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Пособие no обучению .тению на английском языке
Допущено
Государственным комитетом СССР по народному образованию в качестве учебного пособия для учащихся радиотехнических и электронных специальностей техникумов
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Книги в свободном доступе

МОСКВА «Высшая школа» 1989
ББК 81.2 Англ-923 3-17
Рецензенты:
канд. филол. наук доц. А.А. Лошакова (Московский авиационный институт им. Серго Орджоникидзе);
В.К. Михайлий (Московский техникум электронных приборов)
ЬИЬЛиотена
Зайцева Л.П., Чупрына О.Г.
3-17 Рассказы об электронике: Пособие по обучению чтению на английском языке. — М.: Высш, шк., 1989. — 87 с.: ил.
ISBN 5-06-000222-5
Цель пособия — подготовить учащихся к чтению технической литературы средней трудности и документации, прилагаемой к электронной аппаратуре и оборудованию. Тексты подготовлены на основе оригинальной английской и американской литературы по электронике и микроэлектронике, отражающей современный уровень развития науки, ее использование в народном хозяйстве. Упражнения направлены на формирование базового словарного запаса, преодоление трудностей перевода, приобретение разговорных навыков, активизацию мыслительной деятельности учащихся.
4306021600(4308000000)-043
3 --------------------------- 282-св. план для ББК 81.2 Англ-923
001(01)-89	средн, спец. учеб.	4И (Англ)
заведений 89
ISBN 5 - 06 - 000222 -5
© Издательство «Высшая школа». 1989
Предисловие
Учебное пособие предназначено для учащихся техникумов и направлено на реализацию целевой установки действующей программы по английскому языку для средних специальных учебных заведений — подготовить будущих специалистов к чтению и переводу литературы по специальности: инструкций, паспортов, спецификаций и другой документации, прилагаемой к оборудованию.
Пособие состоит из пяти глав, каждая из которых включает тексты, объединенные общей темой, задания и упражнения; приложения «Учитесь переводить термины», англо-русского словаря базовых общетехнических терминов по электронике и наиболее употребительных сокращений в литературе данного профиля.
Тексты пособия заимствованы из оригинальных источников и отражают новейшие достижения современной электроники. В необходимых случаях тексты сокращены и адаптированы применительно к уровню владения английским языком учащимися техникумов на специальном этапе обучения.
В текстах предусмотрена достаточная повторяемость активной лексики и типичных грамматических явлений.
Предлагаемые упражнения и задания направлены на формирование необходимых навыков работы с технической литературой по специальности и овладение основными видами чтения (просмотровым, поисковым, ознакомительным, изучающим), на активное усвоение лексического и грамматического минимума.
Особое внимание уделяется научно-технической лексике, сложным по структуре терминам, наиболее употребительным в современной электронике.
В каждом разделе предусмотрены упражнения на развитие контекстуальной догадки и расширение потенциального словаря на основе опоры на словообразовательные компоненты (суффиксы, префиксы) и раскрытие значений интернациональных слов.
В текстах знаком (*) выделены отрывки для письменного перевода, которые дают возможность учащимся последовательно преодолевать определенные переводческие трудности.
Задания к текстам рассчитаны на развитие познавательной активности учащихся и формирование интереса к области техники, в
з
которой они специализируются. Учащимся предлагается широко использовать знания изучаемых предметов по специальности при выполнении творческих упражнений.
Англо-русский словарь пособия охватывает базовый лексический минимум, усвоение которого поможет учащимся в самостоятельной работе с текстами.
Авторы включили справочный материал только по переводу сложных терминов «цепочной структуры», наиболее характерных для электроники. Справочный материал по начальным основам перевода и грамматическим явлениям, характерным для языка специальной технической литературы, учащиеся почерпнут из используемого ими в основном курсе Учебника английского языка, М., 1987 (авторы А.В. Парахина, С.А. Тылкина).
Авторы
CHAPTER ONE
FROM RADIO TO ELECTRONICS
Текст 1
I.	а) Прочтите вслух следующие слова и словосочетания, б) Определите значения этих слов по сходству их корней с соответствующими русскими словами:
electronics, progress, television, computer, technology, automation, national economy, electronic systems, electronic robots, radio-electronic systems, radio communication
II.	Переведите следующие словосочетания с предлогом of:
a powerful means of progress, the ideas of electronics, means of automation, to control the work of plants and power stations, phenomena of nature, applications of electronics, the field of communication, the invention of radio, the principles of wireless communication
III.	Прочтите текст и определите, в каких областях науки и техники электроника нашла широкое применение. Выпишите из текста все упомянутые направления использования электроники.
WHAT IS ELECTRONICS?
Electronics is a rather young science. It belongs to the twentieth century. Within a short period it has become a powerful means of progress.
Electronics surrounds us everywhere. Television, radio-receiving, taperecording — are all based on electronics. The ideas of electronics are embodied in computer technology and means of automation, biology and genetics which have advanced biotechnology as a new branch of the national economy.
Electronic computers are widely used in scientific research, in planning and controlling our national economy.1 Very complicated electronic systems control the work of huge plants and power stations; even whole industries are controlled by electronic robots. Planes and rockets are also electronically controlled.
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Electronics has sharpened our vision and given us chance to see the microworld more clearly. It helps us discover new and puzzling phenomena of nature.
Due to electronics the first man-made sputnik was launched into space, and now man has already set his foot on the Moon, sends probes to distant planets. Radioelectronic systems ensure reliable communication with space probes at distances of millions of kilometers, relay telephotos of distant planets. The greatest application of electronics is in the field of communications.
The range of radio communication in space is extending more and more. There is every reason to believe2 that radio links may be set over distances of 100 million kilometers or even more.
Now we cannot imagine our life without electronics.
But it all began with the invention of radio. It was our Russian scientist A.S. Popov who discovered the principles of wireless communication that finally led to the development of electronic tubes for use in various communication devices.
Примечания
1. in planning and controlling our national economy —для планирования и управления народным хозяйством
2. There is every reason to believe — Есть все основания полагать
IV. Найдите в тексте абзац, в котором говорится об истоках развития радиоэлектроники. Переведите этот абзац письменно.
V. Кратко расскажите о значении электроники в обществе. Используйте выписанные вами слова из текста 1 (Упр. III).
Текст 2
I.	Прочтите вслух следующие слова и определите их значения: telegraphy, tube, vacuum, distance, reception, equipment, receiver, coil, shielding, diode, triode, pentode
II.	Подберите русские эквиваленты к английским словам:
а)	1. commercial; 2. carrier; 3. to invent; 4. to improve; 5. reception; 6. equipment; 7. to receive; 8. coil; 9. to tune; 10. gain; 11. shielding; 12. to transmit
6)	1. усиление; 2. настраивать; 3. оборудование; 4. промышленный; 5. носитель; 6. катушка; 7. улучшать; 8. изобретать; 9. прием; 10. принимать; И. передавать; 12. экранирование
III.	Переведите следующие словосочетания:
vacuum tube, transmission line, short-wave transmission, relay station, relay centre, medium-wave transmission, high gain, plate resistance, tube gain
IV.	Образуйте существительные, обозначающие приборы, с помощью суффикса -ег/-ог; переведите их:
to transmit, to receive, to modulate, to tune, to reflect, to oscillate
V.	Прочтите текст и скажите, о каких этапах развития радио в нем говорится.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF RADIO
Many developments contributed to the flowering1 of commercial radio. By 1930 wireless telegraphy2 was more than 50 years old. Carrier systems were widely used to multiplex voice signals for long-distance transmission. Engineers made radio an electronic success. If one development paced the growth of radio more than any other,3 it was thaLof the vacuum tube. The triode had been invented by de Forest as far back as 1906, and by 1930 it was generally'recognized that improvements in every aspect of transmission and reception of radio signals could be attained most easily by improving the vacuum tube. So the tubes and other equipment advanced side by side.
At the right time the superheterodyne receiver emerged, for example. This circuit led to larger coils and less shielding for the entire tuning system. When it became necessary to compensate for oscillator drift, bimetal temperature-compensating capacitors moved to centre stage.4 One after another the technical challenges were met.5
Commercial radio broadcasting began with medium-wave transmitters. These had wavelengths of 300 to 500 meters and powers of about 3 kilowatts, but were not reliable beyond 40 kilometers.
Relay stations were set up to retransmit programs to localities outside the range of the main stations. Transmission lines carried programs from one relay centre to another.
An important development was short-wave transmission, the use of wavelengths of 10 to 100 m. It relied on reflection from ionized layers in the upper atmosphere and could cover thousands of miles.
The fidelity of amplitude-modulated radio improved steadily.
The high-gain triode had been fully developed in 1927. The development of the four element tetrode occurred about that time and the resulting increase in tube gain improved receiver sensitivity. Then receiving and small-power rf pentodes were invented and the result was a tube that
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had very high gain, high plate resistance, and uniform characteristics. This was the most productive era in the history of vacuum tube development.
Примечания
1.	flowering - расцвет
2.	wireless telegraphy - беспроволочный телеграф, радио
3.	If one development paced the growth of radio more than any other — Если одна разработка способствовала развитию радио более, чем какая-либо другая
4.	When it became necessary to compensate ... - Когда оказалось необходимым компенсировать смещение генератора, биметаллические конденсаторы, регулирующие температуру, были смещены в центр.
5.	One after another the technical challenges were met.—Технические требования постепенно удовлетворялись.
VI.	Переведите следующие словосочетания:
entire tuning system, amplitude-modulated radio, high-gain triode, four element tetrode, small-power rf pentodes, high plate resistance
VII.	Составьте план текста 2.
DO YOU KNOW THAT...
In 1900 at the First All-Russian Electrotechnical Congress the great Russian scientist Popov said: “Was my instrument known to Marconi or not? The latter is very likely more probable. At any rate my combination of the relay, tube and electromagnet tapper served as the basis of Marconi’s first patent as a new combination of already known instruments.”
Текст 3
I.	Дайте русские эквиваленты следующих слов; обратите особое внимание на слова, которые почти одинаково произносятся по-русски и по-английски, но имеют разные значения:
acoustic, detection, communication, adequate, contrast, mile, principle, object, pulse, distance, military, civilian, navigation, transmission
II.	а) Образуйте существительные, обозначающие процесс, результат процесса, с помощью суффикса -ion/-ation от глаголов; переведите их:
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to observe, to detect, to reflect, to realize, to indicate, to locate, to determine, to form
б) Образуйте существительные co значением процесса, результата процесса с помощью суффикса -ment от глаголов; переведите их:
to develop, to measure, to place, to improve, to equip, to employ
III.	Составьте глагольные словосочетания из слов левой и правой колонок; словосочетания переведите:
1.	to employ 2.	to develop 3.	to improve 4.	to observe 5.	to measure	1.	time 2.	distance 3.	radar 4.	radio w'aves 5.	circuitry 6.	components 7.	equipment
IV.	Прочтите текст и ответьте на следующие вопросы: Каковы основные принципы работы радиолокатора? Какие применения радиолокатора упоминаются в тексте?
RADAR
One of the wonderful applications of electronics is radar.
Like other communication systems, radar (an acronym for radio detection and ranging) did not emerge1 suddenly. Many researchers contributed to its development.
The reflection of radio waves from aircraft had been observed in England in the early 1930s and the possibility for aircraft detection was discussed in 1934. Il was soon realized that radio waves would be the ideal alternative to the existing inadequate acoustic warning equipment, which merely listened for the sound of aircraft engines and had too short a range for proper- warning of approach3 of last aircraft. In contrast, experiments indicated that radar could give a warning when the aircraft was 100 miles or more away. '
The principles of radar in a simplified form might be stated as follows.
1)	electromagnetic radiation at high radio frequencies is used to detect and locate remote reflecting objects;
2)	the radiation is sent out in pulses of a few microseconds’ duration, separated by intervals many times the duration of each pulse;
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3)	the pulses are returned from the reflecting objects and the returns are detected and displayed by receiving equipment placed at the point of transmission;
4)	the distance to the objects is determined by measurement of the lime it took the pulses to reach the targets from the transmission equipment and return to it;
5)	the directions of the targets are determined by use of highly directive4 radio antennas.*
Radars were first developed for aircraft detection, ship detection, weapon-fire control, navigation and identification systems. Many were later used in other sectors; one of the examples is the weather forecasts, detection of storms.
Примечания
1.	to emerge — появляться
2.	proper — надлежащий, должный
3.	approach — приближение
4.	highly directive — точно направленный
V. Подтвердите следующие положения, используя выражения “According to the text” (Согласно тексту), “As far as I know” (Насколько мне известно):
1. Radar could give a warning when the aircraft was 100 miles or more away. 2. Electromagnetic radiation is used to detect and locate remote reflecting objects. 3. Radars were developed for aircraft detection. 4. The directions of the targets are determined by highly directive radio antennas. VI.
VI. Переведите предложения, помеченные значком *; обратите внимание на формы страдательного залога.
DO YOU KNOW THAT...
Sonar (Sound Navigation and Ranging) is employed to locate submerged1 enemy submarines. Like radar it is an echo-ranging device. It operates in the following way — a ship sends a sound wave into the water. En-counting an obstacle- the wave is reflected back to the ship, which — since3 the speed of sound through water is known — determines its distance from the object from the time it took the echo to return.4 To create the original sound wave, the ship generates electrical signals in a transmitter; it then sends these to a transducer, positioned on its keel as deeply in the water as possible. The transducer converts the signals into sound and transmits them through the water.
Примечания
1.	submerged — погруженный
2.	Encounting an obstacle — Сталкиваясь с препятствием
3.	since — поскольку
4.	the time it took the echo to return — время, которое требуется, чтобы эхо вернулось
Текст 4
Переведите без словаря.
IT LETS YOU LISTEN TO AND RECORD SOUNDS YOU'VE NEVER HEARD BEFORE
The average microphone picks up sounds from only a few feet away. But with a parabolic reflector around it you have a highly sensitive listening device for recording distant sounds, such as from unseen birds and animals far away. The reflector focusses sound waves to a central point thus magnifying them as much as 12 times. Human voices and wildlife sounds can be picked up at distances of 75 feet or more.
Текст 5
Переведите отрывок из технической документации.
PORTABLE ULTRASHORTWAVE RADIO-UNIT, TYPE ““27PL”
The “27P1” radio-unit is a portable, telephone, transmitting and receiving station, consisting of a heterodyne receiver and frequency-modulation transmitter.	'i
Sensitivity of the receiver is not below 1.5 mu. V at a signal-to-noise ratio of 10 to 1 (20 db). The transmitter has a power of 0.5 watt. The radiounit has two channels within the frequency range from 148 MC to 174 MC and spaced 150 КС from one another.
Supply for the radio set is provided by two-storage batteries, each one of 1.5 volts.	r (,
The unit consumes not more than 1 a in receiving and 2.5 a in transmitting.
The communication distance is as large as 3 km in operation with a radio-unit of the same type and from 5 to 8 km in operation with a mobile station of the type “28P1”.
Текст 6
I. Прочтите текст и скажите, о каких этапах в развитии телевидения идет речь.
ю
и
FROM THE HISTORY OF TELEVISION
Unlike digital computers — which started out as mechanical devices and then went through a brief electromechanical period during the 1930s, finally becoming electronic only in the 1940s — television was an electrical medium from the very beginnings.
Attempts to send images over distances with the use of electricity date to 1876, the year Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone.
The first television invention that had practical consequences was the “electrical telescope’’, patented by Paul Nipkow1 in 1884. At the heart of his camera was the now famous Nipkow disk. It had 24 holes equally spaced along a spiral near the periphery of the disk. The image to be transmitted was focussed on a small region at the disk’s periphery, and the disk was made to spin at 600 revolutions per minute. As the disk rotated, the sequence of holes scanned the image in a straight line. A lens behind the image region collected the sequential light samples and focussed them on a single selenium cell. The cell would then produce a succession of currents, each proportional to the intensity of the light on a different element of the image.
At the receiving end. Nipkow proposed using a magneto-optic (Fara-dav-effect) light modulator to vary the intensity of the reconstructed image. To form the image, a second disk, identical to and rotating synchronously with the one at the transmitter, would be needed.
One step closer to reality was Boris Rosing of the Technological In stitute of St. Petersburg University in Russia, who in 1907 developed a IV system that used mechanical scanning on the transmitting end and the Braun CRT as a receiver.
*Zworykin’s most critical invention was the first iconoscope camera tube, which he patented in 1923. The key to its success was the fact that its silvered-mica photocathodes stored the charges induced by the image that was focussed on them until the scanning electron beam simultaneously neutralized the charges and modulated itself.
A year after he invented the iconoscope, Zworykin invented the kinescope — a TV picture tube — thus becoming responsible for both the key transmitting and receiving elements of electronic television.*
Примечание
1.	Paul Nipkow — Пауль Нипков, немецкий инженер
II.	Выпишите из текста цифры, собственные имена; передайте связанную с ними информацию ключевыми словами или фрагментами.
III.	Расскажите о развитии телевидения, используя материал выполненного вами упр. II.
IV.	Переведите устно предложения, отмеченные значком *.
Текст 7
I. Прочтите текст и закончите предложения в соответствии с содержанием текста.
1.	The technical problems of colour TV have been solved....
a) early in the 20th century; b) late in the 19th century.
2.	The general introduction of colour television was held up by the high cost of....
a) receivers; b) transmitters.
3.	Colour TV service was first introduced....
a) in the USA; b) in Japan.
4.	The flat screen will replace....
a) cathode-ray tube; b) the conventional receiver box with its cathoderay tube.
COLOUR TELEVISION
The technical problems of colour television have been solved long ago — a German patent for the transmission of images in colour was taken out by the physicist, Otto von Bronk, as far back as 1902 — but the high cost of the equipment, especially receivers, has held up1 its general introduction. In America, television programmes in colour have been transmitted since the early 1950’s to a limited number of viewers who can afford2 the extra cost, and an experimental service began in Britain in 1955. Japan started its regular colour service in the autumn of 1960: a year later there were already 15,000 receiving sets in operation, although the price of a colour set was still eight times as much as that of a black-and-white receiver. Then the Soviet Union, too, has introduced a colour television service.
No doubt colour television will eventually supersede3 black-and-white transmissions. But there are other revolutionary developments to come, such as the “flat4 screen — it will replace the conventional receiver box with its cathode-ray tube. The first screen, which can be hung on the wall like a picture, may be no more than 2 to 3 inches thick. It has a fluorescent coating like conventional tubes, but the electrons from the cathode move almost parallel with it instead of striking it at a right angle. They start their journey from an electronic “gun5 at the top behind the screen, shooting downwards; at the bottom they are reflected by a “reversing lens 6 to travel vertically upwards along the screen, which they eventually hit by the influence of a grid7 of conductors which accumulate electric charges from the electron
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beam and give them off to the screen. The flat screen will be especially suitable for colour reception.
Примечания
1.	to hold up — останавливать, задерживать
2.	to afford - позволять
3.	to supersede —вытеснять
4.	flat - плоский
5.	electronic gun — электронная пушка
6.	reversing lens — реверсирующая линза
7.	grid — сетка, решетка
Текст 8
Переведите со словарем.
POCKET-SIZE TV CAMERA
A solid-state television camera that can be made so small it fits into the palm of a hand is available at present.
At the heart of this camera is a light-sensitive semiconductor “chip” — half the size of a postage stamp. It receives and transmits images coming through the lens in much the same way that a 5-inch long (12.5 cm) tube does in today’s cameras. The device, though complex in principle, promises to simplify the basic television camera so that low-cost, live TV should some day be common in industry and the home.
These experimental cameras can also be powered by flash-light batteries and can capture sharp images without the bright lights required with to-' day’s equipment.
The most obvious application should eventually be commercial television, allowing live coverage of news and sports events without forcing cameramen to carry bulky equipment with them. The camera’s ability to transmit bright pictures to a monitor with minimal room lighting makes it a potential tool for night security work, watching patients in dark hospital rooms, and in military applications.
DO YOU KNOW THAT...
For television fans who can’t make up their minds1 about which station to watch, a Taiwanese manufacturer has come up with a solution. The firm has introduced a three-screen television set. The unit features a 19-inch (47.5 cm), colour screen flanked2 on one side by a pair of 5-inch (12.5 cm), black-and-white screens mounted3 one above the other. Three channels can be watched at once, and using a remote control a viewer can rotate simultaneous broadcasts from one screen to another simply by pressing a
button. One or both of the similar screens can also be hooked4 up to a closed-circuit camera, thus functioning as a security-surveillance monitor.5
Примечания
1.	to make up one's mind — решить
2.	to flank — располагаться сбоку
3.	to mount — монтировать, крепить
4.	to hook — зацеплять, сцеплять
5.	security-surveillance monitor — телевизор-монитор для наблюдения за порядком (в банке, магазине и т.п.)
Текст 9
I. Прочтите следующие словосочетания и переведите их:
digital television, analogue systems of television, digital systems, flows of visual information, communication channels, video and audio signals, electric signal
II. Переведите следующие словосочетания, обращая внимание на определения и способы их выражения:
a)	in the near future; every stage of their transmission; these advantages; usual broadcasting camera; binary recordings; all stages;
6)	reception qualities; the TV tube; communication channels;
в)	continuous analogue signals; technical means available today;
r) a continuously varying electric signals; at the receiving end of the circuit; the researchers studying this problem;
д)	at any given moment; signals generated by a camera;
e)	information to be transmitted; data to be received; TV set to be repaired; the text to be read
III.	Прочтите текст и расскажите о преимуществах и недостатках цифрового телевидения.
DIGITAL TELEVISION
The so-called analogue systems of television are to be superseded by digital systems in the near future. Using this new system, Soviet experts have managed to encode and compress flows of visual information to the extent thaf the requirement in the carrying capacity of communication channels has been cut by nearly 86 per cent.
The advantages of digital techniques over analogue electronic systems have demanded that they be used in television. These advantages improve the quality of the picture. While in the analogue system of recording signals
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15
noises and errors invariably accumulate at every stage of their transmission or copying, digital recording is almost free of signal errors.
How docs digital television work? Basically it performs by splitting the continuous analogue signal into a series of separate pulses. A continuously varying electric signal generated by a usual broadcasting camera is fed into an electronic device which converts it into pulses. These pulses represent binary recordings of the signal’s values at any given moment. At the receiving end of the circuit, the digital signal of binary pulses can be unscrambled back into the analogue signal which is then fed into ordinary TV sets. But the advantages of digital techniques can themselves be used in TV sets in order to improve their reception qualities considerably.
Digital TV. however, has its disadvantages. The main one lies in the tremendous scope of information to be transmitted. And it must be done at the rate of 216 million pulses per second. This great flow of information is rather difficult and extremely expensive to transmit over great distances by the technical means available today.
Soviet researchers studying this problem have found help in the principles they observed in living nature. And the efforts of Soviet researchers in this field are internationally recognized.
IV.	Найдите в тексте абзац, где речь идет о принципах работы цифрового телевидения. Переведите этот абзац устно.
V.	Используя рисунок 1, опишите принцип действия основного элемента телевизора - электронно-лучевой трубки.
Рис.1
VI.	Переведите следующие предложения; докажите правильность вашего перевода на основе анализа предложений:
1. This device was invented in 1948. 2. The device invented in 1948 is widely used now. 3. We still use the device invented in 1948. 4. The. device they fabricated is widely used. 5. Using this device we can carry out new experiments. 6. The device is to be used in our laboratory. 7. Having invented the device he used it in our laboratory. 8. In order to use this device we must know its principles of operation.
CHAPTER TWO
LASERS
Текст 1
I.	Прочтите вслух следующие слова и определите их значения:
laser, ruby, xenon, coherent, stimulate, stimulation, stimulated, emit, emission, emitted, excite, excitation, excited
II.	Назовите из приведенных ниже интернациональных слов а) слова, совпадающие по значению с русскими словами; б) слова, имеющие внешнее сходство, но не совпадающие или не вполне совпадающие по своему значению с русскими:
quantum, generation, radio, molecular, electronic, to concentrate, intense, to stimulate, emission, radiation, ordinary, extremely, cylinder, synthetic, orbit, to stop, pulse, monochromatic, coherent, protection, compact, to absorb
III.	Образуйте существительные, обозначающие процесс, действие или результат действия, с помощью суффикса -ion/-(at)ion; переведите их:
to generate, to concentrate, to stimulate, to emit, to radiate, to excite, to absorb, to form
IV.	Просмотрите текст 1 и выполните следующие задания:
—	назовите создателей лазера;
-	найдите предложение, раскрывающее значение слова лазер;
—	опишите, из чего состоит лазер.
WHAT IS A LASER?
Laser is a wonder child1 of quantum physics. Quantum physics came into being in 1954 when Soviet scientists Alexander Prokhorov and Nikolai Basov in the USSR and Charles Towns in New York simultaneously and .^independently discovered the* ^generation of radio waves in molecular beams.
|A laser is a quantum electronic device. It is a machine for making and concentrating light waves into a very intense beam. The letters LASER stand for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. The light made by a laser is much more intense than ordinary light. With ordinary light, all the light waves are of different lengths. With lasers, all the light waves are of the same length, and this increases the intensity.
f Laser is an extremely simple-looking device. It is nothing more than a cylinder of synthetic ruby about 1/4 inches in diameter and 1 1/2 inches long mounted in the centre of a spiral coil of glass. The coil is a xenon-filled flash tube, very much like the ones used by photographers for taking flash pictures.
At one end of the tube there is a mirror, and at the other end of the tube there is a partial mirror. 	।
*The laser beam is made by exciting the atoms of a suitable material — ruby is one — until most of the atoms have electrons orbiting in a higher energy level than usual. The excitation is then stopped and all the excited electrons fall back together, to their normal orbits, each one emitting a pulse of light of the same energy. In this way an intense beam of light is generated for a very short time.* And every pulse or wave-train in this beam is in step with2 every other pulse. In this way a beam of light is obtained which is both monochromatic and coherent and easy to focus. This light is reflected by the mirror at one end of the tube. It can only escape at the other end of the tube.
Laser beams carry surprisingly intense amounts of energy and so they can be dangerous to living tissue.3 It is therefore necessary to protect the human eye, when laser beams are being used. The damage can be done very quickly, so protection from accident is veryznecessary.
A laser beam carries its energy in a compact form, until it is absorbed when it strikes something opacjue.
Примечания
1.	a wonder child — чудо, необычайное порождение
2.	to be in step with — соответствовать
3.	tissue —ткань
V.	Переведите устно предложения, отмеченные значком *.
VI.	Переведите следующие предложения, обращая внимание на независимый причастный оборот.
Модель:
Silver being a conductor, it is widely used in electronics. — Так как (поскольку, если) серебро — проводник, оно широко используется в электронике.
All metals are conductors, silver being the best. — Все металлы — проводники, а (но, и, причем) серебро — лучший.
1. The excitation being stopped, all the excited electrons fall back together. 2. The laser beam being so small, it is used in eye operations. 3. Laser beams carrying intense amounts of energy, it is necessary to protect
the human eye. 4. Light being reflected by the mirror at one end of the tube, it can only escape at the other end of the tube. 5. Laser being a multi-purpose tool, it is widely used.
VII. Подтвердите следующие положения, используя выражения ‘It is correct that” (Верно, правильно, что); “It is true that” (Верно, правильно, что); “It is common knowledge that” (Общеизвестно, что); “It goes without saying that” (Само собой разумеется):
1. Laser is a wonder child of quantum physics. 2. The laser beam is made by exciting the atoms of a suitable material. 3. Laser is an extremely simple-looking device. 4. It is necessary to protect the human eye, when laser beams are used. 5. A laser beam carries its energy in a compact form. 6. Laser is a multi-purpose tool. 7. Alexander Prokhorov and Nikolai Basov in the USSR and Charles Towns in New York simultaneously and independently discovered the generation of radio waves in molecular beams.
Текст 2
I.	Прочтите текст и выпишите ключевые слова, обозначающие области применения лазеров.
WHAT IS THE LASER USED FOR?
*The range of the lasers use is expanding with every passing year. The use of picosecond laser pulses will help to build faster and more powerful microchips, information circuits and computers by mapping more exactly the routes electrons take through semiconductor materials, the rates they , travel and the effects of impurities.*
•z New lasers will help research on interactions among molecules in liquids.
Lasers are widely used in medicine. In Moscow an All-Union Centre for Using Lasers in Surgery has been set up. The first step was made in 1970 by Professor A. Vishnevsky who used a small-capacity laser installation experimenting on animals.
Soviet scientists have produced Scalpel-1 installation which is widely used in our country and is exported to many other countries.
Lasers are used in biology and in agriculture. Soviet scientists have developed a new instrument — the laser projection microscope (the work received the USSR State Prize). The tremendous brightness of laser radiation makes it possible to project clear images of microobjects onto large screens, magnified 15,000 times.
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19
Laser beams make it possible not only to transmit light energy over great distances, but also to encase it in very thin glass filaments — waveguides. It is possible to transmit simultaneously thousand telephone conversations and many TV programmes over a single guide a tenth of a millimetre thick.
In the production of electronic components lasers are used in such operations as microwelding, resistor trimming, etc., something that can be performed perfectly well today. Technological lasers are coming into use in tempering metal instruments and other surfaces subjected to considerable strain, making their service life several times longer, in low-waste cutting of workpieces, and reliability welding.
The use of laser methods for non-impact diagnostics has allowed production of systems for precision measurements.
II.	Подберите русские эквиваленты к следующим терминам:
а)	1. microwelding; 2. resistor trimming; 3. metal tempering; 4. service life; 5. low-waste cutting; 6. ordered structure; 7. non-impact diagnostics
6)	1. срок службы; 2. закалка металлов; 3. подстройка резистора; 4. микросварка; 5. упорядоченная структура; 6. неразрушающая диагностика; 7. низко-отходное резание
III.	Используйте выписанные ключевые слова и расскажите, где используются лазеры.
IV.	Переведите устно предложения, выделенные значком *.
Текст 3
I. Прочтите текст и а) укажите дополнительную, по сравнению с текстом 2, информацию; б) назовите преимущества лазеров по сравнению с обычными металлообрабатывающими станками.
SOME MORE ABOUT LASERS
Over the past decade, Edinburgh Instruments1 have proved themselves to be leading technical innovators in the field of infra-red gas lasers. The PL series of lasers produced by Edinburgh Instruments are ideally suited to a large number of applications, in the scientific, industrial and medical fields. The wide tuning range and excellent frequency stability of the PL series make them ideal tools for high resolution molecular spectroscopy (Stark and Zeeman effects, magnetic resonance, double resonance, opto-acoustic spectroscopy, matrix isolation techniques) and solid state spectroscopy (non-linear optics, mixing, spin flip Raman scattering; non-linear absorption and dispersion; optical bistability; magneto-optics; spin resonance).
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The high stability of any Edinburgh Instruments laser are highly desirable characteristics for infra-red interferometers used in testing distortion and deformation of transmitting materials, lenses and optical surfaces.
The PL series can be used in long term studies of atmospheric conditions, they are particularly suitable for pollution detection and monitoring.
Laser applications in industry are centred around cutting, drilling, welding and soldering operations. Lasers have many advantages over conventional machine tools. Laser machining is a non-contact process. This means that there is no material distortion, there are no tooling costs and no cutting fluid requirements, which means cleaner work areas and less time required for cleaning finished parts. There is no swarf,2 since the material is evaporated and can be removed with an extractor fan'. The excellent beam quality ensures the laser output can be focussed to a small diameter spot (less than 50 microns) giving extremely high, localised intensities. Wastage is eliminated by ensuring that a minimum of material is removed during machining operation.
A wide range of functions can be performed by the same laser, by using it in any of its three modes of operation: continuous beam, chopped or pulsed.
Примечания
1. Edinburgh Instruments — название фирмы
2. swarf — мелкая металлическая стружка
II. а) Дайте русские эквиваленты следующих терминологических словосочетаний:
tuning range, frequency stability, high resolution molecular spectroscopy, double resonance, spin resonance, continuous beam
диапазон настройки, стабильность частоты, высоко разрешающая спектроскопия, двойной резонанс, непрерывный луч, резонансный спин
б) Переведите следующие атрибутивные словосочетания:
lasers produced, interferometers used, laser applications centred around, output focussed, time required, material removed, function performed, material machined, wastage eliminated
III. а) Опираясь на текст, укажите, какие из перечисленных методов относятся к 1) молекулярной спектроскопии высокого разрешения, 2) спектроскопии твердого тела:
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double resonance, spin resonance, magneto-optics, optical bistability, matrix isolation technique, non-linear optics, mixing, magnetic resonance, spin flip Raman scattering
б) Напишите по-английски список материалов, которые могут быть обработаны лазером.
Текст 4
Прочтите текст и устно переведите его.
HOLOGRAPHY
Lasers are also used in holography. A hologram is a three-dimensional image, a bit like a photograph. It’s different from a photograph because it looks solid. As you walk round a hologram, it changes, as if it were real; objects seem to flow in space. Holography was discovered by Dennis Gabor in 1948, but until lasers were invented, Gabor did not have a strong enough light to make good holograms.
Now holography is used for testing engineering ideas. An engineer can use a hologram to build up and check a new building such as a bridge. He can find out all about it before he builds it. Structural engineers have been using holographic images to locate and measure stress flaws1 in industrial parts such as aircraft engine turbine blades. First, a holographic image of the part is made under normal conditions. Then, after testing, a second hologram is compared with the original to indicate microscopic strains caused by heat, pressure, vibration or wear.
Примечание
1. stress flaws — трещины, вызванные напряжением
Текст 5
I. Прочтите текст и озаглавьте его.
Projects are now being discussed in scientific literature of using high-power lasers for long-distance space communications, to the surface of the Moon and for the transmission of energy to space stations, to the surface of the Moon or to planets in the solar system. Projects have also been suggested of placing lasers aboard1 artificial Earth satellites or on planets nearer to the Sun in order to transform the solar radiation into laser beam:, then transmitting this transformed energy to the Earth or to other space bodies.
FIAN’s2 station in the Crimea has built laser range-finding complexes. They measure the distances to the Moon with an error of not more than
22
one or two centimetres. This precision has allowed the laser measurement of distances to the Moon to become a new method for exploring the Earth-Moon system.
Laser radiation has the property of selective excitation of atoms and molecules enabling laser isolation of isotopes. The first successful experiment in separating isotopes by laser was performed in the Soviet Union, at the Institute of Spectroscopy of the USSR Academy of Sciences, in 1972. This work was regarded by specialists as highly promising for power engineering and production of extra pure materials. Our country is in the lead of3 these new scientific and technical areas of laser applications headed by Academician Basov, Lenin and Nobel Prize winner.
Scientists in many countries now are working on a very interesting problem: combining the two biggest technological discoveries of the second half of the century-the laser and thermonuclear reaction —to produce a practically limitless source of energy. Laser can contribute to solving the problem of controlled thermonuclear reactions, even though4 it is evident that a lot of difficulties are to be encountered.
Примечания
1.	aboard — на борту
2.	FIAN — Физический институт АН СССР, ФИАН
3.	is in the lead of — занимает ведущее положение в
4.	even though — даже если
II. а) Найдите в тексте интернациональные слова и переведите их; б) образуйте от следующих глаголов существительные со значением действия или результата действия:
to react, to communicate, to suggest, to transform, to explore, to separate, to select, to discuss
в) Преобразуйте придаточные определительные предложения в сочетания существительного с причастием.
Модель:
energy which is transformed = energy transformed
atom w’hich transmits electron = atom transmitting electron '
the work which specialists regard as highly promising
a new method which explores the Earth-Moon system projects which are now discussed distances which scientists measured
laser complexes which measure the distance to the Moon molecules which enables laser isolation of isotopes scientists which work on very interesting problem
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III. Используя информацию, полученную при чтении текстов 1 — 5, дополните и завершите схему:
Lasers |
| Structure |-
] Operation
] Mode of operation]
| ruby cylinder |
spiral coil
i
| mirrors |
ruby laser
infrared gas laser
continuous chopped pulsed beam
beam
beam
--------------------------*•) Applications ---------------------------| Advantages |«	... Рис. 2 IV. Используя схему, расскажите, что вы знаете о лазерах.
9.51/min
2 kg/cm2
7 kg/cm2
27 degrees C
164 kg
V. Переведите следующие отрывки из документаций по лазерам.
A.	Specifications
Voltage 208 + 10%; 3 phase with ground
Current 15 A per leg
Water Service
Flow Rate, Min Pressure, Min Pressure, Max Temperature, Max Shipping Weight
B.	Danger!
visible and/or invisible laser radiation — avoid eye or skin exposure to direct or scattered radiation
C.	Warranty.1
Spectra Physics2 products are protected by a one-year warranty except as noted below. All mechanical, electronic, and optical parts and assemblies, are unconditionally warranted to be free from defects in workmanship3 and material for the first year following delivery.4 Spectra Physics will correct, either by repair or replacement, any defect in material or workmanship that develops in the crystal and the arc lamp within 90 days after delivery. The crystal will be repaired or replaced under warranty only after investigation and inspection by Spectra Physics has proven that the problem occurred during normal and proper use.
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Примечания
1.	warranty — гарантия
2.	Spectra Physics — (название американской фирмы) Спектральная Физика
3.	workmanship — изделие, продукция
4.	delivery — доставка (приобретенного товара)
VI.	Используя рисунок 3, расскажите, из чего состоит лазер, и опишите принцип его действия.
О=^>
Рис. 3
VII.	Подберите английские эквиваленты к следующим названиям оборудования и устройств и скажите, для чего они используются.
Например: Crystal growing equipment is used to grow crystals.
1. установки для лазерной подгонки; 2. скрайберы для подложек; 3. испытательное устройство для интегральных схем; 4. оборудование для изготовления фотошаблонов; 5. установки для осаждения тонких пленок; 6. оборудование для окисления; 7. реакторы для плазменного травления; 8. устройство для нанесения фоторезиста
1. IC-testers; 2, resist applicators; 3. oxidation equipment; 4. plasma devices for etching; 5. laser trimmers; 6. scribers for substrates; 7. mask production equipment; 8. thin film deposition equipment
CHAPTER THREE
TRANSISTOR REVOLUTION
Текст 1
I.	Прочтите вслух следующие слова и словосочетания:
transistor, junction, alloy, planar, diffused, base, emitter, collector, carrier, silicon, germanium
grown-junction transistor, alloy-junction transistor, diffused-junction transistor, planar transistor, silicon transistor, germanium transistor
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II.	Образуйте существительные, обозначающие приборы и деятелей, с помощью суффикса -ег/-ог; переведите их:
to operate, to amplify, to rectify, to collect, to carry, to fabricate, to compose, to process
III.	Дайте русские эквиваленты следующих интернациональных слов:
planar, base, collector, emitter, vacuum, triode, diode, cathode, resistor, electron, potential, doping
IV.	Переведите следующие предложения:
1.	Transistors are typed according to the doping. 2. They are classified according to the amount of power dissipation. 3. The functions of the transistor can be compared to those of the vacuum tubes. 4. The temperature operating range of a silicon transistor is wider than that of the germanium transistor.
V.	Прочтите текст и выпишите ключевые слова, характеризующие структуру транзистора.
THE TRANSISTOR
The transistor is basically a three-section device composed of two outside sections and a middle section. The two outside sections are doped so that they are either P- or A'-type, and the middle section is doped opposite to the outside sections. Transistors are typed asNPN or PNP according to the doping of the sections or elements. When the two outside sections are A'-type semiconductors and the middle section is a P-type, the transistor is an NPN-type. When the two outside sections are P-types and the middle is iV-type, the transistor is a PNP-type.
The centre section of the transistor is thinner than the outside sections and is called the base One of the outside sections is called the emitter, and the other is called the collector. The functions of the emitter, base and collector can be compared to those of the cathode, grid and plate of a triode vacuum tube. These can be summarized as follows:
Emitter emits the current carriers, electrons or holes.
Base controls the current from the emitter.
Collector attracts or collects the carriers from the emitter.
Transistors are often classified according to the amount of power which they can dissipate.
There are many types of transistors as to their fabrication. For example, junction transistors are fabricated by various techniques which involve alloy, diffusion or growth processes. From hence different names of transis
26
tors: grown-j unction transistor, alloy-junction transistor, diffused-junction transistor, double-diffused planar type.
Transistors are made from germanium or silicon. The same general characteristics are common to both types, but the temperature operating range of a silicon transistor is wider than that of a germanium transistor.
VI.	Расскажите по-русски, из чего состоит транзистор и какие типы транзисторов широко используются.
IT IS INTERESTING ТО KNOW
The invention of a transistor is closely connected with the names of the following American scientists: Shockley, Bardeen and Brattain. In 1947 Bardeen and Brattain discovered that a small potential on the emitter, positive with respect to1 the base, would inject holes into the semiconductor’s surface and greatly increase its current-carrying capacity. Using that valve action, the amplifier they build achieved a voltage gain of about 100 that operated near to the audio range.
The original circuit was even spoken over that day and used the very next day to build an oscillator. The only problem left was what to call the invention. John R. Pierce, another American scientist, a friend of Brattain and Bardeen, proposed a name that fitted the device’s duality2 in vacuum tubes. The important parameter in a tube is its transconductance, or ratio of output current to input voltage; the solid-state amplifier provided gain by transresistance. Pierce suggested “transistor”.
Примечания
1. with respect to —относительно
2. that fitted the device's duality - которое соответствовало двойственности прибора
Текст 2
I. Прочтите текст и а) выпишите названия транзисторов, не упоминавшихся в тексте 1;
б) найдите в тексте описание рисунка 4 и объясните структуру и принцип действия транзистора.
FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS
A field-effect transistor (FET), as its name implies,1 is a solid-state device in which the current flow through it is controlled by the effects of an
27
electric field produced by the voltage applied to its control element, called the gate. There are some differences between an FET and a bipolar junction transistor:
1.	The FET has high input impedance while a bipolar has relatively low input impedance.
2.	The FET, a unipolar device, conducts by holes or electrons, while a bipolar junction transistor can conduct by holes and electrons.
3.	The FET is comparatively insensitive to temperature changes and various kinds of radiation which can cause conduction by minority carriers in a bipolar junction transistor.
4.	In an FET current does not cross a junction while flowing through it, while in a bipolar transistor the current crosses two junctions.
5.	The inherent noise associated with bipolar transistors due to junction transition (carriers crossing a junction) is not present in FET operation.
6.	FETs have more power gain than bipolar transistors.
Basically, the FET is a sliver2 of silicon, P- or Л’-type, called a channel, with two contact terminals, one called a source, the other a drain. When a voltage is applied across the channel, it will act like a resistor, and current will flow through it from source to drain.
There are two kinds of FETs in general use, the junction FET (JFET), and the insulated gate type, well known as MOSFET (metal-oxide semiconductor field effect transistor). *The input resistance of a MOSFET is much higher than that of a JFET, due to a layer of silicon-dioxide insulation between the gate and the silicon semiconductor material comprising the substrate. The dioxide isolation provides a higher input impedance for the MOSFET than does the reverse biasing action in the JFET input.
Рис. 4,.V-channcl MOSFET
When a negative or a positive charge is placed on the gate of a MOS FET, a charge of opposite polarity but of equal amplitude is placed on th.; channel between the source and the drain. If a positive charge is placed or the gate of an ,V-channel MOSFET, more electrons will move into the
28
channel, decreasing channel resistance, and more current will flow from source to drain.
Примечания
l	.as its name implies — как подсказывает его название
2	. sliver — пластинка
II.	Дайте полные формы следующих сокращений и переведите их:
FET, JFET, MOS, MOSFET
III.	Подберите русские эквиваленты к английским словам:
а)	1. drain; 2. insulation; 3. biasing; 4. solid; 5. silicon; 6. insensitive; 7. noise; 8. junction; 9. channel; 10. substrate; 11. source; 12. layer; 13. charge; 14. gate
6)	1. исток; 2. твердое тело; 3. переход; 4. нечувствительный; 5. шум; 6. канал; 7. подложка; 8. кремний; 9. смещение; 10. изоляция; 11. сток; 12. заряд; 13. затвор; 14. слой
IV.	Переведите следующие атрибутивные словосочетания:
high input impedance, low input impedance, bipolar junction transistor, junction transition, contact terminals, silicon-dioxide insulation, silicon semiconductor material
V.	Переведите предложения в тексте, отмеченные значком *, обратив внимание на слова-заместители that, do.
Текст 3
I.	Прочтите текст; закончите предложения в соответствии с содержанием текста, используйте выражения “According to the text” (Согласно тексту), “It is stated that” (Утверждается, что ):
1.	An MV transistor consists of.... 2. The base of the MV transistor is ... . 3. Each junction is surrounded by ... . 4. For normal operation as an amplifier, the emitter-base junction is ... . 5. For normal operation as an amplifier, the collector-base junction is ....
NPN TRANSISTOR OPERATION
AnMW transistor consists of one P section sandwiched between two A' sections of semiconductor material. The instant that the junctions are formed, a depletion layer is set up around each of the two junctions. In the unbiased condition diffusion and recombining of electrons and holes occur at the instant of fusing This diffusion and recombination action is due to the movement of majority carriers across each junction. The action is simi
29
lar to that resulting when only two sections of a semiconductor material are joined to form a diode.
The base of the NPN transistor is a thin slice of P-type material, and its ajority carriers are holes, but near the junctions there are negative ions created by diffusion. Each junction is surrounded by a depletion region formed by the diffusion and recombination of majority carriers. The positive ions in the region and negative ions in the P region are held in the crystal lattice structure, unable to move from their lattice sites, and thus ake up a region of fixed charges on each side of the junctions. On the side there is a barrier composed of a layer of positive ions and on theP side a barrier of negative ions. The layers establish an electrostatic field or barrier potentional (some call it a space charge) around each junction, the strength of which prevents further diffusion.
Electrons from the .V-type section are repelled by the small negative charge induced in the P-type by the presence of negative ions near the junction. Holes from the P section face the same repelling effect by a small positive charge induced in the section by depletion of electrons near the junction. In the depletion region, few mobile carriers exist because the effect of the barrier potential is to accelerate both holes and electrons out of the field.*
For normal operation as an amplifier, the emitter-base junction of a transistor is forward biased and the collector-base junction is reverse biased.
II.	Расскажите по-русски, как работает транзистор NPN типа.
III	. Переведите письменно предложения, отмеченные значком .
IV	. Переведите следующие предложения, обращая внимание на способы выражения долженствования:
1. They must do their work today. 2. Recombining of electrons and holes should occur at the instant of fusing. 3. Two sections of a semiconductor material are to form a diode. 4. Transistor manufacturers have to produce devices of high quality. 5. Reverse biasing the collector-base junction should increase the resistance at this junction. 6. The strength of an electrostatic field is to prevent further diffusion. 7. Small negative charge induced in the P-type has to repel electrons from .V-type section. 8. This side of the wafer is to be used for the active elements.
*V. Решите кроссворд:
По вертикали: 1. Обеднение. 3. Электронный прибор. 4. Смещение. 7. Отрицательный.
По горизонтали; 1. Сток. 2. Кристаллическая решетка. 5. Передавать. 6. Переход. 8. Затвор.
30
Текст 4
I. Прочтите и устно переведите текст.
CHECKING TRANSISTORS PNP OR NPN?
If one wants to determine if a transistor is a PNP or an NPN type, the ohmmeter can be employed as in checking for resistance. Simply find the base lead (it should be the middle one) and connect the negative ohmmeter lead to it. Contact the emitter electrode with the positive ohmmeter lead. Take a reading, and reverse the lead connections of the ohmmeter to the base and emitter. If the second reading (negative to emitter, positive to the base) is lower in ohms than the first connection, the transistor is an NPN, and if it is higher, it is a PNP. Note that not all ohmmeters put their positive lead at positive potential. Note that it should be determined if the ohmmeter being used has its positive lead connected internally to the positive side of its circuit. Otherwise the readings obtained will be errbneous.
Leakage tests, transistor gain and shorts and opens can be checked accurately by following the instructions in the manuals provided by the manufacturers and in data sheets published by them. Such publications provide detailed data on operational features, conditions, characteristics, circuit applications, testing, ratings, etc.
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*11. Разберите цепочку так, чтобы получилось предложение, состоящее из 9 слов:
allohmmetersputtheirpositiveleadatpositivepotential.
*111. Решите чайнворд:
1. Характеристика. 2. Короткое замыкание. 3. Проверка. 4.
Усиление.
Рис. 6
Текст 5
I. Переведите следующие предложения, обращая внимание на способы перевода форм глаголов в страдательном залоге:
1. This technology is referred to as microelectronics. 2. The electron tubes have been replaced by solid-state devices. 3. The elements of the circuit are integrated on a chip of silicon. 4. Circuit elements are interconnected by vapour metallization. 5. With new technologies 300 processing operations are reduced to 30. 6. The silicon must be sliced into paper-thin wafers. 7. The wafers must be lapped and polished on one side. 8. The wafers are polished several times. 9. The highly polished silicon is placed in an oven. 10. The wafer has been uniformly doped.
II. Прочтите текст и ответьте на вопрос: Какие электронные приборы сменяли друг друга в течение 30 лет развития электроники?
MICROELECTRONICS
Microelectronics is the technology of constructing electronic circriL and devices in extremely small packages by various techniques. ’This tech nology is also referred to as microminiaturization.
The increasing complexity of electronic systems over the past 30 year-, has made the evolution of microelectronics inevitable.* During this period, the electron tubes in the early electronic systems have been replaced b\ solid state discrete devices and integrated circuitry: and these, in turn, arc giving way to medium- and large-scale integrated circuitry."
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Microelectronics today encompasses2 thin-film, thick-film, hybrid, and integrated circuit technology. These approaches (and combinations of them) are being applied in every branch of electronics.
Integrated circuits that combine all the elements of a complete electronic circuit on a single chip of silicon can be produced. The implications of this in the microelectronic evolution are easily demonstrated. Let us compare a conventional J/K flip-flop circuit-incorporating solid-state discrete devices and the same type of circuit employing integrated circuitry.
*The conventional circuit would require approximately 40 separate discrete elements, 200 connections, 40 hermetic seals, and 300 separate processing operations, with each operation, seal, and connection representing a possible source of failure.* However, if all the elements of this circuit are integrated upon one chip of silicon, the number of connections drops to about 14. All circuit elements are interconnected inside the package by a process known as vapour metallization; instead of 40 hermetic seals there is one, and the three hundred processing operations are reduced to approximately 30.
*Before the actual fabrication of the integrated circuit begins, the silicon—-
crystal must be sliced into paper-thin wafers. The wafers must be lapped and polished on one side that is to be used for the active elements. Unless special processing is involved, the back side of the wafer is left in the lapped state.
Both sides of the wafer are lapped simultaneously with an abrasive (usually aluminium oxide) until all visible traces of the saw cuts are removed.* One side of the wafer is then polished"several times with slurries of abrasive grit.3 A grit of smaller size is used for each succeeding polishing step. Finally, the wafer is chemically etched to remove any irregularities in the surface resulting from the last polishing step.
The diffusion process begins when the highly polished silicon is placed in an oven, containing impurity atoms which yield the desired electrical characteristics. Wheh the wafer has been uniformly doped, the fabrication of semiconductor devices may begin. Several hundred circuits are produced simultaneously on the wafer.
Примечания
1.	inevitable — неизбежный
2.	to encompass - охватывать
3.	slurries of abrasive grit - суспензии из абразивной крошки
Ш. Переведите письменно предложения, отмеченные значком *.
2 - 1055
33
IV. Найдите в тексте описание процесса изготовления интегральных схем и расскажите по-русски, в чем он состоит.
V. Заполните пустующие клетки схемы в соответствии с содер-анием текста.
Текст 6
I.	Прочтите вслух следующие слова и запомните их произноше-тие:
diode, triode, resistor, lead, circuitry, thin-film, hybrid, monolithic, substrate, failure
II.	Дайте русские эквиваленты к английским словам:
а)	1. reliable; 2. interconnection; 3. circuitry; 4. to result in; 5. stage; 6. hin-film; 7. capacitor; 8. conventional; 9. fidelity
6)	1. обычный; 2. приводить к; 3. точность (воспроизведения); 4. юнденсатор; 5. надежный; 6. каскад; 7. межсоединение; 8. схемы; 9. онкопленочный
III.	Переведите следующие словосочетания, обращая внимание га функцию Participle II и способы перевода:
the techniques used to manufacture transistors, circuits commonly nown as integrated, interconnecting leads formed on a single piece of a emiconductor material, the combined functions of several stages, compo-ents required for switching circuits, passive components deposited on a ubstrate, the package covered with a protective material, ICs made by a iffusion process
IV.	Прочтите текст и ответьте на следующие вопросы: Что ключают в себя интегральные схемы? Как классифицируются ин егральные схемы? Что обусловило появление интегральных кем? Какие области использования ИС упоминаются в тексте?
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INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
The techniques used to manufacture transistors led to the possibility of producing very small and reliable electronics circuits commonly known as integrated circuits (ICs). iCs have diodes, transistors, resistors, and all interconnecting leads formed on a single piece of semiconductor material.
The increasing trend toward miniaturization has resulted in the development of micro integrated circuitry performing the combined functions of several stages. The idea of IC envisions the eventual abandonment of the discrete component concept for electronic circuits.1 Instead, a complete functional package is becoming the replacement item2 for technicians.
An IC chip consists of the miniaturized components required for amplifier, oscillator and switching circuits and is contained in a package smaller than any of the original components in their conventional form. Integrated circuits are usually considered in three general classifications: thin-film, monolithic, and hybrid.
Tbin-film class uses a nonconductive dielectric substrate such as mica or ceramics. Passive components such as resistors and capacitors in the form of thin film with connecting leads are deposited on the substrate, and the package is covered with a protective material. This type is more bulky and has a relatively high component-failure rate.
Monolithic ICs are made by a diffusion process. This class of IC consists of a semiconductor substrate with circuit components diffused into it. Monolithic ICs used extensively in computer logic systems are less bulky and more reliable than the thin-film type.
The hybrid type is a combination of thin-film and monolithic types. In the hybrid ICs passive components such as resistors are fabricated by the thin film technique, and active components such as transistors are included by the monolithic process__—-
Transistors, diodes, and resistors are relatively easy to integrate, but inductors are more difficult because of the size usually required for higher values. An IC-module or chip can contain three or more interconnected stages, and complete electronic systems such as amplifiers no larger Qian a conventional transistor are not uncommon. Colour TV, radios, high-fidelity audio systems, transmitters, computers and space vehicle3 equipment all utilize integrated circuitry.
Примечания
1.	The idea of IC ... . — Идея ИС представляет собой окончательный отказ от принципа использования дискретных компонентов в электронных схемах.
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2.	replacement item - заменяемый элемент
3.	space vehicle - космический корабль
V.	Продолжите список названий приборов, упоминаемых в тексте:
diode, transistor, resistor...
VI.	Дайте морфологический анализ форм, выделенных в тексте.
VII.	Дайте характеристику каждого из упоминаемых в тексте методов получения интегральных схем.
Текст 7
I. Прочтите текст и ответьте на следующие вопросы: Чем объясняется преобладающая роль кремния в изготовлении микросхем и полупроводниковых приборов? С какими материалами сравнивается кремний?
II. Выпишите из текста названия всех упоминаемых веществ и материалов.
SILICON AND THE PROSPECTS OF SEMICONDUCTOR TECHNOLOGY
The discovery and development of semiconductors made possible great advances in electronics. The most important among semiconductors is silicon.
There is a e ery good reason1 why silicon is used to fabricate electronic components. Next to oxygen, it. is the most abundant2 material on the earth s surface. More important, it is very easy to grow insulating layers on silicon. But the impulse3 to higher performance - faster and denser devices — demands that the industry go beyond4 silicon in both logic and memory development. For silicon is to semiconductor technology what iron and steel have been to modern metallurgy.
' Already silicon has been superseded5 not simply in laboratory' experiment but for commercial production of memory devices with capacities at least four times higher than anything so far realized with silicon: the magnetic bubble memory.h Other technologies which include the use of gallium arsenide and the superconducting materials of Josephson junctions6 art on the horizon. These technologies, however, are constrained7 at present by processing and open ling costs. For example, gallium arsenide is
36
highly toxic, and insulating layers are also impossible to grow on it. And Josephson junctions at present must be cooled to near absolute zero to work.
The dominant role of silicon as the material for microelectronics is attributed to the properties of its oxide. Silicon dioxide is a clear glass with a softening point higher than 1,400 degrees C. It plays a major role both in the fabrication of silicon devices and in their operation.
Примечания
1.	there is a very good reason — существует убедительный довод (аргумент)
2.	abundant - имеющийся в большом количестве
3.	impulse - (зд.) тенденция
4.	demands that the industry go beyond - требует, чтобы промышленность вышла за пределы применения одного только кремния
5.	to supersede - вытеснять, замещать
6.	Josephson junction — переход Джозефсона
7.	to constrain - ограничивать
III.	Переведите предложение, отмеченное значком *.
IV.	Дайте морфологический анализ выделенных в тексте слов.
V.	Найдите в тексте предложения со сложным союзом both ... and и переведите их.
VI.	Выразите сомнение по поводу приведенных ниже высказываний; используйте для этого разделительный вопрос.
Модель:
Silicon is the most abundant material on the earth’s surface. - Silicon is the most abundant material on the earth’s surface, isn't it?
1. It is very easy to grow insulating layers on silicon. 2. Other technologies include the use of gallium arsenide. 3. Gallium arsenide is highly toxic. 4. Josephson junctions must be cooled to near absolute zero. 5. Silicon dioxide is a clear glass.
Текст 8
I. Прочтите текст за 2 — 3 минуты и озаглавьте его.
37
Monolithic chips have been typically manufactured using a silicon-based logic. Recently however, much attention has been focussed on architectures using GaAs-based logic.
The advantages of GaAs over silicon include its higher speed, lower power dissipation and higher resistance to environmental conditions.1 These advantages account for2 the growing interest in GaAs for high data-rate communications.
Unfortunately GaAs is more expensive, harder to make and produces lower yields than silicon. The higher cost arises from higher cost of the material itself and the high density of dislocations which account for the low yield. GaAs will never replace silicon in all applications, but as a newly emerging technology it will open the door to new applications which silicon could not accomplish.
Примечания
1. environmental conditions - условия окружающей среды
2. to account for — объяснять
II. Используя информацию, полученную при чтении текстов 7 и 8, заполните таблицу:
Silicon
cheap
easy to grow insulating layers on it
GaAs
toxic
high speed
III. Расскажите о свойствах кремния и арсенида галлия, используя составленную вами таблицу.
*IV. Найдите закодированные названия материалов, применяемых в микроэлектронике. Обратите внимание на то, что название может читаться сверху вниз, снизу вверх, слева направо и по диагонали. Границы слов, представленные ниже, помогут вам в поиске.
s....n, i....m, g......m, а......е, g.....m, с......s, s....r, l..d
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klosxmokawkexg mcprueglfsmape seriosioi ipdnr ifdfmtmmh 1 rnem Ineplpnnlvqfda imfqktfpwewgin ceramicsxrxhni owoudoptznyieu ngpfanayymbnsm osnxekbwosdsrt agalliummonuax
V. Переведите отрывки из технической документации:
1. Cutting and Forming Machine to Radial Lead Parts.
This is a completely automatic machine which forms and cuts radial lead type film, tantalum, or electrolytic capacitors into the designated shape.
Capacity: 60 pcs/min(max)
Dimensions: 1300(1) x 900(w) x 1200(h) mm
Weight: Approx. 600 kg
Power: electrical - AC 220V, 3 F, 50/60 Hz, 1 kw
Air: more than 5 kgf/cm2
2. IC Taping Machine.
This is a taping machine designated for flat-packaged ICs, to automatically prepare them and mount them, with other electronic components, on printed circuit boards.
Features:
Parts feeding: The pallet1 system of this machine feeds about 50-200 units by one touch.
Detection - The optical sensor can detect absence or removal of parts. Specifications:
Taping capacity: 20 — 30 pieces a minute
Pallet: 10 (vertical) x 6 -10 rows (horizontal)
Carrier tape: 32 mm (W) x 96 m
Weight: 350 kg
Power supply: AC 100 V, single-phase, 50/60 Hz, 0.5 kw
Примечание
1. pallet - собачка храпови(ч)ка
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CHAPTER FOUR
HERE COMES THE COMPUTER
Текст 1
I. а) Прочтите вслух следующие слова и определите их значения:
machine, medium, terminal, data, logical, mathematical, to magnetize, to manipulate
б) Прочтите вслух слова и запомните место ударения в них:
program, input, output, to process, processing, medicine
II. Образуйте существительные, обозначающие прибор или деятеля, с помощью суффиксов -ег/-ог; переведите их:
to program, to process, to calculate, to compute, to manipulate, to operate, to instruct
III. Дайте русские эквиваленты к английским словам; составьте словосочетания из слов левой и правой колонок и переведите их:
1. to operate	1. information
2. to magnetize	2. signal
3. to store	3. core
4. to input	4. character
5. to process	5. letter
6. to perform	6. switch
7. to solve	7. data
8. to output	8. logical amd mathematical operations 9. problem
IV. Прочтите текст и скажите, в	чем состоит основная идея ЭВМ
и какие типы ЭВМ упоминаются.	
WHAT IS A COMPUTER?
The word computer comes from a Latin word which means to count. A computer is a machine with a complex network of electronic circuits that operate switches or magnetize tiny metal cores. The switches, like the cores, are capable of being in one of two possible states, that is, on and off magnetized or demagnetized. The machine is capable of storing and ma nipulating numbers, letters, and characters. The basic idea of the compute U is that we can make the machine do what we want by inputting signals that turn certain switches on and turn others off, or that magnetize or do ni't magnetize the cores.
40
The basic job of computers is the processing of information. For this reason, computers can be defined as devices which accept information in the form of instructions called a program and characters called data, perform mathematical and/or logical operations on the information, and then supply results of these operations. The program, or part of it, which tells the computers what to do and the data, which provide the information needed to solve the problem, are kept inside the computer in a place called memory.
Some of the most common methods of inputting information are to use punched cards, magnetic tape, disks, and terminals. The computer’s input device (which may be a card reader, a tape drive or disk drive, depending on the medium used in inputting information) reads the information into the computer.
For outputting information, two common devices used are a printer which prints the new information on paper, or a CRT display screen which shows the results on a TV-like screen.
There are different kinds of computers. Some do only one job over and over again. These are special-purpose computers. But there are some computers that can do many different jobs. They are called general-purpose computers. These are the “big brains” that solve the most difficult problems of science. They answer questions about rockets and planes, bridges and ships - long before these things are even built. Computers help our space program, our business and industry, medicine and education. They are powerful tools which help to change our life and the world around us.
V. Переведите: а) сочетания существительных с правым определением:
cores magnetized, information processed, information accepted, instruction called a program, characters called data, operations performed, information needed, signals input, devices used, problem solved
б) сочетания существительных с левым определением:
space program, input device, card reader, tape drive, display screen, special-purpose computer, general-purpose computer, disk drive
VI. Заверши те предложения в соответствии с текстом?
1. The basic job of computers is ... . 2. The word computer comes from ... . 3. Some of the most common methods of inputting information are to use ... . 4. The computer's input device ... . 5. For inputting information, two common devices used are .... 6. Computers help ....
3 - 1055
VII. Подтвердите следующие положения, используя выражения “It is quite clear that” (Совершенно ясно, что ); It is true that (Верно, что); “It is common knowledge that” (Общеизвестно, что); “As far as I know” (Насколько мне известно):
1. The word computer comes from Latin. 2. A computer is a machine with a complex network of electronic circuits. 3. The basic job of computers is the processing of information. 4. The most common methods of inputting information are to use punched cards, magnetic tapes, disks and terminals. 5. For outputting information, two common devices used are a printer and a CRT display screen. 6. Computers help our space program, our business and industry, medicine and education.
VIII. Ответьте по-английски на следующие вопросы:
1. Does the word computer come from Latin? 2. Does a computer accept information in the form of instructions? 3. Do computers help our space program? 4. Is a computer a machine with a complex network of electronic circuits? 5. Is a computer capable of storing and manipulating numbers, letters and characters? 6. Are punched cards used to input information? 7. Are a printer, and a CRT display screen used to output information?
Текст 2
I. Прочтите текст и объясните по-русски значения терминов hardware и software. Расскажите, что представляет собой вычислительная система.
COMPUTER SYSTEM
A computer system is a collection of components that work together to process data. The purpose of a computer system is to make it as easy as possible for you to use a computer to solve problems. A functioning computer system combines hardware elements with software elements. The hardware elements are the mechanical devices in the system, the machinery and the electronics that perform physical functions. The software elements are the programs written for the system; these programs perform logical and mathematical operations and provide a means for you to control the system. Documentation includes the manuals and listings that tell you how to use the hardware and software.	,
Collectively these components provide a complete computer system: system hardware + system software + system documentation = computer system. Usually, a computer system requires three basic hardware items:1
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the computer, which performs all data processing; a terminal device, used like a typewriter for two-way communication between the user and the system; and a storage medium for storing programs and data. These three devices — the computer, the terminal and the storage medium — are the required hardware components of any computer system.
Optional peripheral devices are added to a computer system according to the'specific needs of the system users. For example, computer systems that are used primarily for program development may have extra storage devices and a high-speed printing device. Computer systems used in a laboratory may have graphics display hardware, an oscilloscope device, and an analog-to-digital converter. Computer systems that provide (or use) information in conjunction with2 another kind of computer system usually have a magtape device, because magtape device is an industry-standard3 storage device.
Peripheral devices are categorized as input/output (I/O) devices since the functions they perform provide information (input) to the computer, accept information (output) from the computer, or do both. Line printers are output devices because they perform only output operations. Terminals and storage devices are input/output devices because they perform both input and output operations.
System software is an organized set of supplied programs that effectively transform the system hardware components into usable tools. These programs include operations, functions, and routines that make it easier for you to use the hardware to solve problems and produce results. For example, some system programs store and retrieve data among the various peripheral devices. Others perform difficult or lengthy mathematical calculations. Some programs allow you to create, edit, and process application programs of your own.
System software always includes an operating system, which is the “intelligence” of the computer system. Usually the system software includes one or several language processors.
Примечания
1.	item - элемент, единица, отдельный элемент
2.	in conjunction with — вместе с, в сочетании с
3.	industry-standard —промышленный, выпускаемый промышленными предприятиями
II. Дайте русские эквиваленты следующих простых и сложных терминов:
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computer system, machinery, hardware, software, data processing, two-way communication, storage medium, peripheral devices, program development, analog-to-digital converter, input/output devices, line printer, routine, operating system, listing, system software
П1. Ответьте по-английски на следующие вопросы:
1. What does a computer system consist of? 2. What are the hardware elements? 3. What are the software elements?
Memory
Fixed ROM Program Data
Variable RAM program temporary storage
П------2TV
V	V
I/O
inputs	outputs
switches	displays
keyboards	printer
Converted Data Relays
2ГЕ-----О--------------
Address / Control	Data
CPU
Logical and Arithmetic Operations makes decisions
Control Data Transfers
Рис. 8. Basic Elements of a Computer System
IV. Составьте схему “Computer System” на основе прочитанного текста; используя эту схему и рис. 8, расскажите, что вы знаете о вычислительной системе.
*V. Решите кроссворд:
По вертикали: 1. Аппаратное обеспечение ЭВМ. 3. Отыскивать информацию в ЭВМ. 5. Печатающее устройство. 6. Память
По горизонтали: 2. Стандартная программа. 4. Математическое обеспечение ЭВМ. 5. Периферийное устройство. 7. Распечатка программы. 8. Оконечное устройство
44
Рис. 9
Текст 3
I. Прочтите текст, выпишите встречающиеся в нем цифры и скажите, какая информация с ними связана.
FROM THE HISTORY OF COMPUTERS
The first generation of computers, which used vacuum tubes, came out in 1950. These computers could perform thousands of calculations per second. About 1960, the second generation of computers was developed and these could perform work ten times faster than thei/pfedecessors. The reason for this extra speed was the use of transistors instead of vacuum tubes. Second-generation computers were smaller, faster. One ofthe best of these second-generation computers is the Soviet BESM-6 (big electronic counting machine).
The third-generation computers began to appear in 1965. These computers could do a million calculations a second, which is 1000 times as many as first-generation computers; they are controlled by tiny integrated circuits and are consequently smaller and more dependable. Fourth-generation computers have now arrived. They are based on ICs greatly reduced in size due to microminiaturization, which means that the circuits are much smaller than before. As many as 1000 tiny circuits now fit onto a single chip. Fourth-generation computers are 50 times faster than third-generation computers.
The most recent mainframe computers based on very large scale integration are becoming available in the mid-1980’s.
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Each generation of computers has resulted from an advance in component technology, beginning with the replacement of the vacuum tube by the discrete transistor.
ES (Unified System) series computers developed jointly by CMEA member-states are used not only in the socialist world, but in the developing countries where they help in many areas of the economy and in a number of industrialized capitalist countries.
A major advance in the development of computer technology was the creation of microprocessors and microcomputers. The tiny and versatile computing devices are able to control complex operations from the control and monitoring operation to playing chess.
II. Ответьте на вопросы:
1. Each generation of computers has resulted from an advance in component technology, hasn’t it? 2. ES series computers are used not only in the socialist world, but in the developing and industrialized capitalist countries, aren’t they? 3. A major advance in the development of computer technology was the creation of microprocessors and microcomputers, wasn’t it?
III. а) Дайте полную форму приведенных ниже сокращений и переведите их:
I/O, ES, LSI, VLSI, CMEA, BESM, IC
б) Дайте русские эквиваленты следующих словосочетаний:
vacuum tube, mainframe computer, component technology, discrete transistor, ES series computers, CMEA member-states, developing countries, versatile computing devices, complex operations
IV. Объясните, как компьютер решает задачи, используя схему:
Problem ---------► Set of instructions —► Instructions use
words and numbers —*-
Words and num--------Computer under- Computer probers are put into ---► stands and obeys —► vides solution
binary form in the	instructions
computer
DO YOU KNOW THAT...
The first Soviet computers were built under the guidance of the outstanding Soviet academicians Lebedev and Glushkov. The first Soviet com
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puter “Strela” built in several versions was constructed under the guidance of the chief designer Bazilevsky.
IT IS INTERESTING TO KNOW
1. Lady Lovelace (1815-1852), the only daughter of the great English poet G.G. Byron, was the first programmer. She was a friend of Ch. Babbage, the inventor of the first universal digital counting machine, and wrote the first program for this machine.
2. A large computer system can do computations in 1 minute that would take 100 to 200 years to do manually.
Текст 4
I.	Прочтите текст и назовите типы памяти ЭВМ, о которых идет речь в тексте.
MEMORY
*Ii’ all types of computer systems memory plays a very important role. The function of the memory section of the computer system is either to hold information that the computer will need or information that the computer has already generated which will be used in the future, in other words, the memory of a computer is used for storing the program and data. There are two basic types of memory, namely read/write memory whose contents may be changed by writing new information into it and read only memory (ROM) whose contents are fixed. Read/write memory is usually referred to as random access memory (RAM) for historical reasons, although strictly speaking most modern read only memories can also be accessed in a random order.*
The semiconductor RAM memory is of the volatile type. That is, when power is removed, all information previously written in memory is lost. ROM retains the information in it even without power.
*ROMs, which are non-volatile, must have the information loaded into them somehow before they can be used.* This can either be done during the manufacturing process, they are then referred to as mask-programmed ROMs, or by the user. In the latter case they are referred to as programmable ROMs (PROMs). Programming is done either by burning the ': required information pattern into them with high voltage pulses (the fusible link type PROM) or by storing minute charges on them. The latter arc erasable through exposure to ultra-violet light and are referred to as EPROMs (erasable PROMs).
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II.	а) Дайте полную форму следующих сокращений и переведите их:
RAM, ROM, PROM, EPROM
б) Дайте английские эквиваленты к следующим русским терминологическим словосочетаниям:
постоянная память, выборка, произвольная выборка, программируемая память, программируемая память с пережигаемой связью, стираемая программируемая память, шаблон, импульсы высокого напряжения, сохраняющий информацию при отключении электропитания	|
III.	Переведите предложения, отмеченные значком *; в каждом i отмеченном предложении выделите формы сказуемого и сделайте I их грамматический анализ.	'
IV.	Спросите товарища по группе, уверен(а) ли он(она) в достоверности высказывания. Используйте выражения “Аге you sure, that” (Ты уверен, что); “Is it right that” (Правильно ли, что); “Is it
correct to say that” (Правильно ли сказать, что):	,
1. There are two basic types of memory. 2. The semiconductor RAM memory is of the volatile type. 3. ROM retains the information in it even
without power. 4. EPROM is erasable through exposure to ultra-violet light. 5. In all types of computer systems memory plays a very important role.
Текст 5
Переведите письменно текст.
DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTER MEMORIES	j
One of the most important characteristics of a computer is its capability of storing information in its memory long enough to process it. Not all computers have the same type of memory.
The memory of the first computers was made up of a kind of grid of fine vertical and horizontal wires. At each intersection where the wires crossed there was a small ferrite ring called a core and therefore we use the name “core memory”. With the development of integrated circuits semiconductor memories (or chips) came into use. There is one problem, however, with semiconductor memory: when power is removed, information in the memory is lost, unlike core memory which is capable of retaining information during a power failure.
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Another development in the field of computer memories is bubble memory. A magnetic bubble memory can store information at a greater density than existing memories, which makes it very suitable. Microbubble memories are not expensive, consume little power, are small in size, and are highly reliable.
Текст 6
I. Прочтите текст и скажите, какие типы запоминающей среды упоминаются в нем; объясните, как записывается информация на гибком диске.
THE STORAGE MEDIUM
The term “memory’ is usually used to describe the internal storage of a computer. In its strictest sense it refers to the storage locations that can be immediately addresses by the program counter. They are often referred to as the primary storage while magnetic tape, magnetic disk or diskette, magnetic drum are referred to as the secondary storage.
One of the standard mediums for the secondary storage is the floppy disk: a flexible disk of plastic, now either 5 1/4 or 8 inches in diameter coated on one side or both sides with a magnetic material. Information is stored in concentric tracks of minute magnetized regions. The information is written on the disk and retrieved from it by a recording head that is moved radially across the spinning disk to a particular track. Most floppy disks now have a capacity from 125 to 500 kilobytes; disks of higher density are beginning to be available.
In the Winchester1 disk the magnetic coating is applied to a rigid aluminium platter.2 A personal computer Winchester disk unit can have a capacity of from 5 to 50 megabytes (millions of bytes), and it can transfer data faster than a floppy disk. On the other hand, the Winchester disk is permanently sealed in the drive unit whereas a floppy disk can be removed from the drive and replaced by a new one.
A simpler, less expensive secondary memory medium is the audio magnetic-tape cassette. One cassette can store about as much information as a relatively low-capacity floppy disk.
Примечания
1. Winchester disk — жесткий магнитный диск
2. rigid aluminium platter-жесткая алюминиевая пластина
II.	Найдите в тексте предложение, в котором сравниваются гибкий и жесткий (Винчестерский) диски.
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III.	а) Сделайте морфологический анализ выделенных в тексте форм, б) Образуйте сравнительную и превосходную степени сравнения с помощью суффиксов -er, -est от следующих прилагательных:
fast, cheap, long, big, high, small
в) Подберите к русским словам соответствующие английские эквиваленты:
меньше - least, less, little
более активный — most active, active, more active
Лучше — good, best, better хуже — worse, bad, worst
IV.	Переведите следующие предложения; обратите особое внимание на перевод слова one:
1. One of these problems was solved with the help of a computer. 2. One should solve a difficult problem using a computer. 3. You may take this article or that one. 4. The new device is better than the old one. 5. One must know that the light year is the distance that the light will travel during one year.
Текст 7
I. Просмотрите текст и найдите в нем определение микропроцессора. Ответьте на следующие вопросы: Какова функция микропроцессора? Из чего состоит микропроцессор?
WHAT IS A MICROPROCESSOR?
A microprocessor is the central arithmetic and logic unit of a computer, together with its associated circuitry, scaled down1 so that it fits2 on a single silicon chip (sometimes several chips) holding tens of thousands of transistors, resistors and similar circuit elements. A typical microprocessor chip measures half a centimeter on a side.
The task of the microprocessor is to receive data in the form of strings of binary digits (0’s and l’s), to store the data for later processing, to perform arithmetic and logic operations on the data according to the previously stored instructions and to deliver3 the results to the user through an output mechanism such as an electric typewriter, a cathode-ray-tube display or a two-dimensional plotter. A typical microprocessor would consist of the following units: a decode and control unit (to interpret instructions from the stored program), the arithmetic and logic unit, or ALU (to perform arithmetic and logic operations), registers (to serve as an easily accessible mem
50
ory fpr data which are frequently manipulated), an accumulator (a special register closely associated with the ALU), address buffers (to supply the control memory with the address from which to take the next instruction) and input/output buffers (to read instructions or "data into the microprocessor or to send them out).
Примечания
1.	scaled down — уменьшенные в размере
2.	to fit — умещаться
3.	to deliver — доставлять
IL Дайте русские эквиваленты к следующим терминам и терминологическим сочетаниям:
silicon chip, binary digits, output mechanism, electric typewriter, two-dimensional plotter, control unit, accumulator, register, buffer, address buffer, arithmetic and logic unit
III. Переведите выделенную в тексте форму сказуемого и сделайте ее грамматический анализ.
IV. Расскажите о конструкции микропроцессора.
Текст 8
Прочтите текст и скажите, в чем состоит различие между мини- и микрокомпьютерами.
MICROS AND MINIS
One should distinguish between three words: microprocessor, microcomputer and minicomputer.
The second halves of these words, namely processor and computer indicate an essential difference. The word processor refers to the central processing part of the system only, whereas the term computer implies a complete system. A microprocessor is the central processing part of a computer realized on one or more purpose designed large scale integration (LSI) circuits, as opposed to any other type of processor, made from general purpose logic circuits. A microcomputer contains a microprocessor plus additional circuitry needed to complete the system. This additional circuitry includes memory, input and output circuits, a clock generator and maybe other related items.1
A minicomputer, on the other hand, although functionally equivalent to a microcomputer is not based on a microprocessor, but is built from general
51
purpose logic elements. Its design is not constrained2 by what can be integrated onto sub-miniature microprocessor circuits and therefore it is generally more powerful. Minicomputers have been in existence3 much longer than microcomputers, since less complex parts are required to make them. The essential difference between microcomputers and minicomputers, as far as the user is concerned, however, is due to their different origins. Minicomputers are designed and manufactured by minicomputer manufacturers who generally have extensive software experience4 and can offer good support5 on their machines, while microcomputers are designed and manufactured by semiconductor manufacturers who do not have the same experience.
Примечания
1.	other related items — другие необходимые компоненты
2.	is not constrained — не ограничивается
3.	Minicomputers have been in existence — Миникомпьютеры существуют
4.	who generally have extensive software experience —у кого обычно есть обширный опыт по разработке математического обеспечения
5.	can offer good support - могут предложить хорошее математическое обеспечение
Текст 9
I. Прочтите текст и выпишите ключевые слова, обозначающие основные функции и области применения ЭВМ.
WHAT CAN COMPUTERS DO?
Computers are thought to have many remarkable powers. However, most computers whether large or small, have three basic capabilities. First, computers have circuits for performing arithmetic operations, such as addi- , tion, subtraction, division, multiplication and exponentiation. Second, computers have a means of communicating with the user. After all, if we couldn’t feed information in and get resuUs back, these machines wouldn’t be of much use. However, certain computers for example minicomputers and microcomputers are used to control directly things such as robots, aircraft navigation systems, medical instruments, etc.
Third, computers have circuits which can make decisions. Computer can solve a series of problems and-makc hundreds, even thousands, of logical decisions without becoming tired or bored. It can find the solution to a
52
problems in a fraction of the lime it takes a human being to do the job. A computer can replace people in dull, routine tasks, but it has no originality;^ it works according to the instructions given to it. A computer cannot do anything unless a person tells it what to do and gives it the appropriate information.
II. Используя ключевые слова, устно передайте содержание текста.
\
Текст 10
I. Прочтите вслух слова и определите их значения:
efficient, application, to execute, execution, to process, to identify, identification, peripheral, instruction
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
Hundreds of programming languages have been developed for computer systems. Some languages can be used only for specific applications or with a special computer system. Other languages are general-purpose; they are used for many problem-solving situations1 and are easy to learn and use.
All the programming languages are divided into high-level languages and machine-level languages.
High-level languages, like BASIC and FORTRAN,2 are machine-independent languages because language statements are such that any program written in the language can usually be executed on different computer systems.
Machine-level languages, on the other hand,3 such as the assembly language, require that you should know about the computer and the peripheral devices and how they work together.
That is why,4 machine-level languages are machine-dependent languages. Machine-level language programs can be efficient because the knowledgeable programmer will choose the fastest and most exact instructions to execute them.
Beginning programmers and students usually use high-level languages because they are less difficult to learn and to use, and they produce fast results. System programmers,5 on the other hand, may use machine-level languages for writing programs that must often be as fast and efficient as possible. If you already know a language supported by the computer system,6 you may continue to use that language rather than7 spend time to learn a new one.
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If you are a beginning programmer, you may start with a language like BASIC-II which is a conversational language. Language statements use simple, English-like words and common mathematical expressions. It had many industry and business applications.
You write a BASIC-program as a series of one or more program lines. You begin each program line with a number that both identifies the line and8 indicates the order in which the line will be processed.
Примечания
1.	problem-solving situation — проблемная ситуация
2.	BASIC (Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) — универсальный символический язык для начинающих программистов
FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslation) - алгоритмический язык высокого уровня
3.	on the one hand — с одной стороны, on the other hand — c другой стороны
4.	that is why — вот почему; потому
5.	system programmer — программист-системник
6.	supported by the computer system - используемый в данной системе ЭВМ
7.	rather than - а не
8.	both ... and — и ... и
II.	Просмотрите текст и выберите все определительные словосочетания со словом language. Переведите их на русский язык.
III.	Составьте словосочетания и переведите их.
Например:
to develop a program — разрабатывать программу
to develop (a program, a language, a theory)
to process (information, a program, data)
dependent (machine, weather)
independent (country, policy, machine)
to execute (a program, an instruction, a piece of work)
IV.	Найдите в тексте производные от слова program и переведите их; по аналогии с ними образуйте производные от следующих слов:
to execute, to process, to indicate
V.	Ответьте по-английски на следующие вопросы:
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1. Какие языки программирования упоминаются в тексте? Какие еще языки программирования вы знаете? 2. Каковы преимущества языков высокого уровня? 3. В чем состоит различие между языками высокого уровня и машинными языками? 4. Какой язык программирования вы использовали бы, если были бы знающим программистом, руководителем научной лаборатории или предприятия?
VI.	Прочтите отрывок и скажите, что вы узнали о преимуществах и недостатках языков высокого уровня и машинных языков:
High-level languages are easy to learn and use while machine-level languages are more difficult to learn and use. High-level languages require more computer memory while machine-level languages require less computer memory. High-level language programs are characterized by slower execution time and are less efficient. Machine-level language programs are characterized by faster execution time and are more efficient. It is easier to debug high-level language programs than machine-level language programs.
VII.	Сравните языки высокого уровня и машинные языки, используя сравнительные степени наречий и прилагательных:
to learn and use (easy, difficult)
slow (fast) execution time
efficient
to debug (easy, difficult)
VIII.	Расскажите, что вы знаете о языках программирования, используя слова и словосочетания из упр. VII.
Текст 11
I. Прочтите текст и ответьте на вопросы: К чему привело появление персонального компьютера? Каковы основные характеристики персонального компьютера?
THE PERSONAL COMPUTER-A NEW INFORMATION PROCESSING TOOL
As a result of the appearance of personal computers and terminals, printers and other similar facilities the user had to face for the first time a serious change of the information environment which raised new problems and created entirely new possibilities. This is not just technological change.
Before scientific information could be regarded as an auxiliary (though necessary) tool of gaining knowledge, a method of its “long-distance” transportation, today direct involvement in information work is becoming a pre
55
condition for productive labour not only in the sphere of scientific work. This brings into view1 the new' nature of interaction between man and the information environment, which necessarily leads to large-scale application of personal computers.
The personal computer is a mass-produced organized aggregate of information input, processing, storage, transmission and display devices which is completely at its user’s disposal. Personal computers may be subdivided into professional personal computers, household personal computers and active terminals.
Computers controlled by one person were known even before in the mini class. However, those were stand alone type machines that either formed part of a process control cycle or, like common computers, were used in the visiting mode.
One of the important characteristics of the personal computer is its being incorporated into the user’s work-site or home environment. This was made possible by the revolutionary advances in electronics whereby a silicon crystal section a couple of square centimetres in area can hold dozens of thousands of electronic circuitry elements.
Примечание
1. This brings into view ~зд. Это заставляет обратить внимание на
II. Переведите отрывки из технической документации по вычислительной технике:
Notching 8-inch Floppy Disks
In the case of the FD series, there are some disks with write-protect notches1 that can be covered with a write-enable label2 to permit writing to the disk.
When writing to the disk, be sure the write-enable label is firmly in place over the write-protect notch. After data has been written to the disk, removing the label will prevent accidentally3 writing over valuable data and destroying it.
Notched and non-notched disks can be identified by looking at the part number4 on the storage box. The No. 1100 series do not have write-protect notches.
Be Sure to Observe the Following Important Rules ...
1.	Do not touch the magnetic disk surface. If the magnetic disk surface is touched, the resulting fingerprints can cause errors.
2.	Thinners, alcohol and substances containing freon must not be used on or near floppy disks.
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3.	Do not take disks nea'r motors, generators, transformers and other sources of magnetic fields. In addition, do not bring magnets or magnetized note clips or similar items near disks since valuable data may be erased.
4.	Be careful when writing on disk labels. Be sure to fill in the index label before putting it on the disk. When filling in labels after they have been stuck on the disk or when filling in permanent labels, use a soft, felt-tip marker. Do not write directly on the disk jacket. It can leave grooves and cause deformation.
Примечания
1.	write-protect notch — паз (щель, зазор), служащий для защиты записи
2.	write-enable label — метка, разрешающая запись
3.	accidentally — случайно
4.	part number — номер серии
CHAPTER FIVE
MIR OVER THE PLANET
Текст 1
Прочтите текст и озаглавьте его.
Starting in 1957 man broke the chains of earth’s gravity, advanced to scientific and commercial exploitation of space, and also took his first steps on the moon.
It was electronics that made possible this push into space age.1 Due to electronics there were launched communications satellites, weather satellites, scientific and navigation satellites.
Today there is a possibility of using space-research modules equipped with many modern electronic instruments. Electronic spectrometers make it possible not only to obtain the spectra of various formations in the atmosphere and on the Earth surface, but also to analyze them aboard the station. Whole complexes including image-processing and other high-capacity computers2 arc installed aboard space stations.
The type of a highly automated, computerized orbital research complex famished with an operator robot will come into use sometime in the future.
Примечания
1. It was electronics that made possible this push into space age. — Именно электроника сделала возможным этот рывок в космическую эру.
I - 1055	S7
2. image-processing and other high-capacity computers — компьютеры, обрабатывающие изображения, и другие компьютеры с большим объемом памяти
Текст 2
I. Прочтите вслух слова и словосочетания, запомните их произношение и значение:
space, outer space, exploration, space exploration, sphere, science, cosmonautics, launch, vehicle, scientific
II. Восполните недостающее слово в эквивалентных русских и английских словосочетаниях:
открытый космос наука и техника ... орбитальная лабо-
ратория
... космические корабли
межпланетные стан-
ции
... полет
выход в открытый космос
запуск космических кораблей
международный ... космический полет
—	... space
—	science and ...
—	long-term orbital laboratory
—	multi-seat space vehicles
-	... stations
-	first-ever flight
—	... into open space
—	... of space vehicles
-	international manned space flight
III. Просмотрите текст и выпишите ключевые слова, соответствующие основным этапам освоения космоса человеком.
OUTER SPACE: A ROAD WITHOUT END
Space exploration is one of the most exciting chapters in human history. It was opened by Yuri Gagarin, citizen of the USSR, who made the first-ever orbital flight on April 12, 1961.
Nearly 30 years have passed. No sphere of science and technology has developed as rapidly as cosmonautics. It has attained today much of that which seemed fantasy but a short time ago. Among these achievements have been man's exit into open space, the launching of multi-seat space vehicles and the approach and docking of these craft in space, the creation of long-term orbital scientific research laboratories, the development of space technology, and the execution of space expeditions lasting for many months. Researchers and explorers have attained access to the Moon. In
58
terplanetary stations have collected a wide range of information about Venus, Mars, and other planets in the solar system. The Soviet-US Soyuz-Apollo Test Project has initiated cooperation in international manned space flights.
IV. Расскажите, каковы основные этапы в освоении космоса, используя выписанные ключевые слова.
Текст 3
I.	Прочтите вслух следующие слова и определите их значения:
module, multimodule, laboratory, observatory, compartment, environment, manual, initial
II.	Дайте русские эквиваленты следующим словосочетаниям со словом control:
control centre, automatic and manual control, control instrument, environmental control post
III.	Прочтите текст и скажите, что включает в себя орбитальная станция «Мир». Используйте рис. 10.
Рис. 10. The Mir orbital research station. Base Unit
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MIR OVER THE PLANET
Mir, a multimodule orbital scientific station, has been added to the family of space laboratories. On February 20,1986 it was lifted into space by a Proton rocket that blasted off from the Baikonur cosmodrome. Unlike its predecessors1 the new station has six instead of two space docking points: four along the periphery and two on the opposite ends of the central axis. In principle this means that complexes of different configuration can be constructed in orbit — stretched out in a chain of, say, three elements: ship-station-ship. It is also possible to grow a cluster2 by adding specialized modules to the chain which will serve as astronomical observatories and production shops,3 environmental4 control posts or biological laboratories. Besides everything else, the cluster can be constantly renewed, replacing some modules if need be.
The main feature of the new station is that it amounts to a kind of control centre, living quarters5 and PT centre around which science will be grouped in specialized modules. The cosmonauts’ work will become more efficient if routine operations are automated. On the Mir craft provision has been made for both automatic and manual control of all dynamic operations. The information connected with the work of on-board systems is delivered to displays. All the main control instruments are concentrated in the so-called working compartment. All in all, the station has three airtight sections which, naturally, enhance6 overall work safety on board.
The biggest compartment has been designated a dining room, which can also be used as a gymnasium.7 In its centre is a dinner table with two electric hotplates and a multitude of intricate gadgets8 to stop foodstuffs moving. Alongside the table there is a belt running track9 and inside the table there is a panel to control it, to set the speed of the track.
The Mir probe10 was launched into space without a crew. At the initial stage a comprehensive11 check-up was carried out in an automatic flight and only then could cosmonauts be included in the operation in combination with modules.
The station’s name is symbolic. We are sure that the new station will become a major milestone12 in the peaceful exploration of space.
Примечания
1.	predecessor — предшественник
2.	cluster - группа
3.	production shop — производственный цех
4.	environmental — относящийся к окружающей среде
5.	living quarters — жилое помещение
6.	to enhance — усиливать, повышать
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7.	gymnasium — спортивный зал
8.	gadget - техническое устройство (новое)
9.	belt running track — беговая дорожка
10.	probe — автоматическая научно-исследовательская станция
11.	comprehensive — обширный, всесторонний
12.	milestone — веха
IV. Найдите в тексте предложения с формами страдательного залога и переведите их; где возможно, дайте варианты перевода.
V. Спросите товарища по группе, знает ли он(она) о том, что сообщается в приведенных ниже высказываниях.
Модель:
Mir is a multimodule orbital scientific station. - Do you know that Mir is a miltimodule scientific station?
1. Mir was lifted into space by a Proton rocket. 2. Mir is a space laboratory. 3. All dynamic operations are provided with automatic and manual control. 4. The information connected with the work of on-board systems is delivered to displays.
*VI. Правильно расчленив цепочку букв, вы прочтете высказывание — мечту К.Э. Циолковского о космических полетах:
Theearthisacradleofwisdombutwecannotalwaysliveinacradle.
Текст 4
I.	Прочтите вслух следующие собственные имена:
Galaxy, the Federal Republic of Germany, Great Britain, the Netherlands, the European Space Agency, Switzerland
И. Прочтите текст и передайте информацию, связанную с цифрами, приводимыми в тексте.
NEW STOREY FOR SPACE HOUSE
The first specialized space module Kvant took off the Baikonur launching site to catch up with the Mir station. What is the spaceship module like? The Proton carrier rocket delivered to the near-Earth orbit two coupled vehicles: the module proper and the functional auxiliary block (FAB), with a total weight over 20 tons.
* After docking to the Mir complex and checking the auxiliary systems of the module, the functional block withdraws, releasing the passive dock
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ing unit of the module. Thus, one vehicle has two docking units — active and passive. The active unit links up with the Mir. Manned spaceships and Progress-type cargo crafts can tether to the passive unit.*
The module is 5.8 m long and 4.15 m in diameter. It has a mass over 11 tons. In fact it is an additional station but somewhat smaller.
*The special-purpose module consists of a laboratory compartment with the transfer chamber and research equipment compartment. Inside the laboratory compartment there are the instrument and living sections divided only by interior panels. The module is fitted out1 with a digital computer and two more computers.*
The first module is actually a specialized scientific laboratory for conducting astrophysical research.
Four powerful X-ray telescopes will enable scientists to study celestial bodies situated not only in our Galaxy but also far beyond its boundaries.
Experts from the Soviet Union, the Federal Republic of Germany, Great Britain, the Netherlands, the European Space Agency and Switzerland participated in designing and making X-ray equipment.
Thus, the construction of the large orbital complex has started. It may be recalled the Mir has six docking units. In the future there will be an opportunity to link another four big modules, not counting the Soyuz and the Progress spaceships with the station.
An assembled space station will look like a gigantic rotating cross. Il will have an impressive size: 40 m long and 30 m wide. The mass of the complex will be over 100 tons.
Примечание
1. to fit out — снабжать
III. Переведите предложения, отмеченные значком *.
IV. Закончите предложения в соответствии с содержанием текста; используйте выражения “According to the text” (Согласно тексту), “As far as I know” (Насколько мне известно):
1. The special-purpose module consists of ... . 2. Inside the laboratory compartment there are ... . 3. The first module is actually ... . 4. Mir has ... . 5. The module is fitted out....
V. Переведите следующие атрибутивные словосочетания:
specialized space module, the Proton carrier rocket, passive docking unit, research equipment compartment, specialized scientific laboratory, assembled space station
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IT IS INTERESTING TO KNOW
Salyut 6 — the second-generation orbital station — has been in orbit for three and a half years, completing about 20,000 thousand revolutions round the Earth. During this time, 26 cosmonauts worked on its board, and 29 spaceships have docked with it. Twelve unmanned Progress ships have delivered over 20 tons of cargo and fuel to it.
The longest manned expeditions which have worked on its board lasted for 96,140,175 and 185 days.
Текст 5
I. Прочтите текст за 5 —6 минут и расскажите о результатах освоения космоса Советским Союзом и США; ответьте, в чем заключается принципиальная разница в подходе к исследованию космоса у этих двух стран; скажите, с какими странами СССР сотрудничает в области космических исследований.
COOPERATION IN SPACE
Soviet and US space exploration and research programmes have advanced1 along different lines from the very start. After the shock of Yuri Gagarin’s flight, Americans concentrated all their efforts on a manned flight to the Moon.
The Americans achieved the goal2 they set for themselves. Man’s setting foot on the surface of another celestial body was indeed an impressive achievement. Soviet scientists, on the other hand, maintained that many of the problems of cosmonautics could be solved at less cost and with less risk to human life with the help of automatic devices.
The many-month Salyut missions3 have enabled the USSR to gain a lead4 in such areas as the exploration of Earth and the World Ocean, the production of new materials with unusual properties, and space medicine.
A Soviet crew on Mir’s board has set a record of 326 days in manned orbital flight. It is no surprise that US specialists have been using effective Soviet methods for overcoming the negative effects of weightlessness on man.
The Soviet Union opposes the use of outer space for military purposes.
In space there is plenty of peaceful work for all from which everyone will benefit. The USSR has been demonstrating this in practice.
From 1976 cosmonauts from various socialist countries, as well as France, Syria and India performed flights in Soviet spaceships and orbital stations together with Soviet cosmonauts.
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The Soviet Union put in orbit with its launch vehicles several French satellites. Many French instruments were installed in Soviet automatic interplanetary vehicles and orbital stations. The Soviet Lunokhod (Moonrover) was equipped with French laser reflectors.
The Soviet Union has been cooperating successfully in space research with Sweden, Austria and West Germany.
Примечания
1.	to advance — развиваться, двигаться вперед
2.	goal — цель
3.	mission — (косм.) экспедиция
4.	to gain a lead— занять ведущее положение
II. Образуйте от приведенных ниже существительных прилагательные с помощью суффикса -less и переведите их.
Модель: mother + less = motherless— лишенный материнства home, voice, weight, need, job, space
*111. Решив ребус, вы прочтете название одной из стран, с которой сотрудничает СССР в области освоения космоса.
Рис. 11
Текст 6
Прочтите текст и назовите достижения советской космической технологии, упоминаемые в тексте.
SOME STEPS IN SPACE TECHNOLOGY
When the exploration of space was just begun, weightlessness was regarded1 as an entirely negative factor which interferred2 with work in orbit. In the 1970s specialists reconsidered,3 and wondered if they might not be able to make use of it. The absence of gravity4 produces astounding effects, inconceivable on Earth.5 For example, in weightlessness it is possible
to mix substances of various properties and different densities. It is even possible to mix metal with air. The result is a lightweight porous material which is as strong as metal. A drop of substance, suspended in air, can be given any shape with the use of an electromagnetic or acoustic field. In the absence of gravity it is possible to cultivate crystals of very high purity.
In 1967 Soviet scientists developed the VULKAN automatic welding machine for use in outer space. The machine consisted of an electron gun, a plasma burner and an arc welder. The electron gun used an accelerating voltage of 10 KeV and was not designed for manual operations.
In 1969 the Soviet cosmonauts G. Shonin and V. Kubasov tested VULKAN in different modes of metal cutting and welding during their mission on board Soyuz 6.
In 1970 Soviet scientists developed equipment for the deposition of coatings on metal surfaces in orbit.
The early success in that experimental work led to an electron beam device, which was called the multipurpose work tool. It was to replace the tools that could not be used manually. The idea was to develop a compact and absolutely safe tool for work in outer space.
It was designed and tested by cosmonauts Janibekov and Savitskaya in 1984 during their mission on board of Soyuz T-12.
Примечания
1.	to regard - признавать
2.	to interfere - мешать
3.	to reconsider — пересмотреть взгляды
4.	the absence of gravity— отсутствие тяготения
5.	astounding effects, inconceivable on Earth - изумительные результаты, недостижимые на Земле
Текст 7
Переведите устно без словаря.
COOPERATION IN SPACE FOR PEACE ON EARTH
Not long ago Moscow hosted an international forum under the motto ‘Cooperation in Space for Peace on Earth”. It brought to Moscow scientists front many countries, as well as cosmonauts and astronauts, philosophers, writers, artists and others.
They discussed present-day problems: the development of a satellite communication network, the application of spacecraft for monitoring
64
65
Earth’s climate and resolving1 global and regional ecological problems; also the feasibility2 of sending an international crew to Mars was discussed, among other things. It is expected that some samples from Mars will be obtained by the end of this century. Self-propelled vehicles “Marsokhods” are being developed now.
The forum gathered in this country which opened the Cosmic Era for humanity and brought new forms of international cooperation. The first Sputnik was launched in the Soviet Union within the framework of the International Geophysical Year. Now the idea has emerged of an International Space Year, to be tentatively3 in 1992 — the 500th anniversary of the New World discovery and the 75th anniversary of the October Revolution.
Примечания
1.	resolving - решение
2.	feasibility - возможность
3.	tentatively — по предварительному решению
Текст 8
I. Просмотрите текст за 5 минут и ответьте на вопросы: Где первоначально находился в СССР космодром? Что говорится в тексте о генерале Шубникове?
BAIKONUR - GATEWAY ТО THE PLANETS
The Soviet Baikonur Cosmodrome lies in the vast steppelands of Kazakhstan. From there the world’s first artificial satellite, the Sputnik, was launched on October 4,1957.
Before Baikonur, the first Soviet cosmodromes were built in Kapustin Yar and near the settlement of Plesetsk in the Arkhangelsk Region.
The decision to build a cosmodrome in Kazakhstan was made at the time the Soviet Union worked on1 a formidable2 carrier rocket and “Sputnik” was becoming a household word3 among technicians working on it under Sergei Korolyov.
*Today the cosmodrome is an area of several hundred square kilometres complete with technical facilities and pads4 for launching different space vehicles and probes, a complex of facilities with a computing centre to process the results of tests, stations of the command and instrumentation complex, auxiliary industrial facilities and structures, and roads.*
Baikonur also plays host5 to rocket testers and scientists and researchers who come to stay there for prolonged periods to prepare and carry out space launches.
66
The launch complex is central to the cosmodrome. It is equipped to transport carrier rockets and space probes, put them on the launch pad, carry out pre-launch testing, fuel booster rockets,6 aim and launch them.
General G.M. Shubnikov, a man who had picked up experience of construction projects in the first Soviet five-year development periods, was appointed head of the Baikonur cosmodrome project. Interestingly enough, G.M. Shubnikov also supervised the construction of the Soviet war memorial designed by sculptor E.V. Vuchetich in Berlin’s Treptow Park ...
Hundreds of space shots have been made from Baikonur over the years, including the first flights towards the Moon, Venus and Mars, and scores of satellites have been launched which have benefited7 science and the national economy.
Cosmodromes have close ties with the country’s leading research institutions, industrial enterprises and designers. The first rocket was launched in August 1933 from the first Soviet launch pad in Nakhabino near Moscow. The rocket was designed by M.K.. Tikhonravov, assisted by members of Moscow’s Group for the Study of Rocket Propulsion. There is today a memorial on the site of the launch.
Примечания
1.	to work on - продолжать работу над
2.	formidable — огромный
3.	household word — привычное слово
4.	technical facilities and pads — технические средства и площадки
5.	to play host — предоставлять большие возможности
6.	to fuel booster rockets — заправлять топливом стартовые двигатели
7.	which have benefited — которые принесли пользу
II. Трансформируйте предложения с формами пассивного залога в предложения с активными формами.
Модель:
The first rocket was launched by the Soviet scientists on August 1933. — The Soviet scientists launched the first rocket on August 1933.
1. The Soviet war memorial in Berlin’s Treptow Park was designed by sculptor E.V. Vuchetich. 2. The rocket was designed and tested by S. Korolyov. 3. M.K. Tikhonravov was assisted by members of Moscow’s Group for the Study of Rocket Propulsion. 4. Many satellites were launched by the Soviet scientists and engineers. 5. Laboratory was equipped with modern instruments by young engineers.
67
П1. Составьте план текста.
IV. Составьте словосочетания из слов левой и правой колонок и переведите их:
space artificial scientific powerful research technical
work station vehicle probe rocket institute structure
V. Дайте русские эквиваленты к следующим английским словам:
а)	1. to process; 2. development; 3. carrier rocket; 4. designer; 5. test; 6. probe; 7. to launch; 8. safety; 9. to prepare
6)	1. ракетоноситель; 2. зонд; 3. проверка; 4. запускать; 5. безопасность; 6. развитие; 7. готовить; 8. обрабатывать; 9. конструктор
DO YOU KNOW THAT...
The cosmonauts who will travel to Mars can count on being away from home1 to two or three years. Therefore a prime worry is the health of humans subjected to years in space. Weightlessness takes a gradual toll including atrophy2 of the heart and muscles. Crew members would probably have to wear elastic spacesuits3 forcing the muscles to work continuously.
Примечания
1.	can count on being away from home — могут рассчитывать на то, что будут находиться вне дома
2.	weightlessness takes a gradual toll including atrophy — невесомость постепенно приводит к потерям, включая атрофию (истощение)
3.	elastic spacesuits — упругие костюмы
Текст 9
I. Прочтите текст и выпишите ключевые слова и словосочетания, которые помогут вам ответить на вопрос, поставленный в заголовке текста.
68
WHY SPACE EXPLORATION?
A thousand threads1 connect the Earth with the processes in outer space. The Sun is a source of radiations which affect the Earth, as do many other extra-terrestrial factors.2 So without taking space processes into account an understanding of what seem to be strictly terrestrial phenomena, of their real causes and essence,3 is impossible.
Space is an enormous natural laboratory where we can observe and study new phenomena, discover new laws of nature and then apply that knowledge to practical problems back here on Earth.
Information about other similar bodies of common origin and appearance in the solar system can be used to study the laws governing4 the structure and evolution of the Earth. The study of the atmospheres of other planets gives us a profound insight into5 the Earth’s atmosphere and climate.
The first steps in using space vehicles to study the planets of the solar system have brought us as much information as had been accumulated over many previous decades.6 A case in point7 is the study of the atmosphere of Venus by Soviet automatic probes.
We have received a lot of experimental material from artificial earth satellites and automatic probes which provided the key to understanding many phenomena in the ionosphere and the Earth’s magnetic field, and to understanding other physical processes in both near-Earth and interplanetary space.
The inter-state exchange of meteorological information collected by satellites will help make long-term weather forecasting8 more accurate.
Space technology has considerably improved communications and television equipment. Merchant ships and civil planes9 widely use the navigational satellite systems. Exploring the Earth’s natural resources from artificial earth satellites and orbital stations is becoming extremely important. It is no longer a flight of fancy to talk about orbiting entire production laboratories.
Looking a little bit further into the future, we can’t rule out10 the possibility of people settling on the nearest celestial bodies. In the early stages mining11 and processing the minerals for space structures will be the main occupation.
Примечания
1.	a thousand threads - тысяча нитей
2.	extra-terrestrial factors — межпланетные факторы
3.	an understanding of what seem to be strictly terrestrial phenomena, of their real causes and essence — понимание того,
69
что кажется только земными явлениями, понимание их действительных причин и сущности
4.	the laws governing — законы, определяющие
5.	a profound insight into — глубинное проникновение в
6.	previous decades — предшествующие десятилетия
7.	a case in point — случай, о котором идет речь
8.	long-term weather forecasting — долгосрочный прогноз погоды
9.	merchant ships and civil planes — торговые корабли и гражданские самолеты
10.	we can't rule out — мы не можем исключить
11.	mining — горнодобыча
II.	Передайте основное содержание текста, используя выписанные ключевые слова.
III.	Заполните пропуски в соответствии с содержанием текста; предложения переведите:
1. The Sun is.of radiations. 2. Space is..where we can study
new phenomena. 3. We can discover new........ and then apply that
knowledge to practical problems. 4. We can understand many ... in the ionosphere and the Earth’s magnetic ... . 5. ... the Earth’s natural ... is becoming extremely important.
IV.	Найдите в тексте предложения с формами Perfect Tense и переведите их.
V.	Расположите пункты плана в соответствии с последовательностью изложения материала в тексте:
1.	Improvement of communications and television equipment.
2.	Exploration of the Earth’s natural resources from the artificial satellites.
3.	The Sun, the Earth and other extra-terrestrial factors.
4.	Space and study of the new phenomena
5.	Information about the Earth and other planets.
Текст 10
Прочтите текст и найдите информацию о сотрудничестве СССР с другими странами в области исследования космоса. Скажите, что означает слово breakthrough.
70
THIRTY YEARS OF BREAKTHROUGH IN OUTER SPACE
On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched the world’s first artificial satellite. This date marked the beginning of humanity’s space era.
The Soviet people realized one of humanity’s most daring1 ideas — the breakthrough into outer space. The foundation was laid for systematic space exploration, and the prospect of emerging into interplanetary space was opened for all mankind.
Space systems have ensured the receptions of centralized TV programming for 93% of the population in our country. The use of artificial satellites with powerful transmitters made it possible to simplify receiving installations, making them cheaper and accessible for use in small localities. The satellite telecasting network in the USSR has about 2,000 receiving installations.
Intersputnik, an international satellite communication organization, is being successfully developed on the basis of Soviet satellites. Today there are intersputnik stations in Afghanistan, Bulgaria, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, the GDR, Hungary, Mongolia, Poland, the USSR, Vietnam, Yemen, Laos, Syria and Algeria.
The number of countries with flights in space has been considerably increased thanks to the active assistance and initiatives of Soviet scientists. In the course of cooperation, national schools of cosmic science and engineering have grown up at the research centres of the socialist countries.
Space cooperation between the USSR and France has acquired a consistent, steady and productive character.
The Soviet Union is in favour of outer space remaining forever clean and free of all weapons, so that it will not become an arena for the arms race and a source of tension between states.
Примечание
1. daring - смелый, дерзкий
DO YOU KNOW THAT...
In 1988 two automatic interplanetary stations were launched from the USSR’s Baikonur launching site towards Mars. It was planned that they would become artificial satellites of Mars and approach its natural satellite, Phobos, in order to carry out its detailed studies. They were planned to take pictures of Phobos surface with a TV camera, do radio probing of its inner structure, and laser and ion-beam “bombardment” of the surface from a distance of about 50 metres to evaporate some of the surface substances and take it for analysis.
71
Текст 11
I. Прочтите текст и ответьте на следующие вопросы: Почему важно изучать кометы? Почему малые небесные тела изучать интереснее, чем большие?
VEGAS STEP INTO THE UNKNOWN
The Vega project is an outstanding success for Soviet and world science. Using modern electronic instruments the scientists have obtained a great amount of new data on the comet proper,1 its composition and its surroundings.
Comets have always been regarded as very important objects of research. The large bodies in the solar system have undergone, in the course of their development, considerable changes, but comets have changed very little since their origin.2 Therefore, the study of the comets and especially of their nuclei and their chemical and physical properties, can yield us data on the matter from which the solar system has originated. It is already clear that the data obtained will contribute tremendously to the understanding of the fundamental concepts on the evolution of the solar system.
The stations’ instruments have transmitted back to Earth a host of3 totally new information on the plasma which accompanies the comet. We live in the part of the Universe which is 99.9 per cent plasma. The interaction of the solar wind with the comet comprises, as it were,4 a natural laboratory, whose conditions cannot be recreated on Earth.
People usually think that the bigger a heavenly body is, the more interesting it is to study - but from the point of view of science it is quite the other way round.5 The smaller bodies have changed less since the origin of the solar system, than the big bodies did. Therefore, they contain information on the early period of the solar system’s development which we cannot obtain through any other method.
Примечания
1.	new data on the comet proper — новые сведения собственное комете
2.	origin - происхождение
3.	a host of — большое количество
4.	as it were - как если бы, как будто
5.	it is quite the other way round — как раз наоборот II.
II. Переведите и запомните следующие слова:
72
composition, surrounding, object, research, to undergo, property, nuclear, matter, solar, instrument, interaction, condition, origin, nuclei
III.	Восстановите недостающие степени сравнения:
Положительная	Сравнительная Превосходная
bigger small	—	—
—	less	—
—	—	the	most
-	better	-
bad	—	—
*IV. Найдите закодированные названия небесных тел, обратите внимание на то, что название может читаться сверху вниз, снизу вверх, слева направо и по диагонали. Границы слов, представленные ниже, помогут вам в поиске.
М..п, а.d, С....1, p....t, m.е, E...h, S.n
bedaprsunxwoc cemsrabdfguxz stxtyearthton meteoriteltst opnriplekpsey obdoenomxrnys nywidmrouapwz fgjdnrmc luxzw adfonpfpgeabc
Текст 12
I. Прочтите текст и а) передайте кратко его содержание по-русски; б) скажите, что нового сообщается в тексте о кремнии.
WHY ARE WE STUDYING LUNAR ROCK?1
The V.I. Vernadsky Institute of Geochemistry and Analytical Chemistry examined lunar rock brought to Earth by Soviet automatic stations from three points of the visible side of the Moon. There is particular interest in the material gathered by the Luna 24 station.
*The extremely small size of the rock, and the unique nature and value of the material, obliged2 researchers to apply mostly non-destructive means of examination, which gi\ e a maximum of information without consuming3 the studied substance. This means using such physical techniques as bom-
73
barding the substance with electrons or exposing* it to radiation in an atomic reactor, and the resulting X-rays or induced radioactivity make it possible to determine with great accuracy the content of different chemical elements in the rock. Fragments of lunar rock are also studied optically.*
You may ask if there is any similarity between lunar rock and that of our Earth.
The Luna 16 and Luna 24 stations brought from Selena’s marine5 areas basalt rock, which is widespread on the Earth but differs from it among other things in the absence of water, and has an extremely low content of potassium and sodium.
The latest discovery to be made by a group of scientists belonging to four Institutes of the USSR Academy of Sciences was recently entered in the State Register of Discoveries. They have proved that the tiniest particles of iron, titanium and silicon contained in the Moon’s surface layer do not oxidize in the Earth’s atmosphere. Many research centres where the corrosion resistance of metal articles is studied are extremely interested in this fact. This is one of the answers to the question: “Why are we studying lunar rock?”
Примечания
1.	rock — порода, грунт
2.	to oblige — заставлять
3.	without consuming — не расходуя
4.	to expose — подвергать
5.	marine — морской
II.	Дайте русские эквиваленты к следующим названиям:
the V.L Vernadsky Institute of Geochemistry and Analytical Chemistry, the USSR Academy of Sciences, the State Register of Discoveries
III.	Переведите следующие словосочетания:
Moon surface, Earth atmosphere, research centre, particular interest, corrosion resistance, early stage, planetary body, surface layer, low content
IV.	Дайте русские эквиваленты следующих названий веществ: potassium, sodium, basalt, iron, titanium, silicon
V.	Переведите слова, обращая внимание на суффикс -1у: physically, chemically, electronically, optically, destructively, similarly
VI.	Переведите предложения, отмеченные значком *.
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*VII. Решите ребус и найдите название планеты.

Рис. 12
Текст 13
I. Прочтите текст и скажите, какие практические народнохозяйственные задачи решаются с помощью космонавтики.
WHAT DO WE GET FROM COSMONAUTICS?
Cosmonautics was founded on a dream about flights to distant worlds. However, today it is primarily engaged in solving problems on Earth.1
Automatic satellites, manned spaceships and stations make it possible to explore any part of our planet. They have opened new opportunities2 for geodesy and cartography. In five minutes an orbital station can survey3 close to one million square kilometres of Earth’s surface. To carry out this job by aerial4 survey techniques would require two years.
Until recently, space and farming, for example, were incompatible. Today cosmonauts help compile5 maps for efficient use of land and estimate the per hectare crop yields.6 They also indicate pest-affected areas, appraise the salinity and moisture of soils.7
Close cooperation between orbital station crews and various ground services is a trend characteristic of recent years. For instance special geological field crews8 quickly checked the reports sent by the cosmonauts Anatoly Berezovoi and Valentin Lebedev. As a result, an oil- and gas-bearing region was discovered in Kazakhstan, and geological structures promising mineral deposits were located in East Siberia, Central Asia and the Ukraine.
Every year the Soviet Union launches several hundred space vehicles for a wide range of purposes. Most of them are artificial Earth satellites. Weather satellites help in determining weather forecasts and issue warnings about the formation and motions of hurricanes9 and cyclones.
Other satellites assist ships at sea to chart the optimal routes and find their exact bearings10 at any point of the World Ocean, regardless of weather conditions.
75
Примечания
1.	it is primarily engaged in solving problems on Earth - она связана, главным образом, с решением земных задач
2.	opportunity - возможность
3.	to survey - производить землемерную съемку
4.	aerial — воздушный
5.	to compile — составлять
6.	to estimate the per hectare crop yields - оценить урожаи зерновых с одного гектара
7.	They also indicate pest-affected areas, appraise the salinity and moisture of soils. - Они также определяют зоны, пораженные сельскохозяйственными вредителями, устанавливают соленость и увлажненность почв.
8.	crew - бригада
9.	hurricane — ураган
10.	exact bearings — точные координаты
II.	Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на формы пассивного залога:
1. Cosmonautics was founded on a dream about flights to distant worlds. 2. New opportunities have been opened by automatic satellites, manned spaceships and stations. 3. The maps for efficient use of land are compiled with the help of cosmonauts. 4. An oil- and gas-bearing region was discovered in Kazakhstan. 5. Many problems on Earth are solved with the help of cosmonautics.
III. Перечислите по-английски те области народного хозяйства, развитию которых помогает космонавтика.
IV. Переведите следующие предложения; докажите правильность вашего перевода на основе анализа структуры предложений:
1. The computer is used to solve problems. 2. The computer has solved the problem. 3. The problem was solved by the computer. 4. The computer solving the problem was very effective. 5. The problem being solved by the computer was very difficult. 6. In order to use the computer we must know its principles of operation. 7. Having solved these problems with the help of the computer we were able to solve still more difficult problems. '8. The problems to be solved by the computer are numerous.
ПРИЛОЖЕНИЕ
УЧИТЕСЬ ПЕРЕВОДИТЬ ТЕРМИНЫ
Для технической литературы по электронике характерны терминологические словосочетания, состоящие из «цепочки слов», например, metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect transistor.
Существуют определенные правила перевода таких терминов, основанные на установлении смысловых связей в «цепочке» слов. Перевод следует начинать с основного слова — существительного, стоящего последним в «цепочке», затем идти справа налево от основного слова, устанавливая путем вопросов смысловые отношения между словами.
Обратите внимание на наиболее употребительные структуры терминов в электронике и способы их перевода.
I.	Существительное + существительное:
a)	current	gain
чего? I
тока — коэффициент усиления
Отредактируем перевод в соответствии с нормами русского языка и получим правильный вариант термина: усиление по току, коэффициент усиления по току.
б)	metal 	deposition
чего? f металла ---------- осаждение
Перевод: осаждение (слоя) металла, металлизация, в) laser beam -► лазерный луч
77
II.	Прилагательное + существительное + существительное:
a)	low-energy	radio waves
какие? | малой мощ- --------- радиоволны
ности
Перевод: радиоволны малой мощности.
б)	high-temperature breakdown -► тепловой пробой
Ш. Существительное + прилагательное + существительное:
a)	accident-free operation какая? | свободная-*— работа f от чего?
от аварий Перевод: безаварийная работа.
б)	etch-resistant layer слой, стойкий к травителю
IV. Существительное + причастие + существительное:
a) computer-aided	design
какое? |
которому помогает — проектирование | что?
ЭВМ
Перевод: проектирование с помощью ЭВМ.
б) time-sharing system чего? f разделения система
| чего? времени
Перевод: система с разделением времени.
V.	Наречие + причастие (прилагательное) + существительное:
highly doped silicon—сильно легированный кремний
VI.	Существительное + and + существительное + существительное:
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a)	arithmetic and logic unit —►арифметическо-логическое устройство
6)	chip-and-wire transistor —► транзистор с проволочным монтажом
VII. В литературе по вашей специальности вы встретите большое количество терминологических словосочетаний с предлогом. И в этом случае перевод начинается с опорного слова:
а)	главное слово стоит до предлога, а слова, следующие за предлогом — определения:
the fabrication of integrated circuits—► изготовление (производство) интегральных схем
б)	группа с предлогами может стоять перед основным словом: mask-to-wafer alignment -^-совмещение фотошаблона с пластиной
chip-to-header bond—*-соединение кристалла с основанием корпуса
dual-in-line package-»- плоский корпус с двухрядным расположением выводов
line-by-line scan-► построчное сканирование
copper plated-through-hole printed circuit печатная плата с металлизированными медью отверстиями
VOCABULARY
A
access n, v доступ (к памяти ЭВМ); обращаться к памяти ЭВМ
accumulator п сумматор накапливающего типа
advance п прогресс
amount п количество
analog а аналоговый
artificial а искусственный
available а доступный, имеющийся в распоряжении
axis п ось
В
base п база (в полупроводнике)
beam п пучок; луч; chopped b. прерывистый луч; pulsed b. пульсирующий пучок
bias n, v смещение; смещать binary а двоичный buffer п буфер
bulk п, а объем; объемный
burning п отжиг
С
capable of: be с. of быть в состоянии, мочь
capacitor п конденсатор
capacity п емкость (памяти); current-carrying с. допустимая сила тока
carrier п носитель (заряда); majority с. основной носитель; minority с. неосновной носитель
celestial а звездный, небесный
ceramics п керамика
character п знак, символ;
цифра
charge п заряд; space с. пространственный заряд
chip п кристалл, чип circuit п цепь, схема circuitry схемы coherent а когерентный coil п катушка, спираль commercial а промышленный common а обычный; общий;
распространенный
compartment п отсек (космического корабля)
composition п (хим.) состав computer п компьютер, ЭВМ;
general-purpose с. ЭВМ общего назначения, универсальная ЭВМ; specialpurpose с. специализированная ЭВМ; mainframe с. большая ЭВМ
conventional а традиционный, обычный
core п сердечник count v считать
create v создавать
D
data n pl данные, информация
density п плотность depletion n обеднение
deposit v осаждать, наносить, напылять
design n, v проект; конструирование; проектировать, конструировать
develop v развивать(ся); разрабатывать
80
development n разработка (программы)
device n прибор, устройство
digit n цифра
dimension n измерение;
размер; размерность discrete а дискретный
display n дисплей, визуальное устройство	вос-
произведения
distortion п искажение
docking n стыковка
dope v легировать, вносить примесь
drain п сток
drill n сверло
drive n, v привод, передача; лентопротяжное устройство; запуск; двигать, приводить в действие; запускать
driver п задающее устройство; усилитель записи
Е
edit v редактировать
emit v испускать, выделять
emitter п эмиттер
engine п двигатель
equip v оборудовать
erase v стирать (память)
error п ошибка
etch v травить, вытравливать excite v возбуждать
F
failure п отказ; нарушение fan п вентилятор
fidelity п точность (воспроизведения)
fill in v заполнять; записывать
film п, а пленка; пленочный
flash tube импульсная лампа, лампа-вспышка
flip-flop п триггер;
мультивибратор
fuse v сплавлять
G
gain n усиление; коэффициент усиления
gate п затвор; схема пропусканий
generation п генерация; поколение (ЭВМ)
Н
hardware п аппаратное обеспечение
I
identify v распознавать, опознавать
impurity п примесь
inject v инжектировать
inherent а собственный, присущий; внутренний
instrument п прибор
input n, V вход, ввод, устройство ввода (данных); вводить
interaction п взаимодействие
interconnection п внутреннее соединение, межсоединение
internal а внутренний
instruction п команда
81
J
jamming n (радиофиз.) помехи
junction n переход (в транзисторе)
L
lap v совмещать
lattice n решетка (кристаллическая)
law n закон
launch v запускать (ракету)
layer n слой; depletion 1. обедненный слой
lead n вывод, ввод; провод
leakage n утечка
leg n фаза (трехфазной системы)
letter n буква
level n уровень
link n: fusible 1. с пережигаемой связью (о памяти ЭВМ)
listing п составление и печать списков; распечатка (программы)
load v нагружать; загружать (память)
location п ячейка памяти
М
machine v изготовлять, обрабатывать на станке
machinery п машинное оборудование, механизмы
manual а ручной
map v распределять
medium п среднее число; среда, носитель; средство, способ
memory n: bubble m. пузырьковая память; ЗУ на ЦМД
mica п слюда
minute а маленький, мельчайший
mode п режим (работы)
monitor n, v монитор, контрольно-предупредительное устройство; управлять, контролировать
mount v монтировать, устанавливать
О
on-board а бортовой
open п разрыв (цепи)
operate v работать; действовать; управлять
original а исходный, первоначальный
output п выход, вывод;
выходное устройство; устройство вывода (данных)
Р
package п стандартный блок, скомпонованный блок; модуль; корпус
pattern п шаблон, схема
perform v выполнять, осуществлять
peripherals n pl периферийное (внешнее) оборудование; внешнее устройство
phenomenon п явление
plotter п графопостроитель
porous а пористый
prevent v предотвращать
print v печатать
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printer n печатающее устройство; line p. построчно-пе-чатающее устройство
process v обрабатывать информацию
provide v обеспечивать; снабжать
punched а перфорированный
pure а чистый, беспримесный
Q
quantum п, а квант; квантовый quarter n: living qq. жилое помещение
R
rate п скорость
ratio п отношение
read v считывать; г. in передавать (в запоминающее устройство); г. off (out) считывать
reader п считывающее устройство
reading п показание на шкале измерительного прибора
register п регистр
reliability п надежность
reliable а надежный
remote а удаленный; находящийся на расстоянии
remove v удалять
result v: г. in приводить к че-му-л.; г. from происходить в результате чего-л.
retrieve v отыскивать (информацию)
reverse а противоположный, обратный
routine п стандартная программа
ruby п, а рубин; рубиновый
S
sample п образец
sandwich v помещать между
satellite п спутник
scattering п рассеяние
screen п экран (воспроизводящего устройства)
seal п изолирующий слой; запайка
set п набор, комплект
shielding п экранирование; защита
short п короткое замыкание
site п местоположение; сторона (кристалла)
slice п слой
soften v размягчать(ся); мягчиться (об электроне)
software п программное (математическое) обеспечение
soldering п пайка
solid п, а твердое тело; твердый
source п исток, источник
specifications n pl техничес-
кие характеристики, условия
spin v вращаться, крутиться
stage п каскад; ячейка
stimulate v возбуждать
storage п запоминающее устройство; память
store V запоминать, хранить (информацию)
strain п натяжение, деформация
substrate п подложка
surrounding п окружение
suspend v висеть, подвеши-
вать
switch n, v переключатель; переключать
83
т
take v: t. into account принимать во внимание
target n цель
technician n специалист
tempering n отпуск (стали);
закалка
terminal n терминал, оконечное устройство
track п дорожка; канал transducer п преобразователь transistor n: field effect t.
полевой транзистор
transition n переход
trimming n подстройка
tool n инструмент, орудие;
средство; machine t. металлообрабатывающий станок train n ряд, серия; группа;
wave t. цуг волн tube п (вакуумная) лампа
U
undergo v претерпевать unipolar а однополярный unit п блок (в ЭВМ)
V
valve п (вакуумная) лампа vapour п пар; испарение versatile а универсальный, разносторонний
volatile а не сохраняющий информацию при выключении электропитания
W
wafer п подложка; плата warning п предупреждение wastage п износ, потери waste п потери, отходы wave-guide п волновод weld v сваривать
workpiece п заготовка; обрабатываемая деталь
X
xenon п ксенон
Y
yield n, v выход годных изделий (в микроэлектронике); эффективность; давать
СПИСОК СОКРАЩЕНИЙ, ВСТРЕЧАЮЩИХСЯ В ТЕКСТАХ
ALU (arithmetical and logical unit) — арифметическое устройство и устройство управления
CMEA (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance) — СЭВ
CRT (cathode-ray tube) — электронно-лучевая трубка
db-децибел, дБ
EPROM (erasable ROM) — стираемая постоянная память
FAB (functional auxiliary block) — вспомогательный функциональный блок
FET (field effect transistor) — полевой транзистор
IC (integrated circuit) — интегральная схема
J (joule) — джоуль
kC (kilocycle) — килогерц, кгц
MC (microcircuit) — микросхема, ИС
MOSFET (metal-oxide semiconductor field effect transistor) - полевой МОП транзистор
mu (micro-) — микро-
PROM (programmable ROM) — программируемая постоянная память
PT (Physical Training) — физическая подготовка
RAM (random access memory) — оперативная память
rf (radio-frequency) - ВЧ
ROM (read only memory) - постоянная память, ПЗУ
TV (television) — ТВ
VLSI (very large scale integration) — СБИС
КЛЮЧИ К УПРАЖНЕНИЯМ
У пр. V, с. 30.
По вертикали: 1. Depletion. 3. Transistor. 4. Bias. 7. Negative.
По горизонтали: 1. Drain. 2. Lattice. 5. Transmit. 6. Junction. 8. Gate.
Упр. II,нс. 32.
All ohmmeters put their positive lead at positive potential.
Упр. Ill, c. 32.
1. Characteristics. 2. Short. 3. Testing. 4. Gain.
Упр. IV, c. 38.
silicon, indium, lead, gallium, arsenide, germanium, ceramics, silver
Упр. V, c. 44.
По вертикали: 1. Hardware. 3. Retrieve. 5. Printer. 6. Storage
По горизонтали: 2. Routine. 4. Software. 5. Peripherals. 7. Listing. 8. Terminal.
Упр. IV, c. 61.
The earth is a cradle of wisdom but we cannot always live in a cradle.
Упр. Ill, c. 64.
Austria
Упр. IV, c. 73.
Moon, asteroid, comet, planet, meteorite, Earth, Sun
Упр. VII, c. 74.
Pluto
СОДЕРЖАНИЕ
Предисловие 3
Chapter One	. From Radio to Electronics 5
Chapter Two	. Lasers 17
Chapter Thr	ee. Transistor Revolution 25
Chapter Fou	r. Here Comes the Computer 40
Chapter Fiv	e. Mir over the Planet 57
Приложение
Учитесь переводить термины 77
Англо-русский словарь базовых терминов 80
Список сокращений, встречающихся в текстах 85
Ключи к упражнениям 86