

own with
the

or beneath
was generally

of

It

332).

formed

whose uppor
sleeved,
decorative

(Figs,

430),

consists

a surcoat

(Figs.

with

(Figs.

appear

either

or bronze
Iran

leather,
(Figs.

small

Central
and

429 and 433)

such shoulder-covering,

In
the

illustrated

generally

the knees,

with
could

Lamellar

itself

lamellee

and narrow

of

be
and 439),

429,430,438

Asia

the

garments,

(Figs.

330 and

cuirasses

decorated

been
have
to
covered
or

428,438

thirdly,

433 and 440).

and chest-high

to have consisted

boleros,

(Figs.

and 438).

428,433,435
iron

is,

twice

also

The former,

and reaching

(Figs.

century

429 and 431).

two major

of

below

or without

13th

drawn up over

cuirass.

sleeves

(Fig.

are also

chin-strap

such

ano 430_440 ),

and 438-440).

such mail

lamellar

place,

429,431

is

Piandjikent

first

in

reappear

face-protection

over

and Central

wear padded arming

eyes exposed

the

that

homage to a leader

(Figs.

skirts

additions

The finest

around

in
much of
seen

probably

Iranian

his

metal,

parts

the

the neck and face

aventails

mail

loose

cuirass

to those

similar

at

they

until

seen in

confirm

428-431j,

(Fig.

unprepared

only

and hanging

Body armour

doing

hauberk

these

face,

unfastened

helmets,

The mail

to a mail

cases

(Figs.

seen again

manuscripts.

attached

never

without

warriors

a helmet

some

chin-straps

In the

a coif.

and not

seen without

or having

caps of

worn with

was an aventail

never

end in

also
in

helmets

presumed

were again

Piandjikent

Crimea,

head-protection

world

The

and 431).

428,429,430,439,440
Iy da: ect
various
in the
nomad grave-sites

Asian

continued

or reinforced

cheek-pieces

(Figs.

the mail

to its

Even more common are brands

428).

laminated,

clearly

is

as one such nasal

short-

by such

440).
and

bolero-shaped

garment at

315
Piandjikent

has its

sleeves

440).

feature

was, however,

This

(Fig.

66) where

simpler,

were widely

illustrated.

9th

Qstrükhana

frescoes,

Could

be the original
babr

bayän,

that

Firdaws!

of

The fact

may not mean that
They are

the

shield

the

warriors

picture,
drawn,

whereas

so drawn,
common in

the

82.

art

horizontal

of

in

existed

beneath

the

eastern

cit,

worth

noting
a

ewshan

frequently

hand,

drier

appear
those

shown

leather

conditions

lamellae
of

443).
is

between
lines

In almost

famous source
0th
all

to those
on this

lamellae

indicating

rows of

435 and 953.

other
slightly

lamellae

are

are more

454 and 462),
nearer

respects

are not

this
as
such

(Figs.

century

somewhat crude

individual

come from an area

pp.

short-sleeved

early

identical

cuirasses

Turkistan

at Piandjikent

equally

leather-covered

Note that

lamellar

representations

4

the

do not

Iran.

Firdnwsl,

is

are less

sleeves

shield

lines

Short-sleeved

the earliest
to

the

known as

worn over

On the other

(Fig.
(lug
of

the vettical

as being

leather,

of

Piandjikent.

of

It

446).

fantasy,

of

armour,

ý2

late

(Ft. g.

Piandjikent

Skin"

shown on another

shown on this

the horseman
earlier

never

clearly

castle

the

460),

area of Ushruaana,

from

seen in

the realm

Shähnämýh?

some numbers

lamellar
they

from

outside

bsbr bnyän

probably

(Fig.
that

comparable-shoulder

again

'leopard

the

of

Turkist'sn

eastern

of mail.

quite

Turkistan

is

far

not

435 and 437).

in

have been found

boleros.

this

lamellae,
(rigs.

It

existed

Rustam in

and a zirih

at Piandjikent

forms

(Fig,.

heads

animal's

more common in

mysterious

describes

Larger

eastern

they

that

of

worn by

lamellar

from

if

such garments,

gaping

more rational

protections
century

like

shaped

though

to China

than

3/6
Sleeveless
illustrated
dated,

lamellar

Piandjikent,

seen in
tassel

beneath

strap

drawn up across

hauberk,

and above all

impression

than

rather
9th

the

more so than

limbs

very
for

such leg

but

view

of

one must return

outside

this

the

mail

mail

that

to

gives

shoulders.
take

a strung

dish

silver

greaves
to

was

half

of

such as those
the late

the legs
in

slit

up the

indicated,

In eastern

shown only

Although

boots

for

certainly

though

suggested

some
sides,

never

Turkistan

chaussos
To get

have been more popular.

Fiere such grooves

an the inside,

lower

439).
and

is

are

chuasses
the

for

be mistaken

61A) might

446).

Mail

and 439).

to Ushrueena,

and joined

Iran.

9th

century

frescoes

arc

clearly

hinged

of
down the

Europe.

430 and 440).

Like

similar

illustrated

at Piandjikent

Ustrükhäna,
examples at

a

at Piandjikent,

those
later-4edievol
of
no were

Laminated vambraces are more clearly
(Figs,

to

designed

that

its

short-sleeved

Pia
ndjikent,
at
common

construction

laminated

(Fig.

and Renaissance

might

429,430
(fig.

and feet

Ustrükhana

a typs

429,430,433

laminated

(Figs.

clearly

clearer

hip,

greaves

._.

coverings

their

legs

the aventail

on crupper
with

cuirass

beneath

in pre--Islamic

438),

in others

the

those

Turkish,

spangenheim

lamellar

was also

(Figs.
seemed more common
cases

to

"horse-brasses"

face,

suggest

and almost

has many parallels

distinctively

the

of

well-

or even later,

century

(Fig.
once

large,

the sleeveless

bow, could

unstrung

Armour for
for

the

It

awshen seems closer

the wearer's

the bowcase on the left

Only

century

430 and 436), " the

reaching

of

or 9th

0th

throat-lash,

(Figs.

less

444)0

lamellar

and are

exist

and certainly

probably

(Fig.

Tote

art.

aventail

every

its

the horse's

and pectoral

is

Turkistan

Muslim

early

It

though

however,

well-known,

dish.

silver

comes from

certainly
with

less

on a rather

crude

did,

cuirasses

they are

317
built
the

laminated

up of
inside.

grooves

such hinges

Since

a general

from large
are also

armours

metal.

Vembraces of

pre mably

generally,

invariably

not

This

of hiding

and 439).

clothing

was to become characteristic

Islamic

early

habit

Uehrusana

and the upper

iron-rich

Farohänä

a bigger

by culture.
neighbours

83

recruited

There

these

of

contingent

the

in

ordinary
centuries:

stud

of

As such

they

in

by the

nhar2anoi
het

Italy
sent

to

in

would

ireie

guard.

the early

cow the Lombards.

Cncyclonndin

84.

ftnward-. Johnsons aný,,,cit..,

also

as archers
Forty-five
century
85

Is1rý
J
ýýý
of
n. +. ý.

pp. 63-85.

though

east-Iranian
their

from
their

served

who formed
of

as part

Whether

are

military
to

In addition

out.

Farr jhina

64

9th

this

these
of

or not

neighbouring

however

does,

little

we know of

that

were described

63,

p. ßa.

have differed

the

from

inhabitants

and speech,,

to
bear
seem

Caliphs,

Its

sources.

and Surhd.

fact,

Farjhaniý

Daryä.

Str

from pre-Islamic

we have nothing

by origin

C. Cahent "LLay h'"
/'}
(y(ý
pp . 504..507.

gs. ' ;bý,

(Figs.

Muslim

subsequent

is

which

armour under

evidence

valley,

the written

as Turkish

Fmpoeror'o

even reached

Zarafshan

in Ushrusana

being

the

in

role

does,

traditions

of mug,

castle

tunic

or

problem

pictorial

of

and the upper

regarded

generally

the

arms and armour.

L}hereas we have plenty

play

construction

at Piaindjikent

mail

one's

greatest

h"lmets*

similar

from

such

construction

indeed

or

surcoat

of the

the single

prove

the

worn over

429,430

and as such will

shield

century

been made of

has already

though

6th

early

on

within

laminated

their

to construct

shown on that

Mention

any flexibility

precluded

inability
of

shoots

and joined

down the outside

one must assume that

and vembracoo,

reflected

hinged

pieces,

in

Byzantium.

one unit
warriors

a mixed
these

secnnd odtticýnj

Oyznntine
her

anoi

11,

3/8
is

were Muslims

not

Chinese

sources

between

champions

all

warriors

in

was despite

Karluk

north

region

the western

New Years

in which

by the

of

divided

D rya

Sir

major

coalfields

effectively
the

of

reaches

Asia's

around

lake

of

seems,

contra

the mineral-

also controlled

state

The western

Kul.

Iasyk

being

Muslim control,

fame and prosperity

Far ha-na'c

to have declined

however,

expanded in the mid-10th

reaches

under

the

from an

century

many of the by now superficially
87
frontier.
the
Caliph's
north-eastern
along

east of Farghäna,, to unite
tribes

information

Written
Arabs,

being

or Chuzz state.

This dynasty

Turkish

fluslim

combats

one of

fuelled

areas,

remained outside

Turkish

as a metallurgical

Oar khanids.

describe

many centuries

This latter

ya
the
Sir
D
ainilarly
of

area just

for

middle

state.

Semirechiye

under

equipment.

and the upper reaches which were under the eastern

E3inknth or hash"
Turkish

the

celebrate

the region's

the Muslim-ruled

their

136

and arms-producing
This

between

to

wag to remain

iron-working

rich

rarcyhän

is

das however$

cams period

wore cuirasses*

farghanä

Warn.

tho

of

any more than

ncntion©ds

though there

bcccmeo available

is no reason to suppose that

tenuous hold on the Str Darya had much, if
traditions

and technology

transitory

to say the least,

imposition

of Farcggna.

Be
in 715 AD*

of tribute

of

86.

Mahler,,

87.

Knobloch,

68.

Ibid.,

89.

Rice$ Ancient

op.

pp.

p.

cit.

first

rulers

place

67.
pp.

o e,

27-31

and 56.

23-24,,

Arta of Central

originally
on the military

conquest was

Assn, p. 220,

and the

promptly

Arab suzarainty.

may have taken

indopendonce

Islam's

more than a raid

The local

of the

the arrival

any, effect

Islam's

being little

Chinese help and were able to throw off
reassertion

after

89

requested
This

in 724 AD when an

31q
Arab

by

was defeated

army

Turkish

the

Khägan

Su-Lu

the

of

TIrgesh

wa's

tribe
of

from immedintely

what

in

fact

that

close

these

Turks

tried

apparently

to

to invade

Me Warn',,

battle

of

Tales

by the

Tibetans

power

west$

years

later

and to

Such a process

on the ruins

built

under a very loose

in the Caliph's
century

in an apparent

excessively

considerable.

quite
having

90,

arrogant

been enlisted

Cibbs, on

cit.,

effort

east,

Far-; china

in

the

What role

to replace
Their

decisive

offensive
Chinese

China would
Turkistan.
were but

one,

Farnhänä was to
of two Turkish

the Farn;.ghina
first

cAbbäsid
of the

they were soon serving

feuding

early

in the 9th

Arab regulars

and

been
to
have
numbers appear

troops$

they naturally

65 and 70.

Khuräsän

Asian power, and partially

were recruited

Thom were free

pp.

than

rather

the easternmost

the Ushruslya

KhuräsänTs.

as adults

in

in those few years between their

and in fact

armies,

The Chinese

rule.

the back of

to a Muslim army and the establishment
like

settled

revolution

Metal-rich

suzerainty.

than

world.

Central

of China's

Caliphal

is not known,

Caliphate

Muslim

or within

in Umayyad Transoxania

submission

whom

the

the

reflected

a northerly

with

eventually

in the future.

independent

remain partially

played

lay

the

than
more

proved

were defeated

Islam

extent
of

Muslim

broke

which
that

peoples,

be drawn into

gradually

states

a lesser

some-

were,

rather

cAbbäsid

the

coupled

ensured

the Turkish

Meanwhile,
would

This,

eight

nomads,

748 ADS but

751 AD.

Turks

Arab cavalry

under
of

advantage

the

certainly

tribal

now falling

Nahr in

al

Turkistans

seat

dominate

in

take

the

Thif'4tmost

were mostly

such as those

communities

in

combat*

Khägnn/, RUminsl overlord

and more manoeuverable

although
90

This
battle

as lighter

foes,

Arab and Persian

successful

In this

described

surprisingly,

their

Farghänn,

of

Transaxanis.

non. -Muslim

all

north

lyk
not slave mnmw
took their

and

own military

ýý

320
traditions,
Al Iia'mün

ructasin

and al

numbers of

Turkish

free

U hruslya

after

a long

their

predecessors

them.

from

its
also
from

its

transit

trade

its

as it

third

dagrach

in

In fact,,

From that

the

as

thooe

who

over

an arc

the mixed

Turkish

south

to Tibet

greater

Shen from

Yarkand,

To the

close

zone,, under

from

the bulk
Yet,

element.

92

Forohänä

of

of

Surhdinns,

East

Turkistan,
three

was a central
itself,

eastward

zone of

smaller

and Kashm! r.

Ä

Here

into

Ka'sgar

was the

civilization

Farn

was in effect

be divided

through

of

one might

Indo-European

Chinese-influence,

Turku-Sunhdian

utvalth

technology

area which

known,, could
Tien

great

neighbour.

have been largely

the

Ito

Road from Piandjikent.

Silk

important

Kol, lake.

was culturally
small

ousted

just

Road, purchased

Silk,

on the military

was otherwise
Just

zones.

the

which

may still

an increasingly

zone stretching
to

the

of

the east!,
along

the oasis-dwellers

artistic

troops

had ousted

famous arms-producing

to

neighbours

or Kash aria

Turkish

with
at

Uhrussn.

to shed cone light.

with

Eventually,

of power and prestige,
Iranians

though

Farrhnnn,

enlisted,
k

new ral

positions

assume that

the next-stop-but-one

though

Caliph's

lamer

recruiting

utartod

apnerently

and half-Turkish

from

weaponry

still

Iraq.

91

the

be able

the

from

Turks

however,

them to

with

1Th
as mar
s from beyond

and Faräý%in a

One may fairly
drawn

own equipment,

soon,

captives

struggle,

Iranianized
preceded

their

and probably

Further

east

lying

around

Kash arse

Khotan,
was a
Turfnn.

was to

91,

le
Changiements
ilitnirQS
Proche
dnn..
techniqu
"Las
C. Cahen,
.am,
.
.
Tchnolony.
'in
leur
3,
Orient
importance
hietari'que,
sß
medinväl 'et
Yaapp
the
Parry
Evat
flidale
U.;
J,
edits. )
in
Socinty
''.
and
end
Ayalon)
London 1975). p. 121; Cahen, "ºZaysh, ", lo c
"
Islsm,
in
Institution
"Prelimninory
Remarke on they c1amiuk Military
pp. 51.52.

92.

Rices Anciant Arts of Central
52-55.
pp.
oL"
-ýýlts. +

Asi aj pp. 176-177;

Knoblochs

3211
both

survive

Muslim

Semirechiye

the

Tien

central

Helmets

Yet there

shown in

the

aventail

or calf

fact,
the

be part

cheek-pieces
hc aria,
Kas,,,,,

though

helmets

influenced
Iranian
being
not

also

appear

worn by warriors
seen in

the

and west

Iranian
there

Turfnn.

China

the

93.

Knnbloch,

94.

Thordemann,

loc,

and in

from

the

in

may,

the east.

in

Laminated

do not

appear

and the

aventails

of uncertain

of

(Fig.

a type

of

610).

between

similarity

the main form of
Cuirasses

very

construction

collars

times

Chinese-

east

defence,

with

short

sleeves

in the 8th and 9th centuries

Battle

of

Wlsby,

in

61A and 67),

r. it.

Armour

clearly

owns both

China

mail

Parthian

wera common in KAZhraria)particularly

sp,angenhelms

are

feature

on its

have raised

period.

true

helmets

do (Figs,

94

and

difference.

latter

appears

was again

T'en9

than

This

was an even greater

in

n valley

where a lamellar

Finally,

since

a number

464)

amid many others

Lamellar

betrays

Similar

are more common in

world

it

at Piandjikent

whose armours

Turkistan.

was in

elsewhere

cheek-pieces

zone of

the narrow

and apperentlylamellar

and 455).

illustrated

lamellar

eastern
style

type

of

and included

61A, 455 and 458)

and armours

In armour

as it

the

north

Zarsfah;

splinted

illustrated.
that

a calf

of

of

reflect

then

Ushrussna

the

any way,

more similarity

(Fig.
zone

eastern

was also

of

in

618,65

zone (Figs.

central

Leather

61A,

smaller

FerEhenn

general,

those

plus

(Figs.

construction

in

than

were more varied
454 and 463),

in

the more Iraninnized

was,

Kul lake

century.

seem reasonable,

from

variations

Ushrusona.

(Figs.

as would

Issyk

the

93

did,
of

the

near

12th

Kagaria

and technology

Shan ranee,

of minor

the

in

many centuries

8aläs7nhün,

into

well

for

pressures

of

zone of

traditions

military

city

Farq! hana,

of

If

and the

area

north-east

and Chinese

1361,

p.

258,

3zz
(Figs.

61A, 454 and 455),

considered
(rig.

world

6th or 7th

an older,

abdomens might

610 and 453).

(Figs.

61A and 610),
panels

cuirass,

it

Kash aria

however,

and those

namely,

those

central

Ka garia

seen in

China where

form

of

leather

also

have been tightened

been the

not

just

it

case with

worn beneath

raised
61A.

8th

the

illustrations

the

across

T'an9

comparable

aria

show

such cuirasses.
the

between

armours

been mentioned;

so characteristic

collars

453).
and
,

of

KR:,

century

One has already

The collars

the

somewhat inflexible

differences

618,450

the

of

was in Ushruaann

This
into

have been developed

might

gorget.

as it

part

was

covering

to an otherwise

of Ushrusana.

(Figs.

also

whether

two major

extravagantly

this

was seen in

clear

houberks

or show mail
were,

is

in

perhaps

mail

flexibility

providing

There
of

Although

variety

sleeveless

style

skirts

have been worn,

also

(Figs.

mail

century

The lamellar

67).

the

and perhaps

Kaash aria

Chinese

is

style

also

a distinctive

may, of

in battle,

throat

of

course,

as seems to have
(Figs.

gorgets

474,478

and 479).
The second,

Turkist-an

and western
in

and Khuräsän

Transoxaniaa,

dofensive
costume
under

in

persisted

clearly

lamellar

protection

for
for

the

weight,

against

cutting

weapons

like

or leather
(figs.
arms
quilted

weapons
arrows

Asia

or padded

auiltad

worn under

after

or

fall

a feature

clothing
armour,

It

often

proiiden

Some of

seen

Turkish

but

it

whether
and Mongol

In the period

seems to have been commonly

excellent

though
these

provided
and 453).

6103 6567,450

such as swords,
spears.

of

modern times.

until

naterial

garments,

quilted

eastern

was rarely

the Parthians,

of

In fact,

have remained

Central

throughout

the

This

armour.

quilted

Ka2h9aria.

or otherwise,

review,

weight

concerned

between

difference

more important,

and perhaps

not

Of course,
protection

against

sources,

the only

penetrating

so far

interpreted

323
as quilted
form of

scale

leader

in

iron

nays however'

armour,

armour

the

scales

third

were

fastened

ways.

appears

once (Fig.
61B).

have already

enough,
the

Koshaaria

454),

while

the

protecting

military

style

small

foundation

silk

in

origin

It

for

in

equipment

Ch,'i

Kashgaria

eruption

(Fig.

10th

and clothing

13th

is

the Muslim titwräz.

adopts
as a decorative
Fig. 122)

fashion

device

In such sources

is purely

Central

evidence

from the 9th

in

of having

east-Iranian

(fig.

76),

Islam

by the

some sort

garment is first

practically

Before

banot worn

of India

frescoes

a

This was a partially

may appear on the arm of a presumably
Ajanta

century

as

century.
there

costume,

hinese art of the mid 5th century,
photographs xc1iI-xCIx)
dynasty(,

the

of

Interestingly

and,

to reappear

the

after

around the upper arm of an outer

northern

in

and very distinctive

close of the Umayyad eras(, Yot this

in

shown

chaussee

most of the Muslim world

in the 5th century

was certainly

east

decorative,

on the upper arm throughout

indicated

in

perhaps

are also

and lamellar

as a top-layer

fashions

simple

oriental
partially

"foreigner"

the west

longitudinally,

lamellar

armour

the Mongol

the Plualim

m&tter, of

onwards.

shins

was not worn over

of wearing

this

of

to

been mentioned.

armour

informative,

papal

or

those

from

hinged

others

idea

a possible

and it

In this

a linen

of

differed

vambrace,

until

fashion

century

by a Chinese

century.

inside

the

we have to wait

dominant
leaving

in

Greaveo

The aurcoat

for

to

The standard

various

for

the 8th

of

a particular

of

to have been "invented"

said
quarter

Limb defences

61i)

stitching

95

garment,

(fig.

show the

originally
ovary

Asian in style.

of

clearly
"barbarian", *
item

Of

The supposed

j us-t as Islam was sweeping towards
ti rn,z next, appears in Turkistcn
is
ýf(gs, 333and436}
or ecrass the aresx so perhaps we have here yet another aspect of
95,

Mohler,

opt cit..

p, 112.

314material

that

culture
Norse-armour

appears

(Fig.

(Figs.

471-473).
it

west,

is

from

Another
on the Muslim

Those steppe-lands
of Manchuria

to the

to little

more than

a single

the

and Tien

Altai

the broad

swathe

of

the

by M. Lombard as the

Turkish
of

they

Muslim

the Mongols

until

the

To Khingan

those
in

ranges

mineral

Gates
were

narrowing
between

of

course,

M'eanwhile$

resources.

been aptly

side+rurgiques
technology

the military

Turks.

an the

though

has itself

"ateliers

nomadic

mountains

Dzungarian

latter

steppes

true

Rumania,

of

at the

these

the

of

impact

described

nomades"96

of

the early

the

confusion

world.

medieval

the

the early

was to have a profound

homeland

and other

role

China

centuries?

that

Eurasian

such a vital

who played

and 13th

pass

of

in

of

and the

Both

arena

to bp popular

indicate

Carpathians

iron

in

rich

exceptionally

Shan.

region

are now Sinkiango'Mongolia

from

borders

southern

horse-armour

vast

stretched

certainly

that

Turkiytan

was the

world

Asia.

almost

popularity

this

Might

what

of

the

continued

the 9th

region

It

aria.
from

widespread

Asia.

between

region

Control

may have been used in

revivcdin

to be used in

continued
Baykal

Though it

Central

Karl

carving

60) and thereafter

was not

erupted

in

a puzzle

fragmentary

an a very

Khotan

owed to Turkish

Islam

nomads certainly

Arab conquest

Khurasan

of

to do for

had been attempting

conquest

had,

and nomadic

however,

zones ucre

took

the opportunity

once again

this

to inflitrate

sealed,

areaO

the
98

frontiers
While

97

much as

Once the Muslim

past.

centuries

been consolidated,

of

it

96.

Lombard, les f^ätnux.

97.0.

"Muotasim and the Turksp" Pulletin
S. A. Ismail
(1966).
Oriental
African
Studivs,
XXIX
p.
of
nnd
,...
ý.
.
.

98.

Ibid.

between
would

settled

be an

nasi
of
12.

the

School

32-5
to say that

exaggeration

by the

Muslims

the northern

frontier

Turkish

eastern

in

the

tho

flow far

equipment

of

Between

629 and 645 AD they

bows in
away out

of

the western
larly

of

probably

mounted

with

describedp

4restern and

traditicnal

along
Turks,

valley
the

wool,

but

one of

in

role

a vital

their

giving

Turks

it

between

changed

was probably
by a Chinese

of

spears

and standards

and

and horses

stretched

for

the

of

Khän of

is particu-

is
the
dromedary
a speedy
where

camels

those

the

that

though

Khan employed

been credited

strategic

mobility.

troublesome

; iLnd Very

is an inevitable,

were

and patient

who have recently

notable

on camelback.

question

Hence we may assume that

to

there

in

strong

variety,

Muslim armies their

the first

fought

rarely

warriors

Bactrian

beasts.

little.

very

as

were the guards

STr Däry`a the

the

similar

Unfortunately

Islam

visitor

the

camels

of

animal,

two-humped

infantry

lines

nomadic

or rather

western

were described

Even in Arabia,

sluggish

singularly

unknown,

riders

responsive

and relatively
the

vie

of

Sea, to the

Aral

Turks,, and the mention of camel-mounted warriors

interesting.

Here in

these

1"99 These troops

sight.

the

were to play

and fine

serge
and the

order,

is

centuries

fur,

true

was apparently

centuries.

and 9th

in

02huz

5aljügct

the 7th

"clothed

Caspian,

now reappeared

The western

and 12th

this

by the

ware occupied

areas

as alrerrly

erea,

known as the

11th

settled

century,

the

from

states

of orgsni2otion.
cub-tribes

all

the nth

and of

Beyond this

Str ßäryä.

the

might otherwise

gap in pictorial

and archaeological

have added flesh

to the hare bones of our knowledge of the weaponry

and appearance of these warlike
99,1ohlers
100,

op. cis

evidence

neighbours

of Islam.

Even such

p. 61.

The Mobility
Hill,
of the 1rnb
the
"The
Role
Hill,
of
resim
Arab Conquests"
maim.

Armies in the Earl
Camel and the Horse

Conquests
in the Early

100

illustrations

as are

controversy.

The magnificent
is

Transylvania

beast

a case

of

this

rare

example

(fig.

an archer

riding

a mythical

445).

the purely

decorative
is,

however,
with

a

to an 6th

or 9th

the north

Caucasus

F3alka in

at Moshchevaye

aspects

the thumb-draw

uses

bow, comparable

typo-A

101

The equipment

The archer

style.

excavated

4110),
One feature

comment,

and that

unlikely

that
item

other

of

the horseman

is

his

armour

stirrups

slower

than

where

the late

do not

stirrups

7th

lashes

or early

a little

later

would

8th

that

indicate
enough

to

adopting

Sassanian

comes from
or people

interesting

tassel,

Pjandjikent
seen at
art

with

the

a time
who were
would

past-. Sassenian
adopted

before

ýFiyc. 331 dnd 339).

centuries

in 6th century

nomadic

This

the new device.
or immediately

every

to include

various

to
have been generally
seem

other

rendering

to be buried

or was one of
in

seems highly

forgot

simply

tribe
a

the
throat
such as

are rarely

into

either

This ewer illustrates
decoration,

such effort

horse-warrior

noighbourn
proximity

a close

suggest

this

appeared,

their

stirrups.

of

important

stirrups

Obviously,

before

clear

demands immediate

also

It

as grave-goods

considered

deceased.

lack

and equipment

particularly

peoples

himself

who has put

an artist

of

stirrups,

101.

one.

been remarked.

represented

crudely

century

in

Asian

Central

in

influence

Sasoanion

Its

important

(Fig.

much

from Hungarian

aa very

a prisoner

with

ewer have often

rather

Iran

two warriors'

and a cavalryman
A strong

and

of

centre

treasure

Nagyszentmiklos

in point:

illustrates

euer

golden

are all

available

tke
AC

too often

items of harness and

Tassels
(Fig.

under horses',

436),

but are apparent

from the some area (Figs.

Ns=szentmikloai
G. Läazio and i. Rnczs
_A
187-188,
pp,

throat

Kincs.

443 and 444),

(Budapest

1978)p

327
They hads of

courses

"barbarian"

and China under
of

decoration

Bustan,

also

with

(Fig.

been common in
rule

appears

This

is

341)s

although

single

loop.
.

it

ewer,

decorative

61A and 466)
This

Gth century.

ture

Central

of

Porm

T: q-i-

Sassnninn

century

Asian

first

again
hero

the

was not

raid

by ei

Yazid

Perhaps

origin

fashion,

tying

while

the

seen until

than

the

of

two-loop

the

OIkän in

ei

of

Although

horse

were all
their

had the

slain.
horses

tails

to do so*11102

Muslim

was in general

a Turkish

have been specifically

might

a

horses

riding

at maneuvering

first

To

Afncpnistan

him but

He (therefore)

one's

style

a

concerning

horsemen

Turkish

the
and was

tail

of

invasion,

5oljüq

They attacked

we were.

shortened

consists

by al DalmdhurT,

against

tails.

339 and

in (Muslim Iran.

How much faster

remarked:

own horses

generally

the horco's

as on the Nztgyszentniklos

represented:

related

of

(Figs.

Iran

was to persist

ADJ. "He met eighteen

barbarians

the

so formed

r"ruhallab

al

(meh,dhü? eh)
_

then

Al Tiuhallab

his

ibn

664/5

year

shortened

were

Sassonian

to be widely

one must odd an incident

these

seen in

was sometimes

this

the

there

pattern

the knotting

is

feature

Surh a fashion

a double-loop

of

7th

(Figs.

330),

tail.

with

the

since

horse-furn',

so much other

As a last

in

east

early

at

Turkistan

west-

Turkish.
Various
his

identify

The pennon

origins.

form with

similar

of

the warrior's

on his

controversial
latter

four

rather

"Siegel'
piece

of

silver
metalwork

than
plate
will

(Figs.

from

Al Ot1ZndhurT, 2.

cit.

Turkiat-on,

feature

p., 608,

for

example,

429 and 439),

two streamers

chapter.

1020

lance,

help

may also

own equipment

to some seen at Piendjikent

identical

This

items

while

a

on the

appears
now in

prominently

is

in

the HermitcgU.
a later

329
The warrior's

spangenhelcN with

Sassaanian or TurkistänT.
its

towards
Iran

Yet there
east

(Fig.

The same goes for

overmuch.

hauberk

mail

short.. sleovod
not

eastern,

Finally,

there

Nordic world

sum total
at

limb

equipment

of

from

particular
influences
Byzantine.

of

first

the

origin

for

the western

were Sassanion

the

Indeed

rider's
though

in western,

anywhere

vembracec and

splinted

and elsewhere
is

to the north

a late

to

ewer.

thus have come from an area recognized
centre,

Central

clearly

degree,
ra<gion,

6th century,
if

this

but also as a region

in

Asian,

Subsidiary
Romano-

probably

Hence my own
Alan or. Khezer,

is correct,

not only

and

armour

region.

the
mountains.
of

7th or early

the PJagyozentniklos

on the

Caucasus

the

vambracCs

as contradictory

to a lesser

and,

L

in Turkistan.

and Tronsoxanian

Turkish

thou

via trade,
to have been

influence

ewer is

Dark

the 7th century

necessarily

not

The domin&nt

Iranian

outside

of those laminated

versions

Thus we may be drawn

and arms-producing

us

likely
more
are

defences

Nagyszentmikios

is for

helping

Asian influence

Central

evidence

seem.

to those steppe-bands
preference

from

Of course,

553) and Scandinavia.

was under strong

might

and

seems to have no parallel

Piandjikent
at
seen
grooves
and

as it

4a4)

avontail.

come from

101).

(fig.

west

helmet

in

(fig.

Avar Crimea

are those extraordinary

and perhaps simplified

This

found

Turkistan.

those Nagyszentmiklos
local

this

while

draws one

are perhaps

in both

mail

could

greaves whose construction
Age England (Fig.

his

latter

the

be

could

chock-pieces

Sth century

to prevent

454)

of

parallels

helmets

are enough similar

Turkistan

probably

and lack

and the

41 and 330)

helmet-laces,

long

shape recalls

pointed

The closest

the-former,

(Figs.

Its

helmet-laces

brim,

straight

its

then it

would

iron-mining
major
a
as
rich

in golds silver,

32M
and load.

copper
of

on those

light

their

With
is

not

by the

arms--rich

Feranhina

long

Some true

before

highly

regarded

become Muctasimts

Wäsif,

Yet such information
Turks

frontier.
the

central

ibn

Muhallab

with

their

would

sector

the

in 716/7
turs

for

impact

as warriors,
named

Islam's

106

in
by Yezid

hundred

four

Those latter

by the

Turkish

elsewhere.

been defeated

as tribute

considered

numbers.

104

warriors

appear

as typically

Arabs

costume.
Further

Their

large

as well

end of

having

and tTls-, 7n cloaks.

to have been hoods or mantles
Persian

the eastern

Jurjän,

of

them in

irnnian±zed

1ß5

armourer.

Turks

recruited

cfibhinsid

One such individual,

have an important

also

eagerly

the early

as armourers

concerns

northern,

background,

from partially

to recruit

ADO had to offer

shields

being

warriors

sources,

chief

S

Islam's

wealthy

are known by name from

by Chinese

confirmed

least1

as distinct

started

deal

shed a great

many centuries.

Turkish

Turks,

also

were to remain

arms it

Muctanim

They were apparently
as is

fired

and Ushrustya,

that
for

in

and,

to

surprising

could

regions

neighbours

warlike

Caliphs.

armies,

Such a conclusion

belligerent,

and often

it

103

west

troops
the

in
array

Sassanian

its

Khazars

had earlier
ruler

of

against

struggle

were certainly

fought,

Los S°1ftnux.

in

the 6th

still
the

Lombard,

104,

Ismail,

105.

Lombard,

105,

Al. AaladhurT,

107.

Christensen,
op., cit. , p. 362;
91.
Nomades CavFaliQre, !'p.

n2l
lea

citt

pp*

1"h'taux

c+

c1t

formed

Arabs

101.

not

crushed

107

century,
the bulk

in 722-737

by the Muslims.

and as prisoners,

reluctantly

albeit

Iran

Such troops

cavalry.

probably

the

of

These were
the

Khazer

AD, when the

assim.
14-15.
pp.

170-171.

p. 472,
0arko,

"La Role

des Peuples

Turkish

C-Ii

ý.

+.il., k,:: . u'..

.1-.

f:

,

il

ý..

ciil

cI v

330
heavy cavuiry

-Turka° werc3 apparently,,,

on Ialon'c

dictinguich©d

particularly

already--=resident

flnok,

north-we$torn
Emperor-in

gyzantina

109

an-effort-to

itaelf.

largo

were rapidly

the-Muslim

world.

erupt

of-which,

Even larger-=areea
to

superficially,

from-whlichnumerous

an area

rush

first

at

-across
of'Arab

world

congUost. '

Had,: thie

Islam.

these

nontain,

fieldsfwould

have had a vital

military

of: earlyfislom.

Taking
-,

its

and its

technological

capabilities

together,,

it

thatýCantral:

conquered.

by', `or-adjacent

Asia'was
tot

steppes

remained

were to
the

first
in

levels

bearing

its

of

civilization

achieve-

upon the
importance

political

cans, therefore,

hardly

the most important

militarily
the

cornverteds

of

its

to
within

not. been so advanced
technology,.

still

Islam

and huge migrations

ores

by the

incorporated

The Turkish

technology

be denied

bordered

few
centuries
.a

within

traditionsland--iron-working

military

that

"wore subsequently

conquerors

the fiuslim

Anatolia

his defences.

strengthen

the north

though

in

time

whore thoy had, been invited

a area

provinces

py that

Sinope,

around

then 'was the huger- diva

:- tThis

10

Classical

of

region
Islam.

India
A"large

portion

by the,. Arabs

was conquered

region

Thereefterthe

subcontinent,

many centuries

without

until

the

India

fall-under

and creative
Classical

`'19ý,.

109,

Islam,

in

facod

major

the period

Muslim

the

Islam

any further

latter-port-of

Hindu

be regarded

of what might

domination,

in

particularly

o_

cit.

pp.

the

across
loss

of

the military

5-6.

the

Indian
9th

Indus

did

cultural

centuries.
for

plain

territory..

and even then

had surprisingly

civilization

and early

under=review

The Thirteenth-irihe.
A. Koestlers,
(London
Herita
1976). p. 28.
e
Ahrwoiler,

8th

as the

Not

most of. northern

its

distinctive

little

impact

field.

Khflzar

Only

EmAirc

in

on
the

and its

33$
13th

when the Muslims

century,

to the
root

victims

culturally

Indo-r"uslim
a fusion

of

is

a groat

also

swards

rather

than

While
in

the

India

that
religious

while

the

epic,

art

India

of

illustrates

clearly

the Gast

Indian

subcontinent.

though

these

10th

was almost
Indeed

style.
would

always

or

the

long,

is

not

known.

110.

f aiiniý

111,

Holstein.,

112.

ý.

L.

a,sý...

there

a heavy

o.

Ilashant

with

j
c,it.

distant

past,

cutting

in

than

the

features,

which,

in

thrusting

many such blunt-ended
these

have

and the

the blade

rather

and

distinct

the Gupta era

shape of

cutting

centuries

might

originated

show various

Whother

nistn

in

Islamic:

materials

certainly

between

absence

been mentioned,

basic

also

was the

their

of

Indonesia

and daggers.

has already

swords

or

to further

and early

swords

almost

pp.

from

many so-called

from a very

dated

and double-edged

twc-handed

a distinct

the weepuns
that

suggest

because

others

ineffective.

straight

tnke

dovelcp

an exaggeration

their

of

did

seems,

came from Malaysia

weapons or

to have thrust

have been quite

Pqi or khidon,

of

and changed

Above all

refuge

really

and tactics

to

India

swords

Indian

Islam

surrounding

the pre-Islamic

Indies,

developed

century.

India$

in

some completed

come from

in

These talon

Indian

of

doubt

of

surely

an abundance

The export
although

is

were rare
110

giving

traditions.

Arab world
it

it

technology

deal

early

did

then,

may be correct

proper,

swords

Hindu

it

themselves

elsewlcro,

military

and Indian

Indian

suggest

of

found

Only

Turkish

India.

early

conquests

and politically.
tradition

There
of

Mongol

of

India

of

weapons

swords

were the

weapons of the Ups Uedris'111
sword of

ancient

Indio,

112

202-203.

pp.

ThP_Uonder

6 &nd 9.
that

wa9 India.

(London

1967)t

p.

134.

PAGE
MISSING
IN
ORIGINAL

333
Pictorial
in pre-Islamic

India,

to

observations

the

barbed

had little
One major

are

under

on Archery

in

of

in

these

to

the

vary

ap.

Roman t;brlds"

cfý`2

pp.

by the broad,

poisoned.

Morse still,

when being

removed

These broad

technology.

It"

242-243;

foe,

and merely

so many oriental

largely

date

potentates

from

in

the gunpowder

his

vital

p. 447; Hill.,
2; Fntimi,
Dnlhi
17.

that

claiming

as to

have

jibes

Many unjustified

friend

there

since

in warfare,

backwards

Hence it

advanced.

war-elephants,

p.

and

rather

the way of military

U1i'lx-Horso and E1a hant in tha
(Oxford
1971). p.
Supoliea,

trvbärakchäha

cane and its

be caused

by Simon Oigby

Touranienn©'t

in

486),

whose spell
which

was
foes

Muslim

split

embedded.

boasts

contradicted

Tactiyue

to break

field.

Such arguments,

convincingly

Digbys
ýtilitnry

of

also

culturally

this

were noted

to have been military

fact,

as dangerous

extravagance

however,

(Fig.

art

their

Creek

there

century

was of

have been its
in

t3arko, "la

114.5.

in

Indirsns

cnvnlry

bow was mado of the same bamboo

string

neighbours

expense

fell.

foolishly

115.

the

were unreliable,

a military

113.

its

to

arrow-head

respects

competition

been mane at

in

might

exception

was no real

the

oppears,

to offer

inferior

tended

do appear

India

13th

were often

which

leaving

in many other

though

era,

115

as the

wounds could,

arrow-shafts

arrow-heads
Hindu

they

Severe

arrowheads

From a Wound,,

Its

that
from

sources,
the

foot-soldiers

of

to suggest

that

the Indian

spear-shafts.

Indian

flimsy

were

dominnnco

written

äy re'

the Hindus

was short.
Indian

Post

as late

while

Trnditionallyj,

as were certain

barbed

t.

the

however,

not,,

literature,

113

that

114

archery.

range

Vedic

archers,

no indication

is

which

insigni(tcan

were unknown or

infantry

seem to confirm

sources

ap.

work

"Some Notas
cit.,

pp.

Sultannte

Mcýwcng op.

cit.,

702-703.

a Stud

pp,

92-93.

33ýon the Delhi

116

Sultanate.

hard-bitten,

dynasts

quarrelsome

in ouch expensive
advantage,
we probably

find

of eastern

the main Indian

some military

is also in this

It

only psychological.

the

that

Ia1cm would have indulged

they hnd not provided

if

animals

even if

It would also seem unlikely

technology

Islamic

to early

contribution

area that

and tactics.
those

Uhoroas
Saffärids

of

had a fighting

brocade
armour.
but

Sind!

for

war-elephants

purposos

in battle

employment

nights
were

was nowhere

thorefores
then

in the late

Conparoble

and carried
were

war-elephants

archers
certainly

Digby,

117.

"The Armies of
C. C. 8osworthp
African
School of Oriental-and

1189

Al hhatTb al GahdädT.
SYZnnce Pt 1es Arnbp%

119.

Ge^hir

120,

"Military
Bosworth,
and Iraq,, " p. 165.

121.

F`irdawaf# oný

cit,

Ibrahim

in

the

forces'

Tulünido,

119

of

whose actual
by Indian

were next

If

on their

used by the

by

handful

Such animals

11th centuries.

towers

of

soy they
backs.

following

121

Ghnznawids,

50-53.

116.

op.

by the

of war-elephants

10th or early

carried

protected

have been employed by the S7manids.

armoured

they

were ridden

recordeda120

descriptions

Detailed

warriors.

given by firdawst

century

0u-yid Persian

siege

probably

by caparisons

Egypt

into

the

8aahdädT,

One may assume that

only.

in mid-10th

al

however$

were not!
introduced

Some were probably

parade

or Sindi

warriors

for

themselves

Caliphs

KhatTb

by the

century

transport

and were covered

These elephants

or silk.
118

to al

According

role.

eight

a crew of

cAbbäsid

by thv

employed

the 9th

seemed to provide

Iran

eastern

those

train#117

used in

few elephants

pp.

ßeshir.,

" Fiullrtin
the Saffärids,,
of tha
XXXI (196a-), o pp. 547. -548.
5tudivs,

in A. A. tla3ilievj,
ßardadjo"
"Ta'rlkh
1950)0 p. 76.
Ia, (0 ussnls
op

Organization

p. 70.
under

0 and 1280.
4?
pp.
:. "

the Oüyid,

of Persia

335
in

Particularly
the

for

first

the

time,

undor

Muslim rule.

ridden

by

nailed

or

from
in

armies

Before

apparently

recruited

Indus,

governors,

history

for

from

these

with

the

Sind

I.
Safferida

of

The Ghoznawids
of

Hindu

13th

under
of

infantry,,

century

the

Delhi

Sultanate

-nown areas

most politically

of

the

they

of

Islam,

el2phnnt

lüks
mn.

were

the river

own dynasty

of

Arab

some warriors

troops

the

Saffarid

125
own commenderep

even Hindu
lower

the

Empire.

Indus

valley

while

and as such would

(Edinburgh

122,

C. E. [3osuorths The Ghaznsvids,

123.

Ayaloni "Preliminary
in Islam. " p. 550

124.

flosworth*

"The Armies of the Safferids}"

125.

Dosworth,

The Ghaznavids

126.

Yar fluhammod Khan, The Army under the
thesis,
(Unpub.
j526 AD
Ph. D.
Univ,

in

the

126

the
among

are

They were also
in

124

numbers

are mentioned,

cavalry

a

army,

large

employed

certainly

may also

have formed

apparently
within

in particular

abroad,

Hindu

century.

would

their

Caliph's'.

that

fortunes

their

9th

century

in esstern

nerved

PJevortheless,

Sind and the

isolated,

four

and carried

the mainstream of Islamic

centuries,

under

to

their

under

own leadership

11th

again

Unfortunately,
leant-,

its

pr6sumably

and from Hind beyond

and 1ultan,

though

than

other

area

in

agnin

also

converted

this

Iran

had,
India

armoured

sub-continent

seem to have sought

areas

dynasty

northern

war-elephnrts,

capacities

three

Hindu

of

then remained outside

virtually

corps

Indian

from

have been recruited,
x-parate
.

becks.

tho

this

122

Sind was fully

Muslim

t'urayh

areas

time

were heavily

Sindiay

various

handlers,

123

lnrge

Such Ghaznnwid

on their

Warriors

by which

century

brought

Ninths,

warriors

Islamic

11th

among the

any circumstances

1963),

Remarks an the Momlük Military

pp. 115-119.
Institution

p. 547.

pp. 109-110 and 113-114.
Sultans
of Delhi
of London 1950),,

(1210 ADp. 27.

336
have had little
India

northern

that

appears
kept

area

fact

Muslim
rulers,
traditions

the
the

itself
that

on Muslim

Turkish
apart

Hindu

occupations
and India's

the period

end of

warrior
from

culture
keeping
lack

developments.

military

to have little

was similarly

towards

until

the

affect

the
also

under

review.

that

clasp
bulk

impact

of

withdrew

finally

its

immediate

becomes more understandable.

on Muslim

culture

Even then

It

conquered

subjects.
Into

as determinedly
of

The rest

impact

itself

apart

thic

Add to this
in

as did

on Islamic

of

the
its

rnce of
new

military

,;;.

4*,. -i' ",A'

(.

%14wr! 20,
-po-,

ýý"+'.ý.

ý
ý. ät,.

C\/l

3 37
CHAPTER 4

HEAVY CAVALRY UNDER THE UMAYYAD AND cAf3nÄSID

THE RISE tlf

it

While
increasingly
that

it

in

this

"typical"

16th

crossbow-bolts

history

of

yet this
in

places,

this

precisely

his

because

speed,

of

his

Thus,
Islam
escape.

't,

of

Muslim

who is
but

cavalry

in

be seen in

fact,
in

that

the long

in

times and

comparison

In tactical
a heavy

to escape

clearly

and mobility,

et. various

wore,

be regarded

Islam

protection

terms

to

their

it

is

cavalryman

is

because

from,

difficult

correspondingly

the

expect,

fight

those

the Umayyads this
of

r

iron-

produced

an admission

flowe'ing.

for

easy

as

such supposedly

might,

armoured.
matters,

world

of

to stop

protection.

as one would

Under

cavalry'yha.

relatively

who is

to

finest

main-

weapons such as arrows,

the existence,,

that

of

or a dead-end

between

heavily

very

increased

was primarily

any discussion

a balance

comparison

a horseman

limited

as its

also

as would

itself

It

reaction

must not obscure

end foes,

comrades

bullets.

and not

never

armour

infantry

is

an

be an oversimplification

certainly

however,

against

it

the Muslim

The equipment

was,

an extreme

armour,

fact

various

simply

knights

to maintain

preferred

Europe.

century

in

might

full-plate

and ultimately

as an aberration,

East

took

cavalry

Islam,

go as far

not

down in

was failing

armour

the wars of

The Middle

Christian

cavalry

heavy

Yet such a viewpoint

weighed

to

mid-14th

in

did

process

misleading.

cavalry

that

agreed

part

EuropeU1

and thus
clad

generally

important

tained
did

is

CALIPHATES

of

who could

normally

operations

Cahen: "alayshp 11loco. cit.

role

in

heavy
not,

cavalry
or would

in early
not,

meant enemy infantry,
this

period

cannot

ignore

and
the

338'
question

of

stirrups

which

The stirrup
the

whether
nomadic

peoples

Although

Iranian
the

learned

of

Turks

foes,

even if

they

or Turkified

That would be during
illustrative

from

had knownof
Iraniens

in

makes it

473).

Turkist7on5

(figs.

Unfortunately,

demaged that

it

is

originally

source

impossible
portrayed

Al Jöhiz of Dawn,
half

2.

after

tho event,

their

it

states

earlier,

2

the Muslim
than

rather
that

they

during

their

that

clear

their

adopted
conflicts
4

The

8th centuries.
stirrups

were

of immediately

not all,

(Fig.

Aäian

or Transoxania.

Iran

eastern

pre-

437,451,456,459
Gustän

horseman

or not

33Or

perhaps less

quite

that

believe

to see i4ihether

writing

Central

Byzantine

the req-i

stirrups

though

has suggested

abundantly

of

Far East,

open to disputes

still

429,430,4142'436#

the legs

use.

various

7th or early

a normal item equipment in much, if
Islamic

is

widespread
.

the

most authorities

the late

evidence

it

scholar

stirrups
3

in

or one of

invented

respected

into

coming

devoloped

Koreans

actually

or Turkish

device,

with

the

one highly

first

Arabs

first

clearly

Chinese,

then

were

this

are

so

invaluable

.

than a century

categorically

end

that

and a

the Arabs

"Cavalry
Equipment and Tactics
Frontier,
"
Bivar,
on tho Euphrates
its
" 0riirntall
D.
giver,
"The
Origins,
286;
A.
I.
Stirrup
p.
and
"Sons Aspects of Byzantine
Arty I (1955),
Military
p. 62; Haldon,
Technology"
p. 22; R. H. Hilton
and P. H. Sawyer, "Technical
Pte
The Stirrup
XXIV
Determinism:
and Prrcent
and the Plough"
(London
(1963),
E.
The
92;
Oekeshotts
Archapolony
Weapons
of
p,
The t. arld of the Hung,
P7aenchsn-Helfen,
1960), pp. 85-86; 0.3.
(London 1973), p. 206.

3.0ivar,

"Cavalry

Equipment and Tactics

on the Euphrates

Frontiers"

4.

" pp. 114-115;
C?Lh-i; 'cLes Changements techniques nilitaires,
V. J. Perry and M. C. Yapps "introdtAction,, " dar. Technology and
Society in the Middle East. (London 1975), p. 01 L. thite Jr.
Thrust of the West, " in WaEj.
"The Crusades and the Technological
Technology And Society in the Middle East] V. J. Parry and M.

5.

C. Frumkinp
p. 76.

Archaeology,

Soviet

Cpntrnl

Aain,

(Leiden

1970)v

p. 290.

73q
knew of iron

in the late

stirrups

not to adopt them, believing

that

lie even went on to suggest

that

dominance within

political

their

the decline

Al ra it

those of the original

W.1,
g
.
Persian

who had taken up various

but consciously

chose
6

use weakened a rider.
of Arab military

Islam coincided

of these aids to riding.?
that

7th century

further

final

their

with

and
adoption

a tradition

reported

in Madinah,

ruh ammad's helpers
including

the use of stirrups,
8
These
were pursueded to abandon them when they adopted Isslam.
by el Zähia were made in reply

statements
of

the

Arabs'

saddle-cloth,

The editor

of this
of,

that

flat

the rider

proVided

habit

firs

in the 7th century,

of

riding

more than

no support.

with

in a note that

states

criticism

hardly

saddle,

timesr, Khorasan,

who, late

to the s3
and their

stirrups

text

vital

at various

ibn Abt Sufra,

of

a frameless

or with

a padded

governor

lack

original

bareback

either

habits

it

9

was the tlmayyad

and t3aTra, el Muhalab
ordered

the troops

to
his
though o.nfortunately
use iron stirrups,
command
without
under
10
fit
the
Such
his
normally
a
source.
story
certainly
would
quoting
that

it

the Turks and Turkified

accepted

theory

Iranians

of Trcnsoxania

inspired

the Muslim Arabs to adopt the stirrup.

was contact
and their

Of perhaps even greater
that

not of iron

stirrups

6.

Al Jähi*

7.

dt
-Ib..
_..,

as

Ibid.

9.

-Ibid_

10.

id.,
_Ibý

11.

Ib,,,
i d.

cultural

interest

cousins

11

For too little

19-r70.
'Caby'fn.
Say_
Al
pp.
än wal1
l

p. 21.
p. 20.
pp.
p.
ý pp.

13-14.
20 note
19-»20.

1.

in KhurÄc n that

is the statement

were known to the early
Arabs.

perhaps even pro--Islamic

with

by at 3

Muslims
attention

iz

and
has been

paid, ' to such loop-stirrups
left

traces,

no archaeological

in early

use in

The pictorial
does from

India

(Fig,

ancient

(Figs.

502),
or early

Art,

Washingtons
Africa

Although

Arabs

12,

Arles),
most of

these

of

being

stirrup

as well

of

Taken together,

Iberia

of

Spain
in

St.

(Fig.

Mongolia
of

or

southern

the cloisters,

the

late

497),

Gallery

483).

loop-stirrup

such as hunting

war in earlier

the

of

(Fig.

Moorish

century

the
possibility
out

as by others.

or travelling,

of such primitive
by the

centuries,
such diverse

evidence

85.
Oaksshott,,
pp.
ap_cit.,
-86;
Digby, op. city,
pp" 13-º14;
the
"
Museum,
the
British
editor,
in
Lota
"An Indian Copper
Rupsm (1926). p. 79.

14,

Iiaenchen-Helfen,
Anon.,
Crum

92; Cakecho.tt,

and Sawyer, op. cp.

Hilton

16.

14th

context

in
used

time

illustrated

representations

non-warlike

Freer

century

side

south

13thror

later

alone does not rule

13th

accurately

in situ

to late

13.

15.

bowl,

capital,

in
a peaceful,
are

forms

(Saljüq

as exceptionally

(carved

Trophima,

century

Iran

16

as it

Christian

Andalus

al

no.

Dac2hestan.

the

century

century

late

clearly

ranging

around

early

57,21),

is

for, post-Saljüq

9th

14

and Scythians.
Cyprus

11th

possibly
13th

134 and 137),

the

and oven possibly

Egypt

71),

the

of

has-been suggested

existence

interesting,

equally

naturally

which

question

Byzantine

century

is

conquest

France

12th

information

12th

this

Its

and has even been suggested

recorded15

North

the entire

Gothsp13 the Nuns, Parthians

continued

(Fig.

in

among the Snrmatians

Indiap12

cigration-period

Muslim

or leathery

rope

and spread of the stirrup.

history

Its

of

op, city,

"Daghestan

cit.

p. 206.

Itinorarium
trans. K, renwick,
(London 1958),, p. 47.

A. Salmony,
p. 162.

loci

Sculptures,

Perenrinorum.

" Ara Isinmica,

The Third

X (1943),

3'H
would seem to make al Oaý111a statement
the first

Throughout

of the 8th century,

part

of the Umayyad era$ Muslim cavalry

part

gathered
this

in a special

horsemen

remained,

cavalry

or broken

18.

infantry.

Umayyad rule

end of

the

changed

to skirmishing
force

would

heavy

infantry,

this

but selective

Muslim heavy cavalry

relying

which mecnt using
on greater

Byzantine

10.

Ibid.

19.

C. Cahan,# "Hnrbp"
III# pp. 181-184.

20.

Ibid.

an, cvol.

vol. Ilf

an Umayyad

the
upon
charges

to attack

19

prepared

than merely

rather

terrorize

have been said

true
be
might

was at precisely

ranks.
attacks.

enemy cavalry

to further

this

role

own Infantry

its
of

the
by
constantly
were abandoned

A1 jabarTi

relegated

The latter's

These new tactics

20
Pnfluenco,
but whilo

17.

of Muslim

each including

unitap

tactics
sh^ck

an already

tactics

the very

horsemen

was thus now expected

beaten foe.

it

at

the bulk

time

and repeated,

speed and weight

that
be
remembered
also

of

disorganized

already

reforms

small

to
halt
seek
would

infantry

of

cavalry.

from behind the security

enemy foot

infantry,

into

bowman and heavy

was to make rapid,

In turn

be divided

minority

The role

light

with

Perhaps

Under the new system

and reconnaissance.
ideally

also

By that

seem to have been armoured1

cavalry

formed that

military

this.

apparently

of shock-troops.

destruction

Mcrwgn II's

those

into

the former

the stirrup.

who now adopted
however,

with

unit

elite
armoured

heavily

relatively

of Muslim

elite

the latter

wai divided

who wore armour and those who did note?
together

from unlikely.

far

this
defeated

it

period

and disperse
to reflect
should
that

Byzantine

such
fords

lTf pp. 1076) 14060 1534 and 1704.

p. 591.
EncyclonQdin

of Iel. emý second edition,

(\J

ý_

,1

342
of

the east,
The question

perhaps

the

since

have failed

"shock"

cavalry

demise

of

accident,

and the

presumed

between

as shown in
intentions

those

of

and he shows, in my opinion

the

realities

of

If

cavalry.

it

from missiles

that

the "shock"

to close with

were seeking

cavalry

it

met infantry

to protect

was primarily
as they tried

delivered

Much

then the armour

is correct,

heavy or otherwise,

charge before

involved.

cavalry

than physical.

moral rather

shot or thrown by infantry

break up a cavalry

art,

by J. 'd. P. Keegan21

convincingly,

such an analysis

of such shock cavalry,

a suicidally

and later

the same seems to have been the case whether cavalry
or other

scholars

commanders and horsemen

analyzed

was primarily

misunderstood,

too often

All

so much medieval

has been admirably

sought to inflict

has been gravely
itself.

cavalry

to differentiate

violent

The question

of

its

shock.

to
If

such

then the same

horse--archers3.

purpose would be served.
cAbd
time
of
al Malik
at the

'Umayyad cavalry

the degree of specialization,

4litism,
indeed
or

häd not reached

that

I

would prevent

them from dismoun Ung and drawing-themselves
their
this

spears used as pikes!
be reached for

eventually

should

many centuries

did occur:

it

up defensively
with
22
Nor would
the need orIse*

in the Middle East.

was a product

of nomad Turkish

When it
habit

ý

rather

than feudal

clans-consciousness.

Those tactical
regularized

changes introduced

by Marwän II reflected

between
offensive
see-saw
P. Keegan,
21.0.0.
and 94-97.

22,

yet another

weapons and defensive

The Face of

Al ýabar; p op. cit.

ors perhaps more accurately,

vol.!!,

Sattle.

P. 959.

tilt

in the perpetual

armour.

(London

1976)'

The same

pp.

87

3 &3
process had earlier

been at work in the Byzantine

In these lattor

empires.

had proOdrineffective
their

by keeping

Instead

hope to be as tactically
as their

Asian foes*

Central

these forces

now found themselves
Central
is likely
CRbbäsid

archers

as their

armies apparently
Byzantine,

to this

problems vio--äv-vie

chomfron and other
protection

against

In Byzantium
boon largely

degootod Byzantine

a number of Asiatic

and one particular

may be taken to illustrate
armour for

in a much smaller

only

forces

Bard,

not only

infantry

but also against

the reintroduction

form that

fact.

this

a mount wore, of course,

horse-archers,

forced

horse-

item of equipment,

the heavy scale bard of the clibanarius
24
time
Justinian,
the
by
of
abandoned

the Avar threat

and

Yet the equipment of domestic

awn ranks.

namely horse-armour,

Umayyad and

Soaennian and f^us13-, armies nought a

the challenge,

also reflected

This

had dine.

predecessors

problem by recruiting

their

into

copied

however,

The Muslims,

their

infantry

and primarily

to have been the main reason why later

Sassanian foes.
solution

more mobile

the same tactical

Asian horse-archers

thus

and adaptable

mcnoeuverable

again failed.

facing

who could

supporting

23

Mien faced by strategically
Arab armies,

more cumbersome

evolved mutually

and horse-archers

flexible,

who,

led to an abandonment

had this

the Cyzantines

of heavy cavalry

units

smaller

Asian horse-archers

Central

case, however,

of heavy cavalry.

of heavy cavalry

had merely worn down their

distance,

In neither

foes.

formations

cacao solid
against

and Sasasnian

missiles.

had apparently
Subsequently,

of horse-armour,

though

forequarters.
heads,
neck
and
covered
on the Euphrates

23.

"Cavalry Equipment and Tactics
fivar,,
Frontier"
pp. 280-290.

24.

Haldoni "Some Aspects of Byzantine Military
the 6th to the 10th centuries,, " pp. 19-19.

Technology from

CI(

( >cl

3 ý-ýSuch ßyzantino-Aver

horse-armour,

felt

most arrows1 though iron

which resisted

horse-crmours

types

heavy

in

cavalry

merely

indicates

used horse-armour,

and probably

by al

were described

this

unfortunately

the Muslim

faf

50A).

they

shedding

without

Such

t!

rather

Sessanien

nalacthurT

that

of

of the

25

used.

(Fig.

FIrüzäbad

seen at

Iraq

of

was generally

lamellar

330) was also

the origin

were perhaps

the earlier

than

but

(Fig.

Taq-i-Bustan
seen at

type

or kentouklon,

as mid:

a

26

were slow-moving
any light

on

such bards.
Horse-armour
light$

effective

the

tern

it

that

clear

further
was

Coif.

a bard

Towards

periods,

iron

intended$27

the end of

covering

Nor was horse-armour

known as ti

the context

in Umebfyad and in later

face$

plus

to the

a min h fnr

regular

mi hfnr

coif,

recorded

arm-defences,

sack

or

troops

of

in use by fundamentalist

AD$ some of whom were dressed

hauberk,

full

a sword and wearing

his

cavalrymen

a mu_affnfsh

Khär, iji

rebels

makes

both

It

696l7

f-nf

to men so protected

the Umayyad Caliphate.
in

that

not,

limited
is

fact

than

the Umayyad era

as armed with

appernntly

both

referred

also

More often

is

described

armour,
28

horses,

armour

was

available
the

from

arise

wore felt

also

muisffafah

and to armoured

however,

cant

or infantry,

men, cavalry

from readily

and was constructed

Confusion

materials.

while

of

It

times.
in
Umayyad
common
was

felt

in

and carried

dir_
rump

25,

"u aresses,
op.
Brown, "Arms and Armour, " pp, 445-446;
Military
Byzantine
Aspects
"Some
58;
6
Haldon,
of
pp.
and
" p. 22.
from the 6th to 10th centuries,
Technology

26.

Al 8alädhurT,

27.

Fries, op. cit
pp. 42 and 61; al Tabari,
and*1704.
pp. 1406-1407,1025,1517,1537

28.

Al rabarTs op. cit.

op. cit.,

cite.

p. 351.

vol.!!,

p. 1704.

on. cit.,

vol. II, ý

34-5
29

lances,

Such warriors

Umayyad regular
it

although

were largely

This widespread

troops.

horsemen's

Turkish Polls in Transoxanio.
The limited
Muslim cavalry

in

the case of this
know whether

Iran

31

armies.

(fig.

is an Arab or,

ibn

armour

Muslim

d,
aý,
to,
lzrr
340),
a clearer
se61s_sW;

in this

case of scale$

spear when facing

that

another

Traditional

them as horsemen armed with

references
century

lance,

first

only late:

335 and

a full

hauberk,

(Fig.

in Syria

fought

eastern

with

his

123),
rump

drawing his sword,

tend
heroes
to
Umayycd
portray
of
two
in
some cases$
mace ands

probably

recalls

to a standard

sword.

More specific

by such historians

as al abari-

Umayyod horsemen wearing
vol. ll,

of

the

the wearing

feature

khan sr in addition

large

(Figs,

a

for many centuries.

Muslim accounts

This letter

for

the

reorganized

was illustrated

cavalryman,

as would remain the fashion

swords.

fought

representation

a horseman still

Heavy or otherwisoy

33

more probably,

worn by men an foot

is

In

armoured.

we do note of course,

A small number of the latter

Heavier

than their

339) does not show early

illustration

Qutayba

to the

30

the horse-archer

even before

horse armour,

being heavier

to have been very heavily

particular

KhuraaenI.

Muslims

use of felt

for

reputation

art

available

were most

as also

might have contributed

does not appear in art,

Arab and Persian

local

Arabs,

baydh
9

describe

helmets

early

of a

0th

and-or mighfar

pp. 958 and 990.

29.

Ibid.,

30.

Gibb,

31.

Ibid,,

32.

Al Tabari,

33.

Constantinople
Arabea
M. Canard, "Las Expeditions
contre
sees
Journal
"
A®iatigue,
legende,
la
dans l'hiatoire
dana
at
CCVIII (1928), pp. 70 and 101,

The Arab Conquests in

Central-Asia

pp. 65 and 70,

p. 40"
op. c t,,

vol. 11, p. 1909.

32

34-6
their

coifs,

swords

hands while

their

bows could,

Such a diversity

(Figs.

of

the heavy

Most of

art.

from baldrics

slung

difficulty,

little

of

long-bladed

spears

The
are,
.y
iconographic
balance

in

cavalry.

on the walls

with

on either

side

Other definite

horse-archers

(figs.

appears

these

are clearly

122).

either

and other

may not,

or

not

evidence
be adopted

may note a slight
by the written

paradoxically,
Iraqi

34.

heartland

helmets.

with

as they

ruler

in

stand

(rig.

warriors

122)

or prince

at

most of whom wear

A great

suggest

that

another

two centuries.

(Figs.

116,122

cAbbasid
of the

119 and
the Umayyad

that

the

stirrup

Finally,

one

some areas

for baldrics,

stirrups

were concerned.

as stirrups
in

saddles

in others

(figs.
use

thesis

the

supports

and while

and 338),

not, cin

of

variety

126),

120,126

are certainly

less pictorial

Al TabarTs
op. cit..
.

be associated

horsemen

(Fig.

sources

preference

sources

to have been

much more of military

later

and 339),

one as for

for

be

need not

or presumed Umayynd sources show

further

will

such sources

with

an enthroned

used (Figs.

sometimes

era was a transitional

would

probably

of

for

except

Such evidence

Subsequent

will

119-122,338

armour
in

that

Umayyad

are represented

apparentryinfantry

0Amr.
Quaayr

no visible

122) warriors

facto

in

appears

and hardly

equipment

a type

of

there

in

portrayed

Yet this

34

aside,

shown on infantry

time

that

In one case (Fig.

function.

also

and 340).

as at

specialization

is

is

armour

be laid

necessary,

equipment

122-124,127,141,339

a major

they

If

n their

lancer-;

and their

as already

suggested

and 124).

evidence
Caliphate

vol. YIp p. 1276.

survives

than from its

from the
short-lived

31d
Umayyad predecessor
by theuse

overcome
the

fact

as it

this

in

that

cAbbesid

from

just

even at

this

came from
adopted
there

early

the east

KhurasanT

illustration

whose name of
a silver-gilt

plate

now in

as hod the lost
to dismount

leader

their

with

case of emergency.

(Fig.
to

that

in

Syria

the

of

that
37

al

cavalry

Western Arab troops

in these early
"The military

35,

Ayslon,
p. 5.

36.

Al Ioborls

opt.

37.

Al Jäýiýt

Raa; lil

of Balra

be trained

a1 Jýhiz.

p. 53.

equipment

late

Umayyed

(Fig.

120).

Early

cAbbäSid

was quite prepared
36
Even as late

to fight
from Syria

on foot

in

and the Byzantine

described

Reforms of the Caliph
p. 40.

His

quoted an Arab military

cAbbäsid decades,

III,
vo1.
=ý

on

in the same manner

infantry

as infantry.

3 ij

Iran,
appears

341).

Again cavalry

defensively

9th century,

are,

al

Gharbt

Our beat

regions.

construction,

Hermitage

Umayyad forces.

as advising

frontier

Arabic

century,

Arab-speaking

from ecstorn

warrior

identical

Hayr

those

any major change in tactics.

and fight

as the early

the

almost

cooperated

still

between

troops
already

6th

late

by the

from

warriors

Pur-i

at Qasr al

had probably

difference

May
Vahmanb be an

Nor was there
cavalry

Thus,

a Muslim

of

in most respects,

horse-archer

were also involved

CAbbasid
Arab

and-forces

traditions.

seized power.

in overthrowing

role

these

Most of

have been little

may well

Of course,

cAbbäsid
the
dynasty

and eastern

many Iranian

available

35

more cosmopolitan

provinces.

some)KhuräaänT troops
N

stage.

and more strictly

iss

such peripheral

despite

areas,

becoming

seem to have plsyad a dominant
("ai9Pnous

the Umayyads, although

partially

only

neighbouring

army was rapidly

did not happen immediately

Arab troops

is

problem

from

of material

the

recruited

This

Syria.

no fighting

el flu'totim,

"

L/

3L g
with

38

spear

or in one specific
case with spear, sword
or TT6etah styce
(tiboten
lenthorb,
This letter
defence was,
of,

and shield,
tker
ei

and dariz nh_shield

however, given to the Arab frontier
al Rash; d.
Byzantine

It proved most ineffective

the

the

Anatolian

Iraq,

frontier

the

of

warriors,

would

they

of

early

riding

aa

Above all!

Piuslim

and their

between Byzantine
Followers.

armies

them fresh

On the East Roman frontier
identities

lances,

Iran.

the almost

though
they

Such
as troublesome

occasionally

retained

by lending

in battle.

on

KhariiT

effective

from

the

at

persisted

and western

as distinct

us©: the bow.

from mules and only

traditions

Arabia

on their

primarily

also

and their

Crescent,

mobility

strategic

iron-

noisy

declined

slowly

and among the highly

fertile

relied

Arab troops

of

who were regarded

bodouins
they

prestige

of power in

rebels

if

had a strong

shield.

Although
centre

Marlin

the sward of his

against

foeman39 whop, by contrast,
dsrq, h

covered

by the Caliph

warrior

.

the original

their

horses

41

there was alresdy

a blurring

of

lords`
Arab
and emirs
marcher
and

Although

this

land
the
Greek
the
of
was

were
most changes of faith and allegiance
42
is also seen
This blurring
towards Islam.

hero Digenes Akritass
from Christianity
in art

of-the

area and crap with

turbans

and heed-cloths

appearing

I

tiu'tmgimj"

30.

Ayalon: "The Military
Pp" 97-"98.

Reforms or the Caliph

39.

üdi,
Al Mnn

vol. I I

40.

Al 3ühiIS

41.

ibn Khngon on, "the Exploits
Al Jntiix, "Jmh12 of B" re to Al-rath
furko
"
T.
in
General,
Co
the
the
Army
Khalifat
tho
of
of
end
Socioty
Harley Ualkor trans. j Journal, of the Royal Asiatic
(Oct. 1915) p. 663.

42.

"The 'Flights
ß. J. H. Jenkins
XXIII (994E3)i pp. 223-224.

n,ps cito
Rn6atil

ni 3, hix

pp. 348-349.
p. 45.

of Ss,manas,9" Speculun.

3 4-q
on "enemy"

troops

196 and 202.

as 6th or 7th

wearing

of

This

in

like

the Empire

evolved

role
they

Ecsontially$

of

light

cavalry

of

local

infantry

normally

stood

a wider

Muslim

and more ambitious

these

cavalry

the later
offensive,

shot

it

turban

he might

be

also

of

Given

similarly

plus

seems unlikely,

Arabs had fewer heavy cavalry

being

more frequent
than

unlike

equipped

that

behind

played

those

of

while

their

for

o2, cit.,

44.

Leo VI, Tnc ticai.
Inst. 6.

M. 3oly do Maizcroi

45.

Haldonp "Some Aspects of Byzantine
6th to 10th Centuries, " p. 27.

an important

Central

Asia

horses

Umayyad heavy

Turkish

hulÄms

in

Islam was now on the
that

the

Unfortunately,

than the ßyaantinos.

Howard-aohnstan,

large

a frontier

as has been suggestedy45

43.

earlier

s involved

the evidence

the fact

43

incursions.

placed

but

known

ruglim

Norse-archers

forces,

44

tactics

tacti

Shadowing

levies.

defensive.

were even more difficult

they

assaults

on the

the border

of

strategically

203).

9th century,

but

acale,

command and by ranks

at

and the rise

constant

stretch

such

defensive

(Fig.

still

almost

His

centuries.

of guerrilla

a system

on a minor

from

and originating

in

harness,

412)

+,
defin,
tely
was

when Byzantium

These were generally

screen

question

an Arabs while

as Shac!owing iw#arfare to cope with

forces

(Fig.

regarded

hauberk.

was an era

to contain.

generally

Muslim-. Ironien

10th

or

is

It

distinctly

the 9th

make him look

a mail

As such,

the

picture

contemporary

equipment.

the rider

him in

place

and baldric

but

century,

border

more northern,

available

Muslim

(Figs.

illustrations
though

the
finest
comes

and stirrups

certainly

biblical

comparable$

in probably

a warrior

saddle

Byzantine

From the

ýQorgia

regions(
of

in

pP. 100-101.
trnns.

Military

p

(Paris

1771),

Technology

from the

350
from

evidence

pictorial

the

however#

Coptic

Egypt

of

art

armoured in a local

cavalry,

of

side

the Anatoli,. an frpntier
/{-rmen(a
09a4 1)
anal

from Georgia (Fig.

to be available

seems only
south,

the Muslim

also

the original

he found

been largely
their

this

7ülün

(Fig.

Arab

largely

had not occurred
the

formed

core

through

beyond,

time,

have still

still

fought

their

of

Aghlabid

still

cavalry

47

largely

been infantry.

javelins

Nubian art

the maritime

played

Berber

(Fig.

A,cthlabid

in their

supposing

the Muslims had their
invaded Sicily
Nevertheless,

could

own fleet,
include

they still

46.

Hassan,, cpcit,,

Q7"

Ibfd

available.

seems to

ambitionsq

calculations.

military

sufficient

rebels.
cavalry,

By the early

they had
Hence
even

9th century

that
AcLhhlebid
the
army
so
and

a small

corps of seven hundred horsemen.

infantry,
thousand
ton
accompanied
p. 165.

this

bareback as

in the 13th century,

by Spanish or Byzantine

they had this

may, at

Such a style

to rely

that

and

164).
of

part

in transporting

still

Sicily

warriors

Spain early

they found difficulty

however,

West,

Africa,

Lien the Muslims attacked
on ships provided

and

survivors

spewss

times.

orientation

an important.

to have

Berber horsemen probably

or large-bladed

had done in ancient

868 ADS

of Ifrtgiym&.

North

century.

be shown in some early
Despite

in

power

in

province

Further

and the Arab militia

the 9th

with

anceatorc

civilianized.

was

142).

tihul; ms. and its
46

that-heavy

style,

Egypt

of

this

and army of

by Turkish

replaced

descendants

bocamw governor

Further

suggests

of Byzantine

variation

known and may indeed have been widespread
Lhon Ahmad ibn

412)X.

largely

ýi

351
40

~" Some Spanish fiuslimo, negrooa.
the
Oerber.
Huwwarah
tribe.
"frorn
49
cAbbäsid huräaänTs
This desire to transport
and
also took part.
horses in relatively

large

numbers during

also applied

to 'aids

for

seventy-three

ruslim

and when they

dascondod

example,
the Tiber

of

they

proved

this

Naturally,

for

at

in

or the

Arab

In nab ADS

ships gathered

than

the Muslim

overseas

major invasions.

upon-the

five
far

made such raids

cavalry

time

the

no less

's

the

August

on board.

Italians

so

to

more important

a generally

Ma.Shhrib than

on 23rd

-cavalry

for

harder.

the mouth

off

coast

hundred

It must also have indicated

contain.
role

to-have

as well

operations

had been the case

conc=uest.

Those few Khurasants. who took part

in th©-conquest

of Sicily

W

might have been the, -first
to change the. military
al fla%nun.

Caliph

representatives,

balance

in al fMa'mün'a coup.:

If " bbd

they were tha'riew

but if

civil

royolution,

they wöuld probably
.. ý-

..

have been cavalry.

cAbb4id
Amin in the

over hie brother

changes.

geno: ally

roferred

itself
to co

but
hurän7anTs,
pFIelcamic

of major military

the work of eastern

was larg®ly

..

have been infantry,,

,ý_

set
811-313-AD,
in motion a series
war of
The victory

was defeated

ün"thpY
almost
would
al'Sa'jr.

Khur ZnTa_of

Al Ma'mün'a victory

was

'
been
have
they could
abn

cAbbäsid.

. ý.
,,,

certainly

that

descended frr-, j those. KhuraianTs

of a. force, which,
the original

troops

the time of the

in Baghdad during

Cn the other-hand,

west during

brought

of a new. wave of Persian

troops,,

epparantly,

conoiating

__,

Sicily,
5icilio,

-..

(Edinburgh 1975)0 p. 22;
vol.!,
pp,
-394-395,,

48.

A. Ahmad, A Hintor)!
ruaulmarii di
Amarif Stärirdoi

49.

ibid.

50,

P. t»1eWO11yni Rome of '- hs nark A2ps_ ý(l, onäon 1971),t p. 262.
v'l

:ý

352
largely

of t3ukharIe,
51

or Tronaoxania.

the majority

Khw razmTa and Turks
Although

coma Arabs

these KhuräsianTs played

a slightly

for

fevorthelecs,

political

fully

reasons.
fully

are still

described

armed in

fought

of 1"mTn, During

supported

for

the final

Ma'mün,

al

roles

they and their

occasion
dire

tdahrs

el

siege of Onghdmd

loan prominent

on this

abishan cuirass,

from M8 Warial

perhaps

equipment

as woll.. mounted cavalry,

hauberk,

Vof bard or

ti

gambeson$ and tacid h

orm-dafencoe, carrying rumh lances and
52
darýcnh shields.
During the some siege a loading Khura'sünT

Tibetan

horse-archer

was reportedly
53

ab oyyddah helmet.
al Ma"4ün's

fangonels

are,

an Qanhdnd,

attack
Yet the

as such.

also equipped with

true

east

not

in
mentioned
in{entry
Khur aaan'ara
not listed

surprisingly,

although

Iranian

a sword and wore

KhuresänTa,

in Qaqhdad, are known to have been excellent

and the

infantry

obnal

and siege

engineers.
Fron now on cavalry
cAbbäsid

0rmiess which they might

docados.

tdevertholeos,
whose defensive

ruined

vital,

relied

generically

referred

new forces,

but earlier

nor did they readily

operated

was on its

or retrcating.
to as

°n

54

cavalry
Persians

Arab and nbrGO units

51,

Ayolonp "The Military

520

cüdT
Al Mae

53.

Ibiä.,

54.

Al : üýiý#

op. cit,

in conjunction

privileges.

with

than an any now
of various

val. VIs pp. 461-462.
Rr+sä*i1 0l Jähi2

pp. 52.. 53.

aortas

of these

did not disappear,
In addition,

netbrma of the Caliph al Muf tasimi"
VI8
453.
va1.
p.
f

some

seems to have

nmý formed a major part

abandon their

in

have been doing for

battle,
in
open
even

role,

although it

when advancing

in fact

they still

infantry

a doo'. iont role

played

clearly

the

p. 5.

353
recruitment
severely

of eastern

troops

YamTnayn, became governor

Unfortunately,
this

period.

descriptions,

that

stating
troops,

hand al Za ij

similar

who could

fit

hauberk of vertically-linked

has a full

belt

typically

(rig.

Asian origin

Central

While these Khuras6nT warriors
ways$ identical

(E336-.33g AD) there

practising

One apparently
while

with

~= horse-archory,

57

the other

pendants of

314).
are described

ass, in various

both being of "eastern"

to the Turksf

Christian

mang the fragmented

scales1

Droops a sword and wears a distinctive

both

56

equipped

of eastern

description.

this

for

references

to that

tamarra
the
aawsaq
Kh
of
al
gani at

are two figures

lüka.
mom

some excellent

gives

long.

hair

monks, had beards and wore their
frescoes

of Turkish

force

the Khur3asanta ware better

wore clothing

to

were relegated

are very few pictorial

there

In the meantime

and superiority

predecessors

by a newly recruited

On the other

than other

of prestige

period

both thoy and their
status

1T'hir Ghü'l

general,

55
Khurasan
in 020 AD.
of

KhurneänTs Qnjoyad a brief

a second-class

government was

onco al Ma'mün's loading

curtailed

in Iraq before

by the central

culture

and

they are also distinguished

that
fact
The
tactics.
by other characteristics
of equipment and
SS
their
may
reflect
during
a charge
Khurasants "swerve aside"
reliance

than the bou or lance159 or their

on the sward rather

preference

for

karr

Arab-style

Tbc MajastY that

55.

Montgomery Wotti

56.

Al 0ohiz,
06

57#

ibid.

pp. 9 and 15.

5o.

Ib idy

p. 45.

590

Ayalonp "The Military
pp" 33-34.

RasäIil

tactics.
Parr
we

at 0ähix

Their

probable

101-f0.
101-102,
pp.
was

P. 15.

Reforms of the Caliph

al Multasiop"

use of the heavy Iranian
hoavy

equipments

Jfoýi;

they

both

These might

seen in

some Coptic

would#

however1

likely.

of

the

have formed
(Figs.

that

Eastern

earlier

khiinate

representation

of

An oven more obscure

item

been rendered

meaning upper-arm

If

it

wasp however,

KhursänT

for

,

thoir

short

Arab rivals
Art
fragmentary

Sämarr

hauberk.

which might indicate

from 9th century

Iran,

device.

with

for man or horse

or at least

60,,

Lombard, Tho Golden Anaof

61.

Now9orodowos an,..
-cli.

62,

Al ämhi2, Rnsäwil

'iolnm.

pp. 19-20,,

the khan nr

some of their

62
of those

and unhelpful

P, t64-i70,

p. 215,

al aähizp

that

curved

They also stressed

the oxcrption

in inadoquato

froscoea,

a vambroce.

to use long felt

though whether

had not yet adopted this

prat,

only,

kübnt maces the tsb rzTn battle-axes,

use of stirrups:

610),

Byzantium and 7th century

These KhurasänTa also claimed

sword and the disc

(Fig.

i* would be of a

a piece of horse-armour,

the k fir

single-edged

Kizil

übrnd
term
b52
the
of

rendering

horsemen

or could be an Arabic-.

in Persians

To those they added curved swords

scabbards,

as bolls

61

could perhaps refer

neck and forequarters

armour which they node themselves$
is unclear.

more

has variously

equipment

it

as

69) and on an

from

cavalrymen

coon in 7th and Bth century

Iran.

Sassonian

eras

I

armoured

century

Char Chad (Fig.

at

or shoulder

misunderstood

type already

or 7th

armoured
of

parallel

been identified

as bRA anti or bnzf

to a form of horse-armour
"

speaker's

6th

of

al

harness,

horse's

Turkistan'

have tentatively

Turkish

and

228 134p 1378 143 and 145).

t-.n eastern

an the opocr-shafts

of

horse--armour

of the

part

35ý

in their

In the writings

to use ti, ]f`f

claim

art

could be reflected

man and boast.

consider

Objects

appear

for

themselves

bolls,

horse

60

(Fig.

313).

CVIII

l

"'

355
there

is

Fror Byzantium,

however,

Iranianizction,

not to say Turkification,

hod boon noted.
"enemy" troops,

Transoxanicn

including
hauovar,
direct

such as 3euish soldiers

characteristics

the baldrics
possible

that

a strong

or via the Caliphate$

Byzantine

military

equipment.

Central

was already

the Tomb of Christ,

weapons all

also appear in this

shows various

Pcoltor

201).

foes

eastern

guarding

(rig.,

the increasing

that

of their

9th century

helmets and armour and carrying

wearing
strong

One magnificent

coma evidence

of which dhow

Earlier

manuscript..

Asian influence,
being Mt

styles,
It

is..

either

in 9th century

356
CHAPTER 5

CAVALRY ANn THE DECLINE OF THE cAE3F3äSiD CALIPHATE

The political

"slave

of the Turkish

role

0Abbasid
Caliphate
of the
hul'; ms made some Caliphs

is well
into

army" in the decline

This nnmluk army of

known.

their
than
more

little

puppets

and acted like

the Preotorian

Less attention

has, howevers been focused an the military

of these troops

whose impact1 political

gar beyond the Iraqi
Unlike

his

al Mu'taaim

successor

Transoxania.

At this

warriors,

adult

included

aJ'ier

many were retained
that

Turkish
growing

hucl ms from the root

and subsequent
were forwarded

this

thorn from the rampant
cAbbäsid
the
court

tried

of society,,

came to accept

Si

nid dynasties

at least,

There
solely

to isolate

his now

not only because of a

of tiardmd# -but also
Jealousies

Although

was soon focused primarily

loyalty

Al Muttasim

as

They even

I'
to f3a hhdad,

in theory

between them and the rest

population

in

reputation.

of established

by the Jhirid

own commanders.

and military

Turks.

by Muslims or follow

Unfortunately,

hostility

of Turkish

warriors

as eleven by al c3a'nün and

they forsiod a new corps owing loyalty,

upon their

was felt

stage many seem to have been captured

governed Khurasans plenty

to the Caliph.

characteristics

from beyond the Muslim frontier

lenders

aristocratic

Rome.

0Abbäeid Caliphate.

who also included

1mn were recruited
hum

Imperial

and military,

of the

heartland

jLhpr`aes`acnT
troops,

these

origin,

Guard of a decadent

of existing

of the existing

civil

in an effort

to insulate

army units.

So, while

the dominance of those

Remarks on the Maralük Military
Ayalon, "Proliminary
in Islrmt$" pp. 51-53.

hulEamq

Institution

357
its

©achdado with
traditions,

own obnäß troops

did not.

For these reasons al ilu'tasim

found a new capital,
in 636 AD.
The court

2

or rather

The transfer

arose between the

Although
Islam's

against

was* however,

prepared,

martial

though now the Caliph

to punish his more obstreperous

the traditions

of

bo regarded

were described

were slower

ware that were now absorbing

almost entirely

In their

cavalry

most

bows plus,

horse. -archery

the Fertile

of Persia,

obedient

Crescent

horses,

and carrying

In general

they

the
Kharnff
than
Arab
armoured

but,

and lighter

with

the lance.

than that

of their

Their

Reforms of the Caliph

weapon

rivals.

they again combined the traditions

"The
Military
P.yaZ.anf.

those

troops
these
of

thefirst

perhaps# a lassoo.

they ware skilled

shorter

shows these

written,

Asian homelands with

in the 9th century

and more heavily

was, however,

role

As such they combined

Central

as having exceptionally

these Arabs,

Their

as merely ornamental.

Whoir original

Early

two or even throe

they

energies.

of the more disciplined
and Byzantium.

in operations

took part

rarely

to have been heavy horse-archers.

nhu

friction

foes such as the Dyzantinea,

traditional

Evidence from Iraqi

like

m
huc
u1

in thoso internal

was crucial

somewhat short-lived.

when possible,

these snits

to

decided
at Sämarre

court,

hul'nma and the populace,

should not therefore

of Islam's

an enlarged

military

to Boohdad in 892 AD and once main

returned

was apparently
3
troops.

and woll-oatablichod

of Iran

a2. P"wOta*im.

2.

Ibid,
p. 4.

3,

CAlT
muhassin ibn
al TanukhT, Tho Tahlo. -Talk of a tio3n otimian
(London 1922 9 pp. 166-168.
trans,
D. S. Margoliouth
#
'juý

359
and Central

Asia,

being able to shoot accurately
4
at the gallop.

the rear while
Little

seemed to have changed by the mid-10th

the

hulnme of Mucizz ei Dawla, Qüyid ruler

into

battle

finest

against

troops

tactics,

forward

in waves, using

attacked

though shooting

century

For hours their

traditional

karr

than closing

arrows rather

when

were thrown

of Iraq,

Infantry.

Daylamite

rebellious

and to

with

tin fnrr
lances.

Men those arrows were spent and they themselves wore exhausted,
a confusion

to attack

suddenly
troops

in

than

their

horses

tiring

ti

with

Instead

immediately

Day. ami infantry.

felt

force

Fatinid

and broke

closed

was "charged

their

old rivals$

with

Ilaanwhila,

occasion

met a
the Turkish

tho Arab KharajT9.
in amour

Alptogin,

lance and sword, rodo a black

mirrors,

the ranks

when what might be

On this

They thcrosolvoo Dodo armourad horaas while
wielding

armoured

5

at Tawähtn in Palestine.
with

ahu17ma

in horse-archery,

huimms of Syria$ led by Alptegin,

hu1nma wore in alliance

alternately

Turkish

more effectively

Much the same happened two decades later
termed the freelance

1jul7ms

second-rate

armour.

indulging

of

"inferior"

ubbah broad-sleeved

as being

foes.
troops

fnf

of

supposedly

wearing

recorded

fresh

corps

Thaw

elsewhere

Daylami
these

however,
the

fact,

reserve

the Daylamis.

and riding

were:

the

horse-archers,

were also

hauberks

of

command led

of

horsy whose bard

" perhaps being of scale or lnmollar,

up on the Anatolian

frontier,

pp. 42..45,47

it was difficult
and 53.

At

Al Jähiz,

5.

Concludinri
The-Eclipse of the 1.W-m idCaliphat
Miakawaihi,
D.
to
S. Mar0oliouth
Ex erinnccýa of the fdatinna
Portion of
1921),
Il,
trana.,
Oxford
F.
Amodroz
H.
vol,
amd
edits,
and
ý
pp. 164 and 336.

6.

Ibn al gtatFUtia3s apýcit.,

Ras; '11 el 3 hiz.

p. 18j Boshir$

and

itss
Q«.
Rs c....

p. 71.

6

Cxx

I
>c
x
cc

35q
to state with
L'hile

who was influencing

certainty

the appearance of large

in Europe might have obliged
Phokac to enlarge

his

equipment In question
Alca,

with

for heavily

to the latter

becauco local

armies locked

"Frankish"

as holding

even possible

that

There in equally
Byzantines

reintroduced

the
onto
offensive
went

cone sources
obvious

particularly
the obvious

heavily

lance-armed

evidence

with

which

Phakas Wass in fact,

cavalry

recorded

0

in contempt.

It

Is

so characteristic

and
was of Byzantine origin
(seePartTwo, Chat
ptfr N/
infantry
Iranian
protection(,
of an
to support

of heavily

influences

221),

in fyznntium's

armoured cavalry

a fashion

(Fig.

9

is certainly

that

the

that

the belief

to the east when Byzantium

in the 10th century.

was, perhaps

persistence

were to

precisely

armoured cavalry

heavy cavalry

indicate

on shields

military

or Crusader:

the Muslim frontier

push against

origin.

Norman mercenaries

In the 11th century

Nikephorus

the importance

Uhilo

of

not renowned

ware certainly

Indeed,

a daveloprrnnt
little

style

wore in direct

the kite. -shaped "Norman" shields

the
European knight
of
perhaps ultimatel}'

the

been of Byzantine

Italy$

region

to face the ©yzantinas.

7

Christendom In the 10th century,

Catholic

armoured cavalry.

be Invited

armoured cavalry

Cmpercr, -Pdikephoruo

such troopa,

of

had originally

namely Hungary and couthurn

root

the Byzantine

those areas where the gyzcntines

confrontation

art$

numbers of heavily

own corps

tochnology.

whose military

for

were still

T.

Naldoni "Somo AspGcts of Byzantine
to 10th Centuries, " p. 29.

$,0

ýdsýº
Ib

9,,

Noward-Oohneon,, ap. cit.

p« 44"
p, 296.

light

mutual.

pseudo-KuPic

cavalry

Military

decoration,

Then there was

in Byzantium.

of Byzantine

in Byzantine

reflected

(rig.

213).

Tachnology

in the 6th

3 60
Above all

is the evidence

as Byzantines,

portrayed

while

the "infidel"

scale

and lamellar,

Oebusites

Heavy cavalry
the 7th century,

of the Muslim assault

by the large-scale
The now offensive
retain
with

fo". iationp, normally

though riding
lance-armed

armoured horses,

four

ranks,

12

11

formation

by flarwän II when
continued

during

devised by the warrior.
armed horse-archers,

lightly

were placed

took station

on either

at the contra,
aide while

armoured horses occupied
used by much troops

The horse-armour

10.

Haldon, "Somo Aspects of Byzantine Military
6th to 10th Csnturiea, " pp. 42--43.

11.

Howord.. Johnaona, op.

12,

ib, idsý pp. 286 and 293-2949

--cit.

Such tactics

What might have boon news however,

power.

mace-armed men on similarly

charges

from the protection

attacks

introduced

in such a formation

cavalry

but powerful

and which apparently

wedgo--shaped cavalry

Emperor himself*

10

but back them up

a rectangle.

those supposedly

cAbbäsid

was a blunted

they wore supplemented

lances.

made their

still

Islam was on the offensive,
the years of

borne the

Phokmo aimed to

tactics

making controlled

maces and heavier

recall

Later

of Nikephorus

of such Turkish

These new troops

inevitably

forces

cavalry

heavy shack cavalry

of an infantry

armour of mail,

employment of pagan Turkish nomad horco-.archera.

the flexibility

and armed with

cuirasses

had at first

on Anatolia.

Oudah,

in Byzantium since

declined
troops

local

the

and in it

leather

wear heavier

had certainly
Lighter

2200),

wear light

all

battle--

This illustrates

Oorucalam (Fig,

of Oudah attacking

naturally

brunt

of the best Byzantine

from the 10th or 11th centuries.

picture
tribe

there

Heavier

sword or
the front

was again of

Technology

277
3,0
275#
and 262-283,
pp.

in,, the

361
layered

and glued felt,

or of iron,

These bards could be limited
the hind-parts
but is likely

faced it

in battle.

protected,

their

Pace, while

14

Certainly,,

in the poetry

is recorded
Naturally,

riders

helmets having

or protect
is mentioned

of those Arabs who

to cover the entire
is
Such
arms, hands and feet*
in those civil

were also involved

to undermine Byzantium's
16
10th and 11th centuries.

wars that

now.-found military

late

Dospito

nobleman was still,

well.

were similarly

rapidly

Byzantino

horse-armour

metallic

avcntails

many wore armour for

heavy cavalry

horse-armour

13

to havo been ram

or lamellar

of nail

to the forequartersj

Some mail

as well.

or horn lamellar.

cuir-bouilli

expected

this

wore

might in the

decline$

a young

to be educated as a warrior

his
to
bow,
lance
in
normal
addition
with
and
armour and shield,
17
that
to
training
his
As
was
similar
cultural
activities,
such,
of his fluslim
this

emphasis an oroador

gentlemanly

Cyzantine
is well

to suppose that
JazTra,

Oyzantinas
Muslims
and
set

boorish

counterparts
in

heavy cavalry

in Byzantine

represented
their

in the making of a

pursuits

cultural

that

warrior

ferociously

their

across

counterparts

in early

art.

of scale

Europe.

10th century

of Armantyah,

Armour varied

worn over a mail

Naldon, "Some Aspects of Byzantine
6th to 10th CQnturiQ3, " p. 38.

14.

in Byznncv et los Arnbasý,
Al mutanabbi
(8ruaaels 1950)s vol. II 2j p. 333.

15.

Howard-Johnson,

16.

Pselluej,

17.

G. 8ucklers

hauberk

Technology

Military

13,

OE!. ciits

from

Nor is there much reason

foes in the Muslim provinces

lamellar
and

apart

medieval

the mid- and later

0Awä iin
and Syria wore vary different.

from a combination

in
facts
It wms,
s

the frontier*

A. A. Vasiliev

in the

trans. #

oQ___cit.,, p. 292.
pp. 35,190,211

Anna Connenn

A Stud

and 214.
(London 1929), pp. 181 and 183.

362
(Fig.

to a simple

208),

heavier

hauberk

scale

again

in Islam,

of military

tho protection

used their

Anatolia

that
array
fact

that

the lance

Leo VI was probably

crushed
Muslim

by Arab sources*

19

proof

what is available

does, however,

effort
century.

is hardly
records
al flutic
0

it

before

foil

limited

offers

The little

Iraq.

315-317)o
of Muslim military

to the Oyzantines

in the mid-10th

the
province,
of

Considering

the strategic

surprising,

heavy
is
cavalry
on
omphasia
nor
an

of those desperate
sent a large

10,

Leo Up op. clt

19.

ü"dTy
Al P-las
opcit..,

20.

Al ICßtitr
jahlz.
n1

Inat.

position

this

in the

0Abbasid
Caliph
In 947/0 AD the

years.

contingent

of

the
to
sword rather
emphasize
seem

There seems to have been a concentration
in Cilicia

periods,

from the 9th

little

differed

(Figs.
weapon

than the bow or any other

both

with

the heavy armour

Similarly,

cAbbasid

The

as in earlier

9th century,

from 10th century

such

In 083 AD.

to be competent

but once again archaeology

to 10th centuries$

while

to the *ulunid

Tarsus

near

of many such troops

and horse-armour

from within

10
the Romans" or Dyzentinee.

referring

were expected

cavalry

and the bow in the late

is confirmed

pictorial

force

a Byzantine

one

Tactica.

cavalry

formation,

infantry

of a rectangular

Instance

seem to,

in a one-way tide

the other

horsemon were armed and armoured '#like
In this

2130).

to the Emperor Leo VI's

According

Muslim armies when attacking

or a

of coursao not to say that

influencing

fashion.

219)!

tactics
of equipment and

which is,

side was thus inevitably

(Fig.

mail

worn over

these features

Almost all
be mirrored

or scale

mail

(Fig.

hauberk

of eastern

troops

from Balkh,

XVIII.
val. VI I I: p. 48.

p. 76;
el f3arLhdädTq 2a cit.,
t.
loc.
p. 53; Miskawaihij,

at

3ähiý

ý,

ý! il
Ins___

Cxxl!

363
Hirätj,

Khwarazn, Sarnargand, Farqhana and IsbTj6b
to stem the Christian

vain effort
wasp in fact,,

of armoury arms and harness,
dedicated

as a city
there

Tibetan

Alptegin

the benefit

for

of Emperor Sohn Tzimiscce

horse-armours,

plus

generally
fragmentation

lances

the

of

their

modelled

good favour

that

agreed

cAbbasid
on those

nerissary

24

cAbbZoid
the
tradition

boforo

One of the militarily
was that
now court
it

hucýl

of

stationed

gear.

states
Caliphate
of

the

in

fact,

Fertile

the

Crescent

Local

Caliphs.

horses

from

energed
the

while

twenty
is!

It

trading

of heavy cavalry
most active

modifications
and local

contacts

declined.

theca
successor
of

and the Jaztra.

a renewed flowering

was the Hamdanide' fierce

23

that
in

area,

of

of

Soto time was, however# to pass

of the Nandanida in Syria
for
famed
was

in this

nhul
lance-play

of cavalry

a gift

and reflected

facilities.

arms production

with

and other

the minor

armies

were naturally

was renowned

the Turkish

to Byzantium,

fell

to have put on a fantasia

to buy his

attempting

items

armour for man and horse,
22
maces and helmets.

shields#

Cilicia

are said

of Cilicia

of various

Tarsus itself

One of the units

in a

equipped with

leather

Even after

This region

the manufacture

while

to war.

was specifically

plus

advance,

known for

already

21

to larsue

resistance

states

Although

this

of Arabic literature,

to Byzantine
,

that is boat remembered. The degree of similarity

expansion

betucen Byzantine

I.

21.

Cnnardj "Qualques observations
g6agraphiqu4
Cur 1'introductian CAdTn
d'AlepA, "
de lb pughyat at'.. 1'aleb de Kanal ad-dTn ibn al
p. 50l,

22.

I bid.

23.

Ibn al Wnnisif
pp. ß5,-E36.

24.

Baawarthp "Armiea of tha Praph4t. " p. 205.

p. 49.
"Continuation

of

the

History

of

Damascus)"

3 V4
and Iicmdanid armies uns undeniable
than that
It

and wasp in fact,

between Byzantium and almost all

could by seen in heavy cavalry#

Such parallels

those numerous Byzantine

Byzantine

(Fig.

troops

art

thcmcelvea

the

of

210).

latter

from

those

the

the

of

frontier,

"Dovecote"

shown in

o-i

of

armour

the

Written
identity

cavalrymen

in

by,

and the role

of

for

Sayf al Dawla

armoured

CavuVin
variety

in
of

to

and scale,

Goliath
{Fig.

armours

influence.

of military
mail

along
of

the
the

Forty

Martyrs

(fig.

213A),

In fact

this

from both
felt

be scan.

evidence

from Hcmdanid Syria
According

of equipment.

merely confirms

have done the some,

for

battle

and sword ware a favorite

scenes with

lance

A. ftmnbrauti.,LtEmpire
p. 421.
p. 435.

this

to the poota1 Vamdanid palace

would probably

-Ibid.,,

For

and perhaps

coes$ had they survived,

26.

In

different

styles

fre

25.

209).

lamellar,

Here the

and

leather,

appears,

frescoes

the unique

Cappadocia.

a spectrum

hauberks

warriors

century

Muslim

turbans

scale

indicate

costumes

some

nre slightly

cuirasses

show strong

portrays

long

cavalryman

and could

in

stylized

"enemy"

archetypal

must return

frontier,

can all

lever

of mid-10th

clearly

probably

sides

at

a great

some of which
fresco

Israelites

church

On a minor

the Philistine

representation

Taurus

are

the

as a heavily

source

first

strengthened

be portrayed

may wall

period.

Elsewhere

most unusually1
this

territory

renegades who fought

shown worn by lance--armed

are

and oven fortifications.

26

Muslim
Uyzantine

tactics

neighbours.

other

eased, and were in turn

probably

the baptism of Arabs within

of Aleppo

its

for greater

Groc aubixAme

Si'P>%clvv(Paris

theme in

1870)

25

3 65
buildings.

various
long

lance

their

Hrndanid

and hauberk3

Byzantine

foes,

Elsewhere this
lost

27

end the
is

general

indicated

retained

his other

in early

14th century

the classic

association

in the

that

poet makes clear

lance was fearful

his

for

preference

of

of Iiutonabbt.

verses

28

so armeds even when he
be the case

The same would still

rurüsTyak

with

archery

an Arab cavalrymen who had

of another

weapons*29

Arab

manuals.

military

such equipment was government 4issue, as it had been
30
CAbbasid
Caliphate,
under the 9th and 10th century
unfortunately
Haw for

remains

Arab warriors
from

that

the

the

of
in

armourers

In those

It

unknown.

, Iamdanid

fratornitya

even within

does seem to have been characteristic

Ftorse-armour

wns clearly
32

Vamdvanid service.

home-archers.

used

at 1crst

These men might,

With or without

of

own weaponry

centres

and specialized

by trades

es specialization

free

as Aleppo.

arma1 one may assume

produced

were a distinct

armourers

craftsmen

manufacturing

no having

that

their

purchased

crmir3

such well-known

towns recorded

seem more likely

however,

would.,

group

of

the metalworking
of

early

Islem.

by Turkish

hucläms in

course,

have been heavy

a 1tn;'dänid

hor, L,-nrnour,

3I

cavnlryrnan's

M. Canard! ".;?uclgucs
Syria
le
de
socialo
at
en
vie
aspects
'27,. Jaztra
do
la
los
dixi
drapres
poe`tvv
cour
me
au
sitcle
in honour of 14emilton
Hondenide,, " In Arabic and ! ohmic
studies
(Lofden
A,.,:n". Gib,
1965): p. 175.

20.

M. Canard, "Mutanabbi at in Guerra t3yxnntina--firabes Tntärät
Mýmairas do
Historiquea
do sea paeaiea, " in Ai-riutnnabbi.
11 Institut
193fi)s pp. 104-105;
Frfmcais de Damno, (Qcirut
in ßhikra 5nif al Dauln A. barmhoudt tr^ns., j
al P'utanabbi
Ts
(pannsylvanin
1975
p. ß6.

29.

Al P"utanabbl,

30.

Bosworth'

31.

Allttna

32.

Al "iutanabbl$

' Dhikrö

"Armies

M. cit.

of
p,

Snif
tho

al

Dx! ln'$ loc,.

Prophet., " loc,

cit.

cit.

60.

in "i3yznncs vt los

lirabo3., " vol. I1f2!

p. 321.

366
own equipment could be so heavy that
a horse in the heat of battle.

33

it

to remount

was difficult

This is not surprising

when one

rands what is perhaps the bast-known
description

of mid-10th

and most comprehensive
34
Arab cavalry in this area*

century

Here the Banu Nabtbo who deserted
to cross into

Byzantine

Namdanid cousins

their

territory,

and rivals

of horsemen armed

consisted

hauberks, gilded
swords and khnttT lances* wearing d
9
These or
awshan cuirasses and brocade--covered ni hfar coifs.

with

Arab troops

other

of Byzantine

lists

forces.

Arabs and Turkish
Muslim troops

to
feature
enough

became important

operating

'

huläms were not,
.
on Byzantium's

when they established

existence

also recruited

as cavalry

of course,

eastern

in the 10th and 11th centuries,

were,

some local

by various

horsemen*36
vassals

their

separate

courts

Kurds were
to the east,

as sword-armed

CtJgaylid
Arab
the Hamdc-nids'

During wars against

in the late

Kurds

dynasties.

Persian

the only

frontier.

reasserting

in the west ',ney appear most frequently

while

in the official

Kurdish

10th century$

cavalry

wore heavier

Persian
than
their
heavier$
Foes
presumably
and rode slower,
armour
37
Such a style of sword-armed heavy cavalry would remain
horses.
fashionable

in this

and perhaps longer$

area at least

until

the end of the 11th century,

by which time Kurds were also serving

in

"
vol. I I,, p. 336.
no. citp
-33. fliallaunih
.,
3'4, Ibn Icwgal, "Kitab al 1iasmlik wa'l, P1ammlik," in Snyf 1
(Algiers
trans.,
textes
Canard
de
m.
edit, and
recucil
pp. 211-212.
35,

Olondal

and ßenQditzs

o

cit

DFuln
1934),

p. 82.

in
5kaddMio(5r
Studies
Ganjray"
tho
V. Minorsaky# "New light
of
,
on
(London 1953)a, pp.. 10-11 and 19-20.
in Crºucaainn Hiatary.
3`7.

Mickawaihis

o2q, cit..

vol. II I!

p. 144.

367
r timid

30

Egypt.

however,

shad light

Arab neighbours
(Figs.

rivals
of

this

is

on the

similarly

(Fig.

to

figure

that

dated

Christian
a variety

unfortunately

and the one most

Goliath,

representing

is on foot,

Note how similar

and perhaps even laminated

mail

Byzantine

portrays

combat, although

the more crudely

of

to its

similar

represented

Philistines

box fron

Sens Cathedral

ivory

209).

Syria

impact

has already
and the

Byzentinos

were at

been mentioned,

in

down by their

to break
the

or near

r
hý
ul,

the Berbers pursued the

was astonishingly

and almost

virtually

Ono exception

ranks

of
of

however,

force,

the

the latter,

fortifications

40

these

Berber
Sidon.

infantry
39

three

no pictorial

Infantry*

evidence

of supposedly

away
Again,

from Syria

suddenly

minor battle

at Hastings,

thousand kilometres

and Anglo-Saxon

is a fragment

fought

When

they were ridden

In many ways this

to another

similar

heavy P.orman cavalry
is

the

to

relation

ding
the
latter
foes
when
sword-and mace-wie'1

turned upon them near a river.

yoars later

in

both

In combat with

unable

hul; ms

free-booting

Alptegin's

of

Fätimids.

first

who were either

there

cavalry

"enemy" armour,

The military

Turks

of cavalry

is

art

representations
that of
which, likeAits

Such Armenian art

mixed lanellar,

warrior's

rualim

Christian

was probably

240 and 241).

to illustrate

armour

in

on Kurdish

equipment and styles

likely

of Armenia.

to the south,

the most interesting

date very little

early

from the mountains

available
might,

At this

ninety
between
however$

at this

10th or 11th century

A

du Nouual An chäa los Fatimid©ag"

389

Canard,9 "Le Procession
pp. 392..3930

39,

Ibri al WalänisTp P-P, cit.

d,
r
4,0,

p. 15.

time.

CXxlll

363
that

pottery

shows the "rigid

a distinctly

Iranian

was brought

fashion

to Syria

recruited

Ikhshtdids

did

last

the

Egypt,

Damascus
the 9th

appeared
in pre-Fntimid

cavalry

has lost

equipment

conotimas

sources

(Figz,.

arrows
saddles

broad

in

143) like

pre--Isl^.

Syrian

Such an emphasis an heavy cavalry
the break-up
cavalry

cAbbäcid
Caliphate
of the

ceased to exist.

in
all
end,

probability,

in many aroac.
small

relatively

The first

which
long

carry

Umayyad

145) and bows and
145) or on their

horse-archers.

in Syria

and Egypt during

did not mean that

the increasing

light

political

to have led to a revival
*T'u`lünid

governor

number of unspecified

the
fabulously
son,

his personal

original.

confusion

a consequent breakdown in ormc-mcnufccturing

seem eventually

capability

hand his

Indeed,

such

backss

recall

(Fig.

infantry
ic

that

(rig.

belts

Backe like

on their

blades

manuscript

Here a horseman's

They also

14).

or long

have axes

on their

(Fig.

(Fig.

of

In

any Byzantine

with

clung

And his

Coptic

of

style

143 and 145)

swards

to invade

later.

a while

service

connection

tradition

with

122),

either

all

have their

be an Egyptian

opaara,

(Figs.

.

hu]rna

Alptagin

show the equipment

might

Egypt

almost

Most ouch warriors
could

which

The

FEýiraids

while

a distinctive

centuries

hul7ms.

the

now rulers,

F5timid

Ibn Tülün

was the unpaid

it

who invited

entered

Iranians,

thousand

fact

these

serving

and 10th

illustration

and in
governor

hul; ma also

Perhaps Ekis style

277).

huI; ms had served as far west as Egypt

likewise,,

thereafter

that was

hu1na.

some twenty-four

Ikhhtdid

of bridle

time (Fig.

as had Yhur s" nis and other

many years,

reportedly

of

at this

by ex-°Abbäuid

Of course# Turkish
for

noseband" style

wealthy

guard from the warlike

of light

cavalry

of Egypt employed a

Arab troops,

On the other

Khum`arewayhIbn Ahmadr selected
Newt bedouin of the eastern

3Gq
Delta area.

These appear to have boon light

to khunarawayh's

The collapse

this

they

than had the earlier

Yet within

than

origins

used basic
cavalry:

badouin karr

seized

control

In this

Although
their

was that

and dofoatod

many of whom apparently

bares-.back riders,

than

of

posts

the HaLmdanids.

Ayzantine

a sizeable

conflict

the Mird"asids

and small groups of light

wa Farr tactics

Such Arab bedouin horscmeni

Arab dynasty

army that

the

bedouin

in 1030 AD.

cAbbäsid

of control

NamdZnid predecessors,

enough, however,

near Antioch

Syria lad to oven

noon to have had more irm odiato

literature]

of

was more obviously

It was effective
force

had their

too ware patrons

extolled

decline

two decades another

Those Mirdasida

area,

bsdouin

armoured negro

of the Namdänids in northern

confusion

authority.
of

of heavily

second guard unit

as opposed

41

infantry,,

grantor

cavalry#

did not employ stirrups.

still

by Michael

described

impact

"43 would make a oimilar

Psellus

"

as "daring

in Ghnznatwid

"dare-davil
Iran
they
known
dTv
nuwär^n or
where
eastern
wore
as
44
towards
the
that
"
It
be
end of
night not
riders.
a coincidence
the 11th century
domestically
their

doclino

the Saljüga

the Byzantine

recruited

41.

extent

Hasson, opit.,

42,0 Paolluat
43.

op, cit,,

cavalry
Arabia

Perhaps one reason for
opponent,

eastern

had failed
during

or no

at least

before

frontier.
to develop to any

the Caliphate,

Hers noot

pp, 167-168 and 170-171,
p. 68.

Ibid.

44.8oawortho
45.

of en obvious

appeared on Cyzantiun's

in couthorn

45

heavy cavalry.

was the lack

Less surprisingly,,
groat

army also contained

little

Thr Ghaznavidý,. pp. 111-112.

Chala:bdoni Los Comnenes. - Etudes sur 1t Er;zpira eyznntin, ý p. 279.

3-70
Warfare had remained internal
traditional

Arab infantry

the Muslim conqueot,

since

tactics

and

dar_ý___ian
h shinldp

using

rm

lanco and anum
the 10th century.
w bow rou inad standard at least until
,,;
°Abbasid
The dcclina of
power in the oust of Islam in the
mid-9th

century

Of coursoi

atatov#

in this

dynasties

9th

governors

areo# including

had already

the Gulayfidn

chcnged, with

donying

cAbbo33d

finding

it

3uzoralntyf

accepting

it

of the

of Tabariotiýn,
0
or Murä3an

5-iänids

as to have little

so ronoto

of Kurdistän

the middle

After

cAlids
the

and the

Persia

or eastern

eatabliched

Thsyo hoWeverj had remained servants

couurnmcnt in faDhdäd,

things

century

5afrarids

various

of independent

to tho oatoblichment

00 i'huräsän.
or

and tho TZhirido
of the central

lad

similarly

only

either

occasionally

on their

effect

the

or

own dynastic

poworf
Not much is

th3

The army of

mountains.
in

which

thomsolves

their

risen.. to prominence

cavalry

and infcntry

largely

Persian

cooking

soldiers

; affarid

46,

Al *iamdanT, 11 IklTi,

47,

Bosworth,

vol. UIII,

south

of

this

47

one of

dynasty

nuttauwi1nh
IF

of SIatän.

lot1

Caspian

4
Recruited

or redundant

Military

had
mixed

from

soldiers

these muttewl'eh

to convert

formed

success and
more of their

Arab and Indian

mercenaries.

46..
47.
42
and
pp.

"The Armies of the Saffärids,

the

raassortod

the local

army.

the 5affsarids

and to recruit

the

traditions

retired

to improve their

booty enabled
cavalry#

forces

uarriors,

the backbone of the first

into

as one of

volunteer

frontier

of

The founder

own right.

himself

and possants

cavalry

which

organization,

however,
woe,

PffÄrids

Persian

native

in

consequent

famed Infantry

based upon the

was probably

first

known about

°1 Id
military

" pp. 538-540,

46

37(
The evidence

however,

cuggcata
identity,
Later

of later
that

forces

in military

also state

'
the
lance,
on

primarily

though lacking

in central

it

is

swords

wield

in

Indian

very

rather

shows a distinct

style

revival

Such a revival

could also have originated

it

although

via,,
spears
of

did establish

the first

chow-piece

and while

ivory

487)ß

the

its

along

cavalry

and have equipment

that

was even more pronounced,

generally

end certainly

detail
story

are clearly

author

pre-Isl

and tactics

orgcnizntion
its

5anZnid armies are probably

in Firdawn! 's St- hhnänah for

more

5m nid dynasty which$ from its

power-fosse In pia Warät , el Nohr, conquered most of eastern
in the 10th century.

sides

tradition.

Iranian

self-consc. ious$ in the subsequent

Iran at the

have come rrom Sind which

in facts

is a large

It

than

armies rolled

source from eastern

where the «afforids

Muslim rule,

effective

cavalry

equipped*

hhul7;
n horae-archers.

armoured

dynasty,

AfZ.haniatan

their

and were thus much the same as Caliphal

might,

to this

Iran

having preserved

Saffarid

pictorial

time of tho Saffärids

from eastern

value and were poorly

that

heavily

Our one possible

did not fall

Arab tribes#

local

had declined

chroniclers

literature

10th century

although

xmic,, details
are likely

described

Islam
in

the elements of this

of military

equipments

to be those of the era irriahich

lived,

to
trained
rides
not
only
a young nobleman was
50
Full equipment frequently
to use the lcssoo and bow.

Apparently
but also

variods but night

includa 21r ih hauberk

khýý

4B.

FirdawsT. ThaEp! te of the Kinraa -, Shý+ý
(London 19G?), p. 354.
v

49.

i'iinhäj

5n.

Firdaºwali

al ATn, M,.
ops

its_

p. 25,

p. 520.

which vos probably
R. Levy trsRs. $

40

372
a padded gsnbeEons tark

rrümi or holnot

of presursod Cyzantine

lancop 2assoos bow and c,
''1
maco.
Lura

style.,

between

Combat styles

remained much co they had been in previous centuries,
52
it was niso mado
using lencoas then sworda1 then macos,

such cavalry
First

that

very clear

were tightened
tho

than

saddle

as in

traditions
ranks

the

infantry

them core

throwing
some

extract,

elephants

a dominant role

to the Arab ti

51,

Ibid.

52.

Ibid, ý p, 429,

53"

Ibid..

p. fa4,0

54.

Ib

p. 85.0

55.

Ib

56,

Qßvar, "Cavalry
p" 291,

stood

nhhu1

others

the

rear

and were

in

this

particular

swards

if

while

as well,

Uar

they were baing employed*
type almost certainly

in Sämanid armies as shown in these sources.

Horse-. armour, known no b ar ustý
identical

In front

blades

iron

up the rear

of the Turkish

the

within

awchen cuirasses,

mentioned

longer

combat,

ware used as pikes.

wearing

long

not

carried

brought

apparently

that

of

battio--array,

Caliphate.

to
drawn
up
was

Although

style

remained

and the

with

Theses rather

The 5ämnid

more infantry

Cavalry

praýbnbly

Holavy cavalry
played

Iran

nuu2 r javelins

they

54

nTzthspears

ranged

khan nrs.

armed with

53

couched-lance

Shähn-amah, aimilnrly

with

the bow.

with

later

Impact.

of

of pro-Islamic

of

Behind

Europoto

strain

in

as portrayed

knees and stirrups

uhile

were slackened

as a harurmen made hie attack.

toots the

clearly

chat

reins

P_f

56

n and probably
frequently

similar

if

not

crops up in rirdawst's

p. 485,

,ý
.

p. 1156.
Equipment and Toctica

on the Euphrotan

Frontiers"

55

373
57

Shahh.

mada of moil,

Sometimes it
S9

is specifically

but elcewhora

have boon of felt

could wall

covered by a award-blow59

was easily

as boing

described

or pierced

and

an arrau.

with

60

Such cuobarsono horse--armour could also be cut loose and abandoned,
61
thus enabling a rider to outstrip
his purauera.
Samanict heavy cavalry
cuirass,
All

and a variety

those nay well

horco-crmourf

for

the cavalry

only one doubtful

felt

(Figs.

or quilt

belt

equipment:
of

cAbb

amours

(Fig.

awahnn

the exception

of

of a bernustuwan

447).

Otherwise

seem to have been heavy$

of mail,

scale,

346-350 and 447).

lamellar

and perhaps

Even when not crmouredf

the
tradition
in
them
same
put
and swords

(Figs,
Iraq
acid

and heavy armour was apparently

356 and 357)

Similar

foot
by
used
some

the3o pictures

do not show dismounted

355 and 440).

The javelin-non

(Fig.

with

representation

of S manid Iran would all
in their

maim

more obscure items of armour.

in
S mZanidarts
appear

though varied

os that

of other

from the 9th or 10th centuries

survives

their

wore xirih

otherwise

cavalry

weaponry
if

soldierso

(Fig,.

mentioned by Firdmst

345,351,
also appear

354).
Much the same traditional

Iranian

or Tmjik

in eastern

Iran

flare there
archery,

cavalry,

formed the care of the chsrnawid

army

(Fig.

355)s

in the 11th and early

was perhaps a slightly

in addition

pp. 23,296:

57.

rirdawaT,

50,

Ibid,,

pp. 106 and 409.

594, Ibidg

pp. 427 and 619

600

Ibidyý

pp. 1222-1223.

61.

FirdaWaT, Levy trans.,

12th centuries

greater

to the mace (rig.

o2.,
-

hug1_ams
and indigenous

troops,

a,,,,
4. cit.

heavy
horse
on
emphasis

364).

sward including

950 and 1146.

p. 362.

the

r xx

i\/

3'7 j
and tipräd short

curved galächür
,

horse-armour

Although
it

cash

clearly

in art.

this

in western

survived

In western
10th and early

Iran

the güyid

Turkish

cAbbäaid Iraq
of
Certainly

64

(Fig.

they fought
their

their

equipment was

those fighting

pre-Islamic'

various

conquerors

the Turkish

that

army contained

during

62,

ßoaworthj

63.

Ib id..

the battle

The Cheznavids,

and although

who passed across

first
the
of

of Darylaeum in 9097 AD

a number of Agulani

Caucasian Albanians

probability,

force

emerge in unexpected

As such they occasionally

This states

with

impact,

area did not make much political

for example the Cesta Frnncorum chronicle

Crusade.

decades

remained an effective

come of them clearly

and against

territories.

sourcesj

we can learn

Here in the Caucasus many earlier

of Iran.

of this
for

little

tlhat

in particular

armoured horses,

survived,

the peoples

the bulk

359),

heavy cavalry,

north-west

force

a balancing

and flalüchis,

Persians

the late

power originally

SFm
the
of
nid cost and the preceding

the sword and riding

traditions

their

sources would suggest that

comparable to that

in the

63

Although

Arabsp

mentioned$

were: as already

cavalry

of whom seem to have boon cavalry*

from pictorial

reappears

Kurdish heavy cavalry

they soon recruited

mam17tkn. Kurds,

later

dynasty hold sway during

11th centuries.

on paylcmT infantry,

rooted

Iran whore it

of course recruited
Arab lighter

area.

spear or javelin.

not mentioned in the Ghaznawid

employed by the Ghaznawids.

similarly

of

is apparently

The haznawida

from just

cavalry

62

who were, in all

or Aghovanians from northern
pp, 107-106,

pp. 111-112.

64.0oaworth,
and Iraq"

"Military
Organization
under the 05yids
153 und 162.
pp. 145,150

of Persia

375
They fought

Azarbäyjän.
1rmt1Iar

only

with

oword3, wore Iran

armour and rodo horaaa with

Some of their

equipment may well

neighbours

and culturcl

416-410).

If

cuch was the case,

of that

bard"a.

construct©d

the GeorOians (Figs.

65

of their

in the art

be reflected

cousins,

would have been of scale

similarly

acalo or

413,414

and

then the armour of these Rghavaninns
and thus typical

and not of lamellar

major Caucasian arms-producing

region

known as

widely

Kub Ai.
It
role

heavy

of

such troops
nomadic
of

the

evolved

Eurasian
while

the

with

very

various

in tho 10th century
and semi-nomadic

the

in helmets.

66

Isolation.

peoples

states

of heavy

scale

and lancllar
scholars

emphasis on the similarities
67

steppe

first

the styles

appeared
of nomadic

another

hundred

horse. -furniture,

armours and, above all,
do, however,

lay

betueon Russian cavalry
£von the tactics

greater

and its
bows

employed, with

the saddle as horseman approached their

The Deeds of the
trano. p (London

area

cavalry.

Slav cavalry

in their

their

in

the

pniC

to reflect

noticeable

north

evolution
within

Clearly

Turkish

Asian

to the south and east for

Some Soviet

being used fron

in

a similar

in Kievan Russia,

European contemporaries*

see the developing

Other

mind.

importance

and continued

to

Central

of

semi-settled

peoples

hauberks,

and Islam

throat

much in

This was particularly
mail

micleading

experienced

in

rise

To the north,

full

Byzantium

steppes

saw a comparable

years,

in

cavalry

horse-archery

cavalry,

be quite

however,

would,

nil

foss,

t4

erusalem

65.

: non.,
R. Hill

66.

from
RUSgif
in
The Ei
Horse
Kirpitchnikoff,
Rider
and
rant of
l
the
MeddiPV
to
9th
13th
Kirpitchnikoff,
133-139;
pp.
centuries,
wr
ý r+
Russian

67.

Gorolicko

Arms.

pp.

Frnnks
1962).

and other
p. 49.

90-91.

"8ronyra Prnotach©skaya"

p. 64.

rims

376
spears hold for

the initial

cxes, macos end various

shock in ordered

other

Eurasian

steppe-lands.

and 11th

century

Is$

Muslim

by contrasts
from

alone
(rigs.

Russia

614-"610).
Kiev

situations

to the

very

in

the

close
10th

mirrored

in

commercial

the

in

This

and cultural

art

of

Among the true

area

(rig.

forming

elite

In the late

guard units
9th and early

Leo VI made dt clear
of the originally

shad light
latter

that

Avar style

with

Kievan

of

that

pot of

on comparable

Kievan

cavalry

courses

Russia

was also

623).

equipped for

close

remained a minority,

10th centuries
elite
such an

types

of

area was$ of

the khan of the tribe

for

Helmets

what a molting

nomads heavy cavalry

uere not unknowns though they probably

10th

Russia

variety

contact

The development

but

the

such artifacts.

may also

Islam.

the

from

rares'

illustrate

only

had becomes but

century,

in

are extremely

chow an astonishing

south

south of the

arms and armour

rich

These not

traditions

in

world

exceptionally

Kievan

traditions

Surviving

and cwordo,

weapons being drawn

close-combat

in the subsequent melde1r0 parallel

ranks,

combat

perhaps

or people.

the Byzantine

Emperor

also used horse-armour

protected

only

the forequarters

the bulk of such nomad Turkish cavalry
70
the lance and bow,
During the 10th century

of the horses69 while
fought

both with

the Turkish
armed cavalry

whose responsibility
light

charge after
to Michael

had such a corps of heavier

Pechenega clearly

Psellus

horse-archers

final
decisive
to
make
a
was
71
According
had exhausted the foa.
it

in the mid-. 11th century,

68.

Kirpitchnitcoff.,

69.

Leo Vi, oes cit..

?0.

I,
bide

71.

üdTp
Ntas

ap. cits

however,

Fzed1Aval Russian Arms, loc.
inst.

award-

XVIII.

v01. IIX pp. 61»62"

cit.

those Pechenegs

377
fought

only

with

spears

Some exceptionally

fine

grave

(Figs.

sites

Further
were the

earlier

had been recorded
they

khüd helmets

ciurasses,
or

KhuräsnnI

8th

horse-archers

and dire

hauberks

The collapse
lands

merely

while

in

led

cAbb;

of
to

the eastern

a devolution
lands

traditions.

indigenous

indigenous

of

revival

Berber

seem to have been relatively

still

changes

to a revival

led

had elsewhere
distinctly
regular

of

troops

to fight

of Oayrswän, although
military

for

ON cit

p. 318,

73.

udT,
Pias

ep. cit;

Vol* ,, $ pp. 10-110

74.

Levy,

to

the

Sociology

immediate
these
the political
that

or to a

was the

were this

of

collapse

the
earliest
among

10th century.

Psellus,

of

and troops

Caliphs

72.

An introduction

for
Rather,

the Berber Kitama tribe

adherents

power,

revival

to the frontiers

in the early

Muslim

central

was no very

Arab tactics

the Fätimid

normal

cAbbäsid
the

For example,

status.

second-class

awshsh

with

institutions

either

These

and military

backward.

those

been relegated

the

however,

military

10th

ru mhy lances

with

in

Here there

result.

by the

while

was a pronounced

In the west,

had a more complicated

cavalry

potitaeal

of

there

heavy

the Transoxanian

in

authority

sid

Their

as equipped

9 somewhat unhelpfully,,
73
war gear,

Muslim

Islam,

wearing

who fought

Others

with

fromKhwärizm.

refugees

heavy

tradition.

contact

century,

described,

were

first

Khazars.

by Muslim

included

warriors

Pecheneg

indicate

nevertheless

cultural

as the

as early

had been reinforced

latter

closer

Turco-Jewish

semi-settled

in

found

was the more accurate.

account

and in

south:

nor helmete.

armour

of helmets

specimens

621 and 624) would

üdi's
at Peas

that

and wore neither

72

74

Islam

and
dynasty's

Such Berber

pp.

323-324.

37'
warriors
for

some time.

also

to

Muslim

able-bodied

the hard

military

core

Very little
Islamic

Sicily,

76

Later

in

Islamic

those

(Figs.

influence

basic

It

to deal

was not

of Fätimid
Apart
use of

the

with

Italian

expansionist
from

spear

javelin.

against

heavy

to play

an important

with
of

negro
Oaylamis,

in
Wars

75,
76.

779

troops,
Turks

d.

ßeahirp

foes,

and sword#

of

hauberks

that

It

Berbers

in

were not
show that

It

had already

were under

strong

in

was also

fact,

a weapon

or bone breaker.

as a helmet

these

who bore

the brunt

role

Arabi

in

Other

by a rival

Oerbers,

Spagna e in

p. 710.

pp. 67-.70.

unable

during

until,

the end Armenians

century.

made wide

still

to stand
they

Nevertheless,

were defeated

and at

Berbera

soon proved

hulem cavalry.

they

op. c it.

than

wars.

military

"Gli

equipment

The mace would,
Arab.

-They also

Turkish

the mid-llth

Gabrieli,
_Ibi

77

structure.

r
''

mail

sources

in use by those

recorded

Islam

warriors.

559 and 567),

armoured

mercenaries

the Normans could

under

seem to have been characteristically
designed

every

seem to have predominated

among Muslim

southern

almost

eastern

the military

although

popular

of

quasi-feudal

art

had been

As such the island's

to that

troops

Muslim

the pace was still
appeared

light

island

armies
Sicily

of

ovS although

forces,

known about

and infantry,

cavalry

uncommon.

is
but

its

with

elites

In Sicily

obliget;

was closer

Fatimid

early

Berber

Caliphate.

Sicilian

of

Andalus

al

of

power once that

had military

organization

to Muslim

the majority

Fätimid

to the new ehici

subjected

both

form

The Arab and Arabized

contributed

formed

to

continued

during

their

continued

alliance

association
Fetimid

civil

such as the 6arglya

Italiep"

p. 717.

ýxxu

37 q
from Libya-and-the

04ilis

seem to. have lasted
of

that

(Fig,

147).

1000_,A0-make it

Perhaps It
,

that.

the 7th

bows by the late
the

tribes>of.,
60

century.

9th

Sahara

army,, only
otyle.

still

infantry

Arab preference

78.

Ibid.

for

cavalry

the

first

Muslim

they

?9

but

even in

Fätimid,

forces.
version

an earlier
which

Berber

charge

81

covered

might,

in

In all

these

that

tactical,

a
armies#

Muslim

all

cooperation
warfare,

however

have been

unlike

the general

by cavalry,

Even in

an enemy attack.

awaiting

and infantry

armoured

characterized

variation

and Arab

the mid-11th

cavalry

of

of

such as the

tribes
mixed

a

the nomad

clearly

equally

few horses

Herber

armies

Arab horses

had adopted

attacke

.-

pp. 27-34.

du finnhreb rt de 1'_Europe
(Algiers
tram.,
and
edit

tloroes

81.9rettq
pp.

around

FÄl. imid. forces,

early

79. - Ibn al FeqTh aiI HFtmadhnnTS"Kitätr

60

rode

limited

that

seem to have-been

would

_One.

from

papyrus

were used,

stirrups

a respectably

and. cavolry

prevailed..

frescoes

horse-raising

field

by later,

infantry

initial
an

in

possessed

the-Fätimid,

including

horsem®n still

even-in

century,

n minority

developed.

between

role

Arong. wealthier

Sanhäja,,. A3ho could

African

ofheavy,

Some Berbers

century.

illustration

on an Egyptian

while

the. situation

recalls

Manhrib,

188).

was a lack

horsemen, to a secondary

further

One interesting

Nubian

that

clear

the

appears

some North

(Fig.

were notuniversal

role

cavalry

Elsewhere,

very

78

longer.

light

and, mightaindicate
bareback

cavalry

rather

such, cpecr-armed

from

Fariass

oo? cit_,

"The Military
84-85.
t

al ©uldäns"

nu ? IIPmIXe
1949), pp.

pp.

Interest

sidcle,.
40-41.

in Description
rl.

HadJ-5adok

810-8119
of

the

Battle

of

Haydaran. "

ago
however,
those

täýimid

infantry

was the role

palace's

military

forces

cavalry

there

Alwah around
10th

Turkish

in

ohm
ulim

Ikhshldid

the
as

cavalry

both

cavalry,

may also

have had an impact
the moon-faced
6orber

on foot

on the

Arab.

or

cavalry

at least

kingdom

its

horses

in

Nubian

art,

and

seem to

1830 104 and 187-189).
from

inherited
in

Syria,

art

clearly

Ftimid

of

Turk

The former,

equipped

while
in

had a
They

and North
Clearly
iscontrasted

Turkish'beauty

gear,

the previous

thinking.

military

of

the

would

artists

recruited

ideal

obvious
or

(Figs.

on Fa timid

effect

or in

for

in

appear

their

those

and those

and rapid

Arab, is

that

well

profound

an horseback

early-Fetimid

was famed for

Khartüm

subjects

the beared

mixed

may have been some Nubians,

such detail

governors

-Here

very

Horsemen certainly

have known their

(Fins.

that

seemed to concentrate

and perhaps

present-day

century.

are portrayed

or

times

as upon the more prestigious

skills

Among such small

with

depended,

entirely

83

training.

Africa.

re imid

in

or hu ra

schools,

much upon infantry

the

infantry

of

a battle

of

to protecting

were limited

cavalry

on whom the outcome

So vital

of

Berber

and other

is

normally

the latter6erber.

a very

different

style

157 and 195).

These 9hul ms must'have influenced
serving

the Fatimid
Alpt©gin'a

after
Sidon,

In 991 AD$ less

state,

l me
-hu,,,

and riding

82,

aeehirs

ont

83.

Tbýs

pp.

04.

id.,
Tbý

p. 71.

cita
53-67.

pp.

76-79.

infantry

near

as wearing hauberks
84
bards.
by ti

were described

horses protected

cavalry

than twenty years

FZtimid
the
down
rode

heavy Fzatimid cavalry

and helmets,

those non-Turkish

132

3 v!
Half

later,

a century
the

and start
horce

took
of

in

part

Egypt's

no such bards

151),

illustrated

from

the

rnal
aq

simple

(rig.

hauberk. of

lamellar
(Fig,

among their
now lost

St,

wore different
and short

drawn lamellar

for

85.

ý pp.

in

long

hauberks

by the Crusaders,

580).

long-sleeved

probably

in cavalry

mail

worn over

those

variously
quilted

clerks
the

for

Paris.

Cathedral

included

Fätimids'

by the Crusaders.

noted

mail

mail

worn by Fatimid,

provided

(rig.

67-70.

again

whether

armours,

the abandonment of the javelin

Ibid.

hauberk

material

scale

knsarghand

worn by the

to that

from

ranges

169) and full

basic

hauberks,

11th and 12th centuries.

It

sketches

that

equipment

Such an increase

(rig.

a

increasingly

mail-lined

or perhaps

is

warrior

however,

of

universally

worn almost

Coptic

even the

were shown wearing

the

It

shown.

centuries.

were clearly

Denis

dito

the period,

of

to a more complicated

Muslim

probably
of

is,

linked-scale

and perhaps

windows

the rider

161),

cavalry,

art

is

century

identical

(rig.

and that

in Egyptian

hauberk

scale

almost

ranks,

"infidels"

long

the

cavalry

equipped.

an 11th

hauberk

Such varied

reports,

of

dam"

every

occasion,

horse-armour

of

the

one may assume that

to mid-12th

quilted

foes

heavy

or Saljüq

those

10th

or vertically
146).

Their

the

a style

Crusader

early

piece

"cut

almost

so well

appear

Armour for

through

187),

Egypt,

Of course,

were not

to

parade

such a ceremonial

worn by the horse

(Fig,

Lower

GS

one somewhat isolated
chamfron

annual

of

cavalry

Although

saint

the

irrigation

was so protected.

troops
bulk

in

New

to

others

shaped helmets,
and ill-

armours

armour perhaps partially
by ratimid

many

identical
while

sadly

cavalry

Such a process had already

accounted

in the late
occurrec(

3SZ
in Western

Europe

Chptalerin
ý.

1284 AD.

of

most thoroughly
in

European

or North

who _
in

Caliphate
armoured

late

m heavy

horsemen

to and clearly
probably

of

in

acting
negro

the

IfrTgiya.

'polite
within
an

formed

In

and
Zirid

cooperation

marnlüks

known as

86
Subsequent
of

little

centuries

information

pictorial

sug9ost
European
publsished

in

North

10th

case wielding

or

chaos
in
is

11th

what might
a spear

the

88.8xottp

op . cit.,
op. cit

Islamic

flared

the Maghrib

century

and a small

p. 92,
pp, 82-85.

(rig.

warriors

10th

of

to

11th

however.,

almost
A few recently

195).

(figs.

hand-hold

means that

does,

saddle

fragments

ceramic

be mailed

the

relief

cavalry

an apparent

plus
era,

from

available

116. F. Cuttin,, "La 'lance et 1' arrQt
XCIX (1965)9 Pp. 79-E300
Chaithj

and declines

One fragmented

and very

was known in

style

illustrate

Africa.

a tall

that

of

interest

archaeological

centuries

ß7.

known come from
in

small

later

appear

will

Berber

s ¬atimid

field

could

dynasty

ZTrid

those

of

a. Shrinking

centuries

the best

the

force

and long

swords

from

the Marhrib

perhaps

comparable
infantry

Here the men wore

aristocratic

and 11th

of

described

elite

Those of Morocco

founders

Here armoured

aQý,

lock

10th

but

context

forces,

the
of

units.

tribe,

cavalry
with

the

cavalry

an Iberian

Sicily.

control

and perhaps

char h lances*87

style

mentioned,

&oo k

1155 AD.

LtArt'dc

last,

was bast

cavalry
in

the

of

and were armed with

African

As already

±anhäja

Tala'ic

vizier

Jean de t"eunts

The equipment
ratimid

ubbah hauberks

and

tribes

(36

armoureds

a poem by the

dir°

in

and was recorded

from

Tunisia

675 and 676),

buckler

in

and riding

da cuirass©! " Archaý.ao1r,raim,

one

3ý3
a possibly

be interpretted
that

horse.

caparisoned

as wearing

This particular

a sleeve

sources

a somewhat later

of

jerkin

mail

of the previous

seen on NTshäpür ceramics

and on Italian

Iass

could also

warrior

(Fig.

century
(Figs.

date

to

similar

352)

56E3,599

and 609 I).
For fuller

Islamic

art

and 12th

centuries,

which

Norman and other

troops

who long

Christian

kingdom.

The most unmistak;, uble

panels

the

of

H and I),

Cappella

to be Muslims
(Fig,

sleeves

art

this

they

that

604 C).

Earlier,

could equally

there

is

every
Italy

southern

traditions

military

Such mixed

carvings
warriors

military

reason

than
styles

Light

those

are

not surprisingly,

cavalry

that

also

of

more apparent

assumed

armoured
Muslim,

though with mail
601),

of courses

indigenous

Islamic

warriors

and Byzentino

Norman conquerors.

the
on
early
shown

in Apulia

12th

century

"enemy"
some
where

(Figs.
Muslim
very

however,

the invasion

604 As pj

area appear as

the

their

576 and 577).

seem to have predominated

among the Muslim horsemen of North Africa.
after

on their

from this

common with

di Bari

stills

(Figs.

have served a horseman (Fig,

to suppose

with

Muslim

Norman

are only

on foot

largely

well

had more in

of Son Nicola
look,

Palermo

They need not be Muslims

597).

those

and mare specifically

non--Norman troops

(Figs
chess-men

tl r'z,

not only

the

of

same source

wear the

because

Other distinctly

of

from

11th

to be seen can the

in

ceiling

the late

of

also

backbone

are those

also shows armoured figuress

hauberks

for

Palatina

horsemen

Other

but

the military

provided

in

illustrations

excellent

warriors

to

Normans cncoaraged

to flourish

provide

the water

cross

Hero the

Italy.

influences

and artistic

facts

in

we musts

and even to southern

Sicily

of

details

This became even

Hilel
Banu
the
of

in the mid-11th

CXXVI

C xxV

II

3$Bedouin

century.

by the

employed

Fätimids

armed primarily

90

frequently

productions
the

crude

art

of

in

provincial

(Figs.

work of

occasionally
(Figs.

portrayed

566,604aß

11th

least

in

the late

small

despite

to an eager

Europe
though

new troops

to fill

the

all

carnage.

Ibidyý

Crusader
wealthy,

ranks

cavalry

out

numbers

its

men.

p.

loss

52,

appear

relatively

not

The Famid

by an en'tless

series

army rarely

meant the

of

it

by intensive
Berber

recruit

constantly

were simply

Generally

back

sent

reports

could

at

armies,

not

followed
the

remained

warriors

Egypt

of

chroniclers.

decimated

a medieval

PP. 86-87.
88.

fighting

and tendentious

Such troops
of

westward

centuries,

those

opj, cit.,
_.

p.

are

bedouin

and 12th

undeniably

Nevertheless,

o

European

the size of Fatimid

and dispersion,

Beshir

90.8rett.
91.

defeat

Sarecenic

they

area

Equally,

by various

or even most of

disruption

69.

11th

victories.

courses
of

91

the exaggerated

Caliphate,

Crusader

to migrate

Even soy their

century.

to have been small*

latter

troublesome
and

predatory

seem to have been encouraged
the

through

604L and 604 0).

Such all-too-often

in

sophisticated

194) to the

of heavier

as allies

the

Nile

cavalry

and 160),

(Fig.

In this

-md Italy.

the

Berbers

from

152,153

IfrTgiya'

lightly

from

provinces

Such Arabs or perhaps

Cairo

auxiliaries,

They seem to

though

ranging

been

cavalry

89

spears,

whole

art,

Norman Sicijy

had long

light

troops,

surviving

Fstimid

of

traditional

to garrison

to Tripolitanin.

and Syria

as mobile

and well-trained

armeds and were used

appear

Egypt

Cairo

of

their

with

have been effective

Delta

from

warriors

Of

available.

destruction

was a case of
but

territories

of

localized
in

the

3S5
Mon,hribp

end the

the Saljuq
loss
for

of

conquests

military

Syria

eastern

Iran,

Iraq

of

F

It

nor by the

encouragement

or even by the militarization
corps.

extent

led the fätimids

a strategy

It

was,

enabled

in

facts

to rely

them, if

numbers of wall-equipped

relatively

92.8ashir,

short

opcit.

notice.

following

recruitment

and Syria,
not

could

amid enlistment

labour

small

up of

manpower.

by increased

troops$

drying

of

be easily

Armenians

nhd th

of

of
a lack

the
of

so heavily

they controlled
troops

meant a serious
compensated
and negro

Egyptian
that

pp. 27-28 and sim.

hptl

h

to a large

on naval power.

'Such

the seast to transfer

to threatened

92

in

militias

urban

troops

slave-

areas at

3"G
CHAPTER6

THE CONTINUED IMPORTANCEOF TRAINED INFANTRY

Infantry
from

the 7th

armies

would

not

Islam,

specific

term

a weapon,
the world
in

of men skilled
though

an important,
importance

increasing

poverty.

Within

forces

to play

had

Asia

who seized

infantry

of most

Such criteria

as an infantryman.

the

forces

were only

a horse.

afford

continued

despite

role

Central

they

any individual

professional
tasks

military

Muslim

all

had been true

even if

not

a horse,

however$

fluctuating,

then,

who could

possess

almost

Even the nomads of

amongst

one to

oblige

in

Yet this

centuries.

war began.

tribesmen

did

of

13th

soldiers

stricken

but

to

since

some foot

to servo

continued

of

cavalry

in most regions.
As such,
levies
8th
or

backward

rif

fight

peaceful

with

muttsiAtah
41 0

heretics

slings,

should

Their

cAbbasid

the need arise.

on many fronts

only

duties

or collecting

for

tribal

the early

slings,

with

Äzarbgyj'n
2

in

who,

naked armed only
of

from

be distinguished

such as the Berbers

peasantry

or pagans, often

order

should

virttAlly

who fought

be disregarded.
keeping

troops

peoples

fought

century,
those

those

1

who would

The local

also

volunteer

against

various

infidels,

a limited

periods

should

similarly

included
be
and
wide-ranging,
could
3
They could, however, also be
taxes.

1.

cAbd
Ibn
ß1 Hakamj, op, cip.

2.

Flinorckys

3.

H. Kennedy, "The Early Islamic City: Self Government or State
Control? " during Callonuium on the Early Medieval City. (Univ.
6th May 1978).
Studies
of Edinburgh', Dept, of Extra-aural

Studies

129.

in Ccucasian Hlotnry,

p. 112.

3S'7
if

a source of rebellion

their

by on insufficiently

offended

to play

would continuo

governor.

were
4

Such warriors

in the armies of Islam,

part

The same might be wild
5

as Phd7th.

The origins

have emerged

elements,

the quarters

of

defend

city

their

fought

majority
in

the 9th

the

Curnt

the

against
the

on foot.

particularly

they

helmets

fought

Khurn6anTn

with
of

and slings

that

gangs bored

duties

the

and Iraq

c
these
r7t

as

mob

a city

and even some success

they

and harb!

the

same origins
of

consisted

desperation

to

ware normally

the 3czTra

in

have shared

upon

some horsemen,

included

appearing

military

distinct

were quite

nh troops

in Bacghdad.

6

if

used home-made shields1

seem to recall

Sassanian or even ancient

traditiona.?

atimids

were also important

where their

10th to 12th centuries

in the face of Byzantine

expansion.

ßoswortht "The ArmieS of the 5af'f'erSd9q"

5.

Cahan,,

6.

Ayal.on, "The Military

Reforms of Caliph

7.

ücIs
Al P1a&

vol. Vli

"n i,ayýh,"

ap

in Syria

from the

development was greatly

4.

8.8eshirg

urban

they

although

to
hmve possessed proper$
seen
nhcGnth who

Such nhd-ath militias

by the

they

al #a'münt

nb nn'

various

military

These letter

arms and armour'

Babylonian

could

of

known

militias,

are obscure,

troublesome

First

they

professional

assorted

Their

cud although

the later

Unlike

including

aochhd d.

and although

ouch forces

a mingling

a town.

century,
of

of part-. time city

of

from

or volunteer

fror

local

pious

their

sensibilities

the Crusades of the 12th and 13th centuries.

against

night

religious

a

encouraged

Many such

p. 536.

PP. 504"-509.

Ong-cit.

p. 53.

al Multasim. " pp. 11-12.

pp. 452-4530 461-462 and 470.

'38?'
Warriors
in

broadened

probably

annual

raids

Important

their

military
9

Byzantium.

against

when the First

by participating

experience

The Syrian

oh

h

was still

end of the 11th century,

Crusade appeared on the scene at the
10
and remained so during much of the

Crusading

time

been referred
Perhaps

At this

era.

to ass remnants

we have an impression

local

militias

(rig.

120).

in

Such locals
in other

force

Abbasid tines,

took

one of

over

including

played

the

mentioned,

parts

of

by contrast

levies

Fatimids

in

12.
13.

liaaaaan, onýcit.

14.

Gibb,

During

empire,

citiess
th.
own nhý

unlike

11
century

Gospels

troops

survived

ruslin

eh rtn

Jmayyad and early

lnns
hug,
_,,

as Turkish
Even under

13

the

as they

and,, as already
lack

their

the Tulünido,

of

troops

Crusades,

did

from other

150 and 156),

those of Syria,

although

da not

15

XVI II.

(Paris
iaaadee,
Crn
des
T®mna
du rrNordra. aau
r.

1940),

"
Saaladin!
"The
Armies
He
Gibb,
of
A. no
aasQim
(1951),
EgypticannP
III
pp. 3i]A--320.

._....
it.

ý.

16?.
p.
,

"The Armies of 5aladin,

Ibn al AthTr,
the Crusndoa.

to solve

corps.

into

some part,

played

14 (Figs.

C. Cation, LO Syria
ý+ýwi
P, 195.
Ibn al tZaläninT,
Cnhicrn dlHistoire.

12

Egypt,

Inat.

Syriac

Here a local

camp from

many Egyptian

12th

or part-time,

once tried

ml Din's

....._
..
ý
Kennedy, 1ocý

15.

ill-equipped

role

or

and structure.

surviving

Egypt.

probably

Leo VI,v op, citýý

11.

these

responsibilities,

nppear to have had their

10.

of

but Appears to have declined

MuttCWTJoh volunteers
Sall

the earlier

earliest

the hnwwww_ä11nh
labour

by arming

have merged with,

of

a promihent

most military

howovorp local

the

might

non-professional

provinces

or police
C

they

n inc.

"Al Kä,^ail fT 11 TFa'rTihý" in Arnb Histarinns
F. Gabrieli
(London 1969), --p-, 253.
trans.,

of

3fq
infantry

Where professional
generally

0Abbasid times,

Umayyad and early

grew both in importance
still
Into

16

infantry.

been under

their
(Fig.

half

field

stood
with

the

ram

ineffective

against

two wings$ into
closer

(Fig.
swords
solid

with

behind
by archers
All,

or javelins.

17
days provod
Arabi KhärijTo

famous reforms"

by breaking

or khamias of vans rears

contra

and

These could act in

In many cases

as a separate

archers
units

throughout
(rig.

the

122) seem

be
to
moved
perhaps

heavily
the
those
more
among
of

in support

the
greatest
who were under

infantry

armoured spear-carrying

122,

but similarly

armed infantry

to have been considered

pressure#19

his

cavalry.

timayynd eras the lightly

around a battlefield

141).

kr dus squadrons.

smaller

kneeling

tho
early
ranks of

the fast-moving,

divisions$

cooperation

spears

short

could

(Figo.
men

These were supported

introduced
11
hence
Flaruän
and
five
the
old
up

usually

ranks

I

The clod--packed,

as it

as they had

were simple,

spears.

also carried

By the

Arab tribe

rich

Any armoured

front

h rý

127) or men with

apparently,

tactics

Caliphs.

in

the infantry.

as many armoured cavalry

-'
.,

the C';hidün

shields

During

cavalry

stated,

one notably

example,

At first

123 and 340)

of coursop

Yet they generally

with

cooperation

for

only

as already

and in numbers.

in strict

7th century,

could still

At first,

such groups were the Arabs themselves,

the most important

fought

basis.

on on ethnic

recruited

they were

were eoncornod,

Others could also be spread about as skirmishers.

16.

Al rtasu'dT, op.

17.

t.,
Al yabarT, op
652s 009 and 959.

1o.

tloraaa Parias,

19.

Al IabAri,

vol. V,

ýGit..,

oat

vaZ. II,

op. cit.

p.

140.

pp,, 58,337,

d11y 520f 790,

p. 012.

Il,
vol.
:,ý

pp. 344,1551

and 1708.

enemy

3 c1
Faces of

tho infantry:
kneeling
hold

battle-array

preceded
lino

and then

exactly

the same' even in

regular

Muslim

remained
would

If

it

fire

Ibid.

21.1^ubärnksh

9th

on to

Anatolian

the

as it

cavalry
in

the

passed

passes

army.

remained
and during

plateau

then
through

infantry

such infantry
the mountains
a line

aim would

In such a task

of

and grenades,

tactics

to guard
the

corps

centuryt22

raid,

however,

assaults

the Byzantine
role.

the early

with

bowaj, swords

with

projectors

sieges.

the rear.

21

continued

specialist

Yet the

of

led

to

}aerbTynh heavy infantry

were a small

remain

perhaps

and destroy

20.

their

were a major

a leading

it

if

vital.

protect

and then

incursions

and equipment

by a small

traditional

horsemen

of

groups

and rFrni ah archers

and in

the

from some distance

only
tactics

were soon joined

open battle

in

army$ itself

Very small

These men used Creek

in

spears

Karo a acreon

infantry

troops.

and shields,

swords

naffnTn.
both

elite

of

or Yemen.

entirely

cnbb"as1d infantry

and shields,

their

may be hoard

of Himyar

some Umayyad tradition.

spears,

enemy troops

armoured

and with

shields

Umnyyod tactics

an almost

the wings,

this

their

the kings

of

Early
in

behind

these

An echoof

protected

heavily

against

have been used by

also

20

as pikes.

by a front

115) might

particularly

in ranks

"scouts"

(Fig.

types

various

of

be to

infantry

retreat.
find
played

23

vo1. I I,, pp. 712,912,917,927,956,1809

and 1927-1928.

7hß op. ci t,
325.
p.
_

22.

Levy, The Socinl
loci, cit.

23.

Howard- Johnson, o2,

Structuro.

its,

of

Iolnm,

pp. 432-433;

pp. 225-226.

Leo VIA

3cf1
The most detailed

information

that

is available

cAbbasid
corps in the

what might have been the most prestigious
ThasA abnof were the cenlor

Army.

nhl tanhdsd

or fund

ni

have been descended
cAbbäsid

orioinal

have differed
capital

in

siege

their

Abý1

have replaced

have been added,

their

while

ranks

Although
pahdäd
is

those
Indeed

similarly

the

reason

those

by Fidawsi

in

"picked

26

Although

fight

without

included

to suppose

that

24,r
25.

Al Jähiýs

26.

Ibid.

27,

Ayalonp "Thu Military

26-27

infantry

archerß,

of

27

troops

and 10th

disappeared

centuries,

entirely.

ßaghdad"

These letter

Reforms of Caliph
pp,

often

m
no

the 9th
they

long

or even shield,

cuirass

descendants.

cýl Jnhiz,

by their

were clearly

nbnal

warriors

shield-bearing

"The Military

to
also
seems
mace

non-Turkish,
during

khen nr

seems to

javelin

or

the

hard

used the some

they

a number of

importance

Ayalon,

pp,

spear

country

with

were to be recognized

may have been their

Rasä'il

swords

the

ranks

however

ca;
The

and other

abna'

declined
little

also

to maintain

In attack

short

Such troops

would

in close

also

hand-to-hend

fight

näh,
an

cIMaMph turbans.
and

armoured1

to

in

were they

Not only

trained

daggers.

the long

they

but

to

unlikely

whether

may

the

in

part

is

infantry,

and broad

the mitr d

who took

cities.

were also

aýnäh spears

weapons,, although

of

other

and aiktnah

swords

beards

major

they

earlier,

equipment

cAbbäsid

themo and then

enemy pressed
short

Their

and counter-siege,

25

long

As mentioned

KhursssnTs

revolution.

much from other

and mountains.
with

those

from

or garrisoning

renowned

Pinghdsd.

in Barlhdad's resident

Qiencnt

24

concerns

al 11u'ta inj"

mentioned
infantry

pp. 6.?.

and 52-53.

26»27.

Worms

of Caliph

"
33-34.
al fitu'tmsim,
pp.
0

3qtroops

were described

crkh

crossbow,

the

as using

form of

an early

penetrating

power of

which

By FirdawsP s day, however1 another
had made, or rather
from

Some had,

course,

of

defeated

large

their

long

Islam,
from

infantry

in

in

while

the
of

Much the

the üaylamis

The reputation
appearance,

of

the GTf7;nls
remained

became fervent

of these warlike
liking

for

who similarly

survived
had

c.-

mountain

Gllant
as

served

made quite

never

true
ahis

to orthodox

cunnl

30

folk,

vary large

garlic,

oAbbesid

their

of

Coth peoples

plain,

from

the population

be said

Sea,

Not all

also

culture

some night

although
ono(
themselves/also

Islam,

the Umayyod end

of

the bulk

many areas,

Caspian

allegiance

descendants

pre-Islamic

Caspian

their

warriors

These were

the

of

power of

their

armies

even after

the narrow

such a name for

hirsute

already

of infantry

nation

south

ego transferred

some of

vestiges

29

mountains

to the rising

did

nor

homelands

accopted

Islam

Elburz

as mercenaries

Caliphs,

rivals

the

Sassanians

became Muslims,

in

wan clearly

themselves.

remade, a name for

the Daylamis

served

or

28

recognized.

the

the chýnrkh

with

their

brightly

painted

Tn
üi
javelins#
zh

and traditional

established
was clearly
31
At this enrly stag©,
in the t7u3lim world by the 10th century.

shields

end during
still

fought

the first
solely

phaso of düyid expansion
as mounted infantry,

with

in Iron'

the Daylamta

mules to carry

their

P. 1280.

28.

FirdawaT, oa, cit.

29.

Organization
Bosworth, "Military
and Iraq, " pp. 146.. 147.

30.

Ibid.

31.

MIMinorsky, "rticu light
al TenülchT, cps cits

Persia
the
ßuyida
of
under

p. 149.
Ganjn,
"
the
5haddädida
of
p. 113;
an
pp. 95-969

313
javelins

equipment,
Daylami

warriors

javelin

34

Yet

tucs

painted

a mark of

the

the

This

letter

against

the

of

the

using

seem to have remained
line

unbroken

the

or moving

after

a defeat

was

followed

that

have been similar

might

century

warrior

foe,

Al TenükhI,

33.

Miskowaihi,

34.

Ibid,

vol. 11,, pp.

35.

Ibid,,

vol. II,,

36.

Bosworth,
and Iraq"

37.

Al ©al7ýdhurl,

lore
op.

grew in

seems to have
36

to shoot

37

times.

held

by a 9th

bottle

Gebri-ware

tactics
an
thrown

battle-axes

combat with

to an example

in

were then

Javelins

arrows

Daylami

advance

a steady

by close

short

Such short

awwmldüx.

Sassanlan

on a north-Persian

32,

army

n7sbonkarrow-guide

shield-wall.

the

Turkish

of

brightly

troops

these

of

some, with

to disrupt

arrows

and bows are now mentioned,

been known in

course,

however,

was,

large,

0

had,

while

was his

by Daylaml

known as husb; n or

elsewhere

known as a

nwshan cuirasses

burned

established

Battle-axes

apparently

hauberk,

35

so the equipment

variety.

latter

arrows

state,

this

have

to

Full

dire

dagger

defence

chief

disgrace*

and power,
in

protection

and

ultimata

heavy

men

younger

shield,

slender

mentioned,

Daylemi's

shield,

normally

turs

large

a small,

was also

As the Düyid

grown

the

of

lending

century,

have been the case.

always

as an inadequate

hul7ma,

wealth

might

Some wore very

hauberk

ubbah

described
.

33

By the mid-10th

shield-bearers,

and perhaps

"nail".

sakk or
the

this

now consisted

equipment
2hügin

and armour.
employed

though

or boys,

32

or

10th

(Fig.

344).

of

Persia

cit.
vol. 11, pp.

cit,

161 and 336.
205.

p.

"Military
p. 149.

op.

152-153.

Organization

--cit. ,

under

pp. 362-363.

the

ßüyids

3 ýl4This

weapon is

by a mounted

infantryman,

(Fig.

earlier
fighting

71).

than

rather

by the

Kurds or Caucasian
and tabs

shield

later

10th

cavalry,

usually

was also

apparently

became close

the Oaylnmts

Similarly,

for

tall,

their

tnr
known
as
ricah(Fig.
now
Egyptian

armoury

fire-werspons.
while

in Egypt

Tülünid

DaylamT infantry

op

shir,

F7;timid

This

swords#40

shield-

that
the

long

39

fought

young

shields

; chür
qal

politics.

still

weapons in

ürT
al

with

the Daylamis

turbulent

Caliphate

Other

as

where

and employed

made their

Fatimid

were
Daylemts'
swords,

curved
plus

nt

of E9Ypts

cit.
p. 262.
on.

40.

I bid.,

pp. 67-70.

41,

Ibid.

pp.

42.

"Ib id,

47-49

vol. Iii

and 74 n.

op,

served

and the su,nni
ý,

p.

they

were

the orthodox

c Abb;

in flüyid
also
su_ý__nnli

sid Caliphs#

382;
r.
336
ub; rak9häh,
and
pp.

pp. 47-49.

opL cit.,

Hassan,

42

impact

greatest

and Syria,

Egypt

They had already

governors

Miskawaihi,

39.8e!

closely

A1

elsewhere.

employed

38.

to

sipar

infantry

Daylem!

Egypt

Cairo's

have included

in
Trans
and
and

Iran

in

149).

might

referred

perhaps

Eätimld

or kite-shaped

oval

with

and the east.

Iran

and battle-oxaa,

zhüpTn jnvelins

bearers

of

the

fought

centuries

ms, in

the Turks

of

allies

influenced

perhaps

when cooperating

the case in

to

38

and 11th

ghul

taken

as mounted

cavalry,

end they

axe.

seem to have been most successful
Turkish

centuries

eight

solely

operating

Albanians,

n horseman's

the

During

perhaps

from Daylem had also

These seem to have been heavy

infantry.

with

India

in north-western

Some warriors

on horseback

to one carried,

similar

extraordinarily

210.
167.

3q5
as palace

guards

in

the late

become dominant

swordso

were typical

of

to

gradual

as numerous

were

unemployed

in

Turkish

the bcnners'of

under

in Ghaznawid
an elite
simply

ghul;

infantry

guard

the orthodox

over recruited

in

the late

43.

Ooaworth,
and Iraq"

44.

Ibn H£iwgal,
Wist trans.,

45,

Beshir,

46.8asworthp

ratimid

was in

11th

"lillitary
p. 148.

Egypt

that

that

Organization

than

state,

but

the reputation

they

were again
they

whether

they

not

only

were

48
canturies,

under

the Buyida

continued
but

of

de in TerrQ. J. N. Kramers
Configuration
(Paris
1964), vol. II, p. 283.

be.

Eastwards,

47

12th

and early

rather

power,

though

guards$

Q'C

even formed

the O yid

of

seized

as such remains. unclear.

But it
to serve

fall

to such an extent
palace

they

as

service

and MMirdasids.
India

were

Syria

sought

similarly

the

Daylami

century

and bejewelled

gilded

Saijügs

persisted

recommended as special

and

cUgaylids

After

Turkish

sunni

manuscript

They

afield.
11th

early

and north-west

46

shields,

Daylamia

ma,

with

broad,

encouraged

further

and

Fätimids,

Afghanistan

painted

the

10th

had

wielding
Arabic

century

Iran

44

FErs,

of

decline

fortunes

late

in

361).

political

their

seek

themselves

fashions

military

11th

an early

they

was necessarily

shown on foot,

day (Fig.

their

soon

of

in

though

the province

example,

the warriors

blunt-tipped

The Oüyids'

their

century,

for

One may assume that

mercenaries

DaylamT impact

10th

in,

forces,

police

The greatest

were chid.
where,

and urban

43

left

Persia

and G.

cit.

The Choznwvids,

47.

Nliz; m al Mulk,

40.

Canard, "Le Procession
pp. 392-393.

op,

cit..

p.

111.

P. 67.
du Nouvel

An chez

lea

Fitimides,

"

Cxx

i

3y6
their

perhaps
(Figs.

infantry

Iran,

of

a reputation

their

foot

nor

their

living

utill

cAwjsim

westward

this

of

art

period

siege

in

AntakIyah,

the

The best

late

to open battle

such east

Iranian

nr shield

and bow,

Elsewhere

spears.
and nizah

spears

ucýzar short

variation

had the

and crossbowmen.

49

the province

of

parts

descendants

These people

manufactured

also

weaponry.
of

10th

than

si

with

formed

the

spears

or javelins

corps

infantry

In this

front

case

they

while

stood

with
49,

loc.
CEahen, "0 jar's
of Islam# second edit

50.

Canard, "Quelques observations
" pp.
de in [3uyat
at'-T'alab,

51,

Ibid.

normal

with

with
nih

aurshnn cuirasses
archers

behind

to the rear

while

and men with

them.
of

themselves
were

from GIißn,

and here

as advancing

ar shields1

izah spears and shields
n%,,,
cit

however#

described

rank

Most details

ah.

by spear-mon

supported

of

Shy

to sieges,
are

infantry

Khur; s; nI

century

Firdawsi's

in

soldiers

those

seem to have

as were their

s and other
so

Those KhuräsänIs

frontier

Dyzantine

siege-

51

rather
foot

in

particularly

century*

descriptions
to be found

are probably
refer

10th

Khurasan

of

They too had

as cavalry.

operations.

Ters

to earn

troops

such

and counter-siege,

and other

equipment

siege

the

professional

only

The people

traditions,

in

in

the only

as well

to

the

course,,

in mining

and above all

been experts

,x.,

surviving

own area.

established

who were sent

of

were they

soldiers,

own long

warfare

iron

were not!

outside

were noted

ni

in

157 and 158).
The Daylamle

of

impression

clearest

A third

some cavalry
led

archers

by me

with

; C. Cahen, "*is +r, " EncycloPediR
pp. 469-470.
vol.. III,
cur 1'introduction
46-47.

geographique

3c17
similar

si

nr shields

on Irnnian
a variety

351'

troops

Some such troops

with

appear

centuries.

These show

javelin-men

with

sword and buckler

(Figs.

to

11th

bearers'

standard

and armoured

largo
3430

354 and 449).
All

other

or lesser
large

even the

forces#

cavalry

in

of

mounted

do appear (Fig.

infantry
armed

infantry

the (hürids

them# this

famous

for

its

use of

the

kärw h,

with

stuffed
the

leading

and javelins

a large

cotton,,

late

mobile,

12th

from

sprang

Their

soldiers.

mobile

to be carried

troops*

55

and could

This

to

10th

appearing

apparently
12th

centuries.

by these

were enlisted

camel-riding,
the area,

of

13th

and early

even more pronounced

dynasty

foot

the

the art

in

those

like

javelin-

379).

the

of

were naturally

before

in

their
This

Infantry

487).

as highly

Though rare

to

siege-train.

troops

Indian

fought
54

infantry.

Under

(Fig.

to a greater

addition

perhaps

the Ghaznawids

under

and similarly

rulers

in

who,

53

infantry,

to Daylamis,

In addition

ýaffärids

chess-piece

prestige

infantry

employed

had a sophisticated

consisted

on an east-Iranian
rose

dynasties

eastern

extent..

necessarily

of

the 9th

from

of warriors,

shields$

them.

supported

ceramics

52

like

for!

a mountainous
most notable
of

mantlet

was proof

pp. 1022,1156

long

region
tactic

an the

against

also act as a novablt

the püyids

was the
hide

raw bullock

battle

into

centuries,,

shoulders

most arrows

to

shield-wall

and 1280,

52.

Firdawsl,

opt

53.

Bosworth

"The Armies of the 5affärids,

54.

Bosworth, ihn Chaznauidsm pp. 113-114; Co E. Bosworth'
"Ghaznavid Military-Organization.,
" Der 191sm, XXXVI (1960),
pp. 59-60,

55.

Bosworth.,
and Iraq"

"Military
p. 1510

organization

under

" pp. 547-546.

the C yids

of

Persia

3q,
trap

the
broke
Ghürid line.
cnccay
who
any
Once established

apparently
though

still

The placing

left.

and aura
.

the legs,

covered

long-sword

mama,
plus

axe in

and nächakh

army that

"throwing

aipnrh;

arrows'"

n qsmbeaons, having

and nizah

long

shnmshirg

and k; rdhe

a thicket
them all

long-swords

and

so that

buzuro

long

the latter

he break through
Very little

ranks

cAbb;

with

their

bath

ere,

although

56,

t1aulanä Plinhlij

57.

itubärakshähs

584

Ibid. ý p. 330.

men with

tir

andnzFn
A second

front.

and

nwshnn cuirasses

daggers,

thrust

of

p1par shields

archers,

defended

perhaps

the ground.

into

dnrgah,

also

with
by

Behind

shields$

ahemshir

Once again such forces

noted in

cavalry,

leaving

survives

pieces

al Dina apt cit.

ac,t ciýt

in

longwswordsf

evidence

finest
the
of
one

Muslim

or other

spears,

could manoeuvre and strike
58
the infantry
ranks.
pictorial

sid

Armoured

stood

with

officers

anZd maces.

collaboration

Ohürid

come a rank

of spaced wooden stakes
stood junior

Otherwise

0

ghoshTr

Third

spears$

in

da,bbüa mace,
_,
howover,

hnrrbh

javelins

or small

armour

wouldp

57

short

of men armoured

consisted

khaý

close

fnr7kh,

khnrstanin

full

infantry,

of

ahhZpTn

the centre

have been in any

had a predominance

wide shields,

rank

would

wing,

numbers of men

armed with

seem to have been a new development.
were much as they

in

armoured

troops

large

of

infantry.

to their

on the right

on the

and techniques,

tactics

priority

stationed

camu"d

shemshIrr

high

giving

the Chu-rids

India,

battle

were traditionally

javelin-men
wielding

in northern

as a power

more sophisticated

adopted

apparently

Archers

that

56

p. 339.

wide spaces
the enemy should

from the Ghürid

of Muslim metalwork
pp. 352-353.

was

made in
Iran

3qq

the city

and the

of

Hirt

rids

of

Turkish

wave ofhuzz
the Dobrinski

368).

Ha may, however,

a nal

Delhi,

59

2nik.

in

didhmll

to got
his

13th

roll

the

of

the

cavalry

was a danger

loathed

Turk

the

control

13th

ffidah

fell

city

century.

and the
the

serving

to the Mongols

up his
the

on its

wings,

of being

sagas$

from his
his

of

included

small

and also

outflanked,

59.

Ygr t"uhammad Khini

60.

F9aulänä Minhä j al QTnj o,

61.

Leo 41IOinc.

62.

Anon. $ The Book of Dadc iCorkut

opitys

place

p,

of

cit

infantry
where

to protect

49.

p. 2749

.
p. 145.

62

them in
Equally

nomad states

left
the
on

particularly

down

written

foe on foot.

units

Yet

hero was prepared

quiver,

Turkish

was low.
61

fight,

probably

early

as

armies,
status

to

a Saljüq

and face

battle-plan

their

course

centuries,

skirts

Q era Khitai

in Mongol

dismounting

tats, °arrows

horse,

of

recorded

14th

or early

traditionally,
that

though

own earliest

his

off

bolt,

soldiers

true
a

their

the

in

reportedly

even served

nomad forces,,

Traditionally

in

were also

the so-called

seized

which

the tuslim

Samarqand when this

Some infantry

even in

infantry

horseman.
under

early

state

(fig.

60

1220 AD,

they

Chüric{

a curved

with

two horsemen

role

dynasty

two groups,

rid

K4 i razmsh hs
in

into

soldier

a vital

a new

known as

cauldron,

against

mmmlük

5aljügsr*6f
before

he a dismounted

to play

the fragmented

They were divided

natal

battling

that

the

were reeling

This

himself

continued
of

of much of

Hindu

Afl)hanistän

hürý

sword,

Kings

when both

does show a solitary

perhaps

Slave

a time

nomads.

bucket,

Infantry

at

like

among
there

such vital

4-oo
63

as a herd of spare horses.

assets
a basis
later

in fact

is suggested by the well--documented

but comparable Turkish

The 15th to 17th centuries

a small infantry
the kh

nomad state
Crimean Tartars

domain.

African

troops

bulk of block

of later

in Achlabid

in

, ülunid

naval
This

Egypt

unit

around

helmets,

same Limo block

they

the

Nevertheless,

North African
Such warriors

robes

a leading

took
to

addition

Worn black

their

and among

dynasties

do

perhaps appeared

the
the
of
great
and
northern
at
65
they
later
little
A
are recorded
routes,

where
in

warriors$

as slaves,

Ifrlqiyah

trade

trans-Saharan

were poor in horses

Muslim armies,

centuries.

seem to have been of slave origin.
first

that

were recruited

various

serving

infantry

reasons.

men in the first

i
Khar jTs

the puritanical,

on

areas or from major cities,

negro infantry

They appeared as free

living

villagers

came from regions

both economic and climatic
Not all

steppes.

had, for example$

Islam most professional

were drawn from backward mountainous

for

armies of a

64

L'horvas in the cast of

most infantry

had

on the Eurasian

force raised from settled

personal

in Africa

That such traditions

over

forming

an

decorated

and fought

with

as unarmourcd

role
elite

mukh

iron

swords.

armour:
66

fashion
In
were
also
palace? guards

h

guard.

black

At around

turbans
the

In Byzantium.

67

322.
p.
ý

63.

rtubärakahäh,, ori.

64.

Organization
"The Military
of
Collins*
L. 3.0.
and Tactics
the sixteenth
during
the Crimean Tartars
and seventeenth
Etast
1dd1C
the
in
1'
"
Society
in
War
Tochnolo
rand
centuries,
(London 1975
260.
p.
V. 3, Parry and M. E. Yapp edits,,
t

65.0oshirp

opp* cit,

pp. 30»44.

fG.

Ybý,.
id,

67,

tiQwnrd-Jahnsnn, q a¢. cit.,

HaasanjaPo. cit,

its
p. 171; Rambeudq oey cr
pp. 77-78 and 83.

pp. 419-420.

4Di

the ra imids were later

Although

troops#

on such slave-recruited
numbers of free-born
the region

coming

from

the western

in Fntimid
played

with

r

Other
Surber

al

they fornod

the year 1000 AD.

almost half

70

Their

loyalty

three

first

hundred black

troops

forces

and spectacular

paraded,

69.

Ibid,

loc
pp,

of

and

ncgro mercenaries
at least

another

appooranco

probably

for

as others

each with

a pair

had

some

of specially

bosses, during

and shields with silvered
71
Such splendid infantry
New Year celebrations.
72
in existence fifty
years later.
still
ßashirf

these P1aVmüdeh

by
the
Eý;
imid
army
of

deco%ted javelins

68.

appeared

At the very end of the 11th century

them.

though

Fighting

rosa in importance

Zed the Fä0imids to choove them as guard unite,
done before

speech

the rise
69
ý recruitment.

they and free

remained the backbone of Egypt's

in

of Syria until

troops

Thereafter

imid

Saharans

Thereafter

own homeland stifled

Sudanese slave-recruited
numbers until

CAM.

in the garrisons

in their

they

and spear,

sword

black

belt.

the desert

of

Egypt under Caliph

a major role

the rlurabitTn

century.

Sudan marched in that

969 ADe60

regions

employed greater
from

the Mnýmüdahp who were probably

as infantry

solely,

in

very heavily

Many such warriors

Muslim negroes.

Egypt

conquered

included

they at first

of ZCWTle in the eastern

army that

to rely

the

guards were clearly

cit.
2&-34

and 39-44,

ýdst pp. 39-44; CanArdý, "La Procession
? Dw, ib...
1as Fctimideas"
pp. 392-393.

du Nouval An chez

du Nouvol An choz les

71.

Canard.* "La Procassion
pp. 369-37Q,

72,

UaSmah Ibn Mungidh's ep,. cft#,

p. 9.

Fotimides,

"

(ý02
or not the dark-skinned

Mother

Nubian or Ethiopian
they are,

Arcüf

about

and the

common with

the

Dornu many centuries
from both

north$

people

of

and had much
They fought

Ptia3hrib.

nh shields

bh
hrI
Morocco,
plus
of

Nubia

in

the raja
throwers,

and it

later,

spears

short

in much of

but

spears or javelins

the

may appear

in

similar

Ethiopia

at

this

area of

contemporary
(Fig.

165 and 186) and Ifrtgiyah

(Figs.

area,

used in

widely

191).

In the

time.

were archers
51;zTn and 6nr! ya tribes
?5
living
Pagans
near
used no shields.

the

the source of the Blue Nile

73.

Ahadi

dnra

leather,

medieval

certain

iron

the southern

white

shields

predominated

and javelin

short

in

were rich
of

armour was certainly

Infantry

in

the

century

homelands,,

original

Those
Ahadi
also
swords.
poor
and
quality
74
garmento.
protective
mufnttih&
perhaps ctlilted,,

uoro long,

art

10th

mountains

large,

their

local

or javelins

Quilted

late

inhabitants

with

to the l mt

similar

At

unclear.

can be found

or pagan,

Tibe; ti

in

troops

these

In the

as infantry

only

psi or

to have been Arab bodouin

more likely

Christian

Muali5

Arnb geographies.

in

is unfortunately

mercenaries,

in fact,

Information

Carfür

were Sudanoso slave-troo

73

auxiliaries.

whether

later

a century

archers

and javelin-

CAsgalän in 1099 AD
and at Arsüf

men met by the Crusaders outside
almost exactly

infantry

fought

local
and

solely

as infantry

with

hhrbzh

known
hard
wood
pikes of a

(Cambridge
1956)
tilarfar2,1A97-1193,
R. C. Smailp Crusading
(London
19?
15i
Crusndos,
the
p. 65; S. Runcimans A History of
vo1. III..
Cruýe

itincarariura
Nnrn
rinnruci
56;
Anon.
p,
y
D
p.
67""5$;
f3aha'
n. op,
al
pp.
-cit.,

74.

Ibn : awqals Kit"ab SUrnt Al Ard

75.

id,
Ib_,

p. 55.

p. 509

ins
175.

ina.rn

Cxxix

if o3
a* nurý_
rhn hý7ý

from that

Shields

brood awetheot east African

coast known to the Arabs as Zanj wore also said to be of elephant
77
hide, though being inferior
to those of the Oäja,
aeons to have changed by the 14th century

Little
some cavalry,

Nubian fashions,
from this
with

large

words,

had appeared in central
of Africa

part

tall

spears,

may be on

in

some of

now perhopa

Moat warriors

however, and fought
They also used

arrows.

short

lang javelins.

and# above all,

narrow shields

these

of

relatively

better

the earliest

that

Derber and

Ethiopia.

remained infantry,

bows shooting

An impression

in the ancient

bare-back

riding

mostly

except

Ethiopians

equipped

Abyssinian

78

(Fig.

manuscripts

657).
hogro

troops

and successors

of

in

in

Ifrigiyah,

in

for

Sicily

Known as
but
their

mercencrie3$

as their

as distinctive
mace and buckler

to be recruited

tightly

(Figs.

in Haffid

Tunisia

as 1anawa and fought

in

with

Cn

s

rulers,

did

formed

they
79

Others

a number
must

they

were

Siculo-Norman

art

both

hair

their

weapons,

are portrayed

They clearly

at least

until

sword and small shield.

76,

ib«
i dy

77.

t.
Al MasCÜdly 02,e- 3.,,,

78.

r....
....
ýllramrýý
k
Al
iF3acalik al Aber Pi fi1ýrýý1ý

74.

Qratto

as

continued

Guinean
those
origin
of
whore
spoor,

the

unless

In most cases
curled

lieutenants

Zirid
no they

desccndants,

500 and 606).

by North African

the

infantry.

mostly

appear

and on the mainland.

Sicily

century

served

themselves.

recruited

newly

origin

F`atimide

coma mounted

regiments,,

havo served

slave

the

of

Caliphs

Fatimid

of

the 14th
were known
t}hethar

p. 57,

ooo ci t,,

vo1. IlI, # p. 18.

p. 82.

Amgnýr, Ap" 6 and 25-26.

*D4their

or not

white

in 14th century

rlanlük

As already

great

or national

they

with

would

being

make a wall

thrust

into

similarly

planted

to act

throwers

supported

these

advance

either

line

take

to

such attacks

foe.

men in

the

front

the bases of

with

Their

pikemen.

In attack

infantry

If

their

tall
wore

and javelin-

foe.

archers,

would
the

of

sections

by the

faltering

rank.

such infantry

selected

Cavalryt

uld

a beaten

pursue

S1

of the later

words,

swords that

tactics

Their

Umayyad era.
of large

consisting

r6timid

anl chür.

fsny

iron

butte

that

bows and

javelins,

in
fact
were

infantry

traditional,

weapons were similarly

shields,
,mot
the newer and slightly

perhaps included

those

were essentially

ilj

leather

armoured.

curved Iranian
The long pikes

the
front
in
by
men.
wore used

ranks were
long,

po5'4. bly known as snbarbarnh.

They were five

which up to three

cubits

form a broad iron blade.

they might better

be described

carried

small

could

of naval

troops.

seen to have been armed with
80.

cuoarT,
Al
r op-. cit_,

01.

Oeshirf

op. city
r, ý,

cubits

of
As such

Some pikemen also

Crossbows were known, but seem to have

javoins.

been a speciality

as gloives.

shorter

p. 62,

pp. 76-79.

Some younger soldiers
fur

00

unit

spear-butts

archers

while

with

by tribe,

were arrayed

as pikes,

together

and,

In other

with

from a

the ground.

of any

is unclear.

These were recruited

en masse or by sending
advantage

of tunic

were

a high

they

armourad

a style

as they

imid armies contained

to the end.
In battle

origin,

attacked,

or simply
the r

mentioned,

many sources.

shields

Egypt,

of infantry

proportion

hauberks,

ubbnhs were protective

also

h spears which

cover

4os
could also have been glaives

or bille.

This armoured infantry
reliable
battles

in the declining
there

Certainly

is plenty
timid

Those show a great

variety

the

cultural

origins

153,155,161

The next
to a similar
but

of pictorial

wave of

if

of

not

they

to

are not

indication
140,152,

in Zirid

apparent

ribat

fortification

Rather

of

enabled

course,

they

hor would

recalls

such

tactics,

or atrongpoint,

surabitTn

any
the

warriors

was

and retreat,

obliged

to retreat

either

refused

attack
they

MuräbitTn,

between

Berber

and other

or by cavalry.

packed and immovable,, bzttle--array.
tho

to be seen in

apparently

waýý frýrr

casualties.

name probably

These were the

extent.

century

on infantry

relied

The main difference

commitment,

Their

Although

63

little

(rigs.

conquerors

in karr

indulge

them and then

religious

unusually

in various

of such infantry

with

involved

African

sources.

by infantry

high

though

troops

even greater

and the mid-11th

Their

the

!worth

ruräbitTn

to attack

than

imid Caliphate.

They are similarly

pictorial

either

took part

evidence

of weapons,

surviving

refusal

less

193 and 194).

unfortunately

their

that

era from the 10th to 12th centuries.

and 163).
(Figs.

Ifrlgiyah

in Cairo,

years of the F

in the art of the

of

may have included
living

and mist which,

02

or

the enemy
to advance.

them to accept

pursue

a beaten
they

since

their
of
out

enemy.

made a

own closely

04

had small

cavalry

and camel-mounted

82.

Ib idý pp. 57-70; Canards "La Procession du Nouvel Anchaz
les Fatimidoa. 'n pp. 374 and 392-393; M. Canmrdy "Le Cerorionial
tian, p XXI (1951), p. 397,
Byxaný,,,
Fatimite at le Ceremonial flyzcntins"

83,

UsZrneh ibn i"ungidh,

84.

Marcos Fsriesa

on

°ps citss

t.

pp. 8 rnd 32,

pp. 015-816.

4o6
forces

even in

the mid-11th

tactics

and such steadfast

Spanish

enemies

the

at

discipline
of

little

from other

they differed

armies.

Long spears or pikes
javelin

with

Their

large

use of

largely

in

The subsequent
flachrib

are only

did

rely

not

even they
to the

wars of

early

attrition

rallying

chosen

point.

They themselves,,
of Morocco!

final

could
and the

the plains

palisade,

chained

battle

or small

85.

86.

87.

both

was clearly

from

the

richer

shield

earlier,

Puwahhidun

and rumh spear

for

gave primacy
to

these

to protect

their

and largely

settled

regions

recruited

from

to

the Muwahhidun

appeared

Spain

cavalry,

in

in

the

1212 AD,

have
been
to
seem
weapons
cavalry,,

rumh spear

and sikTnnh

Al pakry
bpscripti©n
(Paris
trans.!
1913),

do 1ýAfrirttQ
p. 314,

swords

that

against

and infantry
in

however,
Nevertheless,

and infantry

cavalry

century

a defence

In addition

cavalry

They,

palisade

This

as

66

contribution

most original

mountains.

and 13th

fashion

was a chained

afford

of warfare,

12th

these

made armour

upon infantry.

extent

both

and Egyptian

them.

behind

illustrated.

of Las Novas de Tolosa

A little
dnreanh

coming

In equipments

more of

probably

the

a somewhat static

soldier.

their

carrying

style

of

better

Their

appalled

North African

shields

tuwahhidun
00

in

these

1086 AD.

standing

such a static

to such a large

fought

foot

lnmt

slightly

In

apparently

elsewhere,

leather

unnecessary

Zollaca

changed

Were used by those in the front

throwers$

weapons than was normal

never

certainly

battle

however,

ranks,

they

century,

khan ar large

dagger

for

SEtpntrional.

infentry.

dagger
67

De Slone

'ýAntar
the Kez7'c,h_and and the
"The Ha.uberkt
H. T. rJarrisp
(1978)s
IX
Society,
Armour
Arms
the
Romance.
Journal
of
end
*"
pp. 9£3-99.

cAlT
"
tho
"History
Alnohsdes,
naidh3g,
5anhäjT
Abü Sakr Ibn
of
al
al
d'Histairc
in ßacunenta Inedits
Almohades E. Vbvi-Provencal,
-pp.
(Paris
trana.,
124,172,177,194
1928),
edit,
nnd 199.
end

4-07
There

is

little

interchangeable
shield
but

between

by the

12th

in

Spaniards
first

century

(Fig.

century

A possibly
its

with

the kingdom's

leaders

of

seems likely

forces,

that

the

Christian

probably

It

has also

Varangians,

early

with

Since

operation$

by the

is

perhaps

from

the late

Sicily
a fleet

leather

Norman Sicily,

in

the
or

Their

the 9th

century,

clearly

fought

the

invasion

this

the banners

that

some Armenians,

of

to items

the Muslim

which

should

a number of
captured

doi Fsusulmnni di Sicivol.

A large

conquest.

this
and
both

were then

perhaps
not

also

also

was not

Egypt#

enter

It

foe.

Sicily

of

their
making

most references

the Byzantine

Amalfi

largely

the enemy into

years

Sardinia

such participation

who were
century.

Fätimids

from

in

perhaps

troops

the

population

following

shield

12th

won from

helped

been suggested
plus

small

prove'<ing

In those
booty

cane from

this

this

drawn up beneath

deal

contingent

in

soldier

During

by cavalry,

Be

Christian

rule.

of

in

style.

demilitarized

immediately

foot

had

version

and it

Margo

warriors

Sicily

CAbbasid

attack.

leather,

be adopted

Arab and Berber

originally

and covered

equipment

t+uslim

version

most dependable

infantry

first

as the

top may be seen in

those

traditional

involved

the

earlier

who conquered

ancestors,

later

would

a Muslim

of

been of

always

dnr

as the

532).

indented

the hands of

This

As for

kidney-shaped

a specific

the hands

such weapons were not

and horse.

Europeans

and other

that

had almost

the Ma1hhrib.

seen in

12th

foot

this

was concerned,

appeared

in

to suppose

reason

took

be too

under
part
89

surprising.

Russian-Scandinavian

while

serving

under

I, p. 397.

80.

Amari$ Stnrit

09.

C. Csahen,, "Um, texte peu connu reletif
au commerce oriental
Provincn
1e
ätorico
!
d' Amalfi au Xe siecle#"
`ýrchiv. oper
XXXIV n. 8. (1955)-, pp. 64-65.
NoDOlotnne.

the

cE-o8..
ßyzcntine

flog

during

their

would

almost

in Sicily,

conquest of Egypt.

of the lost

the warriors

suggests

that

infantry

and cavalry,

oliphants

that

decades

illustrate

various

shapes,

little

of this

island

in Sicily

were very mixed$ both
armed but there

Most were lightly

infantry
but

almost

impact
Muslim
true

on its

a long

was also

adult

time.

and cavalry,
Muslim

led by their

although

adis
own

under the Normans and their

Thoy provided

the available

engineers,

archers

opparontly

increased

troops

in

an emergency

tho
Harman
state
ns

appears

the paid Muslims
military

immediate successors.

and fought
Their

and heavy infantry.

it.,

unda provided

remained the real

backbone of Sicily
half

where

and Christian,

Nevertheless,

obligation.

had at

seems to have

this
territorial

Existing

male population,

to have had a military

and,

of

/ndalus

al

Sicily

of

organization

were concerned,

Norman,

heubnrks

in Muslim

paralleled

all

from early

or

or scale

mail

military

infantry

with

these,

The Norman conquest

infantry

for

undo

wearing

and 607).

the now rulers

of tho

decades of Muslim rule

have come from

might

597-602

the entire

operating

perhaps

minority

or cuirass

remained

of such troops

while the heavy hauberk
of armoured troops
92
Nurnorous carved ivory boxes and
was not unknown.

n substantial

indigenous

The. majority

91

The evidence

first

90

imids
r
by
the
employed

have been hoavy infantry,

certainly
Infantry*

as mounted

(rigs.

were later

as siege-

importance

also

grew more centralized,
39.

900

t3londa1

91.

Jbido

929

Gabriali,

93,

Normnnde. (Paria 1940),
Co Cahen, In R60imo Feod31 do i'Italio
(London
Sicily,
1912).
863pr
76
118;
E.
Curtia,
of
pp.
and

and 8onaditz,
p.

o2.,

--

p.

47.

"Gli

Arabi

in Spstgna e in Sicilia,

" p. 710.

da
la
Domination
371-372;
Niotpire
F.
Chalandon,
365
and
pp.
(Paris
Sicile,
Normande on Itplie
1907), uol. Il,
on
p. 535.
nt

4v -i
Co hJjhly
infantry

regarded were such troops
archers

Records
though
not

only

their

they formed a guard a?
94
the Royal Treasury.

for
their

in

princes

or. well

as cavalry$

troops

certainly

who fought

to

those

677,560,603,6045

Sicily*

warriors

of Norman rules97

mainland

Even after

the

of

and carry
from

infantry

to identify

were involved,

but also in attempto

the aubovquQnt HohenstziuFen destruction
98

and carvings

equiment

these

with

certainty

606 and 609).

Regular and auxiliary
the collapse

Yet f°uslirn

as both heavy and light

wear costume

Thus they may be impossible

aemo erase.

Africa.

Christian

of

95

may have been included
96
Such varied
only for booty.

Many may$ howeverp

were identical

or the Balkans,

others

on the paintings

appear

Norman kingdom.

while

are numerous,

warfare

Italy

in forth

co-roligioniots

Luang those volunteers

(rigs.

siege

also served in these war-zonos

infantry

that

in

achievements

Christian

against

against

Sicilians

of

that

recruited

by their

cro, sbownan of Lucern being particularly
This weapon had, of course,

in

to resist

of Isicm in Grestorn
to the Italian

the Muslims waro exilod

they were still

not only

new masters,

highly

regarded,

long been known in Sicily
funt, niua of Sici2

the
99

where it

(London 1957)0 p. 39.

94.

C. 3articons

95.

Gabrielij.
66-67;
F.
Ah,ind# np. cits
pp.
Studin I-11amica
des Normans do Sicilet"

964,

"Chronica
5lsvarums"
Lübecbcp
3761
Arnold
or
ßuckleri
p.
a2; citt
J2i
547,
I,
II
di
Sicilia
p.
val,
in Amari: ; tnrin dni f"usulmani

97.

Jwioonk

9¬3.

ývi-Pravenral,,
Mu;uimane
'iino heiraino do is resistance
E. i,
riaderna
Drionto
XIXIs
du
debut
9icilo
oiecio#"
on
au
xxxiv (1954)3, p. 286.

99,

ý'fh®nrfsa

a.

Admiral

citt

"Le Politiquo
Arabv
IX (1958)! PP, 92-93,

P. 114.

cit., ý, pp. 105-406.

L-lv
was used alongside

of Muslim
of

Egypt

n variety

Christians

ti'hile

Hot all

traditions.

Although

many accepted

faithful

to Christianity
their

but

Armenian
century

of

when they

would

formed

in

el

rulers,

100.

a quarter

in

of this

Armenian manuscripts

small

the

from that

Thereafter

100.

of almost
a groat

of

reappeared

period

Christian

in Hamdnida,

op

ulünids.

101

all

Armenia in the early

cits, ý, pp, 49-51.

MMirdranid

Some early

itself,
was
which

of the neighbouring

many Armenians,

and Fuslim

been
to
have
show armour

mostly

do in

of courses

Muslims (fig.

11th century.

".Notes cur lea
" Annolcýa do

rncuit6

242).

the Dyzantine

perhaps soldiers,,

Canard,
51;
49,.
M.
Qechir, bn, cit.
pp.
EgYpto
lf+ýpc)quo fatiniteý,
Armwiniena on

Bvatiir,

9th

when the Armenion mountains

queni-independent

Oriantalna
i' Inntitut
dfftudea
(1955)s pr 144.
d'Ac¬ý. rg XIII

901.

later

known as

capital

A major change seams to have taken place with
occupation

distant

century,

numbers by the

the Egyptian

of the F3yzantines,

not so different

10th

until

apparent

the

under

the

and among the E3yzentinen,

forces,
FFatimid
and

similar

in Muslim armies.

until

In the 10th century,

troops
few
Armenian
a

to that

very

nation. ýremoined

time
been
MMMuslimp
to
have
at
one
and
soon

between various

were divided

Caliphs

wore employed

Most such troops

?usnynlymh,

the

were not

mercenaries

a militia

had not.

of this

remained

which

to

10th

most of their

time lost

the majority

own region

those

communities were,

even when serving

control

effective

Islam,

armies

one in

from, the

The Armenians$ by contrast,

military

Outside

Christian

flany had by this

involved,

of course

eastern

the

in

an important

s"Nuolim"lends

central

610),.

role

a small

played

certainly

and the other

13th centuries.

have played

might

they

Sicily,

(fig.

of bows and slings

don Lettrea

4HI
to Fätimid

migrated

Egypt whore thoy formed an important

which was best known for

contingent

the bulk of such troops
their

Christian,
the limited

thou

shields

Cadr al
of

fnýimid

Caliphate

dominance

Oam lT,

even larger

to note
the

that

numbers

(Fig.

appears

troops

in

to

leaders
the recruitment

interesting

this

period

show

pseudo-1 i-fic
end other

eastern

104

of eastern

limited

in the late

With the Crusader occupation

and

from

of soldiers

recruitment

to be severely

Anatolia

11th

of the

in Looser Armenia in 1109 AD, however, many Armenian

apparently

offered

their

services

There they were to form the bulk of the
leadership

with

Coptic

and Crusader conquests

coast caused Egyptian

plain

of

Their

It

of around

variouz

politics

246)o

and 12th ccnturios.

uarriors

in

large

encouraged

103

shield

with

Armenian

AD.

1073/4

countrymen.

manuscript

itself

The turbulent
those

or

Unfortunately,

infantry

and thereupon

of his

the Armenian heartland

Cilician

in

Cairo

kite-sheped

also

The Saljüq
the Syrian

in

102

Armenia

illustrates

oven enabled

one Armenian

that

decoration

from

243).

became vizier

ss mo flat-bottomed,

sources

(fig.

pikes

military

it

Whether

archers.

was Muslim,

material

Rather

archers.

infantry

as would seem likely,

certainly

pictorial

end perhaps

the later
seize

leadership

available

does not

were Muslim,

its

military

Armenian,

of a Christian

became the Coliph'o

vizier.

105

to Fätimid
iashi
troops
u

Egypt.
under the

Bahräm, who subsequently

In fact,

most such Armenion infantry

102.

d
1'Epoýuca
Fzatirýido;
Uizir
Chr6tion
"Un
Ibýid. ý M. Canards
tudes
d'
flricantales
Institut
1'
dtý
Annnles
E3ahrrýtf"
1' Fircaýnian
(1954
&
WI
97,
KII
tiottros
p.
don
In
do
Fncult6
i

103.

Canards "Notes sur lea 11rr.
i6nicna
ßoahira, 10cs-citz;
m 1' 6poque Fatinites"
p. 145.

104.0o
105.

, hirs, 1oc, cit.
Canards "t1n Vizir

Chrction!

" pp. 94-97.

on Egypte

4-12
in Egypt were now apparontly

archers

These Armenians were clearly
for

employers,

they

where

serving

fought

often

The influence

In

manuscripts
Byzantine

persistent
century
while

Frankish

(Fig.

654).

had retained

as occasional

before

in sono later
role

cnd light

retained

infantry
allies

tho Franks arrived

in Crusading warfare

P"uslin

states

groat

degree,

samm time

there

opposing

a result

of the Franks'

Crusader emphasis on close

1318 1,D
East

they

the

Armeninnn:

are best

probably

remembered

served

The partially$

or

who played"such

consisted

of both infantry

Crusades.

cooperation

an

seem to have been crchere.

was a revival

the

dated

cries

they chiefly

On foot

they

in Syria.

Syrian

cases wholly,

cavalry.

At this

of

Crusaders.,

13th

250 and 251),

like

They,

107

into

the Maronitoc

although

and although

archers

or

as

in the Middle

communities

an exception.

the

248'

a manuscript

traditions,

Snljuns

as well

mid-

various

in

obvious

Christian

such martial

were effective

iiportünt

is

and wider

states

and the

Muslim

(Figs.

Armenia

siege

employers nay be reflected

warriors.
in

testes

Crusader

lards,

otn

ninglo

styles

influence

of Mount Lebanon

locally

showing

Few other

the

Shayaart

of those varied

from ocstern

sources

in both

Syria

their

under

106
of Süm.
Arncnian

of

in their

catholic

Nur Al DTn of

the rungidhitos

oporationoi

Christians.

Yet

of
this

infantry

in

was not,

to any

own reliance

those

on heavy infantry.

between horse and foot

106.

ibn
Munqirl,,,
733;
t)sänah
Elisa6Qffs
p.
op. cit.
ýhfl*ýý
3rs#
"Byzantine
ldryanis
S.
47;
itw
Smails
106;
p.
ari
p.
in
their
Turkish
Societies
of
manpawvrj"
sources
and
and
J.
Enst
V.
Parry
is
the
f4idd.
in
Socis±t
Usr Technolo
sand
(London
141.
1975)p
Yapp
4l.
E.
p.
edita.
and
a,

107.

Smailsa..

108.

Usamah ibn rungidh,
p. 51; Smail,
orLcit,
p. 112; Arnwars ap, cýitw pp. 340-341.

cit.

pp. 52-53.
o2, cit,

lps

413
in open battle
ccployed
of

3azlra

by both 3yzantinea

earlier

infantry

in

from

thoco

the

minor

was more a revival

nomadic

tribes

of

depended,

In addition

the Zangids of the Jozlra
crossbowman,
infantry

with

in

warfare,

siege

cmployed urge

shield#

apoar

mentioned

Din chose

such

foot

again

face

soldiers

Comparable

infantry

spears$

rdfyoh
.

hauberk
the

Usämah ibn

rungidh.

in art

"enemy" warriors
267).

Cahons

110,

tÄlissnafi"j

111,

Ih.i äs

112,

llsaMoh ibn

mentioned
they

or small.

or figures

"UpYý

11ZgCS.

oes-ci.,

_.

in

probably

done#III

daggerp
a mail

with

served

of

in most

may also be

particularly

where

the Sins are concerned

almost certainly

to be noen in

Cit.

pp. 733-735.

p. 742,
i"unqf d'. s
,_1_4ýit,

c jnt-)rT

tho memoirs

Such infantry

symbolizing

however,

h

nikn

apparently

from the Crusader states,

They are,

1p0f

all

In factlo

areas isms

armies of this
reflected

112

are

helmets

manners

tc rs shield,

sword,

41hon

battle'

set-piece

had long

of naptha*

and khüdh :n

110

a traditional

as they

cavalry

grcnades

face,

in

specializing

notablo.

in opens

fought

armed with

garrah

across

avantail

enemies

their

with

mail

his

seem to have

cooperating

or ruý,

(fig.

to

and heavy

Aleppo

were particularly
Gur al

abovo3

numbers of archers,

and man from

KhuräsanTa

SaljUqs
109

frontiers.

Anong those

and piko.

12th

as those

napthat hrowers

12affatTn

the

in

occurred

such as those

siogo--angineers,

and the

upon whom the

horse-archero,,

Armcnians

Syria

Saljügo

It

tke
tcT
* were rele-gaEQcl

to

The revival

over

Great

tradition,

of

Turkish

took

or the

empire

to thoso tactics

and Fatinida.
that

states

crumbling

contury

had largely

no different

was ossontially

74-. 75 and 124.
Pp.
s

ah

4-I4
many pictorial

from the Muslim side of the t'rontieri

sources

and the Caucasus to the ioztra

from /zorbeyjZn

renging

In most cases their

is traditional,

oquipment

(Figs.

ci'ordo now shown more frequently
386' 420,422

423).
and

Infantry

remained

They nay#

Ayyübida.
on the

offensive

DTn'o

armies

included
plus

h

Junior

mnm

as mounted$
Syrian

various

and Mosul,

Aleppo

Open battle

avoid.
still

plus

behind

except
existing

that

114.

of

infcntry
that

highly

regarded

siege

militias

troops

of

men

specialist

113
infantry,

facing

facing

cavalry

both Franke and Ayyubids tended to

to al jcrsüsT,

Muslim foot

spear,

soldiers

were

the
in
of
cavalry,
ranks
ahead
up
tall

it
as
remained

javelin

more than marely theoretical

Thereafter,

shields.

had for

centuries,

nrkh crossbow to their

the
could now add

of sward,

on foot'

and local

anuiAºah and tares h

the infantry

times
confederation#

levies,

between horse and foot

arsenal

were clearly
113,

with

Kinanch

tribal

recorded.

to drew themselves

a wall

cooperation

,

Ca1 h'a1

to fight

trained

relied,

the Fatimid

from

some
comparable
--

are all

according

trained

the

cities,

was an issue
Yeti

other

that

was

at different

but

inherited

Islam

castles.

the large

of

were also

while

from Lhurýasän itselfj

cavalry,

troops

and other

states

massive

constitution,

and cavalry

373,376,380:

now that

of Crusader

their

of

curved

Sa1nh o1 0Th cnd the

have increased

their

Arab infantry

Caliphate.

fron

in

though with

310,372$

under

a string

defences

varied

cenil

as wall

indeed,

against

an the

above ally

important

itself.

and bow.

114

Such tactics

and cocm to have been

Gibb,f "Tha ArnioS 'Of Golmdin e' lococit.
144,
Ii
22
vo1.
nnd
op.
pp.
ý,
_cit,,
Al »crsüaT. pp cit,,,
125-126,
pp.
o

j

cImäd

öl Oln,

4-15
used by ýalýý

DTn's

al

Comparable troops

be illustrated

may well

Those Muslim

during

116

infantry.

battle

open

Arabic

place.
involved

in

such trained,

'
and

Latin

sources

agree

fighting

varied

greatly

equipped

infantry
the

"nong

items

nrTidah

Zirürnh

flano--throw©rst

bogs!

forms. of rncntlet,

fact

fron

just

some of

equipped

Itinnrnriun

appear

in both

Pornprinorun$

Anon.,

1160

ttunciman,

117.

[3ahä nl DTn, °pýciiý
p. 77; anon.,
mad al Dln, a_ts.
AP. G4 and 78;
150,164 and 191.

cInxd
1113.

o2,

al Dln,

"

dir

vol.

on, citsa

III,

pp.

p.

p.

h
haubprks

plus

other

an e 'fvc'tive
11'

mlall al

: fn's

troops

spear

Christian

cros3boWf,,

clhu}n

to build

siege

double-

'gtu"sas'° or

narýthn

s, ýl.elds,

a short

115,

cit,

Irkh

lances.

the best

with

horserien.

spears,,

shiolcc,

after

armour,

protected

doggcrst

zarEZL

used

and

swordss

These, various

shows an infantryman
troops

arms

become trench-warfare.

virtually

where

their

ormoured,

untnri,

often

troops

fluslim

heavily

are

lorz : her

large

117

in

source

the region

recruited,
Similarly

ati11

hauborks'

were

One pictorial
from
and

but

grenadosi,

nlnb

shields.

in what

shield-wall

naptha

hah nail

leather

and n< an

to

raacoa, light

or knobbed

turn shieldoý
... ý....

snbi

warriors

a Fortiriec=

of

the

in

nenn

could

blockedo
that

mentioned

equipment

of

or

siege

and dismounted..

edged axes,, winded

spearsp

the

professional

infantry

Ayyübid

of

course,
of
.,,

during

such

lightly

thnnIßh

This

the

who opened

the role

however,

to siege-warfare,

was limited

sortie.

166).

cnc( javelin-throwers

archers

Genorally,

one major

115

in a Coptic Gospel

of Arouf in 1191 AD may have included

battle

from

at

Ayyübid Egypt (Fig.

from early

.

garrison

oºýkkmh

c1ýý 'ýj

were

(rig.

"r)A).

and

slim,
,u

nrt

26.

56.

t'ßroý..rinorurr
Itinnrüriu^ý
75,4':
'1-#
pp.
,
ý

135 and 191.

If 16
of

this

that

area

these

the

in

men and their

century

indicate

and probably
lasted

reputations

(Figs.

invasions

flongol

following

2013,, 2139,292,294¢

the

up until

right

296r-299,302,305

and 306).

Puny of the same troops,
continued

to serve Salnh al Din's

to appear

in

also

cuirasses#

by bare

Ayyübid

feet

are

they

certainly

of

also

seen to have been infantry
which

specialized

even in
siege

Europe.

engineers,

Oyzentiun
extent

throughout

skirmishers,
and heavily

Most would

javelin

probably

period.
throwers,,

infantry

would
area

first

in

emerged,
infantry

or

to fight

120.

Al HarawT,, "Los Conaaila du

to a great

divided

into'light

(Fig.

20G),

in ranks (Fig,

199).

or archers

slingors

XVII (1961-1962),

the

forces

They were early

Saurdal-Thomino

Christendom,

like.
the
and

archers

on its

from

have been heavy

'T1ufarrij
JaraFalal DTn Ibn ttasil,
of tha
Ayyub, " in Arab Histariana
p. 235,

Drientalae

most seem

proportion

troops

Mercenary

119.

J.

change.

horsemen.

course,

was,, of

which

trained
men
armoured

Ayyübidas"

siege

177) as indicated

troops
larger

Much the

crosabowrzen,,

this

and

not

on foote

(Fig.

attracted

professional

was relying

did

spears#

puttee.

of

Islam

of

to be dismounted
infantry

sworde,

tärinsh

variety

similarly

and

equipment

of

_irnuwTynhv

and a great

and foot-wear

and Catholic.

Orthodox

turd

shows many warriors

art

Their

same, consisting

and training

and a sort

The armies
both

tactics

equipment

rarely

the

houborka,

mail

Their

later

by their
Only

art

Ayyubid successors#119
170 and 172).

bows, crossbows
$

shields,

equipment.
Uhilo

(rigs.

seems to have remained

kr burn
other

Iyyübid

the ex-raa imid Kinannh,

including

s31 Kurlib fl akhbär sani
Crunadca, Gabriali
Qdit..

ýyrý

äl Harawl. `ä un princEa

trans.,

pp.

Guilvtin

232-239.

d' Etudcr

120

417
Even during
heavy

Cyzantiumic

and light

infantry

provided

a secure

charges$

while

an offensive

constantly

in

appear
(Figs.

and heavy
included
by the

Anatolia
lesser
the

the

infantry

it

does not

frontiers,

included

also

the

combat
those

of
of

such

name tactical
limes

provincial
frontier

Following

regions

to

limes

the disasters

far

123

in effect,

of the Saljüq

among

weapon.

In

infantry

tight

the

art

207 and 214-216).

invasions

sought to revive

central

infantry

to be seen in
(Figs.

from

troubled

up by powerful

persisted.

as Cappadocia

the

was'

popular

are probably

in

regions

numbers of heavy

concepts

recruited

and to a

casalr'y

were backed

large

certainly

effectiveness

from peaceful

of

and 2200)

122

century.

became an increasingly

whom the battle-axe

211,217

seem to have applied

troops

Such frontier
that

forces

levies

Once again they

were almost

aristocratic

More a now system

provinces.

up.

set

local

also

121

military

its

as skirmishers

and mercenaries

the 9th

Byzantine

of

deliver

could

(figs.

prisoners

The fornor

role.

fight

Such troops

during

a? foctod

to

light

art,

Byzantine

decline

chiefly
extent

border

Byzantine

Egypt

of

the cavalry

continued

212 and 220A).

Tülünids

a vital

in broken country.

role

among those

Mile

from which

infantry

and play

to play

continued

square

light

phase in the 10th century,

offensive

its

during
infantry

the
forces*

later

11th century,

121"

Howmrd-4ohnson# ap_.: Itap

122.

Oosworth,, "Armies or tho Prophvt, " p. 2031 Hassanj a
p. 168.

123.

Fsollus,
144;
142
Howarsi-.Onhnsaný a. cit.
and
pp.
ý o,
ý cit, ý
"ßeux
tdarmands
Chefs
Schlumbargerg
G.
30,4?
141;
pp.
and
des Armees Dyzo,ntines au XIa 5ic cles, " Revue f iiatrarinups
XVI t1ßS1)a

124,

Byzantium

p.

pp. 202-206.

299.

Chal+endon, Leo Cmmnenoo - Etudna our li Em ixa
vol.!,
pp, 279»279 and vo1. II, p. 21.

Q zantin

cit.

124

GX

>< -><

C xxx

I

418
Again

light

though

and heavy

former.

These troops,

the heavy with
clearly

enjoyed

siege

however,,
than

warfare

domestically

throughout

its

Such troops

long

was infantry,,

231,233,2370

Dithynia

and the

now frontier

against

of

by those

to appear

in

skilled

Saljüq

sultans

or as

rnd7r'gunrds

mountainous

The 5alJüq

of the ruler

no had earlier
Iran,

of

rulers

almost
provinces

troops

15th

in Turkish

style.

centuries.

twilight

(rigs.

No doubt

guerrilla,

üyzantium's

along

recruited

a horseman,
In general$

troops$
been
to
havo
armoured
seen

the

and siege

engineers

Some, however,

seem

and 262).

employed

fought

it

warfare

who chose

257,250

Rüm also

age

to serve

himself.

apparently

heavy enough to dismount
lcssoo

to

with

cavalry,

mercenary

Georgien

boon recoirim,ended to the Great Saljüq

Some Georgian*

seem
though

and 656).

Most were captives

to heue been mercenaries176

skilled

who were now so eagerly

Rüm as garrison

of

would

of this

art

defensive#

the Turks,,

same Turks.

the

in

cýntury.

less

Byzantium$

12th

230,655

the

other

in

the

during

12th

This

shield,,

shield,,

itself

and foreign

recruited

continue

223,23Db

foes.

the

in

125

situation

decline

or small

now found

its

many of

an the

bow and small

large

success

Byzantium

the military

additional

of

222 and 225),

a concentration

armed with

a good meacura

to have remained

(Figs.

the light

axe,, sword and either

Paradoxically,,
in

corps

seem to have forcod

circumstances

(figs.

were organized

as infantry

Others fought

127

troopss

of

rulers

javelins

using
with

bow and

however$ these 'Georgians

mostly

mounted, but well

able

620--622.
610-619
and
Pp.

125.

ib id, a, vol.!!,

126.

(London
19613),
230-234*
Turkey.
pp.
At#.
C. Caheni r.Pro..
oman
r
*
r
*
r.

1270

Uryonio*

loc.

4-tq
to fight

on foot

when the need arose,

to have had more in 6m. on with
than with

noighboura
(Fig"

apparently

but

Slav

acquired

and were trained
homes.
and r

inid

perhaps

as slaves

and Kurdish

there

from in

Fä»imid

close

Venice

They may,, in

131

.

to

fact,,

recorded

troops

CawCp comparcblo

and elsewhere,,

of their

that

0Abbäsid

now

as early

Iraq.

as the late

have been numbered
in

may also

Cairo

in

of Italy

of tho ruslim

that
East,,
11th

among rum n1

1005 AD.

have werved_in

many

republics

the Middle

with

129

mercenaries,,

maritimo

contact

Tho infantry
,

They were

styles

European

Italian

at least

Egypt

and

Franks.

commercial

is ^h mercenaries

not dissimilar

Spain,,

those

or around

are known in

force'

origin.

via

the sn nlibnh

included

more varied

Ifrlgiyah

were the

in

century.

Islam

served in the armies of both julünid

Achlcbid

were already

trios,

seem

Turks or ayzontines

from youth in the military

Egypt,

130

in

serving

probably

Such sa nlib h

Finally

lulunid

Arab,, Persian

the more specialized

troops

foreign

supposed

s,taz
u

their

As such they

421).
Other

of

120

In this

Namdanid and earlier

was, at this

time,

side of tho r"editerranean

560-.562,, 565,563. -571 and 574),

do
Gýorgie
"Los
Rcinco
39
M.
1213. Rsolluo, Q2. cit.
Canards
p.
in
Revue
Ia
legende
Mans l1hiotoira
n
musulmanesi"
et
Rustýhovali,
17;
1969
op.
Etudeß Islnmi
p.
xx>cV1I
en
a
_cit.
ans iri.
129.

Caowarth, ººRecruitment, fluster and Review in rmdiova2 Ia1a;ýic
63-67;
34-38
Veahir=
6C-57=
end
Arniosi"
ciý
ý,,,
p,,,
pp.
) with Iraqi Pvrsiai
Imanuddin, "Cn.-mmrcial Relations cf Spain 7,
Khurosen, China and Indin in the Tenth Century AC. " p. 179.

130.

Canard, ººLa Procession
pp. 332-393.

131,

G®shir# ap

du 14quvol. An chex lea F'otimidc+si n.

pp,, 51-52.

_.

4-zo
the confusion

After
of relatively

fixed

Christian

both.

warriors

those of the 12th century

Vhcthcr

Others may also hovo oorvod in Ayyübid Syries

which

thaw

were,

in

released

in

12th

Crusader

prisoners

adventurers
Curopoan

high In the Saljüq
after

134
Iran
r in134

while

sultanate

locally

junior

Unlike their

dismount

also

ahd fight

information

recruited

on foot.

fought

sailors

mercenaries.

Such

their

state

the
first
from
comes

Their

numbers were

the Mongol invoaiunsp
for

the 1lkh7ns

of Delhi,

of

135
seems to

the
from
drawn
ranks of
or

Frankish foes, oven the
and indeed trained:

preparod,
!lost

homes in many

in Egypt and Syria

aristocratic

wore quite

mr,#,

before

the Sultana

of the ttanlük

haue been either

most senior

from

particularly

57gß 502 and 5ß7)o133

and perhaps even for

nrnm

for

serving

dato others

The infantry

others)

from

recruited

centurios,

Italian

apparently

(Figs,

this

13th

end early

were already
armies

though theaa

by their

the lots

were

included

as renegades
co-raligionists
reason,
ý6r_so,
Rün,
Some of these latter
"1eXwere not.

Sal jüq

and crosabawmen,

soon

is unknowns but they probably

have boon regarded

uhilo

132

service.

would

quite

Crusade and the establishment

west Europeans F'rankisht

or infantry

were cavalry

First

between the SalJügs of R-um and their

frontiers

neighbours,

appeared in Saljüg

of the

of the earliest
half

that
to
supposo
reason

available

of the 14th century,
there

to

but

there

is little

132,

"An Account of the Battle of Nattin referring
J. Richordi
ýiosý.om ýtateaý, " ýaS
to Frankish iaorconarioa in Oriental
XXVII (1952)j pp. 169 and 171; Cohent Pre-Ottoman Turkey.

133.

Richord'q

1340

Tbid,

1350

Yar ruha { ad Khan, o

on-j- cit.

pp* 172-"174,

p. 174.
ci t-ý

p. 22,

uarcteny

major changes

1oawý,
cit.

4z1
during

the

Some of

first

the

first

be superior
and that
in hostile
these
the

former

were infantry
encounters,

with

an

A great

deal

always
for

13

their

protecting

in both

advance

sources

that

infantry
earlier

list

sources

drawn from

archers

the

in

in

acted

settled

a great

of

variety

sworda$

axes$

Syria,

of

communities

or for

were small

Palestine

dnra nh and larger

In attack

cavalry.

dabbüs al muhnrrafah

nacass

winged

described
there

are

bowsý

pp, 3-X5 and 336.-33?.

136.

Al AgsarosT,
0

137,

ctlmar

130.

Al AnsarTi oaLcit,,

139.

107;
104-105
al Agsarä'T,
Al AnsarT,, op__cit ,. pp.
and
pp. 325 and 337-338,
op

140.

palpstind
in EgYpt, Syria,
Feudalism
A. N, Poliak!
pp.
(London 1939)s
11-14.
l. ßbanon, 1250-190tI,

op, cit.,

these

arms and

though the armour to be worn 15 rarely

taý,.,
br

in

as they

tenrinnh shields,
as specifically

infantry

recognized

For defence there

infantry

cooperation

from hostile

and Lebanon*140

for

such

and pursue

scatter

as effective

quite

or

been
to
have
seem
of
many
whom

to be used by infantry,

armour

and how

139

centuries.

These various

check,

in

given

defensive

was, however,

were no longer

136

the latter.

against

own cavalry
It

and defence.

is

attention

apparently

still

warfare,,

and cavalry#

tb"

to

encampment while

to be on the

were expected
they

of

infantry

considered

Similarly,

horsemen,

had been in

they

army's

themselves

defend

infantry

or defensive

to defend

to combat between

Mamlük state.

declare

still

in "cautious"

137

can best

the OahrT

of

manuals

vital

were

territory,

works

cavalry.

furl

to cavalry

they

century

war-torn

ibn 2briihim al AwBT al AncarT,
TndbTr Al Nurüb. A t"uslin iinnunlofUer.
(Cetra
1961)9 p 87.

Tnfffi

Agaarä'T#
72;
p.
al

al. Kurüb fT
G. T. Scanlon trans3. #

lnrcz, cit.

ths

4z.z
rumh spears,

Crusader

infantry

to be as varied

312,649

they

infantry

mobile

role

even in

141.

cavalry

their

in
of

swords

the areas
13th

that

including
14th

and early

equipments

the period

and

(Figs.

from
Muslim

century

offensive

or defensive,

274,301,3119

273!

and 650A).
Whether

major

of

shows late

states,

as were Muslim

khan ar short

the art

Similarly,

macQat141
the

javelins,

znrig

and

farces

to play

the tiamlük

Al Anaarls

participated

o

primarily

infantry

in open battle,

in Muslim
state

cit.

of

warfare

in

troops

as siege

the

late

clearly
13th

or as
had a

century,

5yt id and Egypt.

pp. 107-108;

al Aqýsra'ý.

loc. ciý.
,,

3
ý-z
CHAPTER 7

EUROPEAN INFLUENCE IN AL ANOALUR

Cavalry probably
throughout

the

to north
this

the

had long

area

in

poor

of

and in

and Berbers

during

the

first

phase of

is

importance

horsemen,

an important

while

the

827/8

AD would

Andalusian

earlier,
littoral

than with

in Spain.
yet

to rise

Christian
could

their

cldärT

3

Cultural

very

feel

of

Histnire

the
been

such

long,
in

both

infantry,

mounted

Muslim

numbers

raids

enlistment

8th

the

This

more in

common with

in
must

had, of

As mentioned
Mediterranean
Arabs

though Christian$

dn 1tFsnnnntý

trend

I

of many indigenous

height.
century

the Pyrenees,
Sicily

of

barriers

and religious

seem to

of

norT

to the conaueot

to any significant

near-barbarian,

Lý"viýProvenrýal
pp. 53-G5.

in

by the rapid

rulers

still

invasion,

their

seen to have been mounted.?

also

in

had themselves

increasing

least

or at
part

and

Islam.

contribution

have been reinforced

courser

in

elsewhere

Certainly

warriors

were already

neighbours

conquerors

to have persisted

unlikely

its

peninsula

in horses

Muslim

Arabs

as cavalry

have taken

on its

the

affairs

particularly

been rich

Although

cavalry

a state

in the Iberian

Compared with

Ages.

was bound to have an effect

Bth century.

1,

Dark

so-called

and south,

to flourish

continued

and ferbors

Frankish

neighbours

fylusulmrýne, va1. I!

Ibn al
"Al f3ayan o1 f'?aUhribg" In f3yz. nce et les Arnbes.
(flrusa; ols 1935)9 vo1. I» p. 374; Amari,
trano.,
A. A. Uasiliev
marin rtci Musulmýani di 53cilin.
pp. 394"395.
vol.!,
......
.
..... ....
nchez-Al,
3.5
bornaz$ "El Ejecito
y la Guerra en ei Rein© A3turleone-cy"
? 16-1037.
301.1
p.
t"
2.

ý-zrL
to the north.

to have felt

unlikely
mercenaries
this

Hence Flaurontiua,
many ethical
his

against

time

the ftarrhrib

and many Christian
5th century,,

foes

in 736-739
converted

thorn

flourished

still

ADo4
to

is
Muslim

enlisting

engaged in a slave-trade

apparently

At

Islam

in the

between europe

5

were first
enrolled
a[
Tr
in at Andalue by the Umeyyod n
Hak= I in

as mal; k troops

8th and early

while

of Provence:

about

to be fully

had yet

Slaves from the north

Islam

qualms

Carolingian

communities

and the Muslim world.

the late

the Patrician

and Spanish captives

9th centuries.

some ware not.

Spanish

to

Soma were converted
mercenaries

similarly

employed

al

by, Hakem's successors almost certainly
retained their Christian
6
ýaith.
highly prized in the mid-10th
European mtm,auks were still
ý,
century when they were described as heavily armoured cavalry
carrying spears,
Wearing helmetas both hauberks and cuirasses,
7
item does
The latter
horna.
small shields and gilded buffalo
appear somewhat later
or this

There in,

at

in facto

of the north

Traditions

many types

being

Coolers

found

op.

time,

though

south

the

of

with

finer

religious

is hard

the Christian
wealthy

of military

genre

throughout

identical

almost

were probably

this

at

that

to suggest

the rest
Iberia

throughout

were poor in such armour, while

and otylea

the peninsula
equipment

evidence

was known to manufacture

Andalus

but whether

art,

the ideal

equipment reprocentod

to nay.
states

in Asturian

and more abundant
divide.

p. 152,

S.

F. E. Engreen$ "Pope John the
XX t195Q39 p. 321.

60

Levi-prQvangal:
pp. 71-16.

Nistoire

7.

ibf d. s vol. Ilit

p. 196.

Eighth

de Ms.

and the

Arnbs, " c elýý

a, no Musulmane

vo1. iII,

C xxxl

I

C xxk

11t

425
Such a degree
in

proved,

of

a variety

and fluslimo

of

10th century.

though

tradition

of

in ruslim

tier

homogeneous

in

centuries.

Asturin

rest

of

their

Christian

traditions

in

al

this

may only

Subsequent
Spain

would,

Navarre,

largely

Christian
infantry

warfare

make such

to

establishment

in the 9th conturyp"

decpiýo

France,

for

more important.

even when other
on arena

France after

the

Spanish (larch

though temporary

90

Ibid.

10, Cooler,

ap

pp. 1513nnd 165.

for

and Catalonia

11
foino
Guerra
"El
to
Ejecitu
Sa.
el
on
y
nchez-Albarnoz,
710-1037, " pp. 299,E 301,303--304 and 331-333.
"La Ccba2leria

elites.

in medieval

9.

Senchoz-Albornoz.,

similar

military

Aragon

short-. lived

a noticeablo

with

in

remained

by southern

the

Visigothic

dominance

the mountains

By contrast,

of the Carolingians'

to

influences

to push south,

influenced

off

aristocratic

French

throughout.

from

developments

and military

limited

cut

seem to have been

Leon and Caatilet

their

however,

and 11th

by contacts

political

started

to
be greatly
were

Visigothic

the 8th

true

remained

by military

being

states

a

were not,

states

reinforced

have affected

however,

of

were virtually

and thus

Andalus.

CastilivEn

persistence

between

styles

probably

influenced

superficially
but

military

Europe

a feature

indicate

Christian

of minor

and Gnlicia

tradition,

probably

Cordova

unconscious,

medieval

Andalus.

al

The northern

cavalry#

tradition

the early

in

Asturin-Loon
in

course

Christiana

to Visigothic

clinging

any such similarities

comparable,

that

hardly

as spears and swords in the early

Christian

of

though

plus armoured and light

Since a conscious

Was characteristic
period,

on infantry

bows so well

some of whom carried

indicated,

These suggest

sources.

both relied

0

is

similarity

Visigodn.

" p.

influx

Aoturleones,

10B.

of IuSlin

influence

the latter

during

half

of the 10th century

at a time when French power was at a singularly
To come extent

variations

such

may have been reflected

Building

upon a Visigothic

Christian
and
.

true

of

Spain

lacked

.

h; zin

of

elite

almost

a greater

number of

full-time

and European
in

cavalrymen

non-noble

The military
troops

time

by foes
being

despite
as were

and their
Europa,

of

11.

the

of

and outside

feudal

these

replacement

levies

levies

qualities

for

organized

much lower

warriors,

quality,

frontier,

the

from

both

North

and for

Africa

Here,

opinion

in which

Mu3lima1

particularly

more broadly

full-

The gradual

Europe.
of

by other

the

these

The rest,

side

poor

was

forces.
of

Europe,

the peninsula.

such an inferiority.

were hold

Iberian

on the Muslim

the generally

armies

were experienced

throughout

by mercenaries

must have reinforced

tribally

elite

male

obligation.

feudal

such

feudal

bore
of

capabilities

scars to have been of

mounted,

one reason

fighting

greatly.

inside

comparable

downgrading

As in

and professional

aristocratic

respected

lies

differed

an army

warriors

military

occasional,

those

characteristics

the rest

while

warfare,

of Muslim

structure.

produced

nevertheless

though

between

the states

and economic

of professional
continuous

The main difference

various

divide

and muttnwwicrh

a quasi-feudal
social

but

had a real,

also

foundation,

the essential

feudalism

a small

the brunt
society

frontier

soon developed

many of

European

in which

among the

tho religious

of

of Islam to the south.

volunteers

Thin

north

low ebb*11

and

perhaps,
Andalusian
those

war-orientated

French and Cntnlan
The ßevela mnnt or southern
A. R. lewist
7113--1050 (: ustin#
Texass 1965)0 P. 1910
Snciet

4-z7

12

flanhrib.

Of couroes religious

but these were again inexperience

armies

who served for only
the

hnz n participated

howovers

have been "a society
for

internal

its

organizations

against

the

of

similarly

for

warlike

Straits
forces

fron

Christian

Franks

Even within

Spain

Into

0th

hundred

face of

very

large-scale

fewer

far
,

development

occurred

when the kingdom
Couroa

be revived

levies

thus

and its

proved

professional

troops.

the very

of

at

Asturin-Leon

of

a matter

generally

enabling
armies

its

start

against

French

hands

is
this

of

were
in

raid

tradition

three

in

the

important
period

static

Visigothic

the

and reprisPil

The host

seized

to mirror

for

ineffective

the plaino

once again

6th

organization

changed

was generally

batter

was established

territory

little

and

14

of military

Once a frontier

Uarfare

yearn.

forms

tested

as the

and southern

France.

northern

such

successful.

century,

in which

of

for

fared

¶panicrds

of

the Pyrenees

Even as early

(ndalum

al

was organized

were rarely
of

north
13

may indeed

Spain
it

was$

the effectiveness

and equipment

Gibraltar,

of

main^, t the

notably

but

wars"

neighbours

bast's

Medieval

In such struggles

organized

not

river

organized

experience

r1uslim

century,,

then

issue.

conflict.

equally

south

separate

in which

fighting,

on a much more long-tarn

an entirely

of muttnwicah

C4 consisting

Frontier

one campaign.

big

could build

enthusiasm

the

north

of

of

cavalry

those

of

to

Muslim.

12.

Ga.briali'
"Gli Arabi in Spagna e in Italia., " p. 711; Lovif7-68.
IxIý
l'Csýaoncý
Histcýircý
pp.
dn
("usulnanevol.
provencalý
r

13.

"A Socioty
Organized
L. Louria:
Post nnd Present
XXXV (1966),
,....... _..ýý,. _,

RA.

Lawies 'The Devc*lo r,*nt

15,5e©1ars

opip. c itt

for Vor:
!! s9in.

of Southern

p. 162.

r-odieval

Spaing"

Frpnch and Cntnlsn

Societ

al

1+zý

Andalus,

states

A comparable
the

of

Pyrenees

Ebro were reached
of

that

course,

of a distant

did
the

in
the

Visigothic

of

sources

(Figs.

the

those

of

Andalus

cl

(Figs.

century

One might

(Figs.

the

494 and 507).

506--509),

art

the

the

fact

10th

its

in matters

regions

adopted

account

the

newer

of

nature

the cavalry

been slow to adopt the stirrup
continued
16.

Ibid,

to ride

Visigoths

styles

tendentious

Umayynd Cordova,

the

without

pp. 165-166.

from
of

10th

warriors
like

equipped

and as con1an,

495,496,504
of

legacy

and

Europe.

gave the

Iberian

it

soon seems to

elsewhere

in

the Muslim

may have stagnated,

and equipment

to

cavalry,

of

In fact,
styles

the

of

art

the rest

Visigoth

seem to

similar

illustrates

from

by developments

Andalus

the

(Figs.

have been overtaken
ei

be very

are as similar,

century

the

of

co-religionists

and were probably

divorced

that

a head-start

peninsula

in
art

Infantry

and are equally

Despite

Other

or Muslim,

of

shown here

They may, however,
appear

the

in

Christian

century

their

common with

504 and 507).

surviving

16

be traced

in mid-9th

The warriors

who first

who may be Chriatian.
both

in

those

see a celebration

almost

cavalry

Europe.

of

was then,

than

rather

to some degree,

can,

nothing

rest

France

the

of

It

centuries.

of

Christian

the plains

until

and 12th

502 and 503).

have virtually

among the

cavalry

occur

styles

Asturo-Leanese

revival

in

11th

of

past were to come to the fore,

the peninsula.

of

not

cavalry

Such developments
art

revival

clinging
whereas

Central

Asia.

Ibn hawgal's

to the

world.

riding

the eastern

Islamic

Even taking
descriptions

4

into
of

of Umayyad Spain do seem to have
flared
the
and

stirrups,

using

flat

saddle.
saddles

Many
that

were

in

CXkx

ý/

little

mare than

course.,

padded

Flat

saddles,

true

loop

and true

stirrups

(Figs.

period

was merely
Iberian

all

exaggerating

the

10th

was not
the

11th

Christian

Yet even here

(figs.

or buff-leather,
17.

Mnnhhrib.

the

indicate

or rope

art

in both

the

of

that

north,
only

bit,

Ibn Hawgol
.
parts

the

of

Europe

and not

this

the

in

494 and 507)19

full

the

or
helmet

On the other

and even possibly
5ürat

so true

al Ard

century,

the

until

nl

Andslus.

dedicated

frontier

of

in

and heuberk
hand armours

quilted

12th,

armour and helmets

lack of metallic
was not

who immediately

and Sicily

Spain

adopted

of

the

10th

felt

ormours may not only

p. 113.

"E1 Ejecito
10.5änchaz-Albornozy,
y in
änes$
718-1037. q" p. 334.
t,sturl

Guerra

en el

Reino

19.

303-.
304;
Ibn
flaiyan!
Mulük,
Sir;;
Al TurtüshTy
pp,
al
"Ejecito
in Sanchez-. Albornozp
F. todera tranav
y in
334..
335,
718-1037a"
Asturlvoncss
ßoina
pp.
el

20.

"Gli
Gabrielis
tvvi-Provenýaljq
pp. 9()--112.

Arnbi in
Nintoirp
ý w.
w.:

by

either

10th

the

at

(Figs.

0th

the Maohrib

outside

widely

elite,

a full-time

Ibn Hswgal! Kitab

from

greater

use from

introduced

certainly

for

gave a rider

in widespread

by the 0yzantines

18

to the horse's

apply

which

or by traders

to have worn

20

however,

had been known since

was a definite

was likely

century

in

of

are,

leather

stirrups.,

might

was probably

western

century

there

curb

was almost

Adopted

known in

.,Bile

the

century.

then,

preceded

nh,nTl

Berber

backwardness

not,

It

themselves

the P°uslims

the

This

did

animal,

492 and 493) when it

in

the

together

appear

a real

Spain

his

over

until

of

Such styles

peninsula.

control

it

in

a lack

496 and 507).

Throughout

least

saddle-cloths,

saddles,

Such backwardness
bit,

17

known to have persisted

also

I-z q

Spngnm e in ItaiiaA"
pp,
da
l' £spaqna
f°lusulmnne
sww.
wrw
w
+.... w. ý. rrr

ý"uktabisp"
Guerra on

709-711;
vol. II I'

430
have boon common but

have remained

century.

Such armours'

even in

the most detailed

Iberian

courses.
stiff

on the

secondly

(Fig.

others

495).

as rare

when fighting

This

their

is
but

of

shield

(rig.

long-hafted

of

the Fiddle

Fast

504,507

and 559).

the

major changes in the military

survived,

a massive

tide

an increasingly
21.

of

when that
warriors

or

time.

P large

barbarian-infantry
Spanish

manuscript,

may have been mounted

in

10th

3rd

strongest

technologies
Indigenous

Rome, continued

century
in

^'uslim

was the

Spain

century

betýöCe re-emerging

of Spain.

states

certainly

feudal,,

the

those

parts
influence

military

from the 11th to 13th centuries

The period

a period

it

504 and 507).

century

they

known in

although

were under

the Christian

spears

appeared

that

Europe

(Figs.

in

a 9th

cavalry,

502).

mace which,

to be used

in

or buckler

abandoned

Europenn
among

horsemen

weapon that

Another

at

of

are almost

though

(Figs.

countries

and heavy

such shields

infantry

troops,

saddles

normal

style

by two unique

carried
with

on their

in most muslin
the

and

appearance

shield

may have either

spear,

shields

was normal

round

The small

and 506).

the

with

have slung

cut,

raised

helmets

to have been used by all

seems, however,

506)

Possible,

494,504

some

on the

(Fig.

similarly

13th

to identify,

firstly

some tunics

though

the

may be shown in

based

is

of

heavy,

very

(Figs.

judgement

collars

they

but

art,

into

well

difficult

are notoriously

This

and apparently

fashionable

saw a series

of

of both cl

Andalus and

Andalusian

traditions

but they were in many ways swamped beneath
French

southern
of

class
from

the

important

LaWia# The oevelo
pp. 3Q2-3aä.

rather

professional,

French

role

ment of

This

Influence.

ilidi,

the

Southern

than

new milits

in the Christian
French

was,

incidentally,

strictly
played

Recongiste.
end Catnlen

21

Snciet

k31
Such a tide

influence

of

followed

of power away from Muslim
state

Castile.

of

There

waves of norcenaries

a steady
towards

Andalus

el

were,

of

course,

and conquerors

in

shift

the balance

the expanding
also

washing

Christian
Berber

of

a series

the peninsula

inh

from the south.
The most obvious
of

a relatively

having

tho

doopite.
parts

to

Andalus

the

the Muslim

of

innovations
Catalonia

proved

quite

importation

Chriatinn

numbers of

to withstand

even they themselves

while
guerilla

uerfare

nlso

horsemen,

noble

terrifying

roar

cavalry

of

French

had other

recultn,

and non--noble,
to achieve

23,

Louriet

24,

Beelers, op..

25.

Moraes-Forißs

p. 73.
P. 172.
p. 817.

were raeardod

or were their

of t! ur; bit,4 n drums,

that

professional

horses
25

in persistent

Muslim nh xis were hnrdier

22,

PPito

24

seem to havo admitted

NoPPmeyers Arms and Armour in Spain,

_.

these

heavier

the Spnnicrds

In fact.

along the frontiers,

op.

its

be expected

hardly

and disorganized.
the

light

ether

lnrprly
they
by
now
normal nmong

of discipline

undisciplined

Furopr,

towards

the

fashions

could

and otherwise,

these

from

observers

with

coping

took

in western

for

22

cnntln.

ever

nnddle

23

french

and mercenary Muslim forces.

trained

of

capable

of

as notably

certnin

a disadvantace,

This

the stondards

of

adoption

a high

with

Nor was such caution

world.

13th century.

experienced

Spain

seen elsewhere

faea in thh early

Such ;large

position

Christian

nor

remarks

neceacarily

was the

pommel and n supporting

extremes

astonished

on tactics

riding

protective.

Muslim, al

developments

impact

straight-legged

a raised,

foithvr

french

vol. T# p. 140.

4-32-

than

and more affective
and Castile

horsemen$

only helmets,

dovelopm2nt

first

elite
en

at

only

new French

tactics

be reflected

in

in
of

11th

the

face,

feature

about

the
was

fact

atylo25

(figs.

spear

or

in
aeon
in

the hands of
Africa

or

mail
26.

Lourios

27.

Ibid.

this

net

carried

a bow in
there

had
houberka

of Europe

those

from

traditional
was the

Arab
adoption

Earlier,
but

before

its

With

cavalry.

pikes,

hiding
the only

In fact,

of lance--ploy.

al

and in

coifs

29

Andalus

naturally

country

mail

and small.
them apart

in

by these

and scale

shields}

European fashion

hauberk as a top layer

with

it

*

in

was now

being

so seen

East.

the Middle

Another distinctly

the

Andalus,

influenced

in mail

assorted

style

horsemen

al

Andalue,

by Andalusian

European

in

of (Muslim el

nn*nh had been an infantry

this

North

rf'ýn

in

Jtnata,

would

Above all

511 and 517),

many more

Such an elite

large

come still

a la

place

were

fought

that

and trained

a great

were things

clearly

ouch cavalry

presumably, p came a,
the eastj,

poetry

swords,

armour

bride.

was taking

and helmets

that

the heavy

of

with

heavy

Aragon

27

and pacts

elite
The

Catalonia.,

cavalry

minority

courtly

courts

types,

various

most of

the

While

seem to have fought

light

and equipment.

century

abundance.

in

still

lances.
and

shields

A comparable
though

the

in Leon,
as unarmoured

style

in

cavalry

lance

a couched

with

particularly

traditional

awn men,

numerous

equipped

them to fight

their

26

of dress.

was the wearing

of a

This was also noted by one

65-690
i-t-w
RP«
oA,.,, G,
r, _,
68-E9.
57p
PP"

21.

H. Perdsp PoFtie
pp. 350-359.

29.

Plonroas

op" c t_ý..

Andalouae en Arabs f;lnaai

aoain.

(Paris

1953)#

C xxx Vl

C XXX\/1

l

ýXXký!

Iýý

i

43 3
Jowich

poet

elite

in

the

of

this

the Middle

it

faces

do appear

and in tlozorabic
and 517).

Spanish,

cavalry

however,

have worn

seen in

a r°ozarabic
made of
these

would

10th
is

pieces

illustrated

sources

may show Andalusian
light

cavalry,

in

and indeed

for

Mere it

almost

even here

from

in

soldier

(Fig.

517),

Yet

rthers3

which

illustrate

certainly

elsewhere

description

of

unarmoured

be hidden

could

fashionable

to

similar

seems to be

clear.

a hauberk

of

and 514),

worn by a foot

together

in

beneath
(Figs.

Islam

490 and 510).
The most unombiguou,
the

Paco in

Christian,

pact-king
of Znllnca

the

32

late

10th

A more poetic

ml c"uctonid
in 1006 AD.

century
but

concerns

lens

by the

description

warrior

Here n face-covering

across
to a

refers

specific

n muslin

ventail

a mail

unfortunately

during

niný

the battle

was worn

30,

in
"
the
Qeni
Abbad!
"The Victory
Samuel Ha-Alagid,
over
(London
tr. ýnv..
r3, Goldstein
The 3ewlrh Ronts of Snin,
ý..
_.
__..
,.'t97tp.
..,....
_.....,...
___ý.
__.
62.

39.

ln
Tab
Andalusýi
Muhammad ibn Hani'
al t1nýn3'
al
cA1T
(Cairo
9934)!
zahid
Ibn
Hnni'
edit. s,
ciiiýrrn
6ß E'}»6ß7,

320

Al Turtühf,

pn.

p0 3090

"

They might,

a style

of

"enemies,

(rigs.

and cavalry

period.

remain

a style

across
of

497,499,511

stitched

warriors,,

although

garment

another

crudely

this

and

to hide

ventails

illustrations

armour

certainly

from

mail

Andalusian,

(rigs,

century

Africa

have owned hauberks.

or leather

almost

In North
more normal

infantry
of

not

still

felt

manuscript

large

Spanish

northern

ö courtly

31

or without

with

The majority

the

One such armour

or burud,

worn by both

art

499,515

that

in

30r'

was apparently

a surcoat

Such mail hauborko*
the

q mombcr of

Reyes do Taifna.

however,

beneath

himself

centuryo

the

age of

East$

a hauberk

11th

PT Shnrkh
vol.!,

pp.

43 Lý
a dirr33

with

This procono of Frenchification

century.

To varying

peninsula

and wasp above all,,

in

areas

Catalonian

nerconariva

as

indigenous

military

under

a layer

of

Berbers,

of

Caatil.

In the

12th

form

political

and persistent
these

"enemy"

figures

521 and 530).
Christian

though
nail

with
ventaila

the

that

early

core
certain

specifically

and fixed

all

visors

Aragon

the

of

art

parts

E

many
(Figs.

of

cavalry

.uslin

characteristics

519,520,

a

and Barcelona,
for

century

from other

section,

Iberian
(Figs.

control,

neighbours

European style

essentially

to be seen in

political

inspiration

12th

Comparable "enemy" figures

Spain suggest

and infantry

Navarre,

to have provided
of

c.nd.alus,

untouched

the nearest

Being

Christian

works

ei

managed to preserve

such a survival

various

end

apparent.

was similarly

of

French

almost

and euuatýýidun

1=urabitin

of

and

even

In ruelim

survived

in kdüdid Saragossa.

in

35

guardsmen,

institutions

century

are likely

Iberian
military

by a recruitment

elite

antagonists

Hudids

the entire

of Castilian

a result

control,

whore

the influence

in the 12th

It may also have been rainforcod,

Nr'ýbitjýn

under

influenced

degrees it

dominance.

political

illuatratedf

better

pronounced,, and was certainly

34

seemS` to grow even more

522-5250

frontier,
such as
S36.53C

and 540),

Unfortunately,
centuries

the Arab-Andalusien

are not very specific

Rather they drown their

33.

perea# loc. cit

34.

Dealer,

ýS.

Lävi-PravonCo1
pp. 71-76.

op. cit.

when referring

subjects

p.

poets of the 12th and 13th

beneath a flood

to arms and armour,
of poetic

allusion,

168.

Niatoirn

da 1tErpnnoe Muaulmane., val. ItI!

Cxxxºx

IN

1+35 Tho sudden cn1lopso
however,

to hove inspired

^nolytical

a very

final

failure.

of

those

of

accounts'
in

hor>cman

impression

^hriotian

for

a rc, vuloion

the

14th

the

; ^t'7rrrd

I ^nce

iýht-1r,,

and str-

of
it

their
-'rom

,;+.lopted
foes

uslin

thnse

thocc

The "erber
36.

in
ions.

Wili,,
.

in

exact

perhaps

replica

partially
infidel

adoption

of

rranadn,

but

"irnpe7n

styles

ý;, r,rS.:, ýncr! horse

This

rindrilo

19."etimos
irn

of

wnrriors
copied

h.-,dl t', i:-rr~, ipon `icen

3fi

r asly
hnOs to

that

vnrious

11th

late

on milit<

'^ýridsp

14th -.entury

nrsti been

^nme extent,

uhra r.n4rnnnond

onrriorr

and erirly

14th

century

152 end 659).

501,541-546,548,55t,

influc'nce

a high

ýc rh ; iý:s hnv. inn

; ur, coat,

^yria.

"nr'alusian

an

with

Ibn '; a0id's

',,o dc.ýocrihed

chown In
(Figs.

that

this

;, E=rhanam on n ; ijicýem,

alunrýý

th?

hefore

carriE? d a j)articularly

!, ýuberk$

dire

under

Liritinq

illustrations37

moment

the
Fr%od
tJ'~on
even
,

Lb4nc'oned by the ^uslins.
rxictly

their

".aCTd wrote

position,

u+ith

Ibn il

to

or

of

Ibn

shield

ýed riding

by the

re-adopted

rocal. led

early

turn

hnd 1.týrýciy

`'urope

~ources

This

the

"asrido

-irmc,ured

and

coi ncicfod

course,

and

Thrice later
arms at

adveroarien.

c,n of ttr3n nrmnured

and rodo

years.

against

seems,

century

oaul-searching

of rrurlira

minmentun:

ums hrnuily

ruh

of

13th

century.

under

hnd

fnlTnuinr,

the

They seen to have been on almost

their

'. riting
revu2oion

o good deal

the

clear

of

heavy

in

writing

do give

habits

Therican Ts1: m in

of

ry r rvnln

mc-nto in n1 "nrfllu3

L'r: spnr1nR i?usulmanc+
In E. Levi-rrovengal'
Scýý'd nl f',anhribi0
ýrar.
h
Xýýrcý ýicýcle,
fs 1932}s pp. 1ý1ý 146, E. "orc'o, r'oari
,u
(London 1963)i, p. 118; i'. Arius "^uelquvs
remarquas
Spýin,
Ibn

}eripJ
des
d''s,
dc+o
lo
nu
7nrne
nres
muculm
cur
castume
XII (1965)p p. 245.
Arabica
37.

Ibn al Ehst*fbt
p. 246.

in

Sordo,

ap.
_cit:

a

p.

135;

Arias

4P. cit.

is

more difficult

degrees

it

Barbers

had,

to chart

merged with
in

then

the

surviving

fact$

formed

Curopecn

bulk

conquered

Visigothic

influence

seems to have boon minimal.

as mercenaries:
first

only
36

north.

for

specific

This

process

nppaars,

they

would

once they
the

forbore

of

lances

by the vizir
divisions

cavalry

the flaohrib

and suordc*

relatively

reliance

described

though

flarinid,
from

by Ibn

Farber

extinguished

there

horsemen

is

serving

FKatbiro
i

wring

this

with

horsemen,

ibid,

40.

Ibn Darra j oa. G1aata].ITf

40

three-quorters

as they

The Berber

13th

century
to

fiuwahhid

1269 ! D.

do I'Es

did
cavalry

wore probably
differed

suppose

that

they

dynasty

that

was finally

Few such Berbers

a. no Musulmnno

possessed

loit.

pp. 67«.686

39.

voI. III,

in

style

corm to hnvo had a

developments,

reason
the

Yet even

and their

on infantry

civilization.

little

at forr-Bknnh

313.4¬viý-Provenýa].

styles,

the late

Now,

The Muwahhidun are likely
..

on military

Sa°Td in

and very

primarily

flndnlusirn

12th century$

Andalusian

of

the

and Tanh7jn

7anata

of the southern

occupation

to have had more effect

39

seem to have fought

impact an Andalusian

aspects

dominant

their

with

9th

Andalusian

of

at

of

recruited.

new leaders*

trcditional

chart-livod

on other

equipment

much as did

of nl Andaluc in the early
minimal

the

also

The flurabitin,

the into

were being

by their
of

Christians

el Mansur and his con.

seem to have been given

light

recruited

though

centuryp

the

in

their

were Inter

as the 9th

that

armies

Thereafter

Barbers

against

traditions.

Muslim

13th century.

was accelerated

had been enlisted

period

the

as early

tribal

uholo

in

campaigns

10th centuries

early
it

least

at

Andalusian

thooe

of

to n great

sinca,

non-Crench$

the

Iberia

L4-36

in Monroop op

pp. 141..151.

14-37
hauberk.

a mail
spear

lower saddles with

late

41

14th

(Figs.

532,545,5470

549,551A

Muslim

representation

earlier

ceilings

illustrate

influence

Berber
infantry
in

traditions.

to receive
four

varied

origins

the shock

Christians

in

country.

"

Infantry

our

resting

on the ground

shields
thrust

into

while

behind

the

earth

the

12th

them stood

cavalry

a part

long

Some also
in

Heavy cavalry

41,

Ibn 5nPTd nl Palaohribý, in Lvi-Pravangals
ý
laýSt.
nu Xýmn 5iAnla

42.

Al 7urtüshi.
..

aojtýý,

pp.

30ßy309.

ranks

serried

forces

of

their

were described
practice

large

darn

ah knmil

runh

spears

mixg

Next

awn infantry
inportnnt

style.

normal

hold

support.

ruling

1086 A0= although

as being

with

were to remain equally

in the 12th and 13th centuries.

in

through

tactics

century

r"uslim

broke

the
at
charge
enemy as their
who would
Light

their

in

and their

archers

of

and

11th

7allaco

their

Alhambra

cavalry

The combined

century

no

to separate

so at

knelt

as pikes.

526).

the later

foe.

Identical

early

Turtü hT

by of

(fig.

and stood

cavalry,

did

century

traditional

in

an advancing

kingdoms
the

occasion

of

with

the
day.
won
and almost

line

"in

of

cooperated

such petty

on this

states

very

14th

light

The minor
the

as do Andalusiens

art

difficult

Andalusian

seem to have fought

still

Hero infantry

equipment
often

in

Unfortunately,

surviving

despite

Andalus,

al

dynasties,

of

from

is

it

m.
ndalusian

as frequently

the late

than

rode

than did their

and 659).

such military
above,

They also

Spanish

century

a lighter

a sword,

shield.

in fact,

appear,

and early

with

leg position

a shorter

As mentioned

only

daraaah

Such troops

13th

12th!

fought

leather

and a smaller

neighbours.

they

Rather

similarly
javelins,

came cavalry

wheeled aaide,

in Christian

d2

Spain

tended to be found

!. IEs a ns Plusulrýaný+

-ý

C xý;ý1ý

'

u, u 6ýý
f6c`ý.,

re.

ý.

u ahýce.

F

... xI

fý"ir

;i

ýýý:ýca, e.º.,

Gý, ýen.
l'
r'n, pýýcýeerýýýiuacuýnº......

ý

ý_,

" --

f+ttn. rt
1dt(:
C

I

asqlcýotfft ft-

{.,N"retm

n+af ftlfri71

c"'IUaI

ý1ýýý`'

'

cntTlt
riýaý(ýlýrý{wnNfPtlýts.
qut
C

wý

tt.

uettllnF.

<
p{(ý

rncf"i..

cxýl

ý«..,

rAýýýy
ýýoitýAreý
II

` UIK

manlawt

1CUý1)u,

: p14ri,

tor`,
IAftoW

at, ý: ýýcýAývntrT
i
ýceqýty
rn.
cee. hlais

i(

"- ý

{ý16..
(cf

Mi

tZMer,..

ý(ýer
1

zý°taKuffNh,

ýýýcr

r

.

ý38
immediate retinue,

among a ruler's

Orders founded in the into

Military
imitation

frontier

of Muslin

Such written

this

manner,

Andalusian

incursion
the

into

Spanish

art,

variety,
as they

in

much Spanish

both

appear

the best

(Fig,
(rigs.

of

these

was in
531),

close

The revulsion
equipment,

already

44,
450

late

against
noted

in

of

and as

opt ciýt.,

made

when that

1'd

al

as common el

!`4ndelus46

cwhcrc

and 552).

written

E.
470;
ourioi
p.

cavalry
sources,

religiously

_02s

tactics

citto

and

was not

committed

quite
and

P" 68"

ait,

E3eeler! oý,
cf
ý,
Roview in rcdieval

0uchcr
45,1~.
197O),

They

among

century

with

heavy

art,

perass laci

to be

Pamplona Bibles

course,

European
fa; rid

also

Faragut,

giant

12th

contact

Yet even those

in

so noticeable

43,0eoler$

the

534x, 543,545

510,526-530,533:

century

philistines,
the
and

in

are,

13th

illustration.

the

splendid

troops

Similar

in

are

cavalry

are

and friendly

of

543 and 545).

the

Navarre

first

probably

appear

century

including

foes,

sources

Sancho of

King

kingdon

as Saracen

"eenemies`º such as Goliath

assorted

for

and 13th

12th

their

n during

and light

infantry

by some

Ghuzz horse-

horse-orchere,,

(Figs.

archery

at rest,

Turkish

nomadic

infrequently

earlier

of

have been used

while

by the Muräbit

still
did

mention

apparently

Arab style

45
1086 ADO

in

Compa'nable heavy
found

the

onployed

Spain

Andalusian

howovor,

A numbor of

cavalry*44

were also

archers

in

perhaps

43

make no specific

Down would,

and those

in possible

12th century

riýo.

sources

from horseback.
in

the upper aristocracy

Recruitrnentf
t3oswortht
173;
p.
Islamic Armic^a, r, p, 53,

The Pamplona E3ibleai

týuster'and

(Nevi Havevt'
1997.. 1200 A0!

probably

propagandist

army of

14th

early

partas

"improved"
spears

shieldsp

and rode

A la bride

arms in

with
in

traditional

Christian
contribute

various

European

Berber
tionm.

tred

Not that

The Marinid
force

at

in

Eoijo

their

before

in

there

cuch A,ndalusinn

modified

given

Iberian

Nasrid
6

knrr

to the

success

bin Parr

repeated

at least

that

the

cuaited

40,

49*

cAll

L.

in Ialnm'o

to ancient

weapon had been known

and it

was now
troops

136; Harlota ben CQbexip
XU (1942)i p. 136.

Roudh al Partßs:
Histoire{
1EI6D : pp. 4S4.455,

In Pnrurn den Cnvnliers

f'leýrcter

48

warfare

That such Grenadine

Ci
Ibn Abl Zar
A. ©eFaumi©r trans.,.
(Paris
du Plaghrob
&n Souvernino

charge

had to be

of reversal

Ibn al Khatlbp in Sordos oeý cp.
'rCspadro N1apsnct--Araboasr' Mourptrºnin,

deý Protjx,

Christian

tactics

tho mid-. 19th century,

ibn Nudhayl al AndaluaT!

Mere the

of the crossbow in

This

49

difference.

CnatilLzLnj

counter-charge*

of mountain

tactics.

of

tnctics.

traditional

and North African

shack

deal

a large

defeated

and archers

used on '{oat and from horseback.

I' 2nsigno

Spanish

of

Arab-Andalusian

a great

Even the popularity

sinco

centuries

so much an adoption

earlier

of

Granada seems to have been a sort

In Iberia

47,

and 15th

was necessarily

tho constraints

bastion.

14th

made a devastating

Naturally

last

a revival

1275 AD employed

own cavalry

would also

cavalry

Granada were not

rather

spearmen

than

wars.

army from Morocco

infantry

Muslim

but

styles,,

deal

a great

wooden

rather

_lineta

Light
the

during

north

Such developments
of

47

than

rather

a' la

style

now
lighter

hauberksj,

leather

the

two distinct

into

The latter

smaller

bladesp

narrower

later

and would

including

that

clear

Andalusian.

in the European ?oshion.

to the

return

and local

equipment..

helmetsp

make it

did

works

Granada was divided

century

Berber

mercenary

used

written

IF3y

trans.

s

(Paris

192ý):

eat
pp.

25-52.

Cx

1-111

CkLIV

4q-o
were both
is

Indicated

Morocco,

in
Again

and were also
cavalry

and different

offactivQ

recruitment

by the

these

croaoboumen

were both

14th

the

In

Alhambra.
with

Hence they
are equipped

as light

leather

d^r

perhaps

a stray'norcenary

Turks

50s

51.

serving

CUmarTs
Al
°p.scitu
"ý°3asa. 4k al Absar, "
pp. 131 and 135.
CUmarls
1nc.
Al
ýcit.

quarrels

cavalry

',Sultan

Christian

One true
from

whether

50
Andalusian

fixed

spears

to

their

51 (Fig.
of Morocco

coddles.
Gthora

mounted.

while

and kidney-shaped

horse-archer

anong thoso

in

soon, to be mounted

have shot

with

mercenary

though

distinctively

troops

of

invariably

this

and on foot,

can be ceen on a fresco

Granada

for

5hie2ds.

the

of

the majority

must almost

mounted

Menhrib

of

sultana

by the MarTnids,

illustration

quivers

r^arTnid

In hrlctn is unclear.

army of

Here

the Derber

of

battle-axes.

recruited

or
_iinata

century

croosbowmen

tnharzT

armed with

An unsurpassed
early

those

their

were similarly

they fought

from

also

thousand

oppearo,
or so Ghuzz

651).

ýl9marfis

Ibn Fndhl Allah al
pp. 146-147;
5auvaget trans.
in Nistnrir? ns ; trpbps.

'

14-q-i

CHAPTER 8

NOMADHORSE-ARCHERYAND THE
CAVALRY or

Although

the traditional

nomads had an influence
it

centuries,

was relatively

Turks entered

to be trained

the

the

true

the

fringes

the cultures

the

pattern

for

either

of warfare,

the

did

Parthiana

a thousand

as memmOks

tactics.

a people

been contained

Turkish
the
Ghuzz
of

who were part
by first

defeating

their

families

conquararc,

With the Saljüq
and flocks.

tribal

Spreading

Turcoman nomads brought

not only

for

warriors

carne Saljüq

their

own culture

their

of Islam,

of recruitment

rather

but also the

than remaining

from beyond the Muslim frontier.

political

these

a new and self-sufficient

element within

impact on eastern

clans,

own ranks over numerous

the world

the Saljügs

Isla.

they were occupiers

however,

The Turks became, in fact,

Although

people,

across much of the land,

moons whereby they could replenish
generations.

on

Ghnznawid employers

and than going on to take over hugs areas of eastern

no wall.

Even the

area.

settled

They were not merely

from within

influence,

had in reality

victories,

of settled

or ca mercenaries

who used different

zone have a more widespread

The Saljügo,
broke this

that

warriors
of

Asian

from the 8th to 11th

had upon one another

other

their
of

of the Central

Such a process was merely a

minor.

the armies of Islam,

expansion

nomadic

despite

Huns,

horse-archery

in Muslim traditions

alongside

Not since

,

CENTURIES

an the Muslim world

Iran and nomadic Turkistan

to fight

11th_13th

of those mutual influences

continuation

years.

ISLAM

were to have a profound

a source

cultural

Islam in the 11th century,

and

they do

C XL. V

not

first

at

to portray

continued

can be linked

to

At this
archers
of their

tactics

a great

distance.

of

these

evidence,

the dropping

interior
to

of

probably

The Byzantine

from

close

maintained

that

used from long
the later

Unlike

have relied
weight

of

hnh

Is

278).

q armies,

ranges
they
range

and the effectiveness

of

accounts

for

by those nomccAhorso-arches

1.

Anon.,

CASta i'rancorun,

2.

f aris

3.

E3ucklnri op,,,. cit.

4.

Srnmil,, aps cit.,

5.

Ibid.

some otherwise

contradictory
that

power,

3

presumably

a marching
the

and regular
effect.

Turkish

composite

tensions
of

shooting

p. 423.
80.-f32.

of nomad horse-archery
49.

p. 132.

horses.
bow may

than

rather

was, holdover, agreed by all

p.

when

foe or wound his

The rate

Turkish

presumably whon

powers4

and Clmprs on, cit.

pp.

according

penetrating

feature

Another important

shooting

chroniclers

long-bow,

its

their

Crusader

to harass

for

on the part

A willingness

various

whereas

on more powerful

a designated

Anne Comnenaj claimed

ponetrating

lacked

within

arrows
2

style

writers

European

an arrow]

of

a castle.

the

vary

arrows had extraordinary
shot

Malik

those Turcomans who were true nomadic horse-

or

warriors

to circumstances

that

is well recorded.
Their arrows clearly
carried
1
This, for example, enabled them to indulge

shooting!

such as the

area

riders

shields,

spears

The one source

q sultans

(Fig.

formed the bulk of Salj

still

"zone

armed with

Salj

early

and not

stage

cavalry

363s 387 and 419).

a specific

horses

shows only

in

a mixed

(Figs.
bows
and

swards

sources
This
an pictoriäi/.

to have had much effect

appear

44-z

the

achieved

observera.
in the 11th

5

443
was the widespread

and 12th centuries

nwäldü2 in Persian.

or

by the anonymous author

the Gesta Francorumv were noted at the battle
Such darts

wore again

recorded

chronicler

at

the

of

almoot

also
arrows

knowledge

of

demon either

just

magical

have been regarded

by their

Soljüq
it

than

were

brought

rarely

Dyzantine

Croat saljuq
taking
a final

sultan#

describe

charge.

&

Anon.,

7.

U. F. Paterson*
of Archer-Anti

that

a,o pucklcr#

nes

his
269).

Turks

seem to

so more chivalrous
8

Although

the

in battle,

charge into

or trappad,

close-

be the cnse
rluslim

sources

in 1071 ADOwhich was won
than Turcoman army of the
as putting

ruler
on coif

Crusader chroniclers

"The psttle
VIII
arias

(Fig.

Seljüq

Crusaders.

rather

Gesta Frances rm, loc.

these

defeated

of tlonzikert

mace and sword and putting
9

seems to give

This would similarly

also needed.

lacking

presumably

own and a final

on its

by the professional

primarily

the ;

tendencies

fops

such short

was very successful

the Turcomans were themselves

concerning

g.

noting

test-European
.

victory

the battle

Those were

enough,

artist,

that

use of nomad horse-archery

combat was generally
if

Christian

or' suicidal

powers

may also

and civilized

Interestingly

how such hum
sabn were shot,

be worth

It

7

of
6

Frankish

later.

a century

used by a demon on one of

Hera the

capitals.

of Dorylaeum.

by another'anonymous

Arauf

hus,
bän.

shown being

are

Nazareth

battle

certainly

those
"darts"
shot

Such a device probably

from javelins

distinguished

which,

n
known
in Arabic
huus-sb
arrows
as

to shoot short

arrow-guide

use of a nöwwskor ma ra

bow,
his
aside

and helmet before

agree that

before

such

coming

cit.
Journal
Arsufp"
of
(1965), p. 22.

of the Society

p. A21«

d'aprýs
C. Cahcn,t "La Campcgno do Mantzikortp
(1934)0
IX
tion,
p. 6340
r,usulmýncs. " ßy+

lea Sources

4 Yqto close
these

the

combat

Turks

weapons on their

themselves

Such warriors

also throwing

their

light

By this

time,

of

been relegated

to

turbulent

politically

CAbb'asid Caliphs

to the
which

included

stretch

of

The state

Saljüga

even further

as had the

before

them.

In such

frontier

as .
by the

of their

west,

of other

Middle

throughout

militias

Smaili

11.

Cah®n# r'playshý n inc.

12.

T. T. Rice= Tha Sel uks

Taurus

continued

Anatolia

to the Great
own which

a troubled
and Saljüq

in Anatolia

turn

frontier
territories.

army similar

to
Turcoman

Nevertheless,
than elsewhere,
and captives

converted

from east and west and local
origin,

13th centuriee.

grew in importance
12

The varied

pp. 62-83.

10.

regions,

Soon, however,

a professional

of mixed ethnic

the 12th and early
-cit.
op.

cousins.

of Greek slaves

mercenaries

Arabs

They in their

Eastern Muslim states.

although

Fluslim ikdtsh

Rüm in

allegiance

between Gyzantino

the Sultan's
plus

of

Turcomans into

warriors

foreign

Saljügs

their
dynasty
of
a

built

as

äxis11
hý,

any real

remained more important

to Islam,

Turcomans

hnzi province.

eastern

force

had proved

the mountainous

these

frontier,

energies

they themselves

Meanwhile,
that

leaders

to push the true

then tried
belt

Saljüq

rum and at least

they

shock.

had largely

their

established

that

Turcomans

a final

to

of Iran and established

long outlived

before

zones because

Um
threw off
P
of

the Soljügs

as javelins,
the nomadic

such a Turcoman

was originally

of nomadic

frontier

Anatolian

martial

by hanging

bow-canes

using

as ma. luke instead

lances

the new Crusader

to use their

than

though

would than take macs and swords perhaps

course,

the

bows aside,

rather

shoulders

they seem to identify
Turcomans.

their

put

cit.
(London 1961), p. 81.
#

10

C xL\/I

I

445
character
Saljügs

these

of

Rüm and their

of

(rigs.

Dänishmandids

neighbours

on a coin

from late

equally

and fencing,

archery
off

in

by the

and sword,, saoms to reflect
to Middle

reverted

the 5aljüg5

of Rüm still

Yet at Erzinjan
of the Jazirah

the Saljügs

the

of

more slowly.

with

example,

the Ayyübids

by the Mongols at Koss Da I In 1243 ADS
nlmoet Byzantine

in a traditional,
14
style,
reason

ovary

The Sol_1ukcv loci

Cohan, Pro-OttonRn

In

and uhen they

the Khwärarmhnh$

melting

to suppose
pot

that

were generally

cit.

Turkcy,

2-30'234,
p,
,

that

and

influences

was Anatolia.

relations

Byzantine
Enperor
the
recruited
morconariea,

14.

Tactics

on Turcoman tactics.

primarily

many ex-Byzantine prisoners

Rice,

13

relied

at Myriokephalon:

13.

spear

in 11?6 AD, for

Rüm and the ßyzantines

the 5aljüge recruited

in

to train

at fyriokephalon

cultural

that
as
such

clashes,
Saljügs

in

is

there

12th

were creamed

Muslim customs.
rather

of

in horsemanship,

continued

of Rum fought

In fact,,
were mutual

rest

including

the late

an Mite

that

Correspondingly,

and tactics

training

fact

tradition

they defeated

non-Turcoman,

certainly

the

example,

states,

Rüm in

in 1230 AD whon1 in alliance

defeated
were

thensolvoc

of

traditional

Eastern

the Dyzantinos

defeating

the

the

426).

the organization

A warrior's

while

(rig.
Christian

SaljUgs

added to

as horse-archara

the

to the east,

is seen, for

It

Georgia

century

13th centuries.

and early

both

impact of these Turku upon their

obvious

the now army recruited

of

art

and 264),

is also apparent,
13th

the

neighbours

such long-established

of
is

immediate

and military

Christian

the influence

in

apparent

252-256,260-262

The cultural

Byzantium,

is

armies

b©twean
amicable.

Despite
the
Whereas

and also Greek

captured Turks and

4-q6
Arabs,

among others'

Saljüq

and non-Saljüq
Turkish

apparent

origin

distant

of 13th century

Serbia

Traditional

of

probably

late

included

many-coloured

13th

by their

noise,

aaljuq

influence

did

in

archers
mercenary
emphasis

Byzantine

style.
recruiting

for

corps.

an lance-armed

a variety

The depression
also hindered

17

for

By contrast

provided

there

was,

of

relying

regions,
depopulated

recruitment

of horse-

and all

by Turkish
fact,

almost

Empires

an
Frankich,

main Anatolian

on the only

to combat the various

the
Prey
peasantry
much
of
of
internal

in

European,
the

of reasons heavily

l6

those

of

Most frontier

daggers

mean a revival

a loss

the

lances,

cuirassaa.

of

cavalry

in

quivers,

rather

Turkish

Here equipment

long-pointed

Iamellar

except

now available

Byzantium,

Dods Korkut.

however,

not,

634).

described

bows and arrows,
iron

heavy

among nomadic

and are well

and the necessity

grounds

(Fig.

persisted

swords,

reflected

perhaps

type of cavalry
facing

armies,

or allied

This

styles

shields,

and, judging

They, or perhaps

them among other

inspiration

Anatolia

helmets,

of

were also known to the illuminators

anonymous Doak of

hauberka,

long mail

Horse-archers

233-235).

who could place

Turcoman

in many parts

tribes

(Figs.

Byzantine

of obvious

cavalry

I5

various

commonplace to many Byzantine

were clearly

Pecheneg cousins,

from

contingents

of Anatolls.

rulers

in the 12th century

craftsmen
their

"a"Ilied"

plus

throats

east and west, were
in the 12th century.
into

servitude

those reasons conspired

Op
%k
Los Comnnnem, Etudas our 1' Cnpir® E3yzPntin, vo1. I Iý

15,

Chalandon,
61?.
611--613
and
pp.

16,

Anon,,, The Book of Dodo t<orkut

17.

Chalandant LesComnenpp, = Etudoa our 1ýEMirp
p. 237.

-

pp. 920 94,v 145,157
Byzantin,

and 166.
vo1. II:

4-0
to force

large

Cavalry,

mercenary or indigenous#

light

The latter

or Pecheneg origin.

kite-shaped

lances:

Serbia

of a heavy cavalry
from,

that

of

Mails

enjoyed

(Figs.

western

an even briefer

in the Middlo East.

chow the devvlopmemL
though distinct

to,

and the Fertile

Although

to various

successor

the saljüq

this

the late

system within

would already

be quite

as Turcoman.

Saljüq

These did,

their
.

forces

were early
caasknr,

iurcomana were the most effective
1ý.

Ibýid

vo1. IIq

pp. 611-61B.

19.

Ib

vo1. II#

pp. 619-620.

larger

areas

however,

Yet it

military
into

generally

traditions

two distinct

of c. c 1üks or mercenaries

who owed allegiances to whichever ruler
eleinent of tribal

divided

of

control

armed forces.

wrong to see such Saljüq

a small professional

them, and a larger

retained

12th century,

dynasties.

even before

the Crusaders appeared

in fact,
dynasty

supremacy.

to fragment

started

before,

Crescent

and military

era of political

of Iran and Iraq until

parts,

areas such as

226,227,229,231,232*

those of Iran

influence,

continue

illustrations

the Turcomans of Rüm were downgraded in the face of

the and of the 11th century,

fell

peripheral

whose equipment was akin

large

carrying

and the Crusader states,

Europe

Arab or

12th and 13th century

The huge realm of the Great Salj qs

parts

of Turconan

to coifs

helmets laced

related

into

and 634).

236,271,275

Byzantine

certainly

Various

from Cyzcntium and culturally
Cyprus,

rode larger

maces and swards while

19

shields.

Bulgaria,

to
have been divided
seem

wore mail hauberks,

Hungarian horses,
with

upon Byzantium.

the former perhaps being horse-archers

and heavy,

and fought

mercenary troops

numbers of foreign

18

or local
auxiliaries

elamont.

governor recruited
of whomthe

°naý
the
Uhile

.

CxLVlll

44-g
formed a standing
and porsonal
for

the auxiliaries

guards,

a specific

campaign.

of the Salj

history

the Great Saljüq

20

Iucjhril

Sultans

process

his

started

upon

soon in the

from the fact

may be inferred

q state

troops

garrison

would only be called

That this

as 1054 AD during

as early

and infantry,

army of cavalry

that

Beg, was using ßiagv engines
first

attack

unsuccessful'

on

Manzikert.

The varied
illustrated
(fig.

Other sources which may also illustrate
to be found

are

in

this

12th

The best

heavy0 including

holmot0 coif

12th century

manuscript

correspond

text

(rig.

with

minor variations0

(rigs.

422),

377,3700

that

inherited

while

in most points

to its

11th

or

Soljüq
12th

century

in other

Iranian

Javelin.,

include

slightly

Such equipmeriý is mirrored,,

either

earlier
exactly

and neighbouring

or

sources

3050 424 and 425).
or "senior

officer"0

so much of the crumbling

Saljüq

Zangida of Syria

perhaps the most active.

In the history

as

of

WFrka wa Gulahnh

of this

the 12th and 13th century

°Imad

367,360,

armour is comparably
22
and full hauberk.

or avontail0

illustrations

those nt7abe

Of all

to

Here the usapone

t;tarka on Gulshäh.

spear., sward0 bow0 mace and lascoo0

The late

description

referring

profesaionnl

(Figs.

Iran

century

case probably

is probably

21
canknr.
than to an
is to be found in the

Turconans rather
romance of

in

and 301-303).

370,371,374
equipment,

regional

carved gateway from 5injär

13th century

on an early

260).

C

equipment of a Snljüq

Cam

Or
Oln
Zongi
hin
son
and
al

21.

AYYuqT:

22.

ibid _. pp. 38-39 and

op. cit,

al Din Maternd

pp. 6-6p 27«23 and 29
n5nim.

that
empires

of

of the Crusedea such names

pp. 66".67.

Small'

states

and the OazTrah was

r"

20.

successor

loom very

44q
large

indeed.

limited

The Zangidas of courses had to recruit

area than had their

be said of(

air ßurid

and Artuqid

Elakr respectively.

in Damascus and Diyaar

rivals

a foot

carry

an his horse's

crupper*23

Some decades later

al Din

would

judging

tho

largely

consisted

of

from

numbero or auxiliary

from the Arab bodouin

triboa,

as those of the Yarugi

tribe

in the mid-1120s1

region

origins

hul

plus

r
25

outside
Islam.

Like

Similarly,

legal

though living

of the Roman tmpirat
system of customary

known, was not officially

senior

menu have
and heavy

archers
traditional

style.

to the Aleppo
26

as auxiliaries.

within

who earlier

intents

and purposes,

the world

of

took over the

these Turcomane retained
law1

This

sn

as it

was

Nur el Din obliged
27
to adhere to Muslim law,
and such

abandoned until

ölito

his Turkish

military

a situation

wcs bound to help prosorve

23.

"mails

apt citýs,

24,

E2tsoeaff,

25.

Ibýj

26.

p. 722.
_
Y©sa upon
A. N. Poliakp "Tho Influence
of Chingiz-Khän's
Stotea"
f,ullPtin
the General Organization
of
of tha ¬Nomluk
(1942),
Ms School of Oriental
Studies
X
African
:
and

27.

729*
722
pp.
and

p. 7300

Ibid.

pp.

the Turcomans' ceparote

P. 76.

itsp
ops. C,,,

862-663.

24

many Turcomana such

were, to all

those German barbarians

battle

were also recruited

could be regarded

Muslim civilization

regions

its

in

into

the army of Our

who were invited

time such Turcomcn tribes

a separate

ma trained
cavalry

At this

wcatorn

of

armies.

°Abbäsid

soldier

and Kurda. # horse

Turconanc

respectively*
Largo

in their

reflected

from Damascus even used the old

of having each cavalrymen

cavalry

The some may

predecessors.

This was certainly

In 1126 AD a force
tactic

Saljüq

from a more

1ý50
identity

in military,

Turcoman tactics

Certain
professional
Crescent.

as in others

a final

decisive

around the Fertile

minor dynasties

techniques,

harassment of the foe until

even in the

persisted

armioa not comparably trained

regular

use nomadic horse-archery

that

similarly

vsknra of various
Men facing

matters,

this

meant a constant

he was so disorganized

charge could

the Zangids and others

used against

were also occasionally

prepared

to

or demoralized

the struggle.

conclude

the Crusaders,

to meet their

This
they

although

fame in a set-

piece battle

of organized ranks and, of course, to enga3e, in
23
Another fundamental tactical
siege warfare.
change that might
Turkish

betray

of infantry

Sal, uq influence

was the placing

In earlier

the reverse

centuricc

As for

as the

general

equipment

and the 3azTreh was concerned,
because of an inherent

turbansp

trk

in connection

the case in the art

atabe

of the period

Syria

may,

surviving

than the newly arrived

is much more emphasis on swords,

though the latter
with

in

case.

bows
than
h
upon
rumh and c n'r spears,,

helmets

in such verses

cavalry

tend to reflect
rather

elements

there

Certainly

of

to have been the

the poetry

conservatism,

Arab and perhaps Kurdish
Turcomans,

appears

ahead
29

territory,

hostile

as an army marched through

of cavalry

Nt r al Din's
of nt be

are$ for example,, mentioned
30
is
The
very much
acme
army*

Syria

the
aaztrah
and

(Figs.

270

and 201-20»).
Houevor real
night

traditional,,
such a

have been of certain

2E3.5mail,,

asait,.

pp. 78-80;

29.

Elisissot'f p apm cits

30,

Ghaiths

opfcitj

bt
nt

non-.Turconan,, character

states$
Elissosf

it

f!

was certainly

aR, cit,
-

true

pp, 740-"743.

P. 738.
pp, 34j 43$ 89,v 106i 125-126 end 137,

451
of Arab hayzar

in the early

upon this

centred

and mid-12th

UsZmah Ibn flüngldh

ca3tla3

equipment co a kn2*;nhand fabric»coverad
helmet,
chiold.

lance

thrusts

to turn

Far examplte# he devoted coueral

fccred

he recorded

if

they themselves

no using

was known# though

not

that

short

a apear.

Horsemen also

of exceptional

rrcnkich

neceacnrily

Other warriors
length,

couched-lance
ucodi

widely

an military

32

technique

by, the t"uclimo.

of cuch 2oncd tachniquo'

ruunntärT nh weapon with

in ni Iarsüs! 's treatise
for

the

description

R somewhat garbled

feared

had only swords.

compound lances

indicated

tisomah further

a khüdh h

pages to notable

horsemen particularly

backs on a foe armed with

a lance

a relatively

that

and explains

their

mail hauborgoonj

a ruambspear and a turn
'IF
of the lance is also made clear by

The Importance

Ucämah elsewhere.

a horsraman'a

listed

from a baldric,

a award clung
31

In his memoirs,

century.

33

using

a brand blade,, appears

natters.

This was Written

Sasäh al DTn about the come timo no U97mah wrote his memoirs,
.
: are ci Din began his career as Nür at DTn'v governor
With the death of the last

in Egypt.

in 1171 AD, however,
the country

from shtd

a now army loyal
f "a imids

he not only

Caliph

of Cairo

changed the official

to cunnr Islam,

to himself

Týirnid

rather

faith

but set about recruiting

than to the memory of the

Ur
;
the
Zangido.
to
N
Din
and
ci
or

Such considerations

from
Din
on oven wider
Saläh
recruiting
cl
necessitated
10
0
rat
imid force that
had
inherited
lie
than was normal.
a

spectrum
Included

both
Arabs$
Sudanese
Armenione,,
thousands
and
regular
of
navy
p. 85.

31.

ll4m, ahj a,pg rcit,

32

Jbidt

92
7fi-.
78$
900
131.
500
48..
87S
410
and
pp.

33.

Ibirfs

pp. 41"42w

34.

Al Tfº7C`:
us3T) atl

t,

113.
pa
ý

of

and

34

4 5z
auxiliary$

plus

Kurda3

hucýullmmo
and Turcomana brought

by Sala* al DTn'o uncle
power grew, however!
most of the Fatimid

during

to Egypt

35

the Zcngid takeover.

An his

Sal; h al Din downgraded, destroyed
forced

or disbvnded

those Zangid troops

but retained

to be loyal

to him rather

than to Or

Fie also continued to recruit

an increasing

number of froo yurdish

who were willing

tm,1 !

Turcoman horso--archers

heavy cavalry,

took control

As Sa1; h 81 DTn gradually
tha Jazlroh,,
into

his own loosely
ýýiCnh volunteers
bo added.

could alto

spectacular

the admittedly

Crescent

cavalry,

in ß187 AD.

role

troops,

the conquest

as they did during

of talon
40
0

in the late

The most successful

may now have been as raiding
force

These troops

not

seen,

in the warfare
12th and early
into

they zoom to have degenerated

In fact,

one of two sources of auxiliary
Arabs.

if

in the armies of

minor role

a relatively

the
Fertile
Egypt
and
of

bodouin

picturesque

Ayyübid successors.

to have played

13th centuries.

of these regions

those who have interpreted

or at least

of Turcoman horse--archers

Saläh al Din and his
however,

h militiasl

and Arab bedouin auxiliaries
36

them, tend to overemphasize

and

of these areas

army, to which the nhd

knit

Crusader chronicles,

role

I'iklgm
'
and mnnlük"-

of most of Syria

the mixed forces

he incorporatod

al Din.

the other
for

riding

being

the

ouch Turcomsna
ahead of an invasion

of Palestine

after

the battle

37

The moot effective

horse-archers,

and in fact

the
most
of
,r

35.

A. S. EhrenkreutY,
Gibbo "7ha Armiao of Saladin, " lnc, cit.;
Snlýnýc9ina(Now York 1972), pp. 51 and 73-74.

36.

lbid, *

37.

CInnad

al Dln, 92.

r,it

p. 33.

ýkL1X

C. ý..

ýý'"ý'`"""'"'r::

ý

CLI

4 53
troops,

in

ks
irr. n1
_.

Saläh
Thoy,

Di'n's

al

however,

same way as had lang
perhopo,

with

been traditional

ahead of

Such behaviour

rangy

in later

advised

a horse-archer

but wait

until

before

shooting

shot.

If,

furüsTyyn

to fight

a n"nuk

ccouto.

of

with

39

38

drawn

If

thoir

unhoraez(

bows

training

their

Al Tarvüs'i,

for

with

as
and,

exrinpla,

a sword got very close
to miss with

th%s mounted foe were charging

arrow-guide

and hum

his distance

shield

himself.
to
defend
ready
a Dance was considered
first.

short

least
or at

Generally

horse- rchcra fron tho later

onus

with

first

a lance,

horse-the
arrows
have sword and

speaking,

the fooman

the most dangerous and the one who
41

Oddly enough there seem to bo r,ýora illustrations

38.1h

could(

of al Tarsts!

treatise

as one could not afford

with

guard

at

to aim at the horse of an armoured foe

should maintain

be
dealt
should

first

with

manuals.

archer

with

not

40

an enemy cavalrymen

however,

though,

east,

on the move it

and accuracy*

would be in line

indeed,

the Vuslim

and shoot at a fov while

in the Ayyübid military

reflected

or with

groator

swords,

bows in much the

such mamIT;k horse-archers

to dismount

with

their

as an advance

thoy would continuo

and at tho lost

in

to cheat

foot

each battalion

to achieve

ranks

in battlo

tendency

Armed head to

Others were trained
up in

seem to have used

a greater

the gallop.
be sent

0
army were now the more disciplined

of nnMIZ;k

Ayyübid eras in the 13th century,

dyy p. 190

39,1". non.,

Itlnnrscrium

parlnrinorum.

p. 92.

QD.

8shra at DTn' o2

41.

A 1lEtude
A. E3oudot-taraotte trAns.,. Contribution
A1 jorsüs'r,
do fArcherie fi",
urulm<^.nc. (Onraosctis 1960)s pp. 142-.144.
.
_.. _,...,ý. ý

cit

pP. 91-02,

45y
than

from

would

the days of
to

appear
heavy

wearing

Saläh

have been fairly

armour

129,291:

such horse-archers

appear

Granada,

century

caparisoned

varied

Kurdish

or mnmlük cavalry,

charges

of probably

tactic
cures
their

itself

that

flanke,

siege

to
of

many Ayyübid

drawn

oäkkch,

of this

helmets,

of bows"43

of

Muoizz

an; h lances

and tarik

287),

horsemen,
delivered
by an

was covered

earlier

This

elite

*come to

Arab karr

the Dyzantine

supported

heavy

the

from

the homeland

Zangid rulers
with

CAn
Shu

wo farr

system of

by defenaorpa

to protect

cavalry,

those

excluding

own mam1Z;ksa seem to have been numbered

ruler's

contingents
close

archers

(Fig.

42

A great
the

horses

known as abtnl.

perhaps reflected

chock-cavalry

the latter

and crossbowmen,

of the

an elaboration

14th

heavy and light,

withdrawal

horsemen

and
Clsewhere

early

with

or barded

cooperation.

their

while

armoured

have been

as in

Those equipped

the horse-archers

bards

and 651).

to use crossbows,

in close

a minority

%4;N

possibly

heavily

including

controlled

horses

equipment'

-with

300,304,307,308

or lances.

seem to have fought
perhaps

Their

ride

weapon often
This

himself.
standardized,

and riding

(Figs.

chanfrons

at bin

JazIrah

the
al

free

pin

and swords,

the sultan's

taw.

Sinjar,

one of

wearing

with

Even Saläh at Dins

of Tagi al Ain,

Kurdish

led a force

region,

possibly

of

area.

This

from

emong those

was,

of

course,

the

surviving

of horsemen armed

jubbah
mail
qawahinh

crests,

the

During

but with

foes noticed

that

houber kS,

no mention
the cavalry

nephew, were not horse. archers,

44

42.

"Cavalry Equipment and
Al 7arousT, op.. cit.;
p. 126; 8ivar,
Euphrates
Tactics an the
Frontier, " pp. 288-290.

43.

cImýd

44.0

Anon. j

al DTn,* op, cit,,
Itinararium

P. 254,

Perecrinorun,

p.

94.

455
On the other

hand, the lost

3azTrah may have retained
45

Turcoman forebears.

of Hien Kayfä in the northern

Artugids

the horse-archery

The late

of their

techniques

12th and early

13th century

art

of this

area shows warriors

and equipment as mixed as were the

origins

of the troops

it.

could carry
a variety

Iranian

(Figs.
ways

(Fig.

of

heavy
is

equipment

lu ti

the

(Figs.
of

quillons

use their

and also

Kurdish

specifically

as wearing

leather

convex

Ayyübid

fought

291)

' described

occasion,

over

(Fig.

style

armours

spear or sword
265),

206,266
their

and 306)=

swords

lances

in

wear

in purely

many different

297 end 303).

Those of

very

and lamellar

forefingers

style

Those armed with
Byzantine

of purely

shields

of mail

have their

using

slab

in

described
GAkkah

outside

shieldc.

with

46

an at least

the origins
their

although

so specific,

one
large,

and carrying

Elsewhere

horseman
The ku ma , or "veiled",
47
In such actions,
using swords'
swards.

detail.

they were clearly

maces and spears,

are*

hauberks

dire

are not

cavalry

origin

quite

capable of unhorsing

heavy European knights#40
It

is

rare
in

to be recorded
happened
during

for

with

the

the battle

head earlier

one minor

both

and one individual

incident

Arab and Crusader

death

of

the

of Qaisarlyah

been described

450

f3ubärakshqhS op. cit

46.

CImad

47,

Bah; al DTnt ops,, citq,

48.

CImäd

49.

c Imäd

al DTnf ap. cp.

Ayyubid

champion

an 30th

as fully

chronicles.

August

Yet

Ayaz the
1191 AD.

warrior
this
Tell
Aynz

armouredQ9 and whenp during

p. 268.
375.
pp. 90,-91.

DInt
trans.
Dahm
DTn$
267270;
al
o. cit
pp.
ol.
Drusadcs,
202.
tho
in Arab Historians
F. Gabriali
p,
of
al pino

cf t l,, P. 3Q4.
-o-o-,

C ýI

C l. tt{

Cýýý

It 5G
this

battle,

being

he was thrown
to remount

able

The rest

from

because

his

included

down before

he was struck

the weight

of

of Ayäz'e equipment

horse

iron,

of his

a bow, quivery

armour,

50

sward and a

spear that

was heavy enough to be noted with astonishment by his
51
Comparable equipment, including
slayers.
mace end swards

Frankish

used by Ayyübtd m mlük regiments half a century later
52
uk
Such heavy cavalry,
at rlansurah.
rna
or otherwise,
plus

was still

ito

nppooro in much art

oquipmont,

161,173,174,300,301

that

heavier

of

described

as
for

employed

Wore often

cavalry

troops,
nrTdnh

rapid

whore

outposts

and 651).

light

Ayyübid

Turkish,

also

act

51,

lb-id,

52.

Ibn Wisilp

Crusader

was an attempt

Such troops

speed and

foes

as despising

to escape

Other comparable troops,

one's

Arab or

with bow,
56
Indeed
spear.

equipped and fought

lightly

dagger and light

winged or knobbed mace, sword,
Ibidsp.

their

isolated

in ambushing enemy convoys.

by their

it

day of doath«55

were similarly

or to hold

as infantry.

who, noted for

that

and were

equipment

53

as

Those

abundant.

enemy territory

described

were

50.

lightest

were vary effective

on the grounds

predestined

into

could

less

naturally
the

carried

raids

they

nanoeuverobiiity,

crraur

though

as varied

was

equipment

Arab auxiliaries

These warriors

(Figs.
the
Ayyubid
of
era

381.
4non. p

;Itiný

ogo citl

perPgrinorun.

r3um

p. 84.

pp. 289».290.
locq cits;

°Imad

at DTn,

53.

Gibb# "The Arcaiea of Saladinj"
p. 399.

54.

ßaIZ at DTn, o
pp. 161 and 342;, Rnon. s Itinororium
ait,
Peregrinorum
pp. 131»132,

55.

Norrisp onýci,

56.

Anon.,

Itinerarium

99.
p.
r,
poregrinorum,

p. 78.

54

4-57
the light

spear,

13th century

India

Illustrated
Egypt
both

identifiable

12th

Crescent

upparentlylºrab
Turkish

the

of

and the Fertile

probably

A camparabls

(Figs.

(Figs.

(Fig.

origin

took place

fragmentation

of the Saljüq

dynasty

farted more for

of

empire in the mid-12th
such troops

course,

soldiers

At this

by the end of
on horseback

fought

regions

than for

infantry

did have an important

12th century.
while

in the second half

their

part

so

that
with

The

their

in A,f2hhaniat7an, t

cavalry,

heavily

New they were apparently

of

troops

were

yet horse

saddles

may indeed have been known in the earliest

centuries

59

generally
similar

to serve

in northern

the long shanahir

they kept in scabbards beneath their

armoured,

from

continued

"Slave Kings"

noted for

Who overthrew

loaders

Ghürid

is
khal
and

iks

rids

been

to play even in the early

Mounted

spears*60

century,

of the 12th century

at least

century

the

had never

time some were clearly

the subsequent man11;
u dynasty

that

of nomadic Turcoman

in the oast of Islam following

more than one element in a mixed army,
latter

or in

no particularly

or of

in the importance

horse. -archery

this

troops,

equipped
and 325)

162,310

290 and 295)

from

centuries

329).

decline

state,

13th

and early

Dhow many lightly

costume

dress

In the Ghaznauid

even in early
57
weapon of the Arabs.

as the typical

sources

in

of bamboos, was regarded

often

India.

swords

a fashion
of Islom.

that
61

an, cit. a, pp. 260."269.

57.

Mub; rakahÄht

58.

l3asuarth*

59.

t9ou2cnä Minhä, ý al DTný, on.
ýcit,

60,

Ibwid,,,& p. 461.

61.

Mubärokahähs ý
Ibn Ioraqs ap ci, tý.

The Ghaznavida,

pp. 109-110.
p. 351.

p. 259; Ashgors o2a cit,
p. 153.

pp, 137-138;

ý-558
Such saddle-swords

been
illustrated
have
may

Turkish

(Fig.

Iran

ilzarbsyjrn

(Fig.

but

in eastern

(Fig.

India

(Fig.

regions

to

11th

possibly

seem at this

Islam

13th

that

from

a bowcaae on the

uncertain
in

saddle

during

sub-continent
rather

's

used by these
mail

of

63

armour.

the

of
of

siege

an unprotected

the central

of

foe'

with

how,

by the

is,

north,

fact,

deigned
¬

Ashgar, ac. citt,
-

63.

Mubcrak nsh,

np. citý

a hinh

point

nrrowheadS
to
were uced

to

either

to slay

mode horde-armour,
a man wearing
to suppose

heavy
that

Turkish

and Qangalie

who together

op,. cie,

iron

such

mnmlllk archersy

Turcomans.

originally

P. 241.

Sultnnntr.

the long-distance

was not normal among all

p. 35; Digby,

mnmOks

javelin,

of

ethers

or in

no reason

among those

the

aprcifically

nwah^n.

tribal
the
among

Qipchngs

62.

variety

great

or similarly

in

in

shear,

more were designed

Still

n

style,

had reached

or be used against

though not necessarily

nomadic

to

archery

of

shotfc

which

the Delhi

vital

cone or leather

a degree of sophieticatko'h

and still

That

lamellar

wood,

khsft

were

Some i.iere

warfare,

There

Further

to those

eastern

Vet horse-srchers,

fought

suggested

a quilted

pierce

62

uunrrioro.

shields

archery

of

cavalry

of horse-archery

centuries.

troops

and sword.

of perfection

against

nrisaa

at

pro-Islamic

almost

early,

Turcomans,

arrioured

lns^oo

penetrate

those

nomadic

Such heavily
mace!

on a corvinq

at erisce,

carving

seem to be no representations

than

the

century

northern

date

century,

to have been similar

time

12th

century

appears

Elsetif, ore,

491).

late

359),

Apart

there

13th

and early

Such a weapon certainly

391).

of uncertain,

422)

in

mares
formed

pp. 15-16.

ý5q
the

backbone

apparently
were

succeeded

of

to

fail

in

destroying

the

armoured
been

have

The

been
of

art

the

illustrated
than

rather

a major

late

and

They

rarely

Such

an interpretation

in

appear

the

13th

recently

scan

would

to

armour

early

true

particularly

In all

Khwarazmshahs,
appear

with

the

(rigs.

one unique

the

reginn

century.

65

13th

were clearly

the heavier

use of

characteristic
though

OTnj, op,s cit.,

cavalry

rather

of

later,

rubärakshähf

66.

(London 1965), pp. 114-115
A. T. Fiice# Islamic
Art.
E. D. Grube., Thf? ;! orld of Is1; im. (London 1966)., pp.

cit,

pp.

manuscript

262.

65.

p.

the

horsn_arnnur,

t"aulänä

02,

seem

263,390,392,395-397,400-

west-Iranian,

al

most

century,

64.

f''iinhsj

is

century.

armed,

variously

and

This

rhähnnmohs,

or mid-14th
in

though

probability
their

early

earlier,

who,

tradition

Sal jüq

406 and 645).

in

from

cavalrymen

the

within

date

this

by arms

hca suonortnd

Red-Ground

so-coiled

c

mid-14th

i11wr+inotinn.

manuscript

from rather

sources

to illustrate

the

of

probably

of which
Iranian

I1-V, hänid

wood

cnnnuernrs.

4

in

willowy

genar^11y
of

the

until

of

Iran

rongol

arrived

Many may also

troops.

enuipnent

occasion,

of hnnvily

spear

century

sources

such

nTznh

vanguard

64

horses,

amon-)such

military

the

of

could

On this

consisted

armoured

weapon

traditional

that

Khitai

Chinese-influenced

army largely

equally

that

dynasty

The rare

although

mid-

Khitoi

warriors

pn they

1212

was so soon to .follow.

horse-archers,

to

seems

Qar;

as a very

that

in

cavalry

These

century.

but

Turkist7n.

Muslim

riding

Mongols,

heavy

similar

13th

Buddhist

Khwärazmph_nh'^

cavalry

army,

early

the

have been regarded

however,

the

the

the Mongol horde

have

in

against

much of

over

indeed

Khwarazmahäh's

predominated

soon

ruled

the

of

260.261.
nnd 122;
103--104.

C L-\/

C ý_v i

1ý6o
known as thr'
is

Kitnb-i

a devolopment

probobly

(Fig.

Smmnk I\yynr
both

of

perhaps

grown heavior

through

Central

Asian

horse-archers

nomadic

Interestingly
was once again
to the

occurring

same threat

By now,

of

who were

8ulnhär,

with

confluence

of

Russia

and the

the

steppes.

converted
their

it

to

primitive

the

Kem

In 12th
the widespread
and life-like
and to

nnc$ 13th

the

of

such developments
equipment

equipment

that

surviving

may well
Russian

In a second
states

long

sabre,

anpear

Syria

developments

sources
area

(Figs.
that

I. Hrbak: "Oulgh: arS " Encyclo
vol. I! pp. 1304.1300.

din

of

between

squeezed

nnmariz

to have been
century,

while

to

the

ýýýý.
hpnv1 r rpvnlry
helmets

werr

nrnnur,

rir! id

'Ath
the

chnmfron,

and heavy
all

eponrent.

a great

deal

622,625,636
to the

of

and ('; 7),
judging

south,

626-633).

bordered

and Palestine,

thra

at

nninhhoura

in

(Figs.

of

and °Pnnali

of horse-archers
corps,

"lovrin
state

and in pnrticulnr

area

mirror
art

(rin.

posed,

industry

or mid-12th

are roflectrd

this

Christian
in

fact,

itcrlf,

separate

from

in

Kiev

separation

into

cavalry

Muslim

^ipchan

13th67

century

of

was beinn

early

horte-armour
the

Christinns

forest-daxrellinn

by ttip

adoption

surviving

the-Crusader

the

Finno-Ugrian

some extent

Once again

do,

in responns

steppes,

horse-archc--Ics

rivers

animist

in

Christianity

the

process

comparable

armaments

comp lulýhnrs

visors,

close-combat

67.

largely

still

exactly

nomadic

Volpe

against

Turkistän.

The isolated

well-established
and

in warfare

the Eurasian

only

its

wers so convQrted

north

from

waa not

styles,

and earlier

in

of

Turkish

Were the equipment

experience

an nlmolt

threatened.

so

Ssljüq

long

north

that

course,

Russia

of

enough,

641).

the Muslim

there

wworlr+,

seems by contrast

Isi. '2m, second

edition.,

461
to have been almost
changes

first

offensive
in

cdsquate,

while

generally

forced
for

from

thA

to

the

the

other
placing

of

either

cavalry

at 1paot

the '-amlük

Ulhile

the
r-lso

Franks,

foes

of
the

refined

in

troops

of

have

to

nomadic

part,

of

Arab

mamluk.
have

ranks

been
or

comparryble

or

as light

alongside

tha

_ven

71

infantry

of

learned

concept-,

Turcoman,
in

occur.,

been

272 and 275`).

packed

Ibi d,

pp.

70.

small

opcit..

71.

id,

pp.

c:gy; at and Syria

Cast,

developments
the

13th

tactics

they

tactics

111-112;
pp.

156-157.

successfully

century,

having

technology

Their

defected
lesser

numerous

among the

were clearly

superior

and discipline

tradition

these

: rusaders,

in military

and overcome

the known world.

a military

the

against

the Mongols

pp.

op,

69.

^Ib

and of

ormaraents,

foundation

of

offensive

the Middle

logistics,

68.6maily

state

lyyUbid

confined

within

successful

Ayyübid

Oy the

and tactics.
the

(Figs.

in

no did

and skirmishers

closely

outside

bows
seemed

as scouts

troops70

the

little

farces.

by Zangid

",mnlüks

primary

left

as original

in

horse-archers

role

may be e reflection,

concluded

developing

Their

Frankish

mounted

than

were

that

seem to

the

proved

rrnnks

warfare

turcopolea,

carried

who fought

the

years

many may have

style.

cavalry

not

During

Such developments

of

rrther

were
though

Oyzantine

defensive

as military

techniques

on counter-siege

recruitment

The turconoles

Europe*68

existing

innovation.

, yzantinea

tradition,

later

insofar

except

in western

ph+ise,

rely

tactical

including

stagnation,

developments

reflected

Crusaders'

scope

complete

patterns

were to provide

upon which

later

113 and 116-1113.
Vryonie,,
110-112.

op.,

s pp.

most

133-134.

°^amlük

69

Ii 62
and Ottoman

the role

cavalry

superior.

Even if

by a fan

surprised
outcome

always

primary

Purüs1yyn

lance

Egypt,

it

same was true

show that

It

presumably
and also,

armoured
perhaps,,

an training

archer

73,

Al RgsaräOT= np.

74.

Al t,ns5-rTj

75.

lük
Men,
the
N. Robiep "The Training
of
J.
V.
in
the
En
Sncinty
!
"Iddie
st,
and
edits.

75,

o}-

c9.t,

(London --------1ý75
s

Ibi d, p p.

158.

and

P.

.

I,1ar

325;

the bow.
ryri^

75

and

p.
al

1'.athrar

it

crbbr)üid
up his

rolled

the bowstring.

Scan2ons

p.

the use

to bend his

easier

72.

Mßnunl of

"ýms

more common than

in Europcan trcvcllprs'

cit.,

in

from

ryzsntine

was exactly

A Muslim

final

most tiamluk

Turcoman style.

this

paralleled

the

such furüs iy_yv manuals

fienlük

snagging

when

and r)48).

to make it

avoid

that

Mnmlük ort

earlier

the

sleeve
to

the

speed,

this

Since

find

are generally

in

of

': hen shooting,

74

to

described,

was not

seemed to be a development
traditions.

battles

woepon,, even including

1E0,647

of

their

sat-piece

cavalry.

in enrly

,.'ar

in which

infantry

emphasis

sind swords

175,177,17f,

the brunt

on its

surprising

greater

t_ven where archery
clearly

nor

on any other

where spears

bows (rigs.

is

mid

than

Very much the

upon `'amlük

infantry

weapons were considered

up in

or when droun

role,

manuals

their

an army had to rely

deponded

bore

manoeuvre

of

tradition,

military
Although

horsemen

important,

power and the weight
73

refined

paramount.

and large--scale

warfare

striking

the

constantly

won clearly

considered

offensive

of

new but

not

of

were still

their

to
be built.
were

successes

In this

72

76

arm
r'ithough

descriptinns

29"

P,npiirij

qpj

cit. ý p.

72.

10?.

pp.

156-157.

Fsrin,, 11 in War Technal. 2LgyParry and t.. E. Yrpp

463
of

the Mongols,

it

lnmollar

t.ot

amour.

tiro

on archery

no more then

was surely

to be undortnkon

precaution

th

77

by nil

knonlingo

while

such works

seemed to be more concerned

end bow in

shield
it

century

onto

the
this

to draw up in

mnnner

by the

than

shoot

each

rank

protected

the

rrchero

ticre

foe,

if

horsebockD

no the

known

uns, prncticir-d
the
ovrr

nrchery.

for

the

it

qnnnrnlly

In fact,,

or

in

thr

nuivors

kn; 'elino,

from

ahead

8a

In

nab? n.

in

the

61

in
^vnn

inhn

These were
Rather

oppenrnnce

they

position,

being

of

to

overrun

shot
not

shock

crossbows

hr! vn hnon

rionn

n: imn or
typc

IjPre

this

and

the hands of

"Mongol Archers in
of Archer-"nticunriea

horse-,

-rchery

lryv on

virtually

my

rnd
of

account

at leýýt.

the

on

frnn

techniques

hrrnssmont

tnctics.,

in

ridor

donn

nxnz^cisn

th-n, tFroet

ns the

at

of

from

, hoot

wns

onP furüsiyy?

exPrcioc.

to

',1hnn this

closer-rnnne

clearly
were

n1so troinec!

st-nms

and wes ,+ppnrently

around
it.

use of

archers

s snuntting

directions.

nll

as : dPmonttrnted

rongn

close

bc, in

need

however,

nave,

",ost

empty their

one

horseback

79

Such flaMlZ< nounted

the

from

and

ground

78

rnrllük.

dismount,

ranks,

from

the combined

battles,

of mounted

ar uslim

or sitting.

about

and acct-piece

tho practice

was napnrc+ntly

14th

In

sieges

wore wonring

did

on shooting

sountting

rntherthan

stnnding,

they

century

orphnsis

greater

put

if

nrchern

the mid-14th

until

n conrnon-spnsP

one

Thirteenth
`"!? '1^73;,

Century
n. 21.

77,

G. 0. and A.. Fl. Gaunt,
iournnl
Society
of the

70.

Inc. cit2*0
"Horne-Archers
Latham and Paterson,,
of Islam"
Saracen Archery,
J. D. Latham and º:1. M. Pstorsan,,
an, F:nglish
cn
of a ilnmeluka urark on archer
vorsion
and ox oaltion
(London 1970)v p. 101.
A. 0t 1360,

79.

Ibn Khaldiin,
Prophet"
p.

CO.

"totes
Ayolon,
on the Furüsiyye
riiamluk Sultanate"
Pp* 55-5(9

Cl.

Latham

"Mugaddimahý"
205.

and Paterson!

in Bosuaorthý

Exercises

"Horse-Archers

of

"The Armies

af' the

and Gnmes in

Islan",

lnc. r t.

the

"

4Gý
such Mamlük horseman
illustrations
from

Syria

the flamlük

cavalry.

Some acted

neither

bow and arrows.

only with
(figs.

177 and 179).

have been tribal

tribes

bedouin

and Egypt.
in

art

of
that

possible
bedouin

later

the

centuries

Finally
though strictly

era

some Turcoman

from
(Figs.

there

their

fellow

nomads in

above all

else,

although

warriors
is

it

also
those

adopting
them virtually
these

regions

in

642).
and

133,311,639

the scope of this

impact upon the Middle

Sinai

Syria,

of

themselves.
Mongols
the
are

outside

of

Arab

auxiliary

were to render

that

frontiers

the

although

real

many Turcoman

for

were already

to Chinese than to Muslim traditions,
profound

the only

the borders

recognizable

tribes

would

Comparable

invasion.

to be Arabs,

appear

and dress

majority:

to protect

be armed

nsm__,
_lüks

were probably

a great

to watch

The most readily

customs

indistinguishable

from

would

but

shield

horse-archery,

were paid

were engaged

63

which

Here one may find
nomadic

employed

also

case they

a turn

carry

perhaps

and Lebanon

Palestine

the

tribes

as Kurdish

as well
Syria,

Asian

in

Such warriors

auxiliaries.

Central

of

survival

nor

Others,,

hooves

horses'

and Syria

in Egypt

as scouts,

82

seem

some certainly

and 652).

state

hauberk

horse-archers

century

almost beneath their

Of course

dire

14th

Anatolia,

1788,309,6500

wear the

Among the many other

source.

and early

and southern

131,177A,

light

13th

at targets

to be shooting
(Figs.

late

of

Egypt,

from a Syrian

Their

study and outing more

were naturally

East.

weapons,

to have a

Mongols were nomad horse-archers

they were competent in all

forms of warfare

80.
P.
.

82,

Al AnsFrT, opt-cit.
t

83,

in Et5
Veudalism
Poliakl,
1250-190p,
pp. 9-10.

rin

Pn1AStinn

and Lobanon

VII

465
including

Various

sieges.

were noted both by.

at equipment and tactics

travellers

-European

for example,

warriors$

features

and Muslim foes.

were said to use shields

Mongol

of wickerwork

or cane only when on guard-duty and not while en aj n9 in horse84
They or their'Central
archery,
Asian allies
also carried
large

bow-cases

archers

apparently

sliding

their

using

other

from

slung
did

light

r'

two bows,

lassoo.

Richer

warriors

and rode

horses

protected

were of
could

leather

consist

the art

saddle-girths

three

curved

Iran

however,

would,

until

the

continued
style

for

to make new forms

14th

to manufacture
local

71 Khania( suzerainty

shields
dynasties

6T

for

the rider
and a

of

(Figs,,

did

industries

new masters

Say. they

and various
survived

410,638,639

their

other

in

Nor, according

armam its

armour ' för

which

appear

by the Mongols,

Even when they

century.

those

horse-armours

aventail,

immediately

not

of those Muslim areas overrun

learn

Other

86

to Rc hTd al Oin, would the woll_eatablished.
of

swords
crinets

Protection

a leather

with

an axe and a

peytrals,

cruppers.
thick.

as-carrying

single-edged

or lamellar

layers

helmet

plus

of

when

described

are

quivers,

apparently,

lamellae.

These styles

three

had a habit

also

Mongols

by mail

a metal

of

their

used slightly

not,

up to

of iron

cuirass

than

no less

most Mamlük horse-

which

troops

beneath

Elsewhere

one or

though

belts,

Mongol

not.

lances

weapons.

and chamfrons

their

also
items

under

apparently
in

Mongol

traditional
and

and 642-644).

84.

Gaunt$ loc. cit.

850

Al Agsarä'T,

86.

P. Komroff,

87.

"Oriental
Armour of the Near and Middle East from the
Gorelick'
fifteenth
the
in
to
as
shown
centuries
eighth
works of art"
14c. cit.

op. cii`,

pp. 328-329,

Contemporaries

(London
47-48.
Palo
1928).
Marco
pp.
of
p

466
Nevertheless,
capital

city

prior,

later
f
local

an existing
had, for

In north-western
greatly

Iran

encouragcdthe

arms manufacturing

example,, apparently

the presence of a now Mongol
further

industry.

been rudimentary

88

development of
Sword-making

in this

region

to 1300 A0.09

I

60.

Allnn9

69.

Ibid.

op. cit.

p. 67.

467

PART FOUR

Conclusions

4-6 8'
MaMtt SIara!;
..__._ý
Difficulty

in the dating,

of source material

does not,

should

however,

Many such

conclusions

around

cultures,

of military

or technological

history.

Military

Enui

uncovers

of Islamic

and seem, likely

more surviving

the study of medieval

number of surviving

Clearly
questions

and appearances

Surviving

if

Important

features.
Arabia

to surviving

limitations

Iranian
than

in mind,

equipment

military

influences
were

those

changing

fashions

help,

pieces.
the study

were probably
the

the

But they must

does suggest

from

all

or otherwise.

sometimes greater,

naturalistic.

alternative

these

of Muslim

In pre-Islamic

military

can be a great,

answer

alone,

development,

they aro reasonably

Even bearing

where Roman arms are concerned.

cannot,

be it

any artifact,

of an increasing

Comparable clarification

of equipment.

the structure,

remain as a second-best

terminology

by the recovery

terminology

of

Illustrations

particularly

archaeology

The same problem plagued

artifacts.

pieces

to
of

fields

European arms and armour but hass to a

a study

relating

and if,

to remain so until,

been even more dramatic

has, of course,

the immediate

aspects

equipment remains for

military

been clarified

extent,

substantial

on broader

rnt

The terminology
from clear

flevertheless,

light

beyond

or

be preliminary,

will

a useful

and neighbouring

Muslim

cannot,

qualifications,

Islamic

of

conclusions

conclusions

'throw

may still

difficult.

similarly

useful

with

technology

military

conclusions

mean that

be hedged

and most will
these

definite

be drawn.

not,

ruslim

concerned with

nake$ the draw., ng of
This

and in many cases even the provenance,,,

of

the known

certain
much stronger

Hellenistic

world.

4 6q
This

true

remained

Muslin

period

Asia

of

both

although

the

grew in

rapidly

the

arms and the armour

impact

Such Central

strength.

may have begun to predominates
Andaluss,, before

and al
culture

following

Asian

technological

they

reflected

Saljüq

conquests

nomadic

influences

the

settled

regions

plus

those

of
that

concepts

of

communities
the nomadic

of

Turkish

11th

century.

did
the

of

the advanced

of

predominated

as the absorbers

merely

North Africa
material

During

culture.

expansion

of their

metallurgical

provinces

probably

influences

as much as they
the northern

themselves

shores

of

were

If one excludes
aides

provinces
themselves

were concerned.
of Islam

provinces

innovations.

fiddlb

Ages with

a noted

under Islams these

Christian

neighbours

by those

equally

countries

the Central

influences
and

Muslim regions
Asian styles

frontier,

bordering

that

then there

would also seem
fyzentium.

were adopted on both

seem plenty

of reasons

the early

Muslim Arab$ Kurdish

and west Iranian

were influencing

the Greeks at least

as much as they

that

were being

along

the Mediterranean.

of central

of the religious

to believe

extent

of a wider Mediterranean

influenced

Such a two-way flow of ideas
to have been true

advanced

the Marhrib:

influences

industries
their

highland

regions.

and technological

the early

techniques

Asian

these

in

where external

and Muslim Spain were part

Rather

and various

metaltiorkers,,

of military

the

reflect

Central

however: be wrong to see these western

It would,

Central

steppes.

To the wests in al Andalus and to a lesser
Europe naturally

not

Africa
military

metallurgical

various

had been developed

North

except,

the

of

Central

influences

Asian

impact

civilization

a combination

and Turkish

regions

all

and stylistic

of both

tactical

in

the more dramatic

the

backward

supposedly

Irnninnized

of

the early

of

influenced

by Byzantium.

47 0
Certain

aspects

of military

influence

more than

one source

of

technology

was probably

an 4reb swords
Central

the curved
period

during

of

places

were

in

turn
fast

influence.

of khan

nr.

fuslim

long

this

either

as booty

is

sabres
eastern

however,
in

the

gradually

the

more pointed
Islam

in

origins

Turkish

to show that

arrived

as the existing

From the

Into

11th

century

although

similar

front

resulted

Islam
the

that

agree

and was not

of the 11th
which

weapons,

imported

numbers$

small

of

Turkish
of

mercenaries

course',

the central
swords

had

Islam

into

very

throughout

in

sabre

n,sin,

onwards$

straight-bladed

weapons

have been varieties

Central

in

relatively

single-edged

equipnont

came to predominate

f'Duslim lands,

non-tapering,

I would

were

peoples,

in

differing

widely

the Sal.jüg cangijest3

after

They probably
or

of

and straight,
varied

the curved

tiUiile

cuestion.

From the

'probably

and

appearance

considered,

blades

their
of

demonstrates

light

shorts

however,

eastern

evidence

time.

or captives.

weapon.

reflected

been known among Turkish

before

a thrusting

probably

debated

use until

there

being

These straight

were,

in

had its

in widespread
century,

the end of

hopefully

blades.

and first

a hotly
sabre

thesis

Most such weapons would

The origins
still

Clearly,

the centuries

Shorter,

uldeopread

Iranian

is

Indian

most obviously

towards

most had relatively

variety,

also

Islam.

of

reflected

influence

external

themselves

this

than

rather

origin.

blunt-tipped

in

throughout

centuries

which

outline,

decades

mnnife56ing

double-edged

single-or

first

assembled

a cutting

to 11th

7th

the

the sword was,

primarily

For example,

clearly

review.

The evidence
that

others.

came to predoninate

sabre,

under

culture

the most important

fashions,

Asian

material

did

curved
and

not

471
die out.

entirely

Tho small

of

a short

of

naro

in

It

combat in

used in

often
in

perhaps,

the

during

sword

a problem.

Many were1

from which

daggers

Uns would

armour

in

Islam

in

the

the 7th

forces

their

expect

This
13th

and to

mentioned

the

regions
the

forms

The fact

that

both inherited

of military

equipment.

evidence

pictorial

extent

most common

with Umnyyed

these troops

known wealth

case

suggests

also

of mkce--head mostly

had

they gradually
Europe, perhaps

and Spaain.
commonusage from

uaar--aree, which only came into
onwards,

had
to
have
eastern
seems again

bihaah and the n cchak cans however,
to Armenia and India

weapon in the Arab world

by the nomadic Turks,
All

origins.

be pinned down

respectively,

regarded
throughout

Iranian
high
among
as
was almost

on horse-archery.

in

cost.

in conjunction

The lance was traditionally

not neglected

weaapon1

the mace is

as Christian

more precisely,

tatus

it

to find

as far

the 9th century

being

use may be

widespread

Thereafter

The r uslim

reliable

its

in Iran or Turkistän.

Sicily

Only the l6

of

that

a lesser

spread wcatuaard, eventually
via fuolim

something

only

helmet-breaking

where

centuries

and more sophisticated

origins

knives,

seems to be precisely

provinces

the Sassaniona'

Coth literary
later

generally

indicate

may similarly

and enlcrge(

that

of

to

the mace is frequently

was

illustrated.

purpose

limitations

and Turkish

Iranian

poses

review,

rarely

an armour-and

was abundant.

from

fir which

emergency.

and so the geographical

where

the kht'n

under

but

general

The mace was primarily

significant.

period

mentioned

reality

a dire

I exclude

Its

our period.

warriors

despite

most

as a warrior's

their

aand it
primary

was certainly
reliance

these peoples used the weapon in a variety

472
and did

of ways when mounted
lance,

as most of

Muslim

cavalry

infantry,

their

spears

which

later

This

fighting

was later

The

use,

started

the

and stouter

innnh, the

generally

used
infantry

disciplined

longest

'M'uslim

amonq whom it

userpon
was contrasted
'7omcno-ryzantine

was of

ah which

the

of

infantry
an
as

out

nuntnrT

those

latter

presupposes

by some horsemen.,

adopted

the shorter

with

turn

ranks.

to be in general

spear
but

in

in

that

came to do.

foes

than

shorter

indicated

probably

an the couched

European

medieval

were normally

such weapons as pikes.
formations

depend solely

not

origin.
for

Role-arms
infantry,
in

are perhp. ps the
Islam,

classical

the earliest

from
their
the

importance

Sub erjuent
.

Muslim

on unclear

continued

role

of

Muslin

javelins

elsewhere,

large

both

against

the

case,

out

of

then

traditions

the

lived

recognition,

much as they

did

armies of western

cavalry

archery,

in

the

and other

on in
armies

Europe were little

could

the

forces

Byzantium

of

would

who used
this

was

modified

a time

perhaps

Islam

classical
at

seem

continuing

If

Ronan legion,

the

reflect

suggest

infantry.

in many

soldiers,

this

the world
of

Their

similarly

although

could

the

,

foot

of

infantry

of

of

armies.

on javelin,

reliance

It

and disciplined

despite

infantry.

factors.

it

fact,

evidence

form

case

or

They existed

and this

Islamic

the

infantry

of

to be contradicted
of

in

may,

a number of

development

importance

continuing

weapons

staff

further

early

in

indicate

limited

in

is

again

the is"uslim world

similarly

forms,

or

used by

rurope.

however,

forces

documented

of

in medieval

though

use,

A clearly
of

forms

clear

are

sizes

invariably

almost

centuries,

infantry

of

the

reinforces

least

as they

uncertain

as yet

parts

and thrust,

cut

when the

more then a rabble

of individual

Warriors.
The popularity
t"onhrib
of

province,,
The

of

'robs

Iolart,

this

but

the rertile
Islamic

to

to

those

that

the

Iran

of

as infantry

size

of

their

tactics.

Meanwhile,

increased

in

of

a precursor

However,

myths.

The true

China,

It

too

thereafter
and
and Iran.

at

the

evidence

come from

before

the

applied

to

tribes

the

of

no further

east,

and

body-armour.

some ways as
various
the

from

than
in

history,

itself

arrows

east

Thereafter

conaucat.

rgypt.
Islam

originating

as
in

in

V th century

known in

of

rndalus

European

origin.

to be recorded

a Christian

n

despite

west

perhaps

influence.

hions

Islam

the r"uslin

nx chrry

with

of

in

thecae

predominate

Turkish

entered

either

the

fn

origins,

unclear

ntinr^

came to

arrows,

thvt

together

of

'rat;

Turkish

strong

be regarded

could

time

" yz

by

of

Frirly

of

suggests

effectiveness

growing

has

cower

military

weight

the

cominq

or Yenen.

ºRijz

provinces,

Turkish

seams first

indicate

foes.

archers

coon

Out the weapon was also
could

in

under

has a more complicated

crossbow

elsewhere.

the

itself

weapon seems to have spread

this

Iraq

which

certainly

Iran

or was known in

the

to

crossbow,

it

more

various

The arrow-guide,
the

such body protection

influenced

`,'uslim

however,

response

in

foes,

Iranian

influences

Asian

of

the

of

of

javelins

and penetrating

was

which

adoption

widespread

the

central

and

eastern

then

introC'uction

')pvnish

probably

were

Central

Nevertheless,
in

f`; ned

tribes

Arabian

by

than

among its

rather

references

northern

least

reputation

Crescent

compared

when

were

in

increace

the
lack

a relative

infantry

armour-piercing

a steady

or at

as the later

in

horsemen

reflects

certainly
just

regions',

charts

among ruslim

javelin

almost

mare specialized

Andalus

this

these

in

armour

heavier,
al

Andalus

and al

the

of

where
': f course,

474-the

hon6-hcº1d

In late

"io.m.nn Provence.
the

throughout

Europe

ei

medieval

: urooenn

indicate

that

The existence
the

in

both

in

Byzantium

bearing

not

by Muslim

engines
is

easier

been

Cast..

could

during
a word

that

Plate

armour

and thereafter

therefore
demand for

protection

from

in

speed,

armours

in

century.

.q

whether

any certainty

with

the

to armour

chnnnr'd
the

`ýenrarnlly,

first

entirely.

late-Roman

reflected

have resulted

Flexible

first
R

16th

otudiod.

disappeared
from

: nowhere

greater

Ln have

ser'no

invention.

rare

uns very

probably

process

nannonel^

trend

meaning

to he used

century

of

'uch

armours

passed.

discppeared

similarly

ii. rce. -

trebuchrt

had a specific

originally

The orac+uni,

nc-nin

the

in

c4 ie

hats o direct

wvnoon.

relating

being

period

time
as

more loosely

its
terms

of

meanings

have

counter-eight

to state

chin

tc

nongonel

orohably

impossible

is

the

the

but

of
to

continur

counter-poise

of

The man-powered

its

torsion-powered

such

tke

crossbow

siege

hand-held

favour

in

origin,

it

The exact

this

of

armies

Zslcm or Byzantium

for
was

abandonment

the r'iddle

in

however,

slightly

of

stary

no evidencrr

and

seen

not

. L..

Tslan.

vin

worlds,

does
the

chart,

Chinese

of

emerged
yet,

to

Islam,

is

frame-mounted

large

development

entire,

which

nnc4 ":onsn

then

and

on

though

the

of

there

Thristendon

"elleniotic

the

in

the

suit

'4edi'terronc-;

in t'nrly

'"°nrk ^rars to reenerne
could

upnrrnn'

in western

survived

! uch n scrnnrio

reached

ns o hunting

least

3t

it

So perhaps

crossbow,

it

known,

so-called

'.ndalus.

medieval

boon

hnd

crossbow

and

erk

decline,

military

lightness

it

must

such as a

needs,

and manoeuverability.

been
to
have
regarded
seem

the military

had
^s

rage Europe.

a technological
changing

Islas,

circumstances

of

na the beat

the 7th

to

13th centuries,

r,

475
in

as in

Islam

necessarily

Curope and the

very

of

prsrsislarity
a local

oovorty
tactical

a current
It

is

flexible

also

though

missiles

not

bullet-proof

course,

in

though

armour,

continued

which

armour

had been widely

of nail-dominated

the basic

the most common type
the

until

but

had become for

it

Asia

and Central
spread
the

its

domination

two trends
Mail

than

towards

back

spreading

these

by the

form,

a penetrating

even n 'ter

lamellar
the greater

won, -2ivr n in

arnourr,
probably

in

originated

the
of

more characteristic

time
place
of

of

Muhcmnad.

o1 origin
Turkish

the

protection

best

and was,

Its

of which
remained
'ualin

region

that

against

of course,

ancient

Yiddlr

anatern

Iran

cubsonuent

so closely

troops

be denied.

blow

in e'rly

tern
wer
and

central

can hardly

remained

popularity

t.'i-n

scale

dust

centuries.

certainly

almost

-irnour,

ýPiere

oar: alleled

warfare

curnne.

in
mour
n

or even 12th

11th

Lamollar
east

of

Its

the gnat,

was the most widespread

dire

tank

of

nail,

provinces

Islamic

western

of

nhock-,

rac'ºieted

generation

unlike

the western

in

Today,

armour-,.

protection.

readopted

,corii.nat

fora.

but

in

inn

irotFct.

ranee

latent

lamellar

to archery

given

emphasis

on the

sophisticated

in

ng

circuns'tancen,

bptter
plate

rigid

the

shock-absorbing

such graduated

hetrny!

seems to hrºvo reftecto^'

most

provided

did

So does

like

some provinces

under

operate

a som¬^whnt more

"cale

Islam,

than

vests

principle.

absorbing

that,

armours

as arrows

such

The widespread

on speed of manoeuvre.

noting

soft

quilted

were.

genernlly

resources,

enphcois
worth

in

were not

felt,

of

normally

although

in petal

Such armour,

armours

leather,,

of

latter,

these

Fast.
soft

whereas

and some forms

material

that

light,

rar

ntoady

narallaled
a link

a cutting

between

rather

even more effective

476
if

worn with
this

For

reason

the

of
in

abundant

areas

had facilities

the

field

of

the

no Byzantium,

because

nducntvge

their

of

was more
it

to

or

qualtities.
Furnpe

of western

the period

during

level

may have enjoyed

provinces

proximity

reason

dial the

to import

enough

arms and legs

Muslim

eastern

than

on the some technological

generally

of

technological

Thus it

in large

mail

for

protection
t.., ilo

review.

under

rich

was not,

the simple

resources

to have been in advance

appears

It

for

armours.

either

to manufacture

Islam
in

or lamellar
wore

Islam

blow.

that

of

regions.

all

basic

number of

that

shock

demanded greater

of mail

scale

the

throughout

widespread

and a larger

construction

in

was popular

construction

cxpertisc

to absorb

armour

nail

equally

coursep
that

a soft

those

Central

Psinn

name
cultures

been in widespread

there

sophisticated

limb

defences

use.

The very fact

that

such items of armour were more connon

limb-severing
This greater

capabilities
capability,.,

the greeter

of the curved Central

Asian sabre.

probably

was to be reflected

in the sabre-»fencing

regiments. -1, t continues

cavalry

strokes

part

of

that

the lower

in
ion
com
most
wan
eobro

in

believed

or vambrace,

europenn

the

It may be revevant

wrist.

protrctod

to a typicol

cnd periods

where

exactly

that

cobre-cuts

and when the curved

to have been adopted.

Leg ormour remained rarer
to 13th centuries,

of later

styles

which

orn most vulnerable
provinces

European broad} sword,

of krranda particularly

of the modern sport

the cn0n

the bludgeoning,

to be emphasized in the cut-and-

kote cut which is aimed sat theopponant's
to note

with

which contrasted

enphaaio of the medieval

armour-breakäng

slice

reflected

Asia then elsewhere

in Central

had long

although

than arm-protection

the c'

no n protection

from the 7th
for

the thighs,

477
for

was useful
opponent

a horseman,
a lcnce.

armed with

to have sufficed
that

indicate

a dose. -combat mk6e

The variety
have reflected

The bnydnh was probably

of

/

been of

Gap" which

that

the epcngen.hJk

Tho r.iirhfer

form

um

of

this

the thud

that

is

entirely,

made of

the

rpangenholn

of

head protection

those

than were
turnt

perhaps

clear

in

moulded

of

references

from

Ilassanion: a.

^,-,Ost evf. dcnce

of

laminated

be described
to a metal

wood,

distinctly

h uns smaller,

dare

in

for

of the separate
the

12th

of

sometimes
could

century

FusltM
said

even
be a version

or have been a

in

shape and in

Comes like

Europe.

The

cuir-bouilli.

both

wore more varied

were normally

typical

can be safely

segments,

one piece

contamporary

that

As such it

cuir-bouilli

may,, however,

be a reflection

or perhaps

was partly$

normally

Asian origins,

Europe

and all

having

moot accurately

Occasional

instance

loco

which

in the camc direction

northern

leather.

The dnr

poplar.

in

construction.

known as the

a style

a coif. 9 probably

hardened

t"yuelim shields

round

latter

The khud is

Influence,
it

to appear

only

may in

and which

and of

points

wau clearly

of

construction

did have Central

evidenco

tý'ýL,Lrsk,
which

It

outline.

to be used by the

continued

came linguistic

uhilo

helmets

infantry.

and methods

two-piece

basic

in

helmets seems to

howevers to have boon a spongenhal. n.

t.ýrk secns,
suggests

that

to remain

spangenhelm,

"egg-shaped"

late-Roman

surviving

"Parthian

a segmented

than

rather

have originally
both

not

might

which

disorganized

forms

of

variety

legs,

to fluslim

an

seem generally

expected

totally

of terms relating

a genuine

gave a pointed

normally

any but

boots

the lower

for

were not
with

was fighting

Heavy cavalry

as protection
horsenon

if he

particularly

generally
convex

as a hand-hold
nh during

this

construction

the lcrge
plane

or

and :should
buckler.
period

almost

certainly

to such shields

refer

The construction

bucklers

Could have been largely

arena

of

dispute

'fiila

it

is

or "yzentine

their

comparable

to

t:; r1nnh
.

It

origins
that

assumed that
is

there

origin,

beyond the technological
of fire--arrrn,

and spread,

these

an
acbre.

European

to suggest

that

a kite-

in eastern

those

of

curved

had a western

independently

may even have been the prototype

provide

tho

surrounding

now evidence

originated

shield

even small

pointless.

shields,,

generally

of natal

the introduction

of the time buts before

Kite-shaped

layer

metal chields.,

of wholly

would not only have been probably

capabilities

shaped

metal bosses or metal

or at most a protective

rims and reinforcementss
plates.

having large

Islam.

even in

='yzontium

and overriding

problem

end Europe.
Horse--armour
the 7th

from
in

the written

f^f

ti

those

but

became popular

in flyxontium

that

is

ns far'

of

heavy nail
siring

pervecive

otylee

in

spread

these

far

EHcving looked
separetely,,

so fnrp
bards

the
of

felt

to

13th

lamellar

uootern

Sow

Andelus

century

formed
essentially

of

Islmic

tern

used
such as

substantial
Islam

during
sourcos

protections
The separate

roes.

end to a lesser
part

almost

u+ritterz

horse

or scale

al

Europncn1,

core

and east

os the evidence
in

bards

sources.

the vest

is

The widely

or quilted

Iranian

mentioned

it

doteil'

record.

and in China«

to comparable

refer

the z"rrrib

to

3assnnian

to

edoption

pictorial

seen to refer

soon on early

our porind,
cecn

the

frequently

is

in great

sometimes

from

5t

Chile

centuries.

sources,

would

horse-armours

but

13th

absent

completely
of

to

poses one particular

of

extent

a short-lived

french,

military

provinces.

at vcch group or class

a number of general

trends

of military

become apparent.

equipment
As might

47q
have been expected,,
botraye(

influences

the cant

local,

from both

night

indicate

basic

resources.

local

combat styles

technological

static

infantry

Curing

this

manufactured

end other

in Yemen,

in

as likely

come

relatively

development of cavalry,,
largely

relied

arnrures

to reflect

of champions,

on war-gear

as Gums in the north

Swords were clearly

equipment was likely

Damascus,

soon to be purely

cumbersome scale

the very limited

and

the latter

or poverty

just

at such centres

in the

imported

from

to have been ccnuircd,

from

neighbouring

Antiochs

Edesco,

one peons zar another,
including

however,

the Arabs probably

locally

Vij'; z and above all

for

such no the role

battles

period

that

backwardness

They are,

end Iranian

in the north,

preference

flrribin

of pre-Iclrimic

the Romano-3yzantino

Characteristics

and south.

such as a suggested

India

technology

thv farmer being most obvious

uorldc,
in

the military

arms-producing
the

Armenian

by

centres

highiondo'

-icn
r,znzbäyj
ond F'ýrs.
Curing the grenteot
"ý ýidün

and L'raayyradCaliphop
rcgiana

arms-praducirig
mot

inportant

exp^nsfonp

under the

thosc, and raany other

establiched

era of ruslirl

were overrun.

arma-nunuPacturing

in Aoýnhaniot7tins Turkist7ans northern
though less

Comparably pcriphcral,
in the uact,

r>ettlcd

populations

and r rc.

centres
Iran$

tJith

to hovo relied

provinces,

such as Egypt,

the exception
imported
on
Lt

rcmninßd on the periphery:
tho Cauc=us

Important,

in Morocco end al /ndalus.

produced in the central

the Caliphato'

I'cverthelvss,

Arms ucre,

particularly
Syria

centres

oppenrod
of course,

those with

and the aaxlrah,

of Fars these centres

rau notcrinls

nnd firmcnia.

largo
Iron

seen largely

or on imported partially-

coo

cannploted items which pbe f inishod
Such an industrial

pattern,

in local

workshops.

when added to the widespread

and

a

4vo
long-distance

effective

of the Caliphotof

trade

was then to chcrccteriatic

natwork uhich

not to mention

tho vital

role

military

of
I

drawn iron

tzorconaricc

Vnshionn spread rapidly.

nilitary
is

Asian,

Central

the Muslim

itself

Hence the

equipment.
of

bow,

composite

both

justified
though

to cl

by a strong
to 10th

the

such

Dordecux

Transoxanin

remained
of

was

across
stemmed

almost
been preceded(

Europe

from

the

6th

in

one lay

close

Iraq

the

third,

maritime

although

and Egypt.

Of these

the medieval

European

cl

Andalus,

Asian

influence

had been influencing

the

three,

upon eastern
Arabia

centres
Islamic

since

southern
the Muslim

rrcnco-Ciormnn
that

civilization

military

TurkistrnT

in

with

the

frontier

the rlunlim

located

contact

corrorcinl

from

cud stretched

and beyond

astride

arms-producing

frontier

the ruolim

to note

interesting

important
most

three

beyond

while

powered

influenced

India

version

A similar,

already

is

it

in Hind,

world's

just

to Passau,

Central

latest

limited

any case,

large

their

and initally

uest

upon ffediterranean

a scenario

Eurasian

region,

bolt

in

centuries.

of

lands

the

fashions

however,

was,

influence

one lay

in

far

and had,, in

Andalus

uolin

Fearing
that

infiltration

of

and sabre

results.

by non-Islamic
the

to

of

no the

spangenholn

and their

was seen in

half

wan,

and abundance

armour,
quality

troops

ouch items

of

infiltration

This

Franco.

entirely

by their

frontier

the ruolin
from

lamellar

later,

rather

popularity

that

a response

Asian

the quality

of

of Turkish$

seems to have been equally

Central

of

a result

instance,

Out it

the offectivcncüs

note

the enctern

most of

first

ouch styles.

of

that

acasure,

the

in

was,

that

scant

provinccc,,

The adoption

throughout

styles

world

effectiveness
true

many fnr. flung

fuelled
military

pre--Islamic

India,
heartindustrial
on

a persistent
technology,
times.

while

491
Tncticnl

"Ovolo

rind Militnr

mrnts

Tho first

TrehnnInny

uave of Islamic

of the Umayysd Empire resulted
More specifically
tactics

this

in which

than

mobility

strategy

uns hardly

an infantry
also

in

contrast

did

Arabia'

to their

poverty

foes.

that

the

first

in

horses,

greater

Cut such a

father
lack.

a original'-

infantry

on mounted

preference.

of

victories.

achieved

their

most of

to suggest

ovidcnco

a reliance

Arab warriors

a result

roflectod

is

from Arab infantry

stemmed from

camel-riding

strategic

and the establishment

conquest

Arab reliance

0J., horses.

ruslim

armies

were,

'rich

relatively

There

in

equipment

ouch as arms and armour.
Evidence
the. Fertile

Crescent

be more than

ucro

empires

of commercial

already

and northern

Arabia

again

in

famano-Dyzantine

of

Vet the latter

is also likely

military

centuries,

Sessenien

The clan or tribal
families

in the Hij3z,

areas clang
domination
increased

and prccunably

over such trading
by tribute

the

two
degree

and southern

to have enabled
to permeate
seeps to have

as, from the 5th to 7th
fyzantino

military

way around.

arms stores

tho main corcvcn

the

troops

A high

influences

Iron was also influencing

than the other

such

where

influence
of
source

which is herd+l)'- surprising

rather

Prcbin

between

from

auxiliaries.

competition.

dominated,

styles

tribal

between northern

contact

and Iranian

that

of

southern

frequent

by Arab troops

in warfare

rabble

is times

pre-Isl

played

indicates

empires

on ill-equipped

and cultural

Arabia in late

the peninsula.

role

have been true

The same night
rival

vital

and Iranian

Romans-Uyzantino
could

the

of

routoa,
artarioa.

and importation,

apparently

owned by leading

in
other
also

commercial

nettled

endured those norchantc
They were replenished
while

the oquipnent

their
or

involved

4ýz
included

almost certainly
from neighbouring

arms producing

Any presumed
first

t'.uslim

mineral-rich

its

of

reservoir

the Urayycds

from

obvious

curly
of

Islam.

to

Central

an

'uelim

province

Syria's

impact use minimal,

sections

small

either

tradition$

the came way as did the Arabs.
demilitarized

those sections

functions

were virtually

equipment

and tactics.

of
the bulk

to have the

or localized.

traby

and were

or they fought

The population

of

and remained so under

who did have military

indistinguishable

these

of

because the military

largely

in basically

the Umayyads, while

was the most

iteverthelecs,

technology.

within

Egypt use largely

were not

provided

two were also

the Arabian military

horse-

technology

and the Crechrib

however

by the

to recruit

necessary

the military

thus already

Byzantine

an of fort

horsemen

traditions

were themsolves

population

century

wide

since

it

was

Arab armies

such recruitment

influence

military

and

organization

time

At this

the military

had some Influence

of its

military

finding

The former

troops.

in

tarries

Many of these

peoples.

aria

Iran

In the paid-7th

of cavalry

were already

which

like

may have been Inspired

Iran.

proportion

uero

Iron,

impact

greatest

Sassanion

conquered

cultures

such non-'Arab

every

in

conquered

expands, however.,

not

Lýrnd or regional

such forces

through

channel

conquered

could

had been occupied.

among newly

lands

by the

enjoyed

as Islam

thvmeqg or by a similar

of

the Caliphs

for

equipment

manpower.

the

an increasing
lands

military

Caliphate

problem.

established

raising
Arabs

the

'and material

regions,

sophisticated

Arab military

system

manufacture

must have been increased

introduced

this

Pyznntino

included

of

and militarily
1.'hat

already

abundance

armies

Tranooxania.

to solve

both local

or police

from the Byzcntineo

The Nubians were far

from pacific:

in

but their

ý-ý3
traditions

cem. largely

military

culture

to hnve lain
their

while

within

influence

a wider

North f ricen
limited

was nlraoet entirely

to tgyp t.
The Berbers
in

role

the military

u.-ins for

equipment

Arnenia'o

nat

is

North

Africa

history

of

to have been backward,

appear

it

of

hard

to isolate

of the

influence

Cyzantine
and this

location

the
superior
aping
it

matters

P. second

that

influence

fyzantine

Romsna-Hellenistic

hove inherited

Europa
this

of

schools.
aver--emphasized

any

civilization

At least

the so--called
to

have contributed

deal

largely

historys

in military

Byzantium was the adopter

ideas during

may be that

a great

that

uvrr,,

was due to the batter

neighbours

clear

night

traditions

to assume that

of Constantinople.

culture

end cparSe.

seems to be an apparent

Gyznntino

of "barbarian"

factor

The first

often

iss by cdntrnsts

and modifier

simple

been greatly

ýy
uhich
cl'

"barbarian"

Ito
thosQ
of
and

their

while

and Iranian

tended

traditions

t.avartholvßsa

and recent

no such has probably

between

similarities

both

own military

Romano-3yzantine

etknocetth

Yet their

wn mara noticeable.

its

localized,

largely

even primitive,

nay be due to two factors.

Byzantine

Islam.

clearly

as Prmenia's

given

an nnalgonction

perhaps

if

a najor*

classical

nany centuries,

influence

surprisingly

played

the inflation

and European

fyzentines

nark Ages.
of

scholars,

Romnn and Greek

Euro.. contriciEy.

The Visigothic
profound

influence

particularly

in the military

was, nevertheless.,
Iranians

peninsula

field.

Thin certainly

In medieval

limited

or more specifically

f: oorioh

almost entirely

had a

in al Andaluas

on subsequent Muslim civilization

to the many European features
Yet it

in the Iberien

inheritance

contributed
military
to nl

Sassanians military

tradition.
=ndalus.
influence

4(ey-

was more fundamental
tactics

and equipment

centuries,

less

been importing

heavy

of

so in

This

Asia.

technology

military

The Influence
in

above all
and the

provinces,

central
would

include

this

century

Later.,

with

the

Iran

in fuslim

primarily

of

course
in

at least

either

came to be dominated

6th

century

eastern

to

and
or

the early

c.- e from

Tronsoxonien

nomad Turcoman

invasions,

relating

by Turks

through

largely

Iolci'e

of

the

equipment

From uncertain

component.

influence

populations

galjüq

the

an

armour,

horse-archery

also

in

for

under review.

armies

early

it

such innovation

including

ethnic

end
largely

influence

fiuslin

as n major

spoor

was to have by for

region

is apparent

the

11th

originating

bulk, of

the period

in

had itself

frost

TurkistanT

and urban

nettled

during

to

with

than

the

was felt

the 0th

and long-lasting

in tacticsa,

beginnings

and minor
11th

Turks

Yet

latter

in weapons

sabre

to horse-archery.

fighting

rather

of Turkiatan

lanellnrp

curved

cavalry

from which

the most dra +otic$ fundamental
fluslirt

from

innovation

The source

was Central

cavalry

horse-archery.

military

many centuries.
sprang

Islamic

of

particularly

though

sword

It

and much more wider-pread.

the

frontier.

influences

grew

more important.

rinally

there was India.

influences

Indian

Afnhanistän.

were very localizedn,

Uherever

connections

in those nchoutc

either

heavy,

through

is fully

extending

beyond

those uarrloro

Iolcm,

on

who rode them or

them, is almost nlwoys to be found.

who controlled

8th to 10th centuries
that

hardly

these appeared in eastern

perhaps the most noticeable
the Into

Iberian,

those of Visigothic

to
been
in
the
have
realm
would seem

One exception

of wnr-Pleph ,nto.
Indien

Like

in
f^uslin
choncjo

woo the increasing

armourodp cavalry.

tbile

tactics
importance

the influence

from
of
of

445
Iranian
vors

fundamental

stirrup
This

tradition

cavalry

in

early

or Transoxanio

developnent,

the

century

metal

already

knew of

place,

which

This

the

a horseman
to

difference

it.

being
of

course,

armed with

of Islamic

to engrgo enc^:y infantry
hcd largely

CAbbFsId

The Turnich

Cnliphato

so-+colled

political
consisted

primarily

It

f3yzantium's
spearheaded
was inspired

if

and could
hod

the opposition

of

9th
the
on
of

heavily

had such
CAbbä3id

century

armoured

horse--archers.

In many skillo,

in nddition

indeed likely,
military

hul*; ms that

and lf3th

that

resurgence

by these or comparably

the
by
mailed
no
much
no

centuries

"shave

army"

to the

now

tta

or very demornli2ed,

end inncc -play,

loo seem possibly,

This role

or scout,

they were trained

owordsnnnship

century

nrmies.

basic

dicorgenized

impact

Including

that

less

to the Arab and

particularly

troops
shock
co

Like most nrmlük coldierc,

would

time.

made for

was in turn

remained cs skirmishers

become fragmented,

nn important

his

striking

whereas in preceding

directly,

only bo used effectively
nirendy

the

It

sword.

capability

armoured cavalry,

c,hur7s7nT horsenen of early

cnvolry

or

epear

this

around

enhanced

could,
in

to stand

improved

greatly

stirrup

did

the horse-archer.

rn enhanced close-combat
new role

metal

Arabs

they

although

rigid

i: hurnoän

the

that

likely

man comfortably

greatly

in

who had already

Turks

the

Only

armoured

was itself

even mars important.

loop-stirrup

rope

the metal

won concerned,

with

horses

of

of

adoption

as Iclai

contact

or

use of

the

seemss however,

leather

to stand,

ability

sewer of

It

a fully

enable

paddle,

of

availability

was perhaps

far

to

stirrups.

not make widespread
howver,

0th

as a result

adapted

increased

to this

took

cdoption

and the

horsemen of western

to crehery.

the heavy cavalry
Wring

the 10th

armoured Nuslim cavalry
Europe,

Oyzcntine

496
tactics

offensive

tactics

nr1ül<

as well

Crescent.

in

without

crccs

drying

established

to

13th

role

centuries

tactics

coylemiss

of local

being

with

a prime

militias

the äazirah.
forces

engines

moat infantry

weapons,

marcenaritis.

the

circumstances.

from

Prececi_n9

Umoyynd

the

development
fire

ends above a11a of oil-based
on ethnic

on

although

there

batsios

owed their

populations

who exported

Examples include

large

and

infantry
from
such
sprang

to
a close
success

initial

the

a growth

was also

Syria
in
the
no
ä1äi,
such
areas
eh,
such as
either

in

while

with

10th

Their

open battle

sophistication

of

the

dicoppocred.

in

courses

centuries

states

combat,

were recruited
example,

during

as a

wasp of

on local

depending

Caliphate

incomes

state

Each factor

changed

the Fertile

probably

reduced

infantry

1t number of dynasties

or at least
warlike

little

such as

Particularly

country,,

induetrion,

of

loss

cAbbisid
of the

auccescor

mean that

was increased

siege

of more refined

of

many spheres

remained
there

warfare

not

in

vital

remained

infantry
siege

did

in

cavalry

the subsequent

power and of

dyncatias

patterns,

each area

importance

The increased

local

recruitment.
in

and far
powers

armaments

for

armour

Muslim

equipped

of trading

importance

differing

cAbbn id
,

lightly

up of il7jk

in

rising

the frogaicntation

of

a breakdown

of

and the
of

to o revival

of

oid

Unmyyad ore.

precevUn3';

particuarly

and various

+tiaverthelesai

led

result

f3üyids

the

nht.a1stn had a oimilnr,

an the nrnioo

the

deal in comon with

of

equipment,

0Abbnsid

influence

the Fctimido,

also

in

non and horse.

crcuablef

those

as with

Thoro were similarities
both

had a grent

certainly

°Ahb;

association

numbers of infantry

the Cüyida,, the

rids

the
end

t.urShi*ün.
The essential
throughout

role

the Crusading

of t; ualim

infantry

eras, particularly

naturally

persisted

when the Frankish

states

497
were forced

onto the defensive

behind a network of einbornte

fortifications.
The general
and tactical

developments,,

inherited

a Visigothic

the some on that
essentially

Influence

French

waves of

in western

Impact

the

thoco

did

Cy the

youth.

uert'

plus

Europoon

the central

role

and armour,

auch erns
was despite

the

Cnly

same period.
14th

military

after

Turkish

Central
influcnced

cal Andalua

the

the surviving

military
of

armies

Cusslim bastion

Islam increased

Their

lance,
went with
This

during

review,

the
early

"Christian"

these

of

Granada.

tactics,

between the military

end eastern

unrriors

and almost

under

period

from

century.

separate

against

in

that

13th

Berber

and trained

zone

and heavy

tactics

the
of

peninvuln

foes.

Christian

armour

throughout

end of

Iberian

were washing

shock

cavalry

differences

by thD Ayyübid tcke-over

of course,

the

conquests, of Iron,

A cubeequent

divergencies.

in

Subsequent

Andclusiän

their

heavy

was a reaction

equipment of western
the Saljüq

of

persisted

coon in

Tho uidening

from

heavy

equipped

century,

styles

of

that

not

tins still

the 1uslim

most strictly

century

equipment

existence

differently

entirely

the

12th

indistinguishable

virtually

rxcentinlly

in

waves of

even in

influence

Berber

Europe$

the entire

washed over

though

which,

tradition.

European

and corm to have hod a greater

to the north

states

tradition

military

the overall

within

from that

from the 8th to 13th conturioc.

world

soon elsewhere

'na technologicsal

as yell

was different

al /sndaluo and the minor Christian

r:ualim

than

hiotory,

In al Indalua

in the ruolin

even elsewhere

both

trend of military

greatly

and

following

the Fertile

Crescent

end Anatolia

domination

over Egypt'

brought

that

countryp

also contributed

Asian nomadic horce-orchory
the Muslin

uorld

since

tochniqucc

the Oth ccntury,

about
to theoe
h: da,

4g rý Cut until

the
It

minor.
influencer

in

uns,

of

fact,

part3

of

tribes

the

the

cufficicnt

that

element

Sal jt q sultanate

traditionally

the

their

the military

themselves

though

tactics

etage

joined

more than

Tho V'ongol conquest
but again relatively
feian

horse--archery

to absorb new ideas
feature

continuity
night

be termed,

extent

in equipment.
least

of

that

military

far
so

of

as the large,

armies,

1oien

the centre
The Turcomens
the Bedouin
troops.

auxiliary

Islam led to a further,

of eastern

of nomadic Central

presented

thesis

in this

history,

could

cnd an ability

eclecticism

uhilo

apparent

in the fields

The basic

to

ts'lites

military

a source

r'uslim

India.

to northern

of the

their

uns o

cultures

n strong

element of
as it

This elements or mainstream

was already

in recruitment

lost

Central

returned

from both conquered and rival

was also present.

trosC persistent
lessor

the evidence

Islamic

»

in those areas.

techniques

as indicating

be interpreted

fanilicc,

cxc ption

a stronger

prinonco

short--lived,

In conclusion,

basic

of parts

them the

Trcditionol

century.

dominant

n previously

largo

nomecdic T.urcomans

now with

Egypt

conquering

with

and partial

and equipment,

from

as little

tribes,

the

within

n thouscnd

Islam.

of

r0m,

recruited
in

influence

the world

true

Cnot

to bocomo a new and reif.

then

enabled

with

predominance

military

by bringing

the possibly,

of

by not only

pottorn

nutucl

of' the Middle

had gone on for

which

also

thocc

of

civilizations

this

within

r'everthvlv3r,,

crab

cottlod

zone but

cottled

hnd been rclotivoly

a continuation

Turkistcn

nomadic

and flock

influcnca

noroly

The SnlJügo brokc

yccrs.

of

this

century

betuecn

thace

rnd

11th

in Umayyad tLme.

of tactics
and also,

characteristics
estobliohcds

It was
to a

and orgenizations

though again to a lesser
of tt;uolim warfare,
dynastic

states

extent,

at

the
Middle
of

ý'ý

Enot were conccrned,,

so^aatinos evolved

ct'.bb'aaid
recruitment

of a largely

wns far

slowor.

indicated
continued,
fttol

by its
first

ano,quithout

century.
of Vienna.

It

Normally,

The effectiveness
very persistence
by the r1,
onlük
fund

cntnl

also brought

of this

houovor,
basic

fact
by
the
and
Sultanate

or drastic

the forces

the early

on uith

array or with

n

of the 11th century.

conquest,

rnpidly,,

the -aljüq

such evalutian
tradition
that

it

of Egypt and later
change until

to
uric
by the

the 18th

of Ielana to the very gatcc

ý.

4a0
aIOLIdCRAPNY

Ungublinhpd

caurcrs

K. S. al Asslis
South Arsbin in the 5th end 6th cnnturips
relotions
c.
(Unpub.
to
Central
Arnbin
referenGa
i1th
thesis.
St.
Andrews
Univ.
1568).
9
Ths Ralp of ths Nobility
1? 10--1266, (Unpub. 4 h. n.

G. Ahgnr,
Indin,
0.

Ayalon,

fl.

I.

durinr. i PnrLy Turtcish ruin in
thesis,
Edinburgh t.!niu, 1969
.

The I-=.
ilitnr

Reforms
thp t, ck rnund
of Cnli ,h n1 rru't iRim
(Pnper
to the Con resr
nnd consenuencFn
of Orientalists
nt
(
tyPescriot,
Pdf?
"'nlhi
r,P", S Library
London L!niuersity,.
taº

Oeshix.,
thesis,

Thýtimid
Diliphate
London Univ.
9970),

Fitnat
M. Brett
nl
Historlorirsiphy,
P.

ctith
_CC,
Ph.!?,

Qa rtiuan
(Unpub.

ihn t1m,1711 in thn
Crone,
London Univ.
1975),

Z. M. Ghaith.,
p-d nTn,

A Stud
of Trnditionnl
Ph. U, thesis.,
London
Umnyypd

The C'rugndes in
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Ar^bic
theais.,

(Unpub,

3II5/99(-, -487/9094,

Perind

Ph. D.

Arabic
Univ.
1970).

(Unpub.

Ph. D,

poPtr
up to the
Cdinburgh Univ.

A. M. A. ei Gindi., ý-Inrt? nl pnotr
ramonn the Arnbg in
(Unpun. ph. r. thesis.,
London Univ. 1952).

thesis's

G'rsth of
197fi).
the

1iUr

3nhili

nh

th;, rl. itP
"lilitgr
t',clministrntion.
3. V. Naidon.,. A, acta of il znntine
Tpnmntn
from thcSixth
Corps, the nnsikion
r ini
nnd the I..
_mps...?
.,.
(L'noukl.
to the Ninth
, l1,. ". theý3. -,., '.'irningh. tri
: nt, ur ,
1{niv. 1975}.
FJi11, v ihý f-W, 3ß.lityý
(Unpub.
"'. Litt,
thesis
J.

firnh
,urham

in the
L?. Howard-Oohn sorý, St.iidips
Army in ths Tenth
nnd Elrsvpnth
thc3ioi
ttx+"ord Univ.
1971),

Arnips
ýýniv.

in thp
19C? ).

rorl

Or rn. 9zation
of '
(Unpub,
"Pnturien,,

Connupsts.

zr r+tý
Ph, ý,',

fn P"ecca nnd t"eiiinn in thp latp
Postr
flnrtinl
A. A. S. al 3arbüc
(Linpub.
theaisy
P-h.
ic
",,,
ZsInn:
pnriods,
err-islAm3c
anci Psr1Y
Edinburgh
Univ.
1974),
Y. Ul. Xhan. The-. Army under
9
(Unpub. N. A. thesis,,

the rultnns
of OP2hi
1950),
London Univ.

A. S. M. Lutful-Huqj,
Edition
A Criticnl
of - rjihn
(Unpub. Ph. O. thesis'
1956).
London Univ.

1210Aº) -

nt al

5u'. i

152Gtt2

49 1
ContcmnornrY

5ourcas

M, Amari, edit* and trans.,
1880-1841).
Anon.,,

The Cook of

Anon.!

Casts

Dedn Korkut,

to Jerusalem.

R. Hill,

oÄlnm

trans.

V. Minorsky*

the

Franks

The Third

't;todjmel al Tewarikh, " 3. Mohly edit.
AsiAtý
3 uer, p XI (1041)9
of

D. L.

cUmar
Ibn IbrahIrn,
Al Ansari,
A Muslim Manual of tý1ar,

Pilgrims

(London 1937).

edit. $ and trans.,

ftnon.,

Rnlmd

and other

1974).

(London 1962
.

Itinerariurn
Perp rinorum
(London 1958),
trElns.,

The Son

(London

trans.!

Anon.,

Anon,,

(Turin-Rome

Arebo-5icule,

G. Lewis,

The Deeds of

Francorum

Anon. s Nudüd nl

ßiblioteca

Sayers,

K. Fonwick,

Cruando

and trans.,

inurnnl

(London

trans.,

1957).

Tafri. L el Kurüb fT TadbTrnl
Nurüb,
( Cairo v 1961).
G. T. Scoýn2ßny trans.,

Muhammad ibn 'ISS tsl HannfTf P7ih`ynt ni Sut1 wail
Al Agsnrä'ia
'fi
ta'l1m'a'tnal
R. S. M. Lutful-ý-luq,
edit.,
al furüaiyYa:
(Unpub. Ph. G. thesis,
London Univ. 1956)o

Ayyugi:

urmTya

11o Roman do Vargo Pt Goläähj" A. S. i'vlikinn-Chirvanip
(1970).
XXII
trz"ans.!
Arts AQieti
arz
and
(Cairo

Bahnael DTnp ibn Shaddäd! Al Nlauºadir Fli äultnni

nh

Salradin What F3vfall
Doha o7. Ctlns ibn haddäd!
London 1897).
C. W, tlilvnn= trans*',

Sultan

edit.
1897).

Yusuf

"
the
"History
Almohades,
5anhägTjp
Oakr
ibn
Abt
Al!
of
Al Etaidhaga
cal
in ikactunanta Inoditfa da Histnira
Al.mohnde, C. Levi»ProvenCals
t3dit, and trnna. a, Pcria 1920).
Al QalädhurT,

Futüh

ni

Ouldnn,

r(v Gav)vs

adit.

y

(reprint

E3eirut

9958,

K.
7dhurTj
5tntP9
If
Hittis
P.
thr,
Inlrnic
ins
The
Ori
val.
1)nl.
of
Al
trano.,
trona., 9
London 1916 j, vol. Il» F. Co Nurgotten!
(London 1924).
Al f3ctcri!. Dpocri tion
(Paris 1913)o

do 1'APriqun

5c tt?ntrionnlo

Al ß3rünT i Kitth n1 ýnmýh3r gý nAcriPat
(Hyderabad 1936
fl, Canard' edit« and trana«p
(Algiers
1934)9
Chu

Snyf

n1.3abrhir,

DMlN21Pc110i2

Do Slane,

trona.,

F. Krankowj edit. »
de text9'-I.

3u.. Kua.9 Chnu J,.t...Kun an the Chinvse and Axnb Trndo
W. W Rockhillo
f
Hirth
and
13th_conturfers,
cnd
(St. Petersburg
1911).

in

the

trans. #

12th

L9
Cnnnenn,
(Paris

Anno CamnPnn
1967).

FirdAwmlp

Sh7hnämah,

FirdawsT,

Thp Shahnama of

trans.,
Firdawsi,
Fulcher

J.

Alexindr,

C. Leibs

A. Uulloro,

'odit.,

Firdausi

(Lugduni

A. G. Warnar

in Recueil
den Croisades
des Historians
PaM
1944-1095)o
vol. Ill,

A. Grohmann,
(Cairo

end C. Warners

Sht±hnrarIa R. Levy,

"Ge3ta Francorurn Ihorusalem

of Chartres,

0. Goldstein,

E3atavorura 1877-. 1ß80).

(London 1905),

Thn E21G of the Kinns

F. Gabrieli,

and trans.,

edit,

trans.,

F'rnmthe

Ha$än ibn Ahmad» Al
Al Namdänl!
(Princeton
1940).

IklTl,.,

Al HamdänTq Fiaslin ibn fhmads AiýIklT, %
(f3rý9hdäd
trans.,,
1931).
and
Al HamdänTp Nasen
N. A. raris,

Historieno

Thr; Oewish Poets of Spain.

edit.
and trans.,
1952).

t!drld

"

Occidentßux

of

(London 1971).
Arebic

N. A. Farlo$

Pnnyri,

odit.

v

Al 3:ttrmnlT al l3snhdär{,ýý edit,

ibn Ah:aAdt The Antirxri. tien
(Princeton
trnna%
1930).

Al HarcwT# "Los Conseils
J. 5aurde2-Thamine,
XVII (1961-1962).

Peregrinantium,

(London
thp
Crugadea,,
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of

Arpb Histnriens

trans.,

(London 1967).

tram.,

of

South

C,rsbin.

5ayý
a
Prince
du
l+yyübide.
un
al--Narawi
=
In d'Ftudoa
trans.
Gullet
t3rientn3,
en
p

Al HorTrTq Thn AB,-nmblipc) of Al NorTri
(London 1867
trans.,

"

T. Chonery and F. Steingosa*

cAbd
ýtý
"
in
Andalus,
tjakam,
"Futüh
IfrSgiya
Coc.
Ibn
wall
al
I. 'AFrirn. je du Nord at de 1' Cr> anne A. Gateau, edit,
and trans,,
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Ibn

Abi Zer' Ritdh a1 tlnrtFaa= Histaire
drta Souvpraino
A. ßoaum aia; trans. -j
109O)s
Paris

du Ma hrpb

du
Ibn el F"eqTh al Hamadäni, "ICitäb al t3ulran, " in [3encrintion
Ma hreb at do 1'Eucro rýu IIIwIXýa ßioclcý M. Hadj-Sadak, edit.,
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1949 .
and trans.,
Ibn al Khatib, "Al Ihatah fi Akhbar Chernäta, " in Moorish
C. 5Qrdo, trans.,
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Ibn al fla*mün, in ai clngr3zT,

Khitfý

(Cairor-qüläa

Spein,

),
d.
n.

Ibn al Ctalmnisi, Hintor
of Cmrmacuns [3i ßha 1 T'äarikh bimac,h
13oirut 19II8).
H. F. F,medroz, edit.,
Ibn el T'uw,
ayr,

in e1 Magrizi,

uh itat
0f

( Cairo--f3üraq n. d. ).
.,

ýq 3
cnbd
de
al Gnbbir

Ibn Hamdýe, 11 Canzoniaro
9

- ibn Hamdýs,
ý C, 5chiaparellii
,

Ibn HamdTsq "Il

ýa4 Qoli"p
'r
H11p

48nio

Ibn Cuhammad

(Rome 1897)«

edit.!

da Ibn flamdTae"

trans.,
in Aus der tJnlt der Islnmischen
#
p
ZE3erlin
für Ernst Kühnel,
1959).

Andalusý'

.ý.

Abi Cakr

palazzo Hamnmdita di Digäya daacritta

F. GnbriQli,
Festschrift

Ibn HnnTln

Ibn

Kunst

TsbyTn al. P1n"än3 Pý shmrh cßui,ýn Ibn NpnýC!

ý

,1A.

^"A

- --

,.
ltmlra

IJJ4

Oichtor
Abu-1 Kmsim
Ibn Hanil'.
al AndalusTs "libcar don ShIcitischen
der
floh. Ibn Hani1#" A. von Kramar# edit, ,,# xeittýcý
t, XXI'J (1505.
Gcaal]ýf
heutschen Marrsnlýischpr
dos Fatimidas
Ibn FtanT'' al AndulusTq "i. ' Imp6rialisma
at leur Propagando!
OrLentaý
d'Etuden
M. Canard* tranffi.,,
Annalps do 1' Institut
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Terra
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dc in
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and Paris
Ibn f3udhaylt
Preux.
Ibn

al
L.

AndalusT!
Morciarp

J.

H. Kramers

des Cnvnliers
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Lnnruro
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p

Iet; agf ?hp Lifn of Muhmmad;
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*

A2astlr

af

et

Allah,

and G. W'ioto

11 Insinnn

des

E. Rehataokj,

Ibn Khurradadhbih. 9 "Kit7n; b al r1aa7lik wall cinnT;lik,, " P°. Nadj. Smdak,r
1$Ea2
de
QZsnhreb
du
trans,,
In
Oeaeriptinn
at
ar?ný*
wd
edit,
(Algiers
IoýIý:
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I?
cr3icý+cle.
au

Ibn Solids
aimnd

K. L. Tullgvist,

ni rýu, hrib

K¬,
tib
D'ln,
al
r3l.
a

GImGd

Kitäb

Al Fnth at t'ussj

al IsfahänT,

de Landborg;

Le Comte Curlo

t'udsT

Qdit,,,

edit.,

(Leiden
fT'l

1899),
fnth

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In
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Connuiats
do
Kätib
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DTn,
at
al
al
al
Paris
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H. Ma, sotrans.,
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pnr Snlndin,

Al O'Ehiý,

Al Days n poll

Al Jxýii; ý, iýnsýI i1 al Jii
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Tnb Tn

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cAbd

al

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Al rvhij,
the Turks and the Army of the Khalifat. o in General, " C. T.
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Harle
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Al Jnhijo in Historions
(Paris 1946)o
Al i: lnd*

Arobvn

oes

"Al 5uyüf wa Ajnmauhaf"

F¬acult

of

Lnttrrn

fund

J. Sauvagst.

choision

A. R. xakii

I llnivernit

trans.!
9

kýullotin
edit 6952).
y

XIV

nf the

"

/f qq

Leo VI, Tnctica

M. Ooly do Maiiaroi,

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oA1T
oAlT,
Al PiasiidT, Abull
ibn al Nuouyn ibn
flurü i ni Div-3hnh. Lss
.
.
.
..
........
........,
_......,.
Eourteilly,
Prairies
tir.
da
C. aarbier do Meynard and Pravwt do
(Paris
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edit.
and
Al fiagrTa3, in E. M4, Quatrcýrnýra ýrPiänoirara
Gýcýgrt3phictýrss
nt " týistoricuss
r.
r
w
w ir
rr..
. r.
(Paris
10113*
1!
Egynte,
sur
iiinhäj

r. ý

Ümmrad+ýn,
Tebnkat-I
NÄSiffi
A Gonernl History
al DTn, Abü
trans.,
H. G, Ravorty,
ruhnmmndan D naatisa
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of the
Nqu Delhi 1970)o
rr+print

T;ke r5, eriences
MiykawnihT,
oý tke_. Nations
_.
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Poetry.
XXVII

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Hnrb ý ýýr,1

Archery
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Texte:
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terlkt
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i7uný....:
tdarhp'

Tha tißstar
Mass. 1954

or f3tý;chýrst

hi,

R. W. FryQ, trnns.

$

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Al C1a«awls,ä'art ilnd. ith , Ezzodin Ibrahim, and 0.3ahnnon-t)avis.
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ýAbd
f
rýahJ S.
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$

ýdit.

rdiz-c., al rlulks 7ho E1ookof GbLornsn,
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.
Pr,Gllctßs Fourteen
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Byzantins_Fitiq. ers

trans.
E. R, A. äcwtur,
f

$

.

W
mt
on.
..............
F;ustthavoli,,
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Shcat*hn* Tho Mnn in tha p^ntharta
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TnrTkh nl Rcjrül wnal t,ulük
Al TnbnrTj
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Al Tabnr'f$ Chroni

7a.
do
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Skin

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4-q5
CAIT
üqTt
Al Ter;
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Plurdü Ibn
pour Salndinp" C. Cghenp edit# and trans.!
Orientalep.
XII (1947-1948).
CAIT
ibn frurdäy t;antribution
ibn
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ü? Tý ý;urdä
t'1 Tar ýtArch6ri;
...

Al

,ý

Lntnlif
CýlibT,
Tha
,-__.
bdit8#s

(Cälro

a1 MnC;rif.
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Al TurtüshTt

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.
Principass
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Al 7urtüshT
Ibn
Dakrp
taäraýrrara
týmlýLd
Abtil
""
--.....
i...
ý.....
+. ý..,..
i`i. Alarcon* trans. f(flgadrid
1931)o
ctinart!
Ibn f'a.dlrýlläha, t7psýlik
Al
p1 Ab,; r fT tlnmýl. f k nI AmsOr,
taA f'ri us+ mains YaC
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t
(Paris
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cUnari*
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Al
,
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tlSäq,ah ibn C*,
ugicih,
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tCitäb rii

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P. K. Hittij

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t:ir

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5oq
DGJ

CAbbasid

Cd

Caliphate:
70,81,
140,168,305,307,310,
319,329,334,343,346,
347,351,352,356,360,
362,363,365,368-370,
373,374,377,388-392,
394,398,407,419,444,
449,462.
al
342.

Malik#

al

Rahn

CAbd

304,

a

Caliph:

ibn

284,

Sazaura:

332,403.
300.
Abkhazians:
cAbn *: 351,352,357,337,
391.
Ahsar: 233.
454.
Abtäl:
403.
Abyssinia:
307.
Achacmenids:
;ý,däb al 1tarb : 17,27,34,
100,107,119.
Adarga: 233,407.
5, II2,
Aegean, arms find:
91,144.
Aethiopica:
296.
Af,Lhani. atan: 120,150,301304p 327,371,395,399,
457.

Af'r4.silzb:

309.

Africans:
400,403.
Africa,
Aftak:
130.
350,400,419.
hlabi&-:
r1
374,375.
hovanians:
t1
374.
Agulani:
Ahä`bish: 263.
Aac1r: 402.
Ahcläth: 335,337,388,452.
Al
Bänhdäd: 391.
Ah¢aad ibn Tlx17unt 350,360.
cAjami:
352.
frescoSý: 33,323.
120,415,454,455.
Akontion:
104.
Ajanta,
cflkkah:

Alans: 216,328.
CAlägah: 176.
Albanians:
300,303,374,394.
Alcappo: 364,365,413,414,
449.
Alexandria:
277,286.
Alhambra:
437,440.
A la brida:
432,439,440.
A la jineta:
432,439,440.

C%1i, Caliph:
268,281,282.
lids:
370.
CXliyah:
113.
Allah:
100.
"Almalu:
170.
Alptegin:
358,363,367,368,
370.
Altai Mts.: 324.
Alwah: 380.
Auiaj:
Amalfi:

130.

407 .

CAz
351,352.
al
n, Caliph:
cPmr ibn
Cs: '276,236.
al
CAnüd: 67,69,73,281,391,

398,422.
iWü Darya: 305,307.
69.
Anukta:
43,149,173,280,
Anatolia:
285,330,348,353,360,362,
390,411,417,444-446,464.
CAnt'tzAh:
101,105,108.

Anbar: 259,
Andalusians:
23,37,
al Andalus,
89,106,139,146,150,175,
190,207,215,216,221,222,
231-233,236,251,291-293,
340,377,423-440.
'Anf:
219,220,226.
Anglo-Saxons:
3 67,,
ht: vnah:
fu:
124.
Anna Connena: 412.
Ansar:
231,339.
369,396.
Antkiyah:
Agbuha: 102.
CAggär: 142.
17.
al Agsara'T:
Arabia:
26,90,101,103,171,
173,235,247,255-274,277,
278,325,348,369,
Arabian Gulf:
88,261,271.
horse:
Arabian
447.
Arabs: 28,87.. 89,103,105,106,
255-268,271,275--278,280285v 233,301-305,307,309,
318,319,329,335,333.340,
343,343,3,17-35&p
358,361,
363,365-. 371,374,377-330,
384,389,402,407,414,419,
423,432,438,444,446,449452,454,456,457,461,464.
CArad:
90,113.
Aragon:
425,432,434.
Aral Sea: 305,325.
Aramaeans: 258.

5-10
ArdashTr I: 297.
Armenia, Armenians:
34,43,
80,237,235,289,290,
303,350,361,367,378,
3135,407,410-413,451.
CArr`adah: 154,15¬3,278.
ArSüf, battle:
40::, 415,443.
ýrtugids:
44E3,455.

ý..rus: 159.
cAsä: 72, We
csä
Agilah:
414.
Asäwira:
261-263,296,301.
Asi: 331.
CAskar: 447,448,450,
c 1: 113.
7,
s,q3ºlän: 402.
Asturia:
292,424,425.
Asturia-Leon;
292,425-428.
fi?, 263,294,296,
As;Z'rän:
301.
AsvZn: 285.
Atahet. js: 44£3,450.
CAtalah:
122.
ntish
kash ähanin:
154.
Atwaqs 226.
nears: 37,90,247,243,277,
32E3,3413,376.

ctturäsim:

361,396.
455,456.
ýyäz the Tall:
Aynah: 176,
ct'ýyr; 130.
AyyZ"f3ids: 70,92,106,231,
239,413-416,420,445,
452-456,461.
34,1460
295,300,
lti2.arbayjän:
375,3£36,414,4580,
cnzTa, Caliph:
401.
al
Babr Bayan: 315.
=-.
I3actria:
Bactrian
ca. l: 325.
305.
Fadakhshän:
ý..
_
Badan: 195.
Badr al Ja.ýnalis 411.
Baýnhc'ad: 2601 3A2# 351p 352,
356,357,370,337,391.
Bagrach Vol: 3ý0.
B,nha al ihn:
15.
I3ahräzý xZ: 265.
411.
Bahräm, Fäti. mid vi2ir:
421.
Bahri
Bä3a: 263,402,403.
16,281,327,
al BaladhurT:
344.
Baläsäjh: un: 321.
409.
Balkans:
362.
Balkh:
iýchist3n,
Ba]. u'
i3.alüchTs s 120,

374.

25miyan:
303,
Band: 89.
Banü Balk: 257.
Barns I tabib: 366.
383.
Banü ilia äl:
Barns Niarin: 295.
L3arnt Tahlib:
257.
Barägi:
250.
13aräsizn: 250*
Barb horse: 280.
434.
Barcelona:
13ar9-i bid:
130.
249.251,372,3739
Bargustuwan:
Bärnya: 402.
T33ar4iya: 378.
Basra: 34,301,304,338,339.
tilis:
379.
13
13,
223,281,
ayýah: 212-214,220..
345,352.
324.
T3aykal, lake:
13ayl.and: 307.
354.
Bäzfakand:
I3a Tkand: 354.
Bäzin: 402.
B7-iiUuband: 354.
105.
Bedouin:
259,
Belisarius:
101,102,237,288,
Berbers:
350,351,367,377,379,330,
382,334,386,401,403,405,,
407,423,429,431,434_440.
I3erutta:
104.

Bid: 129,131.
Bhlak:
131.
All leash: 93.
74.
13i1k-a t. 'ýkini:
Bill:
100.
8lntcath:
318.
al I3ir nx: 17,33.
Bishý-Ipür: 265.
Bleraya: 235.
402.
Blue Nile:
T3obrinski
Bucket:
399.
Book of Ledo Korkut:
446.
13ornu: 402.

Bucollarii:

236.

Buddhists, Buddhists:
303,304,
310,459.
Bury} lutäq:
168,195,251.
Bukhara,
Bukharis:
307.. 309,352.
Bulgar:
24,460,
447.
Bulgaria:
13urutuqt 131.
Bugaia, battle:
11.
449.
Eüridsa

t3urj. 15+9.
Burjäss 124.
Euruds 433.

511
But
132,
pay:
iuyids:
168,334,3513,374,
392.. 395,397.

Bythinia:

4113.

ßyaantitttn,
By., antines:
34,35,
37,40,43,68,71,
ß0,90,
100,103,104,117,119,
141,146,149,151,16,1,
169,172,174,194,202,
204,207,211,213,214,
217,2113,229,232,237239,247-249,257,258,
260,262,272,273,275,
277-279,232..
2191,, -233,300,
317,330,332,34.0.343,
34G.. 350,351..
357,359,3613f, 9, :372,376,
^x33,387,
.
388,390,400,407-.
413,
416.419,429,443..
447,454,
461,462.

Cztthtsian .: 300.
384,405,411,419,
Cairo:
451.
417.
Cappa.cbcia:
10,43,
Cappadoc3an frescos:
364.
r.aTr.-,n11.a Palatina
ceiling:
333,
295,4-149
4,15.
Carolingians:
:324.
3its.:
Carpathian
battle:
Carrhae,
t17.
325,370,392.
Caspian:
425,431. -4: 34,439.
Castile:
c-ttalo nia : WS,, 43: L-434*
35,150,173,
t',ýýucý'ýtzs ý;ts.:
303,326,
216,290,300..
3,-,o, 374,375,413.
364.
Cavusin:
Central
Aria:
36,37,40,248,
265,277,295,2970
293,
300,305,3190
333,343,
353,355,357p
353,375,
3G6,420,4,119
460,464,
465.
Chanson de Rol-ind:
106.
Char Chid: 354.
Chakhi:
236,240.
c3ka,rkh: 142,392.
Chartres,
191.
stained
glass:
Chashm3k: 217,218,224.
C2ü ýi: 323.
China, Chinese:
35,107,140,
149,152,169,207,248,
277,303,303..
312,315,
318--324,327,3313,459,
464,
302.
221.
rC+thionites:
Chotxms:

Chuub: 75,
3'w-bah tTr:
132.
hub-i
ähzan: 75,
34,362,363,411.
ri. licia:
Clibanarius:
343.
105.
oipanions
of the irophet:
289.
Constantinople:
Copts: 258,266,2136,287,411.
425,423.
Corcbva:
Corsosca:
93.
Cressac frescos:
11.
Crimean areas finds:
313,314,
323.
Crow's Feet: 154.
Crusades,
Crusaders:
150,193,
194,200,219,239,312,374,
331,334,337,333,402,411414,420,422,442..
444,447,
448,450,452.,
456,460,461.
Cuirace:
193.
Cuirie:
193.
Cursores:
454.
Cyprus : 340,447.
Oabb-abah:
159,277.
69,70,75,76,226,
Oabbüs:
393.

Oabbüs al muharrafah:
212,227,
Dabirah:
303,340.
DanhistSn:
Da.hrah: 46.
?'Sr.i.zn: 176.
Dnmascene: 36.
Dmmascus: 369,449.
36.
Damascus steel:
ýýng sang: 132.
ýä..
Danish t1xa: f31.

424.

!; vii stuaänclicis: 445.
232,233,240,241,
`'araqih:
348,352,370,393,404,406,
407,421,437,440.
Daracjah lamilah:
236,241,437.
Darariy:
105.
402.
Darfur:
taarrajah:
160.
'Das: 100,102.
DashMh:
44,46.
Dast: 52.
DaZri : 1013.
Daylam, Daylam.is:
108,230,237,
238,263,300,301,358,374,
378,391,396,397.

231.
Day of the CarnQl, battle:
Defensores: 454,
Delhi Sultanate:
334,335,420,
458.
M: ýi1:
94.
! Ihayl:
177,
Dhulabah:
58.

s1z
Dhubalah: 415.
Akritas : 348.
Dienes
tºingän:
303.
Dihrarn: 303.
177.
Dil3s:
T)TmA: 121.
Dirc:
167,170,175,137,1889
190,191,193-195,203,
216,2619
232,290,296,
344,352,364,366,377,
382,393,415,434,435,
455,464.
Div sux&rän:
369.
Diw rkan:
160.
Diyar
63akr: 449.
232.
Dorka:

Dorylaeurn, battle:
Douro: 427.
Drafsh:
Dshübbe:
Dulayfids

374,443.

294.
189.
: 370.

129,167,235,
Dura Europos:
258,264,266,297.
Wash
harbah:
103,109.
Durres ah-. 187,290.
46.
rusthni:
324.
Dzungari<an rates:
354.
Eastern Turks:
331.
East Indies:
fro:
4213.

cija,

battle:

439.

23,32-34,44,69,71,
'Egypt:
80,62,102,154,174,2039
250f 255,
237,233,2499
274,276,281,284--287,
350,367,
301,334,3409
368,381,344,365,338,
407,403,
3949 395,4019
4179 4199 420,
410-4129
422,451,452,457,461,
4629 464.

Clburz,
Mts.: 392.
Elephants:
107.
328.
England:
286.
Eritreans:
Eritrea,
291.
Ervogild:
battle:
445.
Erzinjan,
.
Ethiopia,
Ethiopians:
120,
262,263,286,402,403.
88.
Euphrates:
35,248,324,
Eurasian
Steppes:
375,3769
400,460.
Europe, Europeans:
26,35,37,
40,45,248,251,311,314,
3289 337,359,372,375,
3829 385,407,419,4209
426,428431,4399
4429 446
447,455,461.

Fadaks 276.
radfädahs
177.
'17t3.
FAC{1s
Fat"ans
147.
Falco:
101.
Falco
Darn tsceno:
Fai)(, ;, 191 .

36.

raragut:
438.
Fazchänä, Far7a2hina
305,308,
309,317-321,329,363.
Fars: 25,339,395.
Fätimicls:
32,70,92,101,102,
150,154,237,233,249,358,
367,368,377-335,387,388,
394,395,401,4.73.405,407,
400,410-414,419,451,452.
Fawq:. 132.

Fayyüm:

286.

Crescent:
Fertile
23,34,71,120,
154,173,256,25¬i,
271,276,
284,340,357,363,447,450,
452,457.

Finno-Ugrians:

460.

Firdawsi:
334,371-373,391,392,
396.
FIrüzäbjd:
297,344.
Fitr:
103.
Prance: 340,4228,431-434.
7.93,423.
Franks:

'undukistan:

303.

F-uray j 1yah: 92-94,363,40-1.
15-16,421,453,462,
'r'ttritsiya:
463,
Gabar, Gabr: 1¬39,196.
C,abri t, are: 393.
Gacftm 27.

Cad'-r.
- 27, ''-9.
Galicia:
4? 5.
Gar,,-Ah: 178.
Gardah: 236,242.
Cz; ah: 133.
Georgia,
Georgians:
34,2a3,303,
349,354,375,418,445.
Germany, Germans: 24,72,92,
267,291,449.
Costa Francortrn:
374,443.
Ghaddurah:
28.

Chal7u2ah: 133.

71 Gh3mr, battle:
274.
259,262,266.
Ghanids:
Ghaybah: 178.
426-429,431,444.
Gh is:
Gha: na: ].20.

Ghaznawicis: 72,334,335,369,
373, '174,395,597,441,457.
Ghiläf:
76.
Ghimci:

62.

Si3
GhuI7ms 709 249p 3499 35np
356-358i
363t 365-36at
371373 9 373 3309 3i#3 3939
9
395,4499
452.
Ghür: 303.
urir: s s 34 9 397 ; 99 9 457.
GhuYz: 313,399,433,440,441.
Gibraltar,
Straits:
427.
Gilänis:
Gilän,
230,392,396.
Giribän:
217,227.
Girühah:
142.
Glaive:
100.
Goths: 340.
Granada: 435,439,440,454.
Greek Fire:
390.
Grebks:
147,333,444,445.
Cucü-iar: 109.
4a3°.
GXma:
Cund: 294.
G"u;al: 76.
Guptas: 331.
Gurz: 67,70,72,76,297.
372,393.
Güsha. r: 123.
Guz r: 372,396.
1iadaf:
125.
56.
Kidd:

351,

Iberia:
141,147,169,294-293,
340,423..
410.

f larbTyah: 3£37,390.
Ioarf: 53.

Hasak: 161,
f tasting.
-i, battle:

326,359.

11 f fusayniyah:
410.
Fiusbän: 139,140,143,393,443,
F:umZrah:

282, ?.83.
403.
242.
Hajaralt al
yad: 147.
;, aj3 äj ibn Yüýuf: 347.
424.
aZ t tak,am I, of ail Andalus:
100.
I albard:
lia1cl.3h : 77,1717,173.
1-Lwjadan: 299.
1ýýc3Esnid,: 139,172,363-.
366,
3699 410,419.
; Iarsilrshz 59.
Ha=at:
301.
t i=rä l
al clayla. ýn: 341.
fianIyah:
122,
I
if:
32.
f iacl.,
}-kaat: 26,363,399.
105,10..
114,3£39,398,
-irbah:
-l,.
ß+42.

170.
Rashio(:

f3ungary,
Hungarians:
fdusäm: 49.

453,

13aciith:
i Iafsids:

iarýhaf:
;I-lärun
al

f faracl. ius: 239.
f fermitage:
327,347.
f 3crtairc3ia: 317.
11ijäx:
120,256,262,263,269,
271p 273,277,2£36.
f filyah:
51.
64,
Himälah:
ifirny4lr: 261,266,390.
i find, I finctis:
24,26,335.
Aindus:
330,331,333-336,399.
259ý..261,277,
Hisn Kayla:
455,
a-3ohenstauPfen: 409,
liubuk: 215,
i; udicis: 434.
I-Iujra: 330.
Huns: 118,119,303,309,340,
341.
horse:
Hungarian
447.

348.

367.

45,253,26(),
Hatra:
battle:
Itattin=
453.
ýfawf 36t3.
s
Ilasa-Mah:
3ß5p 388,
haIior. lprus:
296.
teer,hthalf tes: 309.

264,265.

CAbd

Ibn
a]. ;tnbbth : 26.
Ibn 1'.a;-. al: 4213,429.
f:
Ibn
uc1hayl: 191,215.
Ibn Is'hiq:
273.
Ibn al Khatib:
435.
.
Ibn äi.1 id:
435,436.
Ifrigiyah:
169,350,332,334,

400,402,403,405,419.
Ikdish:
424.
Ikhshidids:
360,330.
11 haus: 420,459,465,
cimädd
al Din: 15,
cItrad
443,
al Din Zangi:
cInCvnah: 391.
India,
Indians:
25-27,33,369
39,81-63,88,107,1200
233,
236,250,303,323,330-336,
340,370,394,395,397,393,
457,453.
I ndo-Fý,uropcans:
320.
Indonesia:
331.
Indus:
333,335.
Iran,
Iranians:
23,26,33,34,
40,44,45,68,70,80,169,
173,1744,194,207,216,247,
261-Mt
267,272,276,277,
289,297,293-307,309,312317,320,321,323,326,328,
3,219p 334,335,338..
340,245,
347,3413,352,354,355,357,
359,368,371-374,335,392,
(cont. )

5' 4
394,396,399,418,420,
444,447,443,455,453,
459,466.
horse:
280,354.
Iranian
Iraqis:
Iraq,
25,69,83,91,
139,301,302,310,320,
344,343,353.353,362,
373,374,385,3137,394,
419ý 447,
IsbTj1a:
305,363.
318.
Isfara:
xhmacrlites:
264,266.
153,
a1 I tl: am3arani:
82.
isr,:.ä'llis:
318,321.
Issyk i*ul:
_
43,21E3,239,
Italy,
Italians:
317,351,35-9,378,333,
3c^.
º4,609,419,420.
Ja'ý; bah: 125p 297.
Jarir:
126.
Jaf'n: 63.
16,17,25,103,
at Jähiz:
273,33¬3 i 339,341,347,
353,354.
Jaxjit: a: 403.
Janciar: 418.
=9
414,
Jan! WT1*ah: 236,237,
416.
Jarajirn, h: 284.
J.ara3: 354.
JaYl(lakh: 425,456.
143,392,414,415.
Jarkh:
JaTwaldüz : 133,393,443.
Jaub : 243.
häcýn%:
3 i3.
J.; "sai: at
17=i, 1£39-191,196,
Jawshan:
233,204,219,296,298,
315,316,353,366,372,
373,377,393,396,393,
45-t3.

34,45,139,257,301,
Jazirah:
361,363,387,413,414,445,
413,450,452,451,455.
Jean do Neun: 382.
Jews: 276.
Jib:
179.
Jift:
161.
ARtiaral.:
196.
363.
John Tzimisces:
Jubbah:
189,196,35t3,382,
393,404,454.
262.
Julancra:

Junm.ah: 230,231,243,
Jund: 279,349,350,377,388,
391,405,430,414.
Jur j än: 204, ; 02,329.
343.
Justinian:
411.
JuyushT:

Juzjan:
303.
t: abadion:
174.
Kabid:
123.
Kabsh:
150,161.
Kabü ah: 1139,416.
202-205.
Kaff:

I: äf ir küb<: t : 77,354,
Nalb: 151,100.
Mils-at zarad: 208,209.
Kma: 460.
Kamän: 122.
Karr.and: 143,
297.
I: =ändan:
Kamarbandi 174,189,190,197.
Ka.ýxiarc,
179.
}-ah carah:
Kz:p' hi: 204.
Kärd: 44,47.
Kärd buzurg:
27,398.
Kardus:
339.
Karluks:
313.
Karr wa farr:
259,233,353,353,
3669,405,439,454,
l: arv, r: 120,
Kärwah: 397.
ltzkaria:
303,320.324.
Ka , hka varyä:
305.
Kaslr. air:
32.0o

Katsina
Sultanate:
37.
1ý423Zhand: 191,19.7,194,197,
331,451.
Kcntouklion:
344.
Kha.ciarg: 129,133.
Kbadci: 52.
Miadqa:
331.

M

af: 34ry,
7.hafchah: 161.
i haftan:
T,Ka2azzj

7 Car3,197,371,398,458,
: 129.
l: halj Turks:
120,235,457.
harais:
339.
ýI:
,.Khanjar:
_..
23,26,40,41,312,
345,354,372,391,406,422.
än: 309,319.
!
2..
Yliarak:
16.'-'.
Kharstagin:
398.
Kharkov arms find:
36.
äri
ji:::
3Ci
344,343,357,358,
__.. n9,400.
.
Ithartiaa:
330.
hashabah:
162,
334.
al Khatib al BaModi:
Ktýtil:
94.
Ki:
91.
atil:
lan=es:
KhLtsi
366,
1\1%a
tun: 303.
Khaybar:
275.
Khazars:
37,328,329,377.
hillah:
63.

St5
Ithiram. kash: 209.
Khirs:
94,113,114.
Khisht:
106,110.
Khötýýn: 320,324.
Kud,
khudh: 21t'.. 220,22,4p
ý 225,377.
Khüdhah: 219,221,413,451.
44,208,209.
Khuff:
Khtmýýirawayh ibn Al=d:
369,
370.
Khuräsan,
Khuräuänis:
24,26,
6f3,90,140,169,189,215,
222,302,304,306,310,
319,322,324,339,345,
347,351-3549
356,368,
370,377,3837,391,096,
413,414.

Khur :: 77.
Khusrau I:

302.

i":husrau
rlnushirvan:
Khuyüt* a1 ibnsa. ^::
120,305..
FOrwärau::
363,377.

262,296.
179.
307,352,

qrazmshähs:
399,445,459.
Khw;.
193,249,375,376,460.
Kicv:
34.
Kilij:
Xi. lk: 129,134.
i; inrariah: 126,414,416.
22,24,
^5,32,39.
al Kincfi:
Kirmän: 300.
126.
'r:ish:
Ayyar:
5ar.
Kit,
a1:.
--i
Kit. -nah. - 377.

354.
Kizil:
ý zý iic3es: 2-V6.
89,90.
k:ontarion:
Kontos: 90.
34oreans : 338.
iýöse Oaahý battle:
ICuhachi. : 375.
j: 24u.
ytuha
Küfa: 260,301.
411.
liüfic:
KýýuýýYs lý : 295.

{{
týLiltaýýl ýac3ýý

ý:
i
Kumäh:

460.

445.

225.
455.

205.
Kt=
chishan:
Kurds: 23,106,366,
Kurdistan,
367,370,374,394,419,
449,450,457,454,455,
464.
Kushans: 302,303,306.
Lahore:
120.
259,261.
L,ýkkaids:
I.üät
al harb: 192 f 193,198.
Larnt: 233,244,4,02,404,406.
Languedoc:
170.
Lzs Navas de Tolosa,
battle:
406.

'N

Latti
70,77,78,455,
Lavr:,ta: 289.
Lcabanon: 412,421,464.
Leo VI: 363,376.
Leon: 425,432.
LO PUY: ill,
Lesser Arnenia:
411.
Libäs:
180.
Libci: 180.
Limes: 257.
417.
T3mites:
Limitanei:
2E34.
Lithrra:
218,227.
Lmnbards: 291,293,317.
Lorikion:
289.
Lucbah: 152-154,162.
Lucera: 409.
äl1q:
66.
Ma
tlaciejowski
Bible:
152.
Madinah: 274,28 6# 339.
T3.yah: 180.
%-ia!!
Madyah:
45,47.
Magganon:
277.

NSaýhrib: 150,233,251,2ß7..
2.t39,
351,379,382,335,402,406,
407,421,427,429,436,440.
Magyars : 37,80,295.
MW pusht:
134.
Mahza-u: 282.
.
l. ahzüz: 172.
NA3inn, najjann,
231,415.
mijann:
majra:
4.43.
,
Kakhcts : 95.
95.
Mal.alehak: 13.3.
Malaysia:
331.
Malik 5h3h: 442.
ý:artarr .-ºI watar:
181.
N".
aralüks Y 83,307,319,320,3351,
353,356,374,332,399,414,
420,424,441,444,447,452..
458,461,464.
Atamlük Sultanate:
27,28,44,
83,233,234,250,404,420,
422,461-465.
320,351-353,
al MaItaün, Caliph:
356,337.
Man.3badh: 170,181.
Manätiq:
65.
Manchuria:
324.
Manganikon:
277.
Mar!: 72.
Manjaniq:
151,152,162,277,
278.
al i+faniür, vi-Ar
of al Andalus:
436.
Mansürah; battle:
456.
Manzi. kert:
448.

Pc
battle:
443.
Manzikert,
262.
Maräziba:
Marbü : 95.
284,
Mardaites:
436,439,440.
Marinids:
Marishah:
135.
M.aroni. tes: 412.
436.
Varrakash:
26E3,341,
N'anän Zi', Caliph:
342,360,339.
104.
'Marzoubarboulon:
Mashakk: 131.
401,
""+a
riüchh:
.
ücri:
286,377.
tº1'r"i.as
N'Easyaf: 82.
Matars : 163.
'"aaurice, F.
s,zperor: 275,2139.
424,
'-:aurontius:
vawäcC: 29.
279,234.
Va: väli:
?4A 4.bräl
al Nahr: 305,306,
310,319,352,371.
mawdizct"i: 135.
114acvriunah:182.
262.
a2un:
.
N:ecca: 273,2E36.
278,293,419,
M(d3.terranean:
4.?3.
104.
Mc-naulion:
Messina:
147.
llldi:
430.
203,213,215-318,
ýYinhfar:
225,282,296,344,345,
3669 433.
114.
Mikhsarah:
430.
Milxtes:
54.
Hicýad:
ý"ý.qla : 14£3,
78.
gracah:
ivä.
Arcý'isids:
369,395,410.
1lirzabab:
114.
MigC-.`:r: 155.
R-lisericordi. a: 45.
..
55.
ý:ismar:
286.
Nlsr:
24.
Riithcla].:

ldtrad:
n:iyan:

95,96,106,391.
73.

93,105,106,437.
Vizräq:
N'onc3o1s: 34,92,118,235,247,
249,313,32.324,331,340,
399,416,420,445,459,
461,463-466.
Morocco: ; 12,233,382,402,
406,439,440.
R9oshchevaya Balka,
arms find:
326.
Mosul: 414.

Mosul Museum: 265,
Mozarabs: 433.
raren: 289,
282,301.
al mu auj ya h, Caliph:
Mubarakshah:
17.
252,344.
Mudajjaj:
402.
Mufattihah:
Mug castle,
129,315,
arms find:
317.
Muhaddab: 32,33,38.
üfra:
ibn
!
Abi
339.
4
a1 uhaºlab
36,167,241,
Muhamrad, Prophet:
269-272,275-277,282,283,
339.
Muharirah:
155.
Muhdawd b: 233.
Mucizz al Dawla: 353.
'ucizz al pin: 454.
344.
MujaffaCah:
400.
°ukhtarah:
°ul
: 26,335.
412.
Mungidhitcs:
än: 49.
Yuc} bir
309.
al °""ugaed.asi:

401,405,431,434,
ý"'ura'-bitin:
436,438.
ý,'urhaf ah : 50.
89,96,403.
°.urran,
riurranah:
"'useret:
1069
Mush duz-b: 164.
,+`uiucL.ýh: 170,
79.
tac,
rFiyr3h
:
"°us
257.
Rult;: 16 battle:
433.
al Ku ta."aid, of Seville:
Caliph:
320,329,
uctasim,
al N?
356,357,
"ýbtaT: 15,365.
al Tý'utan...
rfuthmMmthah:
154,164.
'Caliph:
36?.
aI ý'utic,
k3
'a%,: 370,3£36,388,426,
Mutla,
4u'''?, 452,
V-utvahhi.dud: 406,434,436,433.
battle:
Myricrkephalon,
445.
Naoal,: 60.
2wabatearm 258,261.
Rrabl: 135,2£35.
Näch,alch: 81-. II4,398.
iti3.fiat3h:
155.
t4a.f f a.tin : 234,390,413.
r af't : 155,394.
'4aft
156.
ahyad:
,
Naf t tiyºar : 156.
326..
Na.wszantniiklos
treasure:
32E3.
82,84,
Ir-ijikh:
..
-Nlajran: 271.
När: 156.
Narciu0-in: 164.

57
Näshib:
135.
Na,3I: 50,135.
435,438,439.
Nasrids:
Navarre:
4..'5,434.
IZ'v4ak: 139,140,144,393,443,
453.
NavJc: 114.
Nayzaq: 105,106,110,
e,aza,reth 1"ustýum: 443.
Negroes: 351,369,378,332,
400,401.

2Ligeria:

37.
17.

. ...

.

Nikýphorus
t'holcas: 359,360.
N3.zn: 135.
An ch.arkh kushkhý*,njir:
141,1
_,.
144.
Nimjär:
41,42.
N3m niza. ht 96.
A:isa'b: 55.
383.
hiähäpür:

Nisäpür,

armw find:

5,21.

331.
Nisirimsa:
664.
t'iya» :

Nizah: 88,139,96,97,372,
396,398,459.
Nomarques: 286.
Normans: 71,233,359,367,
378,383,407-409.
North Africa:
293,340,350,
379,330-333,409,426,
4329 433.
North. 4V'est Frontier
Province:
L''0.
Nubia, P.
`ubians:
120,262,263,
r81, ? 85,286,350,379,
380,402,403.
Mir al Olin: 11,412,413,4484." 5.
C'.
104.
eilette:
huz:
Ck
325.
Qrºan: 25,81,167,16E3,250,
262.
Onagros:
278.
Orissa:
450.
Ottomans:
235,462.
186.
x'agarchs:
399.
Faik:
383.
Palermo:
274,281,353,421,
Palestine:
452,460,464.
253,261,266.
Palmyra:
3'arair, P1ts .: 305.
Panceriam:
193.
Xranjah: 164.
Fantsir:
193.
Par: 136.
S`ar3lak:
30

Farand:

30,

Par dwn: 252.
F-är.. i magas: 30.
Parish:
136.
.
Pari-z.
300.

222,227.
Par satTz:
F'art3b:
136.
r,aºrthian
'ap: 299.
259,260,298,321,
Parthians:
340,441.
ri'arvan: 120.
Parvati:
93.
tIaydah: 399.
r-aykän: 136.
r,aywand: 182.
376,377,446,447.
e'echrnegs:
Persia,
r'Qrsians:
89,106,189191,212,218,2122,237,248,
250,262,279,280,302,319,
329,334,345,351,352,357,
366, ý70,374,419.
.

rharganoi : 317.
riandjikent:
309.. 317,320,321,
316_3.^tl.
3'ilum:
104.
i'Ingshan Xian: 92.
º "liny the Elder:
263.
"-oland, toles:
311.
100.
r Vle. -axr:
; 'rovencEt: 424,
369,376.
y'"sellus:
272.
', sili:
c'ü1äd.. i -ab 6dah:
137.
kyrences,
Mts.:
423,427,428.
Qabä' : 191.
f'abaq: 403.
Qabciah: 55.
Qabic ah: 57.
CadSa' : 182.
Qaddärah: 28.
battle:
C'Rdisiya,
301.
Cahzan-ih: 115.
ä.'ßra; 55.
455.
Qaisýriy. -ýh, battle:
Qala.
22.
Qalajur>.:
33,394.
Calä hur:
33,38,374,394,399,
4f><l.
:

ýa

Calb:

rT

246.

ßaijüri:
32,33,38.
Qanah: 87,91,97,98,382,391,
432,450,454.
Qancalis:
458,460.
Carächul:
39.
0.,aralhani, ds: 318.
Cara h.hitai:
399,459.
Qaran:: 127.
r. arqal:
19a, 381.

S1g
Aartal:
42,
157,413,415.
Qärürah:
Qasr al Hiayr al (barb!:
105,
347.
Cati
183.
Catty ah: 165.
Cawnas: 221,222,228.
Qaws: 122,297,370.
Caws at lawlab:
141.
Caws al, rijl:
144.
O?
aws bundüq: 145.
260,377.
rayräwan:
Cayräwän M:usetm:, helmets:
5.
26.
al Cazwini:
(dig j: 463.
327.
al Cikän:
458,460.
Slipchags:
Oiira : 64.
(i than:
127.
Citcah:
183.
(1 tdub: 42.
193.
Culret:
157.
Qunbalah:

89,90,98,102,
!; tantäriyah:
413,415,451.
Curaysh:
rusayr

286,335.
Arara: 346.

306,345.
Cutayba ibn Muslim:
104.
Rabä' ith:
215.
labicah:
183.
:tabtah:
2äiaiyah: 390.
Rän: 20.
61,
Rasä'i
-0 at
Ain: 278.
ßäs
Din: 465.
Rashid
_at
269,284.
Ra.yhidun Caliphs:
283,389.
25,72.
Ratl:
[talg: 86.
430.
Iýeconcquista:
Red Sea: 262.
433.
Reyes do Taifas:
41.
Reynald do Chatillon:
Rhineland:
24.
405,438.
Itibät:
battle:
291,292.
Barbatq,
Rio
Riptarion:
104,105.
Rish: 137.
292.
Roderick:
Roma, Romans: 103,117,166,
167,193,211-213,231,234,
257,258,265,267,278,
285,294,328,430.
291.
Romano-Celts:
Stirn: 23,35,444,447.
Rmah mucallifah:
99.
at
Riva
419.
wurtazigah:

Rumania: 324.
Ruah: 87-90,99,282,297,344,
345,352,370,377,389,406,
413,422,435,437,450,451.
Rushaydah: 266.
Russia,
Russians:
172,193,212,
237,2490
375,376,407,460.
Rutilah:
165.
Sä ad: 202_206,296,344,352.
>ac adah : 99.
259,261,266.
S,abaens:
Sabarbarah:
101-104,404.
Sabichah:
193,194,199,415,
454.

Säbiriyah:
Sadr: 115,
saffärids:
397.
Safhah:
safihah:

183,
334,335,370,371,

50.
184.
Sahara: 379,400,401.
137.
Sal=
Sakk: 393.
Saläh al Din: 41,106,388,414,
415,451.. 454.
Saljüqs:
146,190,313,325,
327,340,369,331,385,395,
399,411,413,417,418,441450,457,459,460.
Sal j ýtqs of Run: 89,129,412,
418,420,444..
446.
Salrýýýni.: 26.
5ämänidss 140,334,356,370.374.
Sarnarqand: 309,363,399.
Sämarrlal: 260,353,354,357.
Samsäm: 30.
.
San a' Atuseum: 266.
Sanasrvtar: 184.
Sarbuk: 53.
433.
Sancho of Navarre:
379,382,436.
canhäja:
67,80,139,167,
Sassanians:
214,220,234,235,247,257,
261-263,277,279,280,289,
293-307,326.
"329,343,344,
354,392,393.
Saq: 206,208,210,296.
419.
Sagälzba:
36.
Salti:
Sar: 57,228.
Saracenoi:
273.
Saracens:
260,264.
Saragossa:
434.
Sard: 170,175,184.
Sardinia:
139,407.
Särim: 31.
?
340.
arrnatians:
Sayf: 21,23,26,31,297.
rT

5rß
Sayf al Dawla: 364.
Sayf al hind: 26.
Sayr: 185.
80,
Scandinavians:
Scandinavia,
283,328,407.
Scramasax: 40,312.
272.
Scutati:
Scythians:
118,119.
318,321.
Smirechiye:
446,447.
Serbia:
Shabahah: 1549 165.
Shafrah:
53.
16,230,311,37153h:
373,396,459.
Shakh: 137.
,
Sharn hirz 26# 27,31,398,4S7.
86.
Shamshlr Ch.ar, arms find:
261,294.
r
häp
II
ä
s} rb: s8.
Sl?a-rib z 65.
äsh:
120,305,318.
Shast:
127.
Shatab:
51.
Shayzar:
412,451.

Shih: 107.
392,395,451.
Islam:
Shici
Shil:
107,111.
r.ýýh3.2: 122.
.
Shu: 10? 9
454.
lhujýan:
338.
Shurta:
bi:0. 339.
5hu uuc
shah:
80.
Si
:
80.
Siavoidians:
36.
Siberia:
23,37,81,147,237,
Sicily:
239,350,351,378,382334p 403,407. -410,423,429.
Sidon:
150,367,330.
battle:
282,283.
Siffin,
sijist7an,
300,
Sijistänis:
304,370.
44,47,391,406,
Sikkinah:
413.
Siläh:
199.
58.
Si1än:
Road: 320.
Silk

Sinai:
Sinn:

464.
115.

26,334,335,
Sind, Sindls:
371.
33.
Singhalese:
448,454.
Sinjear:
324.
Sinkiang:
330.
Sinope:

Sipar:
Sipar. -i
Sipar.. i

244,394,396-393.
akh:
236
cc
farä h: 236,244,398,

Sipar-i
9111: 244,245.
karg: 233,245.
Sipar-i
Sipar.. i shüshak: 239,244.
arms
find:
86.
S'iraf,
Sirash:
217,218,228.
1
Sirb
199.
STr Daryä: 303,317,318,325*
xitarah:
165.
123.
Siyah:
218.
Skaplion:
fretta:
90.
Skepti
S1avo.. Kings of Delhi:
399,4S7.
24,80,375,419.
Slavs:
ferru:
Soli
107.
Sonn of Roland:
191.
Spain,
Spaniards:
82,171,218,
221,233,237,239,251,
292,295,350,351,407.
419,423,424.
Spän kht:
137.
Spanish P4arch: 425.
Sphendobona:
146.
Sri Lanka: 26.
273,295,326,338..
Stirrups:
341,354,369.
Strategikon
275.
of Maurico:
Sudan, Sudanese: 120,401,402,
451.

Suf1:
al

212.

Suuhd: 303,305.309,317,320.
Sula: 93,107.
Su-Lu: 319.
Islam:
Sunni
Sur, kh: 138.

392,394,395,451.

Sutun: 79.
Suwayda Museum: 266.
Syrians:
44,102,172,
Syria,
174,204,207,239,249,255,
258,259,281t
284,285,290,
301,345,347,358,361,363,
364,367-369,380,384,385,
387,388,395,401,412-414,
42a. 4229 435,448,450,452,
460.462,464.
Syrian-Arab
horse:
280.
340.
Sythians:
Tacaliq:
185,
al Tabari: 16,207,296,307,
345.
Tabar: 82-84.
Tabarist3n:
284,302,370.
Tabarzin:
82,83,85,297,354,

39+! 444.
Tactica:
362.
ll Yaniinaytn:
Tah ir-Flü
Tähir3.
cM 3569 370.
._
277.
Ta'if:
T7Zj3.ks: 3739 457.

353.

szo
Ta Khingan:
324.
Taiäs ý99.
Talä#i
: 3£32.
Talas,
battle:
310,319.
Taýn: 99.
Vanfl:
321,322.
Tannür:
167,200.
al TanZWhi: 104.
Tariürinh:
167.
raq: 61.
._
Taqallaclaii:
60.
TaqT al Din: 454.
Tacri Custan: 295.299,
327,
338 s, 344.
Taraf:
115.
,Taräl iq: 215.
Tt: rge: 238.
Tarik,
Tarikah,
Tark:
214,
215,219,221,225,226,
372,450,454.
Täriciah:
236-2133,245,394,
0

414,416,421.
Täriq ibn Ziyäd:
291,292.
Taz2cashs 128.
249p 362,363,396.
Tarsus:
ä1 Tarsusz.: 93,102,151-154,
192,219,236,278,414,
451,453.
311,400.
Tartars:
364,444.
Taurus, Mts.:
TawahIn, battle:
358.
TawäshT: 45,>,, 454.
Tayriar:
276.
Thaclab:
116.
Thagl=ih: 276,415.
Themes: 279,280.
Thb al manic: 185.
229,232.
Thureos:
351.
Tiber:
402.
Tibesti,
?4ts.:
Tibet,
120,235,
Tibetans:
319,320.
Tien Shan, AMts. z 305,320,321,
324.
27,50.
Tigh:
Tij? af: 247,249,252,253,
296,297,344,352,354,
3S 3,372,380.
Tilsän:
329.
" 1.
.,.
Tainnxs: 253,286.
Tir:
138.
Tiräd:
374.
Tiraz:
323,383.
! Tr-i
anc5z7an: 111,398.
TIr-i
138.
partäbl.:
Topkapu, arms, collection:
5,
24,36,37,273,283.

Trajan:
258,
Transoxania:
129,140,173,202,
250,295,298,302,305-330,
33E3,339,345,352,355,356,
377.
Transylvania:
326.
Trident:
92.
Tripolitania:
384.
Trisula:
93.
Pzvhri 1 Beg: 440.
Tukharistän:
303.
ý ülunids:
334,362,368,3813,
394,400,410,417,419.
Tunisia:
212,289,382,403.
Turcxrnans:
441-450,452,455,

457,458,461,462,464,
Turcopoles:
412,461.
313,320,321.
Turfan:
319.
Türgesh:
24,33,40,68,80,
Turkistän:
150,295,305-330,338,354,
441,459,460.
Turks: 23,34,35,214,2413,249,
293,305.. 331,336,338,339,
342,345,349,350,352..
356,
363,365.. 368,372,374-376,
395,399,
3713,3130,388,393..
400,413,4113,419,438,440,
441,443-446,456-460.
Turs: 229_233,236,245,281,
297,329,393,413,415,416,
435,451,464.
230.
Turs tabatiyah:
437.
al Turtüshi:
...
ý,,......
Tutmajl:
M.
Tyre:
150,151.
307.
ydul17ah ibn Ziyad:
c Ukt3ara'
: 259.
Ulpiae
257.
I'Qtracorua:
Uknar Is Caliph:
21,277,279.
Umayyad Caliphate:
25,68,72,
167,265,268,269,279,281,
284-287,305,309,310,319,
323,337,339,341,343-347,
349,368,388,369,392,404.
tknayyads, of al Andalus:
292,
424,42s,
lJpa Vedas: 331,
oUckZylids:
366,395.
°UrR-t:
302,387.
Usärnah ibn Mngicih:
15,16,92,
413,451,
ltstrükhZna:
315,316.
Ushrusanah,
Ushru$iyah:
305,
309,313,315..
317,319-322,
329.
Ustün:
157.

ý21
Varangians:
80,239,407.
Vasht: 294.
Vatican
Library:
212.
Vedas: 333.
Venice:
419,107,100,112,300,392'394,
Visigoths:
221,290.293,425..
428,436.
Volga: 460.
t: adai': 148.
Lärý"i al t?üra: 276.
Nahaq: 149.
v-hlchi: 129.
Ltiamba: 291.
tläciiyah:
185.
t%arqa tira Culshäh:
443.
..
Vasi. f: 329.
.
Watar: 123,297.
`t:Qstarn Turks: 325.
283.
v'islnº, arms finds:
Ultixa:
292,
36.
t;botx:
Xß.phos: 21.
Yý.
-rLab: 246,415,455.
Yan7rmah: 271.
Yarugi:
449.
Yarkand:
320.
Yäsa: 449.
Yazxd ibn Aitilzallab:
284p 327,
329.
25,32,172,
Yemen, Yonenis:
266,
256,259,261-2649
267,277,300,390.
?..aba: 194,289.
?.aýhf:
18 6.
...
battle:
406,433,437.
?.all=a,
?..
100.
arký:
h: 436.
7..
AZta.
.
:..+rbürak:
141,145.
413,44S-452,454,
Zangids:
461.
?.arjj: 403.
ýI86.
-anjTr:
T-arad: 175.
61.
2aräfayn:

Zarafshän: 305,349,317,321.
?..
ard: 175,186.
2arcý'iyah:
194,195,200,217,
413.
?.aria:
111,422.
Zarraq:
153,415.
y..awT].a:
2hongshanf 93.
My401.

?.ih:
?.ird:

124.

175.

7-Tridss 382,403,405.
?..irih:
175,194,195,2019
297,315,371,373.

? iyär:
141,145.
Zubah: 53.
?
101,116.
ujj:
?üpin,
xhu-bin, zQ5in,
397.

nüpin: