Selected Problems and Theorems
of Elementary Mathematics
D.O. Shklarsky, N.N. Chentzov,
and I.M.Yaglom
This book contains 320 unconventional problems in algebra, arithmetic, elementary
number theory and trigonometry. Most of the problems first appeared in
competitive examinations sponsored by the School Mathematical Society of the
Moscow State University and in the Mathematical Olympiads hold in Moscow.
Although most of the problems presuppose only high school mathematics, they are
not easy; some are of uncommon difficulty and will challenge the ingenuity of any
research mathematician. Nevertheless, many are well within tlu^ reach of motivated
high school students and even advanced seventh and eighth graders,
The problems are grouped into twelve separate .s(^('tii)n.s. Among these are: the
divisibility of integers, equations having integer solutions, evaluating sums and
products, miscellaneous algebraic problems, the algebra nl polynonuals, <oiii|)lex
numbers, problems of number theory, distinctive iii<'<|Malili(s, iliflcrenec sei |ueiiees
and sums, and more.
Complete solutions to all problems are given; in many casivs, allei iiali' solutions ari'
detailed from different points of view. Solutions to uioic advanrcil piobleins arc
given in considerable detail. Moreover, when advanced (onrepls aie employed,
they are discussed in the section preceding the problems. 1 'si'lnlina vaiielv ol ways
in high school and collegecurrienhnns, this elialleiiging volume will be ol pailienlar
interest to teachers dealing with gillrd ;uid a(lvan<'e(l ilassis
Unabridged Dover (1993) repMbhcalion ol llie e
W. H. Freeman and Company, San Kianeisio, I In
edition. Preface to the 2nd Mtussian) edilion lOilm
illustrations, xvi + '1.52pp. ...n » ■■ i. I'apiilionnd
lition oiiginallv pnbli.slw'd by
I'oirwoid (o tlieMid (Itns.sian)
i' loiewoid. Author's note. 27
.M.SI),\\'AII.A1I1.I':
Challencinc MArni'.MAiu ai I'nimiiMs wiui laiNUNiAKV ^ ii.imoNS, A, M.
Yaglomandl.M.Yagloni Inlalol ll.'.pp . '^' \ol I: (ro;i(i-9 Pa, $7,a5; Vol.
II: 65.537-7 l':i. $ii.!r)
100 GnKAr 1'iioni.i.Ms oi
,5?i><H,'i. (ii:t-|.S,Sl':i :
I'l I Ml 11.Mil M.MinMAiHs. lleinrieh Diirrie. 39.3pp.
Kree Diivi'i (lonipli'li' Mallii iii.iIh '. .mil .Sin mi' I Catalog availahU^ upon request.
ISBN D-Mflb-S77m-7
♦ il-'I'i INIINA
9 780486 277097
90000

THE USSR
OLYMPIAD
PROBLEM
BOOK
Selected Problems
and Theorems of
Elementary
Mathematics
D.O. Shklarsky. N.N.Chentzov
and l.M.Yaslom

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(continued on back flap)

THE USSR OLYMPIAD
PROBLEM BOOK
Selected Problems and Theorems
of Elementary Mathematics
D. O. SHKLARSKY
N. N. CHENTZOV
L M. YAGLOM
REVISED AND EDITED BY
Irving Sussman,
University of Santa Clara
TRANSLATED BY
John Maykovich,
University of Santa Clara
DOVER PUBLICATIONS, INC.
New York

Published in Canada by General Publishing Company, Ltd., 30 Lesmill Road,
Don Mills, Toronto, Ontario.
Published in the United Kingdom by Constable and Company, Ltd., 3 The
Lanchesters, 162-164 Fulham Palace Road, London W6 9ER.
Bibliographical Note
This Dover edition, first published in 1993, is an unabridged and unaltered
republication of the work first published by W.H. Freeman and Company, San
Francisco, in 1962.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Shkliarskil, D. O, (David Oskarovich), 1918-1942.
[Izbrannye zadachi i teoremy elementamol matematiki, ch 1. English]
The USSR Olympiad problem book : selected problems and theorems of
elementary mathematics / D.O. Shklarsky, N.N. Chentzov, LM. Yaglom ;
translated by John Maykovich.—3rd ed / rev. and edited by Irving Sussman.
p. cm.
ISBN 0-486-27709-7
1. Mathematics—Problems, exercises, etc. I. Chentsov, N. N, (Nikolai
Nikolaevich) 11. lAglom, I. M. (Isaak Moiseevich), 1921-. III. Sussman,
Irving. IV. Title.
QA43.S5813 1994
510'.76—dc20 93-11553
CIP
Manufactured in the United States of America
Dover Publications, Inc., 31 East 2nd Street, Mineola, N.Y. 11501

FOREWORD TO THE
THIRD (Russian) EDITION
This book contains 320 unconventional problems in algebra,
arithmetic, elementary number theory, and trigonometry. Most of these
problems first appeared in competitive examinations sponsored by the
School Mathematical Society of the Moscow State University and in
the Mathematical Olympiads held in Moscow. The book is designed
for students having a mathematical background at the high school
level;^ very many of the problems are within reach of seventh and
eighth grade students of outstanding ability. Solutions are given
for all the problems. The solutions for the more difficult problems
are especially detailed.
The third (Russian) edition differs from the second chiefly in the
elimination of errors detected in the second edition. Therefore, the
preface to the second edition is retained.
T The level of academic attainment referred to as "high school level" is the
American ninth to twelfth grades. The USSR equivalent is seventh to tenth
grades. This means that this material is introduced about two years earlier
in the Russian schools. Since Russian children begin their first grade studies
about a year later than do American children, the actual age disparity is not
as much as two years [Editor].

PREFACE TO THE
SECOND (Russian) EDITION
The present volume, which constitutes the first part of a collection,
contains 320 problems involving principally algebra and arithmetic,
although several of the problems are of a type meant only to encourage
the development of logical thought (see, for example, problems 1-8).
The problems are grouped into twelve separate sections. The last
four sections (Complex Numbers, Some Problems from Number Theory,
Inequalities, Numerical Sequences and Series) contain important
theoretical material, and they may well serve as study topics for school
mathematical societies or for the Society on Elementary Mathematics
at the pedagogical institutes. In this respect the supplementary
references given in various sections will also prove useful. All the other
sections [especially Alterations of Digits in Integers and Solutions
of Equations in Integers (Diophantine equations)] should yield material
profitable for use in mathematics clubs and societies.
Of the twelve sections, only four (Miscellaneous Problems in Algebra,
Polynomial Algebra, Complex Numbers, Inequalities) concern algebra;
the remaining sections deal with arithmetic and number theory. A
special effort has been made to play down problems (particularly those
in algebra) involving detailed manipulative matter. This was done
to avoid duplicating material in the excellent Problem Book in Algebra,
vli

viii Olympiad Problems
by V. A. Kretchmar (Government Technical Publishing House, Moscow
1950). On the other hand, an effort has been made to render much
of the book attainable to eighth grade, and even seventh grade,
students.
More than three years have passed since the appearance of the first
edition of this book. During this period the original authors received
a great many written and oral communications with respect to it,
and these have been seriously considered in the reworking of the
material and in deciding which features were worth retaining and
emphasizing and which aspects were weak. As a result, the book
has undergone considerable revision. About sixty problems that were
in the first edition have been omitted—some appeared to be too
difficult, or were insufficiently interesting, and others did not fit into
the new structure of the book. Approximately 120 new problems have
been added. The placing of each problem into a suitable section
has been restudied; the sections have been repositioned; all the
solutions have been reworked (several were replaced by simplified or
better solutions); and alternative solutions have been provided for
some of the problems. Hints have been given for every problem,
and those problems which to the authors appear of greater difficulty
have been starred(*). Sections 3, 5, 6, 9, and 10 have undergone such
significant changes that they may be considered as having been
completely rewritten. Sections 1, 2, 4, 7, and 11 have been revised
radically, and only Sections 8 and 12 have had relatively minor alterations.
The first edition of the book was prepared by I. M. Yaglom in
collaboration with G. M. Adelson-Vel'sky (who contributed the section
on alteration of digits in integers and also a number of problems to
other sections, particularly to the section on Diophantine equations).
An important contribution was made to the first edition by E. E.
Balash (who contributed the section on numerical sequences and series)
and Y. I. Khorgin (who made the principal contribution to the section
on inequalities). Solutions for other problems were written by various
directors of the School Mathematical Society of the Moscow State
University. About 20 problems were taken from manuscripts of the
late D. O. Shklarsky.
The rewriting of the book for the second edition was done by I.
M. Yaglom, who made extensive use of the material of the first
edition.
In conclusion, the author wishes to thank A. M. Yaglom, whose
advice was of invaluable assistance while the book was being written
and who initiated the rewriting of the section on complex numbers.

Preface to the Second Edition ix
The author is also indebted to the editor, A. Z. Rivkin, whose
indefatigable labors on the first and second editions made jxissible many
improvements, and to all the readers who made valuable suggestions,
especially I. V. Volkova, L. I. Golovina, R. S. Guter, G. Lozanovsky,
I. A. Laurya, Y. B. Rutitsky, A. S. Sokolin, and I. Y. Tanatar.
I. M. Yaglom

EDITOR'S FOREWORD TO THE
ENGLISH EDITION
One of the imjxirtant facets of science education in the USSR has
been their series of mathematical competitive examinations held for
students of high ability in the secondary schools. Those contests,
which are being emulated increasingly in our own educational system,
culminate each year in the Soviet Union in their Mathematical
Olympiads held at Moscow University, preliminary qualifying and
elimination examinations having been held nationwide throughout the
academic year.
This book, compiled over a twenty-year period, is a collection of
the most interesting and instructive problems posed at these
competitions and in other examination centers of the USSR, plus additional
problems and material developed for use by the School Mathematics
Study Societies. Perhaps the greatest compliment which can be paid
to the problems created for this purpose by leading Soviet
mathematicians (or taken and adapted from the literature) has been the extent
to which the problems have been used in our own contests and
examinations.
Soviet students and teachers have had available in published form
the problems, and their solutions, given in such examinations, but
this material has not generally been available in the United States.

xii Olympiad Problem
A few of these problems have been translated and published in such
American journals as The American Mathematical Monthly of The
Mathematical Association of America, and problems of similar scope
appear as regular features of Several American journals. Except for
some compilations from these sources, little exists by way of problems
which deal with real and active mathematics instead of the fringe
and recreational aspects of the science or with conventional textbook
exercises.
This translation and revision of the Third Revised and Augmented
Edition of the Olympiad Problem Book should therefore fill a very
definite need in American schools and colleges. It contains 320
problems—a few of them merely recreational and thought-provoking,
but most of them seriously engaged with solid and important
mathematical theory, albeit the preparational background is assumed
to be elementary. The problems are from algebra, arithmetic,
trigonometry, and number theory, and all of them emphasize the
creative aspects of these subjects, The material coordinates
beautifully with the new concepts which are being emphasized in American
schools, since the "unconventional" designation attributed to the
problems by the original authors means that they stress originality
of thought rather than mere manipulative ability and introduce the
necessity for finding new methods of attack.
In this respect I am reminded of the observation made by some
forgotten character in some forgotten novel who opined that the
ultimate test of an educative effort lay not nearly so much in what
sort of questions the students could finally answer as in what sort
of questions they could finally be asked!
Complete solutions to all problems are given; in many cases,
alternate solutions are detailed from different points of view.
Although most of the problems presuppose only high school
mathematics, they are not in any sense easy: some are of uncommon
difficulty and will challenge the ingenuity of any research
mathematician. On the other hand, many of the problems will yield readily
to a normally bright high school student willing to use his head.
Where more advanced concepts are employed, the concepts are
discussed in the section preceding the problems, which gives the volume
the aspect of a textbook as well as a problem book. The solutions
to more advanced problems are given in considerable detail.
Hence this book can be put to use in a variety of ways for students
of ability in high schools and colleges. In particular, it lends itself
exceptionally well to use in the various Institutes for high school

Editor's Foreword to the English Edition xiii
mathematics teachers. It is certainly required reading for teachers
dealing with the gifted student and advanced placement classes. It
will furnish them with an invaluable fund for supplementary teaching
material, for self-study, and for acquiring depth in elementary
mathematics.
Except for the elimination of the few misprints and errors found
in the original, and some recasting of a few proofs which did not
appear to jell when translated literally, the translation is a faithful
one: it was felt that the volume would lose something by too much
tampering. (For this reason the original foreword and preface have
also been retained). Thus the temptation to radically alter or simplify
any understandable solution was resisted (as, for example, in the
sections on number theory and inequalities, where congruence
arithmetic would certainly have supplied some neater and more direct
proofs). Some notations which differ in minor respects from the
standard American notations have been retained (as, for example,
Cn instead of CI). These will cause no difficulty.
All references made in the text to books not available in English
translation have been retained; no one can know when translations
of some of those volumes will appear. Whenever an English
translation was known to exist, the translated edition is referred to.
The translation was made from the Third (Russian) Edition of
Selected Problems and Theorems of Elementary Mathematics, which
is the title under which the original volume appeared in the Soviet
Union. Mr. John Maykovich, instructor at the University of Santa
Clara, was the translator, and he was assisted by Mrs. Alvin (Myra)
White, who translated fifty pages. The writing out, revising, editing,
annotating, and checking against the original Russian were by my
own hand.
Thanks are due the following persons for their assistance in reading
jxirtions of the translation, pointing out errors, and making valuable
suggestions: Professor George Polya of Stanford University,t Professor
Abraham Hillman of the University of Santa Clara, and Professor
Robert Rosenbaum of Wesleyan University.
I shall be very grateful to readers who are kind enough to jxiint
out errors, misprints, misleading statements of problems, and
incorrect or obscure proofs found in this edition.
January 1962 Irving Sussman
T I would also like to call attention to Professor Polya's new book
Mathematical Discovery (Wiley) which contains elementary problems and valuable
textual discussion of approaches to, and techniques of, problem solving.

CONTENTS
Foreword to the Third (Russian) Edition v
Preface to the Second (Russian) Edition vii
Editor's Foreword to the English Edition xi
From the Authors 1
Suggestions for Using this Book 3
Numerical Reference to the Problems Given in the Moscow
Mathematical Olympiads 5
1. Introductory Problems (1-14) 6
2. Alterations of Digits in Integers (15-26) 11
3. The Divisibility of Integers (27-71) 13
4. Some Problems from Arithmetic (72-109) 20
5. Equations Having Integer Solutions (110-130) 27
6. Evaluating Sums and Products (131-159) 30
7. Miscellaneous Problems from Algebra (160-195) 38
8. The Algebra of Polynomials (196-221) 45
9. Complex Numbers (222-239) 50

xvi Olympiad Problems
10. Some Problems of Number Theory (240-254) 56
11. Some Distinctive Inequalities (255-308) 61
12. Difference Sequences and Sums (309-320) 74
Solutions 80
Answers and Hints 423

FROM THE AUTHORS
The three volumes that make up the present collection of problems
are the commencement of a series of books based on material
gathered by the School Mathematics Society of the Moscow State
University over a twenty-year period. The text consists of problems
and theorems, most of which have been presented during meetings
of the various sections of the School Mathematical Society of the
M.S.U. as well as in the Mathematical Olympiads held in Moscow.
(The numbers of the problems given in the Olympiads are listed on
p. 5).
These volumes are directed to students, teachers, and directors of
school mathematical societies and societies on elementary mathematics
of the pedagogical institutes. The first volume (Part I) contains
problems in arithmetic, algebra, and number theory. The second
volume is devoted to problems in plane geometry, and the third to
problems in solid geometry.
In contrast to the majority of problem books intended for high
school students, these books are designed not only to reinforce the
student's formal knowledge, but also to acquaint him with methods
and ideas new to him and to develop his predilection for, and ability
in, original thinking. Here, there are few problems whose solutions
1

2 From the Authors
require mere formal mastery of school mathematics. Also, there are
few problems intended for the superficially "clever" or adroit student
—that is, problems involving artificial methods for solving equations
or systems of equations of higher degree. On the other hand, these
books do contain many problems demanding originality and non-
standardized formulations.
In the selection of problems, emphasis has been given to those
aspects of elementary mathematics which are pertinent to contemjx)-
rary mathematical developments and new directions. Several groups
of problems are worked out in detail in the section on answers and
hints, especially when individual problems involve more mature
mathematics (for instance, elementary number theory and
inequalities). Some of the problems have been taken from classics of the
mathematical literature and from articles published in recent
mathematical journals.
In view of the unconventional nature of the problems, they may
prove difficult for students accustomed to conventional high school
exercises. Nevertheless, the School Mathematical Society of the
M.S.U. and the directors of the Moscow Mathematical Olympiads
believe that such problems are not beyond the persevering student.
It is recommended that the suggestions for using this book be read
before the problems are undertaken.
Parts I and II of this work were compiled by I. M. Yaglom, and Part
III was done principally by N. N. Chentzov. In addition to the listed
authors, many directors of the School Mathematical Society of the
M.S.U. contributed; their names are listed in the Preface to each
volume. Some forty problems were taken from the manuscripts of
D. O. Shklarsky, who worked with the School Mathematical Society
from 1936 to 1941, and who was killed in action on the military front
in 1942. In view of the very great influence which D. O. Shklarsky
exerted through his work with the Society, and in particular ujxin
the contents of this volume, it is appropriate to place his name first
in authorship of it.
The authors will be grateful to readers who send them new, and
jxjssibly better, solutions to the problems or new problems suitable
for inclusion in such a book as this.

SUGGESTIONS FOR USING THIS BOOK
This book contains (1) statements of problems, (2) solutions, (3)
answers and hints for solving the problems. For more effective use
of the book, the answers and hints appear at the end.
The starred problems are more difficult, in the opinion of the
authors, than the others; the few double-starred problems are the
most difficult. (Naturally, there will be differences of opinion as to
which problems are more difficult than others.)
For most of the problems the authors recommend that the reader first
attempt a solution without recourse to the hints. If this attempt is
unsuccesful, the hint can be referred to, which should aid in arriving
at a solution. If, then, the reader cannot solve a problem, he can (of
course) read the solution; but if he appears to be successful in
finding a solution, he should compare his answer with that given in the
answers and hints section. If his answer disagrees with that given,
he should try to determine his possible mistake and correct it. If
the answers agree, he should compare his solution with that given
in the solutions section. If several solutions are given in the answers
section, the reader will profit by comparing the various solutions.
These suggestions are perhaps not as pertinent to the starred
problems as they are to the others. For the starred problems it might
3

4 Suggestions for Using this Book
prove advisable for the reader to read the hint before attempting the
problem. For the double-starred problems it is recommended that
the hints be consulted first. These problems may profitably be
considered as theoretical developments and their solutions read as textual
material. Also, each of the double-starred problems might be
considered as a topic for a special rejxirt, or paper, to be given before
a mathematics club. Before attempting one of the more difficult
problems, the reader should solve and analyze the simpler neighboring
problems.
Some solutions involve techniques not ordinarily found in the high
school curriculum. With each such problem this information is given
in small type.
The problems are, in general, independent of each other; only
rarely does the solution of one problem involve the results of another.
Some exception is made in the final four sections, where the
problems are more closely allied.

NUMERICAL REFERENCE TO THE
PROBLEMS GIVEN IN THE
MOSCOW MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIADS
The olympiad mathematical competition for seventh to tenth grade
students consists of two examinations. The first (Type I question)
is for elimination purposes; the second (Type II question) is for the
finalists.
Olympiads
VI (1940)
VII (1941)
VIII (1945)
IX (1946)
X (1947)
XI (1948)
XII (1949)
XIII (1950)
XIV (1951)
XV (1952)
I (1935)
II (1936)
V (1939)
VI (1940)
VII (1941)
VIII (1945)
IX (1946)
X (1947)
XI (1948)
XII (1949)
XIII (1950)
XIV (1951)
XV (1952)
Type I
For 7th-8th Grade Studen
48
75
64(a), 110(b), 152(a)
76, 198
71(a), 201(a)
122
39
—
7(b)'
8, 542
For 9th 10th Grade Studei
—
—
168
80, 113
75, 172, 177(a), 214
33, 64(b), 173
28, 131, 192(a)
71(b), 197, 200
190(a)
169
82, 171
7(b)
193»
Type II
ts
110(a)
68, 208
78(b), 83
30, 125
5, 91(a), 140
—
9, 11, 92(b), 117(a)
141(a)
203
75
its
134(d), 176
56
43, 165, 217
81, 144, 269(b)
209
195
95, 126
10, 91(c)
124(a)
9, 11, 88, 117(b)
90(b)
98
194»
' For sixty teams.
^ Problems given to eighth to ninth grade students.
' Problems given only to tenth grade students.

1
INTRODUCTORY PROBLEMS
1. Every living person has shaken hands with a certain number
of other persons. Prove that a count of the number of people who
have shaken hands an odd number of times must yield an even
number.
2. In chess, is it jxissible for the knight to go (by allowable moves)
from the lower left-hand corner of the board to the upper right-hand
corner and in the process to light exactly once on each square?
^
7
Figrure 1
3. (a) A^ rings having different outer diameters are slipped onto
an upright peg, the largest ring on the bottom, to form a pyramid
(Figure 1). We wish to transfer all the rings, one at a time, to a
6

Problems (,1-6) 7
second peg, but we have a third (auxiliary) peg at our disjxisal.
During the transfers it is not permitted to place a larger ring on a
smaller one. What is the smallest number, k, of moves necessary
to complete the transfer to peg number 2V
(b)* A brain-teaser called the game of Chinese Rings is
constructed as follows: n rings of the same size are each connected to
a plate by a series of wires, all of which are the same length (see
Figure 2). A thin, doubled rod is slipped through the rings in such
a way that all the wires are inside the U-opening of the rod. (The
wires are free to slide in holes in the plate, as shown.) The problem
consists of removing all the rings from the rod. What is the least
number of moves necessary to do this?
Figure 2
4. (a) We are given 80 coins of the same denomination; we know
that one of them is counterfeit and that it is lighter than the others.
Locate the counterfeit coin by using four weighings on a pan balance.
(b) It is known that there is one counterfeit coin in a
collection of n similar coins. What is the least number of weight trials
necessary to identify the counterfeit?
5. Twenty metal blocks are of the same size and external
appearance; some are aluminum, and the rest are duraluminum, which
is heavier. Using at most eleven weighings on a pan balance, how
can we determine how many blocks are aluminum?
6. (a)* Among twelve similar coins there is one counterfeit. It
is not known whether the counterfeit coin is lighter or heavier than
a genuine one (all genuine coins weigh the same). Using three
weighings on a pan balance, how can the counterfeit be identified
and in the process determined to be lighter or heavier than a genuine
coin?
T This is sometimes referred to as the Tower of Hanoi problem [Editor].

8 Introductory Problems
(b)** There is one counterfeit coin among 1000 similar coins.
It is not known whether the counterfeit coin is lighter or heavier
than a genuine one. What is the least number of weighings, on a
pan balance, necessary to locate the counterfeit and to determine
whether it is light or heavy?
Remark: Using the conditions of problem (a) it is possible to locate, in three
weighings, one counterfeit out of thirteen coins, but we cannnot determine
whether it is light or heavy. For fourteen coins, four weighings are necessary.
It would be interesting to determine the least number of weighings necessary
to locate one counterfeit out of 1000 coins if we are relieved of the necessity
of determining whether it is light or heavy.
7. (a) A traveler having no money, but owning a gold chain
having seven links, is accepted at an inn on the condition that he
pay one link per day for his stay. If the traveler is to pay daily,
but may take change in the form of links previously paid, and if he
remains seven days, what is the least number of links that must be
cut out of the chain? {Note: A link may be taken from any part
of the chain.)
(b) A chain consists of 2000 links. What is the least number
of links that must be disengaged from the chain in order that any
specified number of links, from 1 to 2000, may be gathered together
from the parts of the chain thus formed?
8. Two-hundred students are positioned in 10 rows, each containing
20 students. From each of the 20 columns thus formed the shortest
student is selected, and the tallest of these 20 (short) students is
tagged A. These students now return to their initial places. Next
the tallest student in each row is selected, and from these 10 (tall)
students the shortest is tagged B. Which of the two tagged students
is the taller (if they are different people)?
9. Given thirteen gears, each weighing an integral number of
grams. It is known that any twelve of them may be placed on a
pan balance, six on each pan, in such a way that the scale will be
in equilibrium. Prove that all the gears must be of equal weight.
10. Refer to the following number triangle.
1
1 1 1
12 3 2 1
13 6 7 6 3 1

Problems {7-13) 9
Each number is the sum of three numbers of the previous row: the
number immediately above it and the numbers immediately to the
right and left of that one. If no number appears in one or more of
these locations, the number zero is used. Prove that every row,
beginning with the third row, contains at least one even number.
11. Twelve squares are laid out in a circular pattern [as on the
circumference of a circle]. Four different colored chips, red, yellow,
green, blue, are placed on four consecutive squares. A chip may be
moved in either a clockwise or a counterclockwise direction over four
other squares to a fifth square, provided that the fifth square is not
occupied by a chip. After a certain number of moves the same four
squares will again be occupied by chips. How many permutations
(rearrangements) of the four chips are possible as a result of this
process?
12. An island is inhabited by five men and a pet monkey. One
afternoon the men gathered a large pile of coconuts, which they
proposed to divide equally among themselves the next morning.
During the night one of the men awoke and decided to help himself
to his share of the nuts. In dividing them into five equal parts he
found that there was one nut left over. This one he gave to the
monkey. He then hid his one-fifth share, leaving the rest in a single
pile. Later during the night another man awoke with the same idea
in mind. He went to the pile, divided it into five equal parts, and
found that there was one coconut left over. This he gave to the
monkey, and then he hid his one-fifth share, restoring the rest to
one pile. During the same night each of the other three men arose,
one at a time, and in ignorance of what had happened previously,
went to the pile, and followed the same procedure. Each time one
coconut was left over, and it was given to the monkey. The next
morning all five men went to the diminished nut pile and divided it
into five equal parts, finding that one nut remained over. What is
the least number of coconuts the original pile could have contained?
13. Two brothers sold a herd of sheep which they owned. For
each sheep they received as many rubles as the number of sheep
originally in the herd. The money was then divided in the
following manner. First, the older brother took ten rubles, then the
younger brother took ten rubles, after which the older brother took
another ten rubles, and so on. At the end of the division the younger
brother, whose turn it was, found that there were fewer than ten

10 Introductory Problems
rubles left, so he took what remained. To make the division just,
the older brother gave the younger his penknife. How much was
the penknife worth?
14.* (a) On which of the two days of the week, Saturday or
Sunday, does New Year's Day fall more often?
(b) On which day of the week does the thirtieth of the
month most often fall?

'^
ALTERATIONS OF DIGITS IN INTEGERS
15. Which integers have the following property? If the final digit
is deleted, the integer is divisible by the new number.
16. (a) Find all integers with initial digit 6 which have the
following property, that if this initial digit is deleted, the resulting
number is reduced to ^'j its original value.
(b) Prove that there does not exist any integer with the
property that if its first digit is deleted, the resulting number is aV the
original number.
17.* An integer is reduced to J its value when a certain one of
its digits is deleted, and the resulting number is again divisible by 9.
(a) Prove that division of this resulting integer by 9 results
in deleting an additional digit.
(b) Find all integers satisfying the conditions of the problem.
18. (a) Find all integers having the property that when the third
digit is deleted the resulting number divides the original one.
(b)* Find all integers with the property that when the second
digit is deleted the resulting number divides the original one.
19. (a) Find the smallest integer whose first digit is 1 and which
11

12 Alterations of Digits in Integers
has the property that if this digit is transferred to the end of the
number the number is tripled. Find all such integers.
(b) With what digits is it possible to begin a (nonzero) integer
such that the integer will be tripled upon the transfer of the initial
digit to the end? Find all such integers.
20. Prove that there does not exist a natural number which, upon
transfer of its initial digit to the end, is increased five, six, or eight
times.
21. Prove that there does not exist an integer which is doubled
when the initial digit is transferred to the end.
22. (a) Prove that there does not exist an integer which becomes
either seven times or nine times as great when the initial digit is
transferred to the end.
(b) Prove that no integer becomes four times as great when its
initial digit is transferred to the end.
23. Find the least integer whose first digit is seven and which is
reduced to 3 its original value when its first digit is tranferred to
the end. Find all such integers.
24. (a) We say one integer is the "inversion" of another if it
consists of the same digits written in reverse order. Prove that there
exists no natural number whose inversion is two, three, five, seven,
or eight times that number.
(b) Find all integers whose inversions are four or nine times
the original number.
25. (a) Find a six-digit number which is multiplied by a factor
of 6 if the final three digits are removed and placed (without changing
their order) at the beginning.
(b) Prove that there cannot exist an eight-digit number which
is increased by a factor of 6 when the final four digits are removed
and placed (without changing their order) at the beginning.
26. Find a six-digit number whose product by 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6
contains the same digits as did the original number (in different order,
of course).

C5
THE DIVISIBILITY OF INTEGERS
27. Prove that for every integer «:
(a) «' — « is divisible by 3;
(b) «* — « is divisible by 5;
(c) ti' — n is divisible by 7;
(d) «" — « is divisible by 11;
(e) «" — « is divisible by 13.
Note: Observe that rt? — n is not necessarily divisible by 9 (for example,
23 - 2 = 510 is not divisible by 9).
Problems (a-e) are special cases of a general theorem; see problem 240.
28. Prove the following;
(a) 3°" — 2°" is divisible by 35, for every positive integer «;
(b) «* — 5«' + 4« is divisible by 120, for every integer n;
(c)* for all integers m and n, mnim^" — «") is divisible by the
number 56,786,730.
29. Prove that n^ + 3n + 5 is never divisible by 121 for any posi-
^ For a discussion of the general concepts involved in the solution of the
majority of the problems in this section, see the book by B. B. Dynkin and V.
A. Uspensky, Mathematical Conversations, Issue 6, Section 2, "Problems in
Number Theory," Library of the USSR Mathematical Society.
13

14 The Divisibility of Integers
tive integer «.
30. Prove that the expression
m'^ + 3tn*n — 5w'«^ — 15w^«' + 4w«* + 12«'
cannot have the value 33, regardless of what integers are substituted
for m and n.
31. What remainders can result when the 100th power of an integer
is divided by 125?
32. Prove that if an integer n is relatively prime to 10, the 101st
power of n ends with the same three digits as does «. (For example,
1233"" ends with the digits 233, and 37'"' ends with the digits 037.)
33. Find a three-digit number all of whose integral jxiwers end
with the same three digits as does the original number.
34. Let A^ be an even number not divisible by 10. What digit
will be in the tens place of the number N'", and what digit will be
in the hundreds place of A^^oo?
35. Prove that the sum
1* + 2* + 3* + • • • + «* ,
where n is an arbitrary integer and k is odd, is divisible by 1 + 2 +
3 + • • • + ».
36. Give a criterion that a number be divisible by 11.
37. The number 123456789(10)(11)(12X13)(14) is written in the base
15—that is, the number is equal (in the base 10) to
14 + (13)-15 + (12)-15= + (11)-15' + • • • + 2-15'= + 15" .
What is the remainder upon dividing the number by 7?
38. Prove that 1, 3, and 9 are the only numbers K having the
property that if /f divides a number A^, it also divides every number
obtained by permuting the digits of A^. (For K= 1, the condition
given is trivial; for K = 3, or 9, the condition follows from the well-
known fact that a number is divisible by 3, or 9, if and only if the
sum of its digits is divisible by 3, or 9.)
39. Prove that 27,195* - 10,887* + 10,152* is exactly divisible by
26,460.
40. Prove that ll'" - 1 is divisible by 100.

Problems {30-49) 15
41. Prove that 2222"" + 5555"" is divisible by 7.
42. Prove thas a number consisting of 3" identical digits is
divisible by 3". (For example, the number 222 is divisible by 3, the
number 777,777,777, is divisible by 9, and so on).
43. Find the remainder upon dividing the following number by 7:
10'" + 10""'' + ••• + 10""'"' .
44. (a) Find the final digit of the numbers 9"'' and 2"*'.
(b) Find the final two digits of the numbers 2'^' and 3''^
(c)* Find the final two digits of the number 14"*'*'.
45. (a) What is the final digit of the number
(...(((7Ty)---^)
(where the 7th power is taken 1000 times)? What are the final two
digits?
(b) What is the final digit of the number
,\7.'
which contains 1001 sevens, as does the number given in problem
(a), but with the exponents used differently? What are the final two
digits of this number?
46.* Determine the final five digits of the number
which contains 1001 nines, positioned as shown.
47.* Find the last 1000 digits of the number
TV = 1 + 50 + 50= + 50» + • • • + 50"' .
48. How many zeros terminate the number which is the product
of all the integers from 1 to 100, inclusive?
Here we may use the following well-known notation:
l-2-3-4---(n - l)-n = n!
(called factorial n). The problem can then be stated more succinctly: How
many zeros are at the end of 100!?
49. (a) Prove that the product of n consecutive integers is divisi-

16 The Divisibility of Integers
ble by «!.
(b) Prove that li a + b + ■ ■ ■ + k ^ n, then the fraction
a\b\---k\
is an integer.
(c) Prove that («!)! is divisible by «!'""'".
(d)* Prove that the product of the n integers of an arithmetic
progression of n terms, where the common difference is relatively
prime to «!, is divisible by «!.
Note: Problem 49 (d) is a generalization of 49 (a).
50. Is the number, CfSSo, of combinations of 1000 elements, taken
500 at a time, divisible by 7V
51. (a) Find all numbers n between 1 and 100 having the property
that (« — 1)! is not divisible by n.
(b) Find all numbers n between 1 and 100 having the property
that (« — 1)! is not divisible by n}.
52.* Find all integers n which are divisible by all integers not
exceeding \/ n .
53. (a) Prove that the sum of the squares of five consecutive
integers cannot be the square of any integer.
(b) Prove that the sum of even powers of three consecutive
numbers cannot be an even power of any integer.
(c) Prove that the sum of the same even power of nine
consecutive integers, the first of which exceeds 1, cannot be any integral
power of any integer.
54. (a) Let A and B be two distinct seven-digit numbers, each
of which contains all the digits from 1 to 7. Prove that A is not
divisible by B.
(b) Using all the digits from 1 to 9, make up three, three-
digit numbers which are related in the ratio 1:2:3.
55. Which integers can have squares that end with four identical
digits?
56. Prove that if two adjacent sides of a rectangle and its diagonal
can be expressed in integers, then the area of the rectangle is divi-
T More "standard" notations for this are C(1000, 500) or CjJS" or ('JSJ).
However, retention of the notation used in the original will cause no difficulty \Editor].

Problems (50-60) 17
sible by 12.
57. Prove that if all the coefficients of the quadratic equation
ax^ + bx + c = 0
are odd integers, then the roots of the equation cannot be rational.
58. Prove that if the sum of the fractions
« « + 1 « + 2
(where « is a jxisitive integer) is put in decimal form, it forms a
nonterminating decimal of deferred periodicity.^
59. Prove that the following numbers (where m and n are natural
numbers) cannot be integers:
(a)
(b)
(c)
M =
7V =
K =
2 3 n
^1^1 1 ^
n « + 1 n -\- m
^ + ^ 1 1 ^
3 "^ 5 ' ' 2« + 1 ■
60.** (a) Prove that if /> is a prime number greater than 3, then
the numerator of the (reduced) fraction
2 3 p-1
is divisible by p^. For example,
1,1 1 1 25
the numerator of which is 5^
(b) Prove that if /> is a prime number exceeding 3, then the
numerator of the (reduced) fraction which is the sum
1+1 + -^.+ ■ '
2= 3= (/>- 1)=
is divisible by p. For example,
t Deferred periodicity means that the periodic portion is preceded by one or
more nonrepeating digits. The criterion is whether the denominator of the
(reduced) fraction has a common factor with 10 [Editor].

18 The Divisibility of Integers
22 ' 32 ' 42 144
has a numerator which is divisible by 5.
61. Prove that the expression
a* + 3a* + 1 '
where a is any positive integer, is a fraction in lowest terms.
62.* Let fli, ^2, • • •, fln be « distinct integers. Show that the product
of all the fractions of form —7 p-, where n ^ k > I, is an integer.
k — I
63. Prove that all numbers made up as follows,
10001, 100010001, 1000100010001, •••
(three zeros between the ones), are composite numbers.
64. (a) Divide a'=' - 6'=' by
{a + b){a^ + b^){a' + b'){a' + 6')(a" + 6'«)(a'= + b''){a'' + b'') .
(b) Divide a''^' - b''*' by
{a + b){a^ + b^Xa' + b^a" + b")- ■ -(a^'-' + 6='^')(a=' + 6=') .
65. Prove that any two numbers of the following sequence are
relatively prime:
2 + 1, 2= + 1, 2* + 1, 2' + 1, 2'« + 1, •••, 2=' + 1, •••.
Remark: The result obtained here proves that there is an infinite number
of primes (see also problems 159 and 253).
66. Prove that if one of the numbers 2' — 1 and 2" + 1 is prime,
where « > 2, then the other number is comjxisite.
67. (a) Prove that if p and 8/> — 1 are both prime, then 8/> + 1
is composite.
(b) Prove that if p and 8/>= + 1 are both prime, then 8/>= - 1
is also prime.
68. Prove that the square of every prime number greater than 3
yields a remainder of 1 when divided by 12.
69. Prove that if three prime numbers, all greater than 3, form
an arithmetic progression, then the common difference of the
progression is divisible by 6.

Problems {61-71) 19
70.* (a) Ten primes, each less than 3000, form an arithmetic
progression. Find these prime numbers.
(b) Prove that there do not exist eleven primes, all less than
20,000, which can form an arithmetic progression.
71. (a) Prove that, given five consecutive jxisitive integers, it is
always possible to find one which is relatively prime to all the rest.
(b) Prove that among sixteen consecutive integers it is always
jxjssible to find one which is relatively prime to all the rest.

4
SOME PROBLEMS FROM ARITHMETIC
72. The integer A consists of 666 threes, and the integer B has
666 sixes. What digits appear in the product A-B?
73. What quotient and what remainder are obtained when the
number consisting of 1001 sevens is divided by the number 1001?
74. Find the least square which commences with six twos.
75. Prove that if the number a is given by the decimal 0.999...,
where there are at least 100 nines, then \/~a also has 100 nines at
the beginning.
76. Adjoin to the digits 523... three more digits such that the
resulting six-digit number is divisible by 7, 8, and 9.
77. Find a four-digit number which, on division by 131, yields
a remainder of 112, and on division by 132 yields a remainder of 98.
78. (a) Prove that the sum of all the «-digit integers (« > 2) is
equal to
49499-• •95500---O.
(« — 3) nines (« — 2) zeros
(For example, the sum of all three-digit numbers is equal to 494,550,
20

Problems (72-88) 21
and the sum of all six-digit numbers is 494,999,550,000.)
(b) Find the sum of all the four-digit even numbers which
can be written using 0,1, 2, 3, 4, 5 (and where digits can be repeated
in a number).
79. How many of each of the ten digits are needed in order to
write out all the integers from 1 to 100,000,000 inclusive?
80. All the integers beginning with 1 are written successively
(that is, 1234567891011121314-■■)■ What digit occupies the 206,788th
position?
81. Does the number 0.1234567891011121314-■ •, which is obtained
by writing successively all the integers, represent a rational number
(that is, is it a periodic decimal)?
82. We are given 27 weights which weigh, respectively, P, 2^ 3'\
• • •, 27^^ units. Group these weights into three sets of equal weight.
83. A regular polygon is cut from a piece of cardboard. A pin
is put through the center to serve as an axis about which the polygon
can revolve. Find the least number of sides which the polygon can
have in order that revolution through an angle of 25^ degrees will
put it into coincidence with its original position.
84. Using all the digits from 1 to 9, make up three, three-digit
numbers such that their product will be;
(a) least; (b) greatest.
85. The sum of a certain number of consecutive positive integers
is 1000. Find these integers.
86. (a) Prove that any number which is not a power of 2 can be
represented as the sum of at least two consecutive positive integers,
but that such a representation is impossible for jxiwers of 2.
(b) Prove that any composite odd number can be represented
as a sum of some number of consecutive odd numbers, but that no
prime number can be represented in this form. Which even numbers
can be represented as the sum of consecutive odd numbers?
(c) Prove that every power of a natural number «(«>!) can
be represented as the sum of n positive odd numbers.
87. Prove that the product of four consecutive integers is one less
than a perfect square.
88. Given 4« positive integers such that if any four distinct integers

22 Some Problems in Arithmetic
are taken, it is possible to form a proportion from them. Prove that
at least n of the given numbers are identical.
89.* Take four arbitrary natural numbers, A, B,C, and D. Prove
that if we use them to find the four numbers Ai,Bi,Ci, and Di,
which are equal, respectively, to the differences between A and B,
B and C, C and D, D and A (taking the positive difference each
time), and then we repeat this process with Ai, Bi,Ci and Di to
obtain four other numbers A2, Bi, C2, and A, and so on, we eventually
must obtain four zeros.
For example, if we begin with the numbers 32, 1, 110, 7, we obtain the
following pattern:
32,
31,
78,
72,
0.
1,
109,
6,
72,
0,
110.
103,
78,
72,
0,
7,
25,
6,
72,
0.
90.* (a) Rearrange the integers from 1 to 100 in such an order
that no eleven of them appear in the rearrangement (adjacently or
otherwise) in either ascending or descending order.
(b) Prove that no matter what rearrangement is made with
the integers from 1 to 101 it will always be possible to choose eleven
of them which appear (adjacently or otherwise) in the arrangement
in either an ascending or a descending order.
91. (a) From the first 200 natural numbers, 101 of them are
arbitrarily chosen. Prove that among the numbers chosen there exists
a pair of numbers such that one of them is divisible by the other.
(b) From the first 200 natural numbers select a set of 100
numbers such that no one of them is divisible by any other.
(c) Prove that if one of 100 numbers taken from the first 200
natural numbers is less than 16, then one of those 100 numbers is
divisible by another.
92. (a) Prove that, given any 52 integers, there exist two of them
whose sum, or else whose difference, is divisible by 100.
(b) Prove that out of any 100 integers, none divisible by 100,
it is always possible to find two or more integers whose sum is
divisible by 100.
93.* A chess master who has eleven weeks to prepare for a
tournament decides to play at least one game every day, but in order
not to tire himself he agrees to play not more than twelve games

Problems (89-98) 23
during any one week. Prove that there exists a succession of days
during which the master will have played exactly twenty games.
94. Let A^ be an arbitrary natural number. Prove that there
exists a multiple of A^ which contains only the digits 0 and 1. Moreover,
if A^ is relatively prime to 10 (that is, is not divisible by 2 or 5),
then some multiple of A^ consists entirely of ones. (If A" is not
relatively prime to 10, then, of course, there exists no number of form
11 • • ■ 1 which is divisible by A".)
95.* Given the sequence of numbers
0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55,89, ■•• ,
where each number, beginning with the third, is the sum of the two
preceding numbers (this is called a Fibonacci sequence). Does there
exist, among the first 100,000,001 numbers of this sequence, a
number terminating with four zeros?
96.* Let a be an arbitrary irrational number. Clearly, no matter
which integer n is chosen, the fraction taken from the sequence
0 12 3
— = 0, — , — , — , •■•, and which is closest to a, differs from a
n n n n
by no more than half of l/«. Prove that there exist «'s such that
the fraction closest to en differs from a by not more than O.OOlf —).
97. Let m and n be two relatively prime natural numbers. Prove
that if the w + « — 2 fractions
m + n 2{m + n) 3(m + n) {m — l)(m + n)
m ' m ' m ' ' m
m + n 2(m + n) 3(m + n) {n — l)(m + n)
n ' n ' n ' ' n
are jxiints on the real-number axis, then precisely one of these
fractions lies inside each one of the intervals (1, 2), (2,3), (3,4), •••,
(w + « — 2, w + « — 1) (see Figure 3, in which w = 3, « = 4).
T T t* H Z1
t 7 7 7 7
I I til III • \ • I I
Figure 3
98.* Let fli,^2,^3, • • •,fln be n natural numbers, each less than

24 Some Problems in Arithmetic
1000, but where the least common multiple of any two of the numbers
exceeds 1000. Prove that the sum of the reciprocals of these numbers
is less than 2.
99.* The fraction tjlp, where /> 9*= 5 is an odd prime, is expanded
as a (periodic) decimal fraction. Prove that if the number of digits
appearing in the period of the decimal is even, then the arithmetic
mean of these digits is 9/2 (that is, coincides with the arithmetic
mean of the digits 0,1,2, •••,9 (this shows that the "greater" and
the "lesser" digits of the period appear "equally often"). If the number
of digits in the period is odd, then the arithmetic mean of these
digits is different from 9/2.
100.* Prove that if the numbers of the following sequence are
written as decimals,
fli Oi as gg
(where p is a prime different from 2 or 5, and where a,,a2, •■■,an
are all relatively prime to p), then some (perhaps only one) of the
first few decimal fractions may contain the same number of digits
in their periods, but the subsequent decimal fractions of the sequence
will all have p times as many digits in their periods as has the
preceding term.
For example; I = 0.3; ^ = 0.4, J? = 0.370; f? = 0.987654320; iH
has 27 digits in its period; "o-q has 81 digits in its period; and so on.
Remark: By "the greatest integer in a;" we shall mean the greatest integer
not exceeding x (that is, to the left of x on the number axis if x is not a whole
number). This concept will be designated by the use of brackets, that is, by
writing \x]. For example: [2.5] = 2, [2] = 2, [-2.5] = -3.
101. Prove the following properties of the greatest integer in a
number.
(1) [x+y\^ [x\ + [y\ .
(2) N^M = — , where « is an integer.
(3) [^1 + p + -^1 + ■ ■• + p + ^^^1 = [«^1 •
102.* Prove that if p and q are relatively prime natural numbers
then

Problems (99-107) 25
103. (a) Prove that
,,.,..,.+ -..,. = [f].[f].[t]+....[f],
where <„ is the number of divisors of the natural number «. [Note:
1 and n are always counted as divisors.]
(b) Prove that
Si + Sa + S3 + ■ ■ ■ + S, =
^t]-^]-^]--^]
where s„ is the sum of the divisors of the integer n.
104. Does there exist a natural number « such that the fractional
part of the number (2 + x/ 2 )', that is, the difference
(2 + -i/T)--[(2 + -i/T)''],
exceeds 0.999999?
105.* (a) Prove that for any natural number n, the integer
[(2 +-1/T)''] is odd.
(b) Find the highest power of 2 which divides the integer
[(1 + v^T)-].
106. Prove that if p is an odd prime, it divides the difference
[(2 + V~5)»] -2"+' .
107.* Prove that if /> is a prime number, the difference
-[7]
is divisible by p. (CS is the number of combinations of n elements
taken p at a time, where « is a natural number not less than p.)
For example,
s 11-10-9-8.7
^"= 1.2-3.4.5 ='*^2'
Cl - [^] = 462 - 2 ,
which is divisible by 5.

26 Some Problems in Arithmetic
108.* Prove that if the positive numbers a and |9 have the property
that among the numbers
[a],[2a],[3a],---: [«, [2|3], [3|3L • ■ •
every natural number appears exactly once, then a and |9 are
irrational numbers such that Ha f 1/|9 = 1. Conversely, if a and |9
are irrational numbers with the property that Htx + 1/|9 = 1, then
every natural number A^ appears precisely once in the sequence
[a],[2a],[3a],---; [|3], [2/3], [3|3], ••-.
We shall designate by (a) the whole number nearest a. If a lies exactly
between two integers, then (a) will be defined to be the larger integer. For
example; (2.8) = 3; (4) = 4; (3.5) = 4.
109.* Prove that in the equality
(where A^ is an arbitrary natural number) every fraction may be
replaced by the nearest whole number:

5
EQUATIONS HAVING INTEGER SOLUTIONS
110. (a) Find a four-digit number which is an exact square, and
such that its first two digits are the same and also its last two digits
are the same.
(b) When a certain two-digit number is added to the two-
digit number having the same digits in reverse order, the sum is a
perfect square. Find all such two-digit numbers.
111. Find a four-digit number equal to the square of the sum of
the two two-digit numbers formed by taking the first two digits and
the last two digits of the original number.
112. Find all four-digit numbers which are perfect squares and
are written:
(a) with four even integers;
(b) with four odd integers.
113. (a) Find all three-digit numbers equal to the sum of the
factorials of their digits.
(b) Find all integers equal to the sum of the squares of their
digits.
114. Find all integers equal to:
(a) the square of the sum of the digits of the number;
27

28 Equations Having Integer Solutions
(b) the sum of the digits of the cube of the number.
115. Solve, in whole numbers, the following equations.
(a) 1! +2! +3! + •■■ + x\ = v- .
(b) 1! +2! +3!+ ■■• +x\=r .
116. In how many ways can 2" be expressed as the sum of four
squares of natural numbers?
117. (a) Prove that the only solution in integers of the equation
x^ + y^ + z^ = 2xyz
is X = y = z = Q.
(b) Find integers x,y,z,v such that
x^ + y^ + z^ + v' = 2xyzv .
118.* (a) For what integral values of k is the following equation
possible (where x,y,z are natural numbers)?
x'^ + v' + 2^ = kxyz.
(b) Find (up to numbers less than 1000) all possible triples
of integers the sum of whose squares is divisible by their product.
119.** Find (within the first thousand) all possible pairs of
relatively prime numbers such that the square of one of the integers
when increased by 125 is divisible by the other.
120.* Find four natural numbers such that the square of each of
them, when added to the sum of the remaining numbers, again
yields a perfect square.
121. Find all integer pairs having the property that the sum of
the two integers is equal to their product.
122. The sum of the reciprocals of three natural numbers is equal
to one. What are the numbers?
123. (a) Solve, in integers (positive and negative),
— -1 = —
X y 14 "
(b)* Solve, in integers,
J_ _1 ;_
X y z
(write a formula which gives all solutions.)

Problems (115-130) 29
124. (a) Find all distinct pairs of natural numbers which satisfy
the equation
X' = y' .
(b) Find all positive rational number pairs, not equal, which
satisfy the equation
x' = y'
(write a formula which gives all solutions).
125. Two seventh-grade students were allowed to enter a chess
tournament otherwise composed of eighth-grade students. Each
contestant played once against each other contestant. The two seventh
graders together amassed a total of 8 points, and each eighth grader
scored the same number of jxiints as his classmates. (In the
tournament, a contestant received 1 point for a win and I point for a tie.)
How many eighth graders participated?
126. Ninth- and tenth-grade students participated in a tournament.
Each contestant played each other contestant once. There were ten
times as many tenth-grade students, but they were able to win only
four-and-a-half times as many points as ninth graders. How many
ninth-grade students participated, and how many points did they
collect?
127.* An integral triangle is defined as a triangle whose sides are
measurable in whole numbers. Find all integral triangles whose
perimeter equals their area.
128.* What sides are jxissible in:
(a) a right-angled integral triangle;
(b) an integral triangle containing a 60° angle;
(c) an integral triangle containing a 120° angle?
(Write a formula giving all solutions.)
Remark: It can be shown that an integral triangle cannot have a rational
angle (that is, an angle whose degree measure is a rational number) other than
one of 90°, 60°, or 120°.
129.* Find the lengths of the sides of the smallest integral
triangle for which;
(a) one of the angles is twice another;
(b) one of the angles is five times another;
(c) one angle is six times another.
130.** Prove that if the legs of right-angle triangle are expressible
as the squares of integers, the hyjxitenuse cannot be an integer.

VJ
EVALUATING SUMS AND PRODUCTS
131. Prove that
in + 1)(« +2)(« +3)---(2«- l)2« = 2''-l-3-5---(2« - 3)(2« - 1)
132. Calculate the following sums.
,, 1 1 1 , 1
^^^ T2" + ^T + IT +■•■+(«- i)« ■•
1-2-3 2-3-4 3-4-5 («- 2)(« - 1)«
(c) .^A^^,,A^^ 1
1-2-3-4 2-3-4-5 3-4-5-6
1
+ ■■• +
(« - 3)(« - 2)(« - 1)« •
133. Prove that
(a) 1.2 + 2.3 + 3.4+... +«(« + l)=^?^^?-tM£±2I.
(b) 1.2-3 + 2.3.4 + 3.4.5+ ... +«(« + 1)(« +2)
nin + l)(w + 2)(w + 3)
30

Problems (131-139'
(c)
for any p.
1-2-3--
■p + 2-3-
■■p{p + l) +
+ •••+(«+/>-
134. Calculate the follow!
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
P + 2=
P + 2'
P + 2*
P +3'
+ 3^ + • •
+ 3' + • •
+ 3* + ••
+ 5' + • •
ng sums.
• + n^ ;
■ + ti' ;
• + «• ;
• + (2« -
1)
3)'
• • • +«(« + !)
^ n{n + l)(w +2)-
/> + !
31
•(« +/>)
135. Prove the identity
a + b{l + a) + c(l + a)(l + 6) + rf(l + a)(l + b){l + c)
+ •••+/(! +a)(l +6)---(l +/fe)
= (1 + a)(l + b){l + c)- • •(!+/)- 1 .
Investigate the case in which a = b = c = ■•• =/.
136. Calculate the following.
(a) 1-1!+2-2!+3-3! + •
(b) ci,, + cu, + cU,+
+ «•«!;
• + Cn+k .
137. Prove that
1 1
1
1
1
log2 A^ logs A^ log, A^
where 100! is the product P2-3--100.
138. Given w positive numbers Oi, a^,
the fractions
1
logioo A^ logiooi A" '
•■,a„. Find the sum of all
at,(at, + aic^Xok^ + Ok^ + Ok^)- • -(at, + flt^ + • • • + at„) '
where the set ki,ki,---,k^ of indices runs through all possible
permutations of 1,2, •••,« (of which there are «!).
139. Simplify the following expressions.
<" (-|)(-|)(-s)('H)-(-3i^)-.
(b) cos a cos 2ot cos Aa • ■ ■ cos 2''a:.

32 Evaluating Sums and Products
140. How many digits are there in the integer 2'"" after it has
been "multiplied out"?
141. (a) Prove that
1 1 _^ J_ A A 99 1
15 ^ 10l/2 ^ 2 ■ 4 ■ 6 ■■■ 100 ^ 10 ■
(b) Prove that
J_ A i_ . _99_ J_
2 ■ 4 ■ 6 ""' 100 ^ 12 ■
Remark: The result of problem (b) is evidently a refinement of that of
problem (a).
142. Prove that
9100 9100
lOv/T ^'°" 10 •
(CfSo is the number of combinations of one-hundred elements taken
fifty at a time.)
143. Which is larger, 99" + 100" or 101" (where « is a natural
number)?
144. Which is larger, 100"» or 300! ?
145. Prove that, for any natural number n, the following is true:
2<(l + ^)%3.
146. Which is larger, (1.000001)'"°"""" or 2?
147. Which is larger, 1000'""" or lOOP''?
148. Prove that for any integer « > 6
(f)">'">(fr
149.* Prove that if w > « (where m, n are natural numbers);
For examole,
('H)"^|-|'-('H)"^f-f>^T-

Problems (140-150) 33
/ 1 \m+I / 1 \n + I
For example,
(-l)"^f-l--(-l)'
256 13 3
81 ~ "^ 81 8
From problem (a) it follows that in the sequence of numbers (1 + 1/2)2,
(1 + 1/3)', ---.(l + I/m)". "■'. sa'^h is greater than that preceding. Since, on
the other hand, no member of the sequence exceeds 3 (see problem 145), it
follows that if n -► oo, the magnitude of (1 + 1/n)" approaches some definite
limit (which is evidently a number between 2 and 3). This limiting number is
designated by «. It is equal, approximately, to 2.718281828459045-• •.
Analogously, problem 149 (b) shows that in the sequence (1 + 1/2)', (1 + l/3)«,
(1 + 1/4)', •••,(1 + l/n)"+', ••• every number is less than that preceding. Since
every number of the sequence exceeds 1, the magnitude (1 + l/n)"+', where n
increases without bound, tends toward some limiting number. The numbers
of the second sequence then become successively closer and closer to the
numbers of the first [that is, the ratios (1 + 1/71)"+': (1 + 1/n)" = 1 + 1/n become
closer and closer to 1]. Hence, the limiting number must, in the second case,
also be equal to «. This number, e, plays a very important role in higher
mathematics, and is encountered in a wide variety of problems (see, for
example, problems 156 and 159).
150. Prove that, for any integer «, the following inequality holds,
(7)"<-'<-(7)"-
where e = 2.71828- • • is the limit of (1 + l/w)" as « -> co.
This result is an extension of the result of problem 148. It follows, in
particular, that for any two numbers, ai and 02, such that ai < « < a2 (for
example, for ai = 2.7 and 02 = 2.8; for ai = 2.71 and 02 = 2.72; for a, = 2.718 and
02 = 2.719, and so on) for all integers n which are "large enough" (greater
than some integer N, where the magnitude of N depends on what ai we
consider), the following inequality holds:
©">•■>£)■
Thus, the number « is that limitig number which separates the numbers a for
which (nla)" exceeds, or "dominates," n! from those numbers a for which the
{njay are "dominated"' by n!. (The existence of such a limiting number
follows from problem 148.)
Actually, {nlai)" < n! for every n exceeding 6 [if a^ > «, and if n > 6, in
view of problem 150, n! > (n/«)"]. Further, from the results of problems 145
and 149, it follows that, for n ^ 3, the following inequalities hold:

34 Evaluating Sums and Products
1 \" (n + D™
/, , 1 \» (n +
n > « > 1 H = -^^
\ n / n"
71™+' > (n + 1)™ ,
n,— n+1
r n > vn + 1 ;
consequently, for n £ 3, f'' n diminishes as n increases. It is readily seen
n J
that if n becomes very large, * n approaches as close to unity as we wish.
It follows, for example, that log'°»''lO* — kllO", for sufficiently large k, can
be made as small as we wish. Let us now select an iVsuch that the inequality
t''N < ejai holds. Then for n>N the approximation *^ n. < elai is still
more improved, and from problem 150 it follows that
"<{^r<ir-
The inequality of problem 150 admits a great deal of precision. It is possible
to show that for sufficiently large n the number n! is approximated by
C*'' n (nle)", where C is a constant equal to »''27t:
[more precisely, it is possible to prove that if n increases without bound, ratio
n!
/2n:n(n/«)''
tends to unity. (See the book by A. M. Yaglom and E. M. Yaglom, Non-
elementary Problems Treated by Elementary Means, Library of the
Mathematical Society, Volume 5)].
151. Prove that
1
.„t+i < It _|_ 2' + 3' + ■ ■ ■ + «'
k
k+ 1
< {' + i-)" ITT«'^'
(« and k are arbitrary integers).
Remark: A particular consequence of problem 151 is the following:
1* + 2' + 3* + ■ ■ ■ + n* 1
n'™' n*+> -^ + 1
(See also problem 316.)
152. Prove that for all integers « > 1:
T The approximation given for nl is usually referred to as Stirling'b formula
\ Editor].

Problems {,151-156) 35
/ ^ 1 1,1, ,1 3
153.* (a) Calculate the whole part of the number
-l/2"^-l/3"^-l/4 i/1,000,000
(b) Calculate the sum
1.1.1,, 1
1/10,000 1/10,001 1/10,002 i/1,000,000
to within a tolerance (allowable error) of 1/50.
154.* Find the whole part of the number
I 1
^1,000,000 "
■ ■ +
155
to a
. (a)
VA ' ^5 ^6
Determine the sum
TF"*" TF "*"
tolerance of 0.006.
(b)
Determine the sum
1.1,
+
1
12'
1
1000=
10! "*" 11! "*" 12! "*"■■" "*" 1000!
to a tolerance of 0.000000015.
156. Prove that the sum
1+1 + 1+1 + ...+1
2 3 4 n
is greater than any previously selected number TV, if n is taken
sufficiently great.
Remark: The calculation of this sum can be made very precise. It is
possible to show that the sum
111 1
for large n, is very close to the value of logn (this logarithm taken to the
base « = 2.718- ■ ■). In every case, it can be shown that for any n the difference

36 Evaluating Sums and Products
1 1 1
z i n
does not exceed unity (see the reference following problem 150 to the book by
A. M. Yaglom and E. M. Yaglom).
157. Prove that if in the summation
l + 1 + i + i+... + i
2 J 4 n
we throw out every term which contains the digit 9 in its
denominator, then the sum of the remaining terms, for any n, will be less
than 80.
158. (a)
(b)
It is evident that the inequality of problem (b) is a refinement of problem
(a). An even more precise bound in given by problem 233. That problem
shows that the sum
1 1 1
4 9 n^
is less than n^jS = 1.6449340668-■ • (but for any number less than n^lS, for
instance for N= 1.64 or for N = 1.644934, it is possible to find an n such that
the sum
Prove that, for
-T-
1
any n
■^-
Prove that for all n
'H
-i
1
+ 16-
, the following holds:
1
25
+ ■
_l_ ... _l_
n
^<^
of-
ill exceed N).
159.
1 +
* Consider the
1 1
2 + 3
+
1
y +
-1
sum
1
y +
-+
1
11
1
- + ■
1
13
+
+
1
1
17
+
1
19
in which the denominators run through the prime numbers from 2
to some prime number p. Prove that this sum becomes greater than
any preassigned number A^, provided the prime p is taken sufficiently
great.
Remark'- The summation of the series in this problem can be found with
great accuracy. For large p, the sum

Problems (157-159) 37
1111 1
2 3 5 7 p
differs relatively little from log log p (where the logarithms are taken to the
base e = 2.718-■■), and the differences
1111 1
never exceed 15 (refer to the book by A. M. Yaglom and E. M. Yaglom).
Comparison of the results of this problem with those of problems 157 and 158
emphasizes that among the prime numbers may be found arbitrarily large
integers (this problem reaffirms that there are infinitely many). It is possible,
for example, to say that the primes are "more numerous" in the sequence of
natural numbers than either squares or numbers failing to contain the digit 9,
inasmuch as the sum of the reciprocals of all the squares, as well as the sum of
all tViose reciprocals of whole numbers not containing the digit 9, are bounded
(by IJ and by 80, respectively), whereas the sum of the reciprocals of all
the primes becomes arbitrarily great.

MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS
FROM ALGEBRA
160. If a + b + c = 0, what does the following expression equal?
/ b — c c — a a — b\l a b c \
\ a b c J\b — c c — a a — bJ '
161. Prove that \i a +b + c = Q, then
a' + 6' + c' = Zabc .
162. Factor the following:
(a) a' + 6' + c» - 2abc ;
(b) {a + b + cY - a'' - b^ -c^ .
163. Rationalize the denominator:
1
.333 /.333
164. Prove that
{a + b + cy - a^'' - b
is divisible by
{a + b + cY -a' - b^ - c^ .
38

Problems (160-169) 39
165. Factor the following expression:
a'" + a' + 1 .
166. Prove that the jxilynomial
y9999 I y8888 I W777 _l_ . . . _l_ y2222 I r^^^^ -4- 1
is divisible by
x^ + x^ + x' + ■■■ + x^ + X + 1 .
167. Using the result of problem 162 (a), find the general formula
for the solution of the cubic equation
x' + px + q = 0 .
Remark: This result enables us to solve any equation of the third degree.
Let
x' + Ax^ + Bx+ C=0
be any cubic equation (the coefficient of x' is taken as 1, since in any other
case we can divide through by the coefficient of a;'). We make the substitution
X = y + c ,
and we obtain
y^ + 3cy^ + 3c^ + c' + A(y^ H- 2cy + c^) + B(y + c) + C = 0 ,
or
y^ + (3c + A)y'' + (3c' + 2Ac + B)y + (c» + Ac" + Be + C) = 0 .
From this, if we set c = —A/3 (that is, x = y — A/3), we arrive at
3 /3A= iA" ^ „\ ^( A^ ^A^ AB^„\ .
which has the same forms as that of the given problem:
y'^ + Tpy + q = 0 ,
where
A» „ . 2A» AB ^ „
p=--+B and q = — - + C.
168. Solve the equation
Va — \/a + X = X .
169.* Find the real roots of the equation

40 Miscellaneous Problems from Algebra
170. (a) Find the real roots of the equation
/x + 2\lx + 2^x + ■ ■ ■ + 2Vx + 2-1/3.
X = X
{« radicals}
(all roots are considered positive).
(b) Solve the equation
1
1 + —i
1+ '
1 +
1 + -5-
X
(In the expression on the left the fraction designation is repeated n
times.)
171. Find the real roots of the equation
l/x + 3 - AVx - 1 + l/x + 8 - 6-i/x -1=1.
(All square roots are to be taken as positive.)
172. Solve the equation
U+l|-|x|+3|x-l|-2|x-2|=x + 2.
173. A system of two second-degree equations
\{x -aY+y'=l
has, in general, four solutions. For what values of a is the number
of solutions of this system decreased to three or to two?
174. (a) Solve the system of equations
iax + y = a\
\x + ay = \ .
For what values of a does this system fail to have solutions, and
for what values of a are there infinitely many solutions?
(b) Answer the above question for the system
iax + y = a\
\x + ay = \ .

Problems (160-179) 41
(c) Answer the above question for the system
(ax + y + z = l,
\x + ay + z = a ,
^ X + z + az = a' .
175. Find the conditions which must be satisfied by the numbers
aii,tXi,ai3,eet such that the following system of six equations in four
unknowns has a solution:
Ixi + Xi = aidi ,
\xi + X3 = oL^eti ,
Xi + Xi = a,ai ,
Xi + Xi = o-ioti ,
Xi + X, = OLiOLi ,
Xi + Xi = UiUi .
Find the values of the unknowns x,,X2, Xa.x,.
176. How many real solutions has the following system?
r x+y = 2,
\xy - z'=l .
177. (a) How many roots has the following equation?
'''''-m-
(b) How many roots has the following equation?
sin X = log X .
(Note: logx s logic x .)
178.* Prove that if x, and Xi are roots of the equation x^ — 6x +
1=0, then Xi + .r? is, for any natural number n, an integer not
divisible by 5.
179. Is it jxjssible for the expression
{a, + 02 + • • ■ + ^999 + fllOOo)^ = a\ + 02 + • • • + 0999 + ^1000
+ 2aia2 + 2aias + • • ■ + 20999^1000
(where some of the numbers OuOi, •■•,0999,01000 are jxisitive and the
test are negative) to contain the same number of jxisitive and
negative terms in OiOj?
Investigate the analogous problem for the expression
(Oi + O2 + • • • + O9999 + Oio.ooo)^ .

42 Miscellaneous Problems from Algebra
180. Prove that any integral power of the number l/ 2 — 1 can
be expressed in the form l/7V — t/A^— 1, where A^ is an integer
(for example^ {VT - 1)= = 3 - 2V^ = V~9' - VT, and {V~2 -
- \f = 5-i/T - 7 = i/50 - 1/49.
181. Prove that the number 99,999 + \\\,\\\Vi cannot be written
in the form {A + BV~Z)^, where A and B are integers.
182. Prove that ^ 2 cannot be represented in the form p + qV r ,
where p, q, r are rational numbers.
183. (a) Which of the following two expressions is greater?
2.00000000004
(1.00000000004)= + 2.00000000004 '
2.00000000002
(1.00000000002)= + 2.00000000002 '
(b) Let a> b > 0. Which of the following is greater?
1 + a + a= + • • • + a"-' .
1 + a + a= + ■ • • + a" '
l+b + b^ + ■•• + b"-'
1 + 6 + 6= + • • • + 6" ■
184. Given n numbers ai, a^, ■ ■ ■, a„. Find the number x such that
the sum
{X - ai)= + (x - a^f + • • • + (a: - a^f
has the least jxissible value.
185. (a) Given four distinct numbers ai < a^ < ai < a^ Put these
numbers in such an order, ai^,ai^,ai^,ai^ {ii,U,i3,ii being some
rearrangement of 1,2,3,4) that the sum
(D = (a;. - a,-,)= + (a;, - ai,)^ + (a^, - a^J^ + (a,-, - ai.)=
has the least possible value.
(b)* Given n real distinct numbers ai,a2, •••,a„. Put these
numbers in such an order ai^,ai^, ■••.ai„ that the sum
(D = (a,-. - a,g= + (a;, - a^^f + • ■ • + (a.-„_, - a,-„)= + (a,-„ - a,,)=
has the least possible value.
186. (a) Prove that, regardless of what numbers ai, aa, •••,a„, 6i,
bi, •••,b„ are taken, the following relation always holds:

Problems (180-192) 43
^ -l/(ai + as + • • • + an)' + (61 + 62 + • • • + 6,)= .
Under what conditions does the equality hold?
(b) A pyramid is called a right pyramid if, when a circle is
inscribed in its base, the altitude of the pyramid falls on the center
of the circle. Prove that a right pyramid has less lateral surface
area than any other pyramid of the same altitude and base area and
having the same perimeter.
Remark: The inequality of problem (a) is a special case of what is called
the Inequality of Minkowski (see problem 308).
187.* Prove that for any real numbers ai,a2, •••,a„ the following
inequality holds:
Vol + (1 - a^Y + Va\ + (1 - a,y- _
+ • • • + Va\-, + (1 - a^r + ^al + (1 - a,)= ^ ^^^^
For what values of the numbers is the left member equal to the
right member?
188. Prove that if the numbers x^ and Xa do not exceed 1 in
absolute value, then
T/r:^+ vi~^^ 2/1 - (^4^y.
For what numbers Xi and x^ does the equality hold?
189. Which is greater, cos (sin x) or sin (cos x)?
190. Prove, without using logarithm tables, that:
(a) -pi- + -p-^ > 2 ;
log2 n logs 71-
(b) 1-^ + 1-^ > 2 .
log2 n log:, 2
191. Prove that if a and |9 are acute angles, with tx < 0, then
(a) a: — sin a: < ;3 — sin |9 ;
(b) tan a: — a: < tan |3 - ;3 .
192.* Prove that if a and ;3 are acute angles and a < |9, then

44 Miscellaneous Problems from Algebra
tan a tan |9
a |3 ■
193. Find the relationship between arcsin [cos (arcsin x)] and
arccos [sin (arccos x)].
194. Prove that for arbitrary coefficients Cai, Cso, • • ■, a^, Ci, the sum
cos 32x + flsi cos 31x + Cao cos 30x + • • • + fla cos 2x + fli cos X
cannot take on only positive values for all x.
195. Let some of the numbers a,,ai, •■•,a„ be +1 and the rest
be —1. Prove that
2sm(a, + ^ + ^^+ •■■ +^i^fL^)45°
V 2 4 2"-' /
= a/2 + a^v's + a,V2 + • • ■ + a„V 2
For example, let Ci = Cj = • ■ ■ = a„ = 1:
45°
2sin(l + | + |+...+^)45°=2
= z cos
= V2+V2+ ■■• +v 2 .

8
THE ALGEBRA OF POLYNOMIALS
196. Find the sum of the coefficients of the polynomial obtained
after expanding and collecting the terms of the product
(1 - 3x + 3x'y*\l + 3x- 3x=)'" .
197. Which of the expressions,
(1 + x^ - x^y"" or {I- x' + x')"""' ,
will have the larger coefficient for x" after expansion and collecting
of terms?
198. Prove that in the product
{1~ x + x" - x^ + • • • - x'^ + x'^'Xl + x + x^ + ■■■ + x^' + x'"") ,
after multiplying and collecting terms, there does not appear a term
in X of odd degree.
199. Find the coefficient of x''" in the following polynomials:
(a) (1 + x)'««« + x{l + xf' + x\l + xf' + ■■■ + x'""" ■
(b) (1 + x) + 2(1 + xY + 3(1 + xY + ■■■ + 1000(1 + xy"" .
200.* Find the coefficient of x^ upon the expansion and collecting
of terms in the expression
45

46 The Algebra of Polynomials
((((x - 2)^ -2Y-2Y- ■■■ - 2Y .
n times
201. Find the remainders upon dividing the polynomial x + x^ +
x' + x" + x«' + x"'
(a) by X - 1 ;
(b) by x^ - 1 .
202. An unknown polynomial yields a remainder of 2 ujxin division
by X — \, and a remainder of 1 upon division by x — 2. What
remainder is obtained if this polynomial is divided by {x — l)(x — 2)?
203. If the polynomial x'"' - 1 is divided hy x' + x^ + 2x'' + x + I,
a quotient and remainder are obtained. Find the coefficient of x" in
the quotient.
204. Find an equation with integral coefficients whose roots include
the numbers
(a) i/T + i/T,
(b) i/T + ^ 3 .
205. Prove that if a and |9 are the roots of the equation
x^ +px + l=Q ,
and if r and 8 are the roots of the equation
x^ + qx+\=0 ,
then
(or - r)(|3 - r){a + d){^ + d) = q'- pK
206. Let a and |9 be the roots of the equation
x' + px + q =0 ,
and r and d be the roots of the equation
x^ + Px + Q = 0 .
Express the product
(or - r)(|3 - rXa; - «)(|3 - S)
in terms of the coefficients of the given equations.
207. Given the two polynomials
x^ + ax + 1 =0 ,
x^ + X + a =0 .

Problems (201-214) 47
Determine all values of the coefficient a for which these equations
have at least one common root.
208. Find an integer a such that {x — a){x — 10) + 1 can be written
as a product (x + b){x + c) of two factors with integers b and c.
209. Find (nonzero) distinct integers a, b, and c such that the
following fourth-degree polynomial with integral coefficients, can be
written as the product of two other jxilynomials with integral
coefficients:
x{x - a){x - b){x - c) + I
210. For what integers a^Oi, •••,a„, where these are all distinct,
are the following polynomials with integral coefficients expressible
as the product of two polynomials with integral coefficients?
(a) (x — a,)(x - a^{x - a^- • -{x — a„) — 1 ;
(b) {x - a,)(x - ai){x - a^)-■ -{x - a„) + 1 .
211.* Prove that if the integers fli.fla, •••,«» are all distinct, then
the polynomial
{X - a^)\x - a^Y■ ■-{x - a,Y ^ 1
cannot be written as a product of two other jxilynomials with integral
coefficients.
212. Prove that if the jxilynomial
P{x) = flox" + flix"-' + • • • + a„-,x + a„ ,
with integral coefficients, takes on the value 7 for four integral values
of X, then it cannot have the value 14 for any integral value of x.
213. Prove that if the polynomial
flo^' + a\X^ + «2^' + «3^* + liX^ + a^x^ + a^x + a^ ,
of seventh degree, with integral coefficients, has for seven integral
values of x the value +1 or —1, then it cannot be factored as the
product of two jxilynomials with integral coefficients.
214. Prove that if the polynomial
P{X) = aoX" + fllX""' + • • • + On-lX + On ,
with integral coefficients, has odd values for x = 0 and x = 1, then
the equation P{x) = 0 cannot have integral roots.

48 The Algebra of Polynomials
215.* Prove that if the jxilynomial
P{x) = aoX" + a,x"'^ + • • ■ + a„-jx + a„ ,
with integral coefficients, is equal in absolute value to 1 for two
integers x = p and x = g {p > tj), and if the equation P{x) = 0 has
rational roots a, then p ~ q is equal to 1 or 2, and a = ^ .
216.* Prove that neither of the following jxilynomials can be
written as a product of two polynomials with integral coefficients:
(a) x"" + 2x"^° + 4x'"' + 6x'"' + 8x"'*
+ • • ■ + 22l8x* + 2220x2 + 2222 ;
(b) x"" + x"' + x"« + ••■ + x^ + x+1 .
217. Prove that if the product of two jxilynomials with integral
coefficients is a polynomial with even coefficients, not all of which
are divisible by 4, then in one of the polynomials all coefficients
must be even, and in the other not all coefficients will be even.
218. Prove that all the rational roots of the polynomial
P(x) = X" + aix"-' + a^x"-^ + • ■ • + a„^,x + a„ ,
with integral coefficients and with leading coefficient 1, are integers.
219.* Prove that there does not exist a jxilynomial
P{x) = aoX" + a,x"-' + • • • + a„-ix + a„
such that P(0), P(l), P{2), ■ ■ • are all prime numbers.
Remark: The proposition stated in tiiis problem was first proven by tiie
matiiematician L. Euler. Also credited to iiim are polynomials wiiose values
for many consecutive integers are prime numbers. For example, for tiie
polynomial P(x) = x^ -79x + 1601, tiie 80 numbers P(0) = 1, P{1) = 1523, P(2),
P(3), ■■-, P(79) are all primes.
220. Prove that if the polynomial
P(x) = x" + A^x"-^ + Aix"-' + ■ • ■ + A„^i + A„
assumes integral values for all integral values for x, then it is jx)s-
sible to represent it as a sum of polynomials
Poix) = 1, P,(X) = X, P^(X) = ^^Y^ ' ■ ■ ■' -^"^^^
= ^(^- 1)U- 2)---(x-n + 1)
1.2-3---W

Problems {215-221) 49
having the same property [in view of problem 49 (a)] and having
integral coefficients.
221. (a) Prove that if the «th degree polynomial P(x) has integral
values for X = 0,1, 2, • • •, n, then it has integral values for all integral
values of x.
(b) Prove that if a polynomial P{x) of degree n has integral
values for « + 1 successive integers x, then it is integral valued for
all integers x.
(c) Prove that if the polynomial P{x) of degree n has integral
values for x = 0,1,4,9,16, •••,«^ then it has integral values for all
integers x which are perfect squares (but this does not necessarily
follow for all integers x).
Give an example of a polynomial which assumes integral values
for all integers x which are perfect squares, but which for some
other value of x yields a rational (not whole) number.

9
COMPLEX NUMBERS
In many of the problems in this section the following formulas are
useful.
(1) The formula for the product of complex numbers in trigonometric form:
(cos « + i sin «)(cos ji + i sin f}) = cos (n + fi) + i sin {a + 0) .
(2) De Moivre's formula;
(cos a + i sin a)" = cos na + i sin na
(where n is a natural number), which is an n-fold application of the previous
formula.
(3) The formula for the roots of complex numbers:
V cos a + i sin a = cos + i sin
a + seo'-k , . . a + aeo'-k
n
(A; = 0,1,2, ■•■,n - 1) ,
which is an extended form of De Moivre's theorem.
In particular, a large role is played in the following problems by the formula
for the nth rooths of unity, that is, the roots of the nth-degree equation
a;" - 1 = 0 ,
which are given by the following formulas:
•aeo'-k . . aeo'-k
V 1 = V COS 0 + i sin 0 = cos h i sin
n n
(A; = 0, 1,2, ■■•,n - 1) ,
50

Problems (222-225) 51
The following observation will often be useful in solving the problems of
this section. Let the equation of degree n,
X" + aia;"-' + aix"-^ + ■ ■ ■ + an^ix + an = 0 ,
have the n roots Xi,Xi, •• ■ ,Xn~\,Xn- Then the left member of the equation is
divisible by {x — X\)(,x — Xz)- • -(x ~ Xn); that is,
x" + aix"^' + ■ • ■ + an-\x + an = {x - Xi){x - Xi)- ■ -{x - x„-\){x - x„) .
If we multiply out the second member of this equation and equate coefficients
of like powers of x from both members, we obtain the following formulas giving
relationships between the coefficients on the left and the roots of the equation
(Vieta's formulas).
ai = -{Xj + Xt+ ■■■ + Xn-l + X„) ,
aa = XlXi + X\Xl + ■ • • + Xn-lXn ,
aa = —(x\XlXi + ■ ■ ■ + Xn-lXn-\Xn) ,
a„_l = {-\Y-KX\Xl- • -Xn-l + X\Xl- • •Xn-aXn + •• • + XlX3---Xn) ,
On = (-Vj^^XlXlXi-'-Xn .
222. (a) Prove that
cos 5a: = cos* a: — 10 cos' a sm^ a; + 5 cos a sin* a ,
sin 5a = sin* a: — 10 sin' a cos^ a: + 5 sin a cos* a .
(b) Prove that for integers n
cos na = cos" a — C\ cos""^ a sin^ a + C\ cos" * a sin* a
— Cl cos"^* a sin* a + ■ • ■ ,
sin na = Cl cos""' a: sin a: — Cl cos"~' a sin' a
+ Cl cos""* a sin* a — • • ■ ,
where the terms designated by ■ • ■, which are readily identified from
the given terms, are continued while they preserve the sense of the
binomial coefficients.
Remark: Problem (b) is, of course, a generalization of problem (a).
223. Express tan 6a: in terms of tan a.
224. Prove that if x + — = 2 cos a:, then
X
x' -\ =2 cos na .
x'
225. Prove that
sin <p + sin {<p + a) + sin {<p + 2a) + • ■■ + sin{(p + na)
. / , na
. (« + l)a:
sm -^^—-—^— sir
a
sm-

52 Complex Numbers
and that
cos </> + COS {(p + a) + cos {(p + 2£ic) + ■ ■■ + cos {<p + «<!»;)
. (« + l)a:
sin -^^———^— cos
sin-
226. Find the value of
cos^a + cos'2a + ■ •■ + cos'na ,
and of
sin^ oi + sin^ 2a + ■ ■ • + sin^ na .
227. Evaluate
cos a + Ci cos 2a + Cl cos So: + ■ • • + CI'' cos no: + cos (« + 1)0:
and
sin a + Ci sin 2a: + C' sin 3a: + • ■ ■ + C"'^' sin «a: + sin (« + 1)0: .
228. Prove that if m, n, and p are arbitrary integers, then
. mn . nn , . 2mn . 2nn , . 3w/7 . 3«/7
sin sin h sin sin 1- sin sin
P P P P P P
, . {p - \)mn . {p-l)nn'\
+ ■ ■ ■ + sin -^^ sin ^^
P PA
-~-^, if w + « is divisible by 2p and w — « is not divisible by 2p;
^, if m — n is divisible by 2p and w + « is not divisible by 2p;
0, if w + « and m — n are both divisible by 2p, or if neither
is divisible by 2p.
229. Prove that
2/7 4/7 6/7 2«/7 1
cos + cos + cos + • • ■ + cos = — -— .
2« + 1 2« + 1 2« + 1 2« + 1 2
230. Construct an equation whose roots are the numbers:
, , . , /7 . , 2/7 . , 3/7 . , nn
(a) sin^- -,sin^- -,sin^-- — .■■•,sin^
2« + 1 • ''"' 2« + 1 ' --"' 2« + 1 ' ' --"' 2« + 1 '
(b) cOt=_^.cot^_^.COt^_^.....COt= "'^
2n + l ' 2n + l ' 2n + I ' ' 2« + 1 '

Problems (226-233) 53
231. Find the following sums.
(a) cot^ + cot^ + cot^ -
2« + 1 2« + 1 2« + 1
+ ■ • • + cot^
2« + 1 ■
/KN 2 /^ , 2 2/7 , , 3/7
(b) csc^ + csc^ + csc^
2« + 1 2« + 1 2« + 1
tin
+ • ■ ■ + csc^
2« + 1
232. Calculate the following products.
, , . n .2/7.3/7 . tin
(a) sin sin sin ■ ■ ■ sin
and
2« + 1 2« + 1 2« + 1 2« + 1 '
. /7 . 2/7 . 3/7 . (n - l)/7
sin -—- sin --- sin —— • • ■ sin
2« 2>2 2« «
,, , /7 2/7 3/7 «/7
(b) cos cos cos — • ■ • cos
and
2h + 1 2« + 1 2« + 1 2)1 + 1 '
n 2/7 3/7 («- l)/7
cos -r— COS —— COS -r— ■ ■ • COS
2« 2« 2« 2«
233. Using the results of problems 231 (a) and (b), show that for
any natural number n the sum
1,11 1
1 + -7^ + -7^ + • • • + —;
22 ^ 3
W
lies between the values
and
V « + iA 2« + i;6
V 2« + 1 A 2« + 1 y 6
Remark: A particular result which follows from problem 233 is
1 + — — —+ - —
22 "'' 32 "*" 42 6 '

54 Complex Numbers
where the summation on the left is the limit to which 1 + 1/2^ + ... -|- i/ji2
tends as n -» oo.
234. (a) On a circle which circumscribes an «-sided polygon
AjA^-'-An, a point M is taken. Prove that the sum of the squares
of the distances from this point to all the vertices of the polygon is
a number independent of the position of the point M on the circle,
and that this sum is equal to 2nR^, where R is the radius of the
circle.
(b) Prove that the sum of the squares of the distances from
an arbitrary point M, taken in the plane of a regular wsided polygon
AiAi- • -An to all the vertices of the polygon, depends only upon the
distance / of the point M from the center O of the polygon, and is
equal to n{R^ + /^), where R is the radius of the circle circumscribing
the regular «-sided polygon.
(c) Prove that statement (b) remains correct even when point
M does not lie in the plane of the «-sided polygon AiAi- --An.
235. Let M be a point on the circle circumscribing a regular «■
sided polygon AiAi- --An. Prove the following.
(a) If n is even, then the sum of the squares of the distances
from M to the vertices indicated by even-numbered subscripts (for
example, A2, Ai, and so on) is equal to the sum of the squared
distances to the vertices having odd subscripts.
(b) If n is odd, then the sum of the distances from the point
M to the vertices of the polygon which are even-numbered is equal
to the sum of the distances to those which are odd-numbered.
236. The radius of a circle which circumscribes a regular «-sided
polygon AiAi---An is equal to R. Prove the following.
(a) The sum of the squares of all the sides and all the
diagonals is equal to n^R^.
(b) The sum of all the sides and all the diagonals of the
polygon is equal to n cot—-R.
2n
(c) The product of all the sides and all the diagonals of the
polygon is equal to n"''^R^'"-''~"'^''^.
237.* Find the sum of the 50th powers of all the sides and all
the diagonals of the regular 100-sided polygon inscribed in a circle
of radius R.
238.* Prove that in a triangle whose sides have integral length

Problems {234-239) 55
it is not jxjssible to find angles differing from 60°, 90°, and 120°,
and commensurable with a right angle.
239.* (a) Prove that for any odd integer p > \ the angle arc
cos — cannot contain a rational number of degrees.
P
(b) Prove that an angle arc tan —, where p and q are dis-
Q
tinct jxjsitive integers, cannot contam a rational number of degrees.

10
SOME PROBLEMS OF
NUMBER THEORY
These problems are concerned with that division of mathematics treating
properties of integers, Elementary Number Theory. Many of the problems in
other sections of this boolc also deal with number theory—particularly Sections
3, 4, and 5. Several of the following theorems, stated here as problems, play
an important role in number theory (see, for example, problems 240, 241, 245-
247, 249, 253). Clearly, these problems do not pretend to explore with any
completeness the rich variety of methods and ideas that have permeated this
discipline, which is at once one of the most fruitful and one of the most
difficult of all mathematical endeavors. A good systematic account of some parts
of number theory is given in the boolc by B. B. Dynlcin and V. A. Uspenslcy,
Mathematical Conversat'ums, Issue 6, Library of the USSR Mathematical Society.
There the reader will find alternate solutions to some of the problems of this
section. An excellent condensed treatment is the article by A. Y. Khinchin,
"Elementary Number Theory," appearing in the Encyclopedia of Elementary
Mathem,atics, Government Technical Publishing House, Moscow, 1951, which
contains, as an appendix, an extensive bibliography covering the topics touched
on in the article.
240. Fermat's Theorem. Prove that if /> is a prime number, then
the difference a^ — a is, for any integer a, divisible by p.
Remark: Problems 27 (a)-(d) are special cases of this theorem.
241. Euler's Theorem. Let A^ be any natural number and let r
56

Problems (240-245) 57
be the number of integers in the sequence 1,2,3, •••,N— 1 which
are relatively prime to A^. Prove that if a is any integer which is
relatively prime to A^, then a' — 1 is divisible by A^.
Remark: If the number N is prime, then all the integers of the sequence
are, of course, relatively prime to N; that is, r = AT — 1. In this case, Euler's
theorem assumes the form a'''"' — 1 is divisible by N, if N is prime. It is
clear that Fermat's theorem (problem 240) can be considered a special case of
Euler's theorem.
If AT = p", where p is a prime number, then of the first AT — 1 = p" — 1
positive integers, those not relatively prime to iV= p" will be p, 2p, 3p, ■•■,
N ~ p = (p""' - l)p. Therefore, we have r = (p" - 1) - (p""' - 1) = p" - p""',
and Euler's theorem provides the following corollary: The difference
a''"~''"~' — 1, where p is prime and a is not divisible by p, is divisible by p".
If iV = pf'p?^' • -Pt*, where p,, pa, • ■ •, pt are distinct primes, then the number
r of prime numbers less than N and relatively prime to N is given by the
formula
r = N
pi/V Pa/ V Pit/
(See, for example, the article by A. Y. Khinchin, referred to above.) If N = p"
is a power of the prime p, this formula yields
r = p"( 1
V P
which is the result obtained previously.
242.* According to Euler's theorem, the difference 2* — 1, where
k — 5" — 5" ', is divisible by 5" (see problem 241, and the remark
following it). Prove that there exists no k less than 5" — 5""' such
that 2' — 1 is divisible by 5".
243. Let us write, in order, the consecutive powers of the number
2: 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512, 1024, 2048, 4096, ■ ■ ■. Note that in
this sequence the final digits periodically repeat with a period of 4:
2, 4, 8, 6, 2, 4, 8, 6, 2, 4, 8, 6, ■ ■ • .
Prove that, if we begin at a suitable point of the sequence, the last
ten digits of the numbers of the sequence will also repeat periodically.
Find the length of the period and the number of integers in the
sequence for which this observed periodicity occurs.
244.* Prove that there exists some power of 2 whose final 1000
digits are all ones and twos.
245. Wilson's Theorem. Prove that; if the integer p is prime,

58 Some Problems in Number Theory
then the number {p — 1)! + 1 is divisible by p; if p is comjxisite,
then (/> — 1)! + 1 is not divisible by p.
246.* Let p he a prime number which yields the remainder 1 uj)on
division by 4. Prove that there exists an integer x such that x^ + I
is divisible by p.
247.** Prove the following.
(a) If each of the two integers A and B can be represented
as the sum of two squares, then their product A-B can also be
represented in this manner.
(b) All prime numbers of form 4« + 1 can be written as
the sum of two squares, and no number of form 4« + 3 can be so
expressed.
(c) A composite number A^ can be written as the sum of
two squares if and only if all its prime factors of form 4« + 3
occur an even number of times.
For example, the numbers 10,000 = 2*-5* and 2430 = 2^-32-5-13 can
be represented as the sum of the squares of two integers (in the first
number there are no factors of form 4« + 3, and in the second
number there is one such factor, 3, which occurs twice); the number
2002 = 2-7-11-13 cannot be represented as the sum of two squares
(the factors 7 and 11, of form 4« + 3, appear once).
248. Prove that, for any prime p, it is possible to find integers x
and y such that x^ + y^ + I is divisible by p.
249.** Prove the following.
(a) If each of two numbers A and B can be written as the
sum of the squares of four integers, then their produQt AB can
also be represented in this manner.
(b) Every natural number can be written as the sum of not
more than four squares.
example, 35 = 25 + 9 + 1 = 5^ + 3^ + P; 60 = 49 + 9 + 1 + 1 = 7^ +
3' + P + P; 1000 = 900 + 100 = 30^ + 10% and so on.
250. Prove that no number of the form 4"(8^ — 1), where n and k
are integers, that is, no number belonging to the geometric
progressions
7, 28, 112, 448, •••,
15, 60, 240, 960, -••,
23, 92, 368, 1472, •-•,
31, 124, 496, 1984, •••.

Problems (246-252) 59
can be a square or the sum of two squares or three squares of
integers.
Remark: It has been shown that every integer which cannot be written in
form 4''{8fc — 1) is representable as the sum of three or fewer squares.
However, the proof is very complicated.
251.** Prove that every positive integer can be written as the
sum of not more than 53 fourth powers of integers.
Remark: Experimental trials indicate that integers of moderate size are
representable as the sum of far fewer fourth powers than 53. To the present
time, no integer has been produced which cannot be given as the sum of 19,
or fewer, fourth powers. (Of the numbers less than 100, only one—the number
79—requires as many as 19 fourth powers; that is four terms of 2' and 15 units).
It has been conjectured that 19 fourth powers suffice for every integer, but no
proof of this has as yet appeared. The best result in this direction has been
the proof that every natural number can be written as the sum of not more
than 21 fourth powers. This is a substantial improvement over the proposition
given as problem 251, but the proof of it involves considerable higher
mathematics.
In problem 239 (b) it was stated that every integer can be written as the
sum of not more than four squares. It has also been shown that every integer
can be written as the sum of not more than nine cubes.
AW these propositions are embraced by the following remarkable theorem:
For every positive integer k there exists a positive integer N {depending, of
course, on k) such that every integer may be written as the sum of not more
than N kth powers of positive integers. This theorem has been provided with
several different proofs, but only recently has a proof been given which does
not require considerable higher mathematics. In 1942 the Soviet mathematician
U. V. Linnik gave the elementary proof. This proof is presented in the popular
little book by A. Y. Khinchin. Three Pearls of Number Theory, Government
Technical Publishing House, Moscow, 1949.*^ Although Linnik's proof is
elementary, it is not easy reading. Khinchin himself remarks that almost
anybody can understand it with "only two or three weeks work with pencil and
paper."
252.** Prove that every positive rational number (in particular,
every positive integer) can be written as the sum of three cubes of
positive rational numbers.
Remark: Not all positive rational numbers can be represented as the .sum
of two cubes of positive rational numbers. Consider, for example, the number
1. The equation
^ An English translation has been published by Graylock Press. Rochester.
N. Y., 1952, 64 pp., S2.00 [Editor].

60 Some Problems in Number Theory
■=(T)'-(f)'
can be written
(nq)^ = {mqf + {.npY ,
where to, n, p, and q are integers. But it is known that no solution in integers
exists for the equation
(a proof of this may be found in most standard texts on number theory).
253. Prove that there exists an infinite number of prime numbers.
254. (a) Prove that among the numbers of the arithmetic
progressions 3, 7,11,15,19, 23, • • • and 5,11,17, 23, 29, 35, • • • there are an
infinite number of primes.
(b)* Prove that there are an infinite number of primes in
the arithmetic progression
5,9,13,17,21,25, ••• .
(c)* Prove that there are an infinite number of primes in
the arithmetic progression
11,21,31,41,51,61, ••• .
Remark: The following more general theorem holds: // the first term of
an infinite arithmetic progression of integers is relatively prime to the
common difference, the progression contains an infinite number of primes.
However, the proof of this theorem is quite complicated. (It is interesting that an
elementary, albeit very difficult, proof of this classical theorem of number
theory was published for the first time only in 1952 by the Danish
mathematician Selberg. Prior to this the only known proofs involved higher mathematics).

11
SOME DISTINCTIVE INEQUALITIES
This section presents several problems relating to inequalities stemming from
two important inequalities which play a major role in mathematical analysis
and In geometry. These are the theorem relating arithmetic and geometric
means (problem 268), and the so-called Cauchy-Buniakowski inequality (problem
289). Many problems on inequalities, not related to these two but of importance
in other applications, appear in other sections of this book (see, in particular,
Sections 6 and 7).
A great many interesting inequalities may be found in the Problem Book in
Algebra, by V. A. Kretchmer, Government Technical Publishing House, Moscow,
1950, where an entire chapter is devoted to inequalities. That book offers
alternative proofs of several of the inequalities presented here. There is also
much interesting material in the books by P. P. Korovkin, Inequalities
(Government Technical Publishing House, Moscow, 1951), by G. L. Nevyashy,
Inequalities (Pedagogical Publishing House, Moscow, 1947), and particularly that
by Hardy, Littlewood, and Polya, Inequalities, (Government Technical
Publishing House, Moscow, 1949).^
The initial chapters of the last book may be read by persons not acquainted
with higher mathematics'
The following problems are not presented in order of increasing difficulty.
^ The last book was originally written in English. It is published by
Cambridge University Press, revised edition, [Editor].
61

62 Some Distinctive Inequalities
The ordering is such that in some instances the result of one problem will be
useful in solving the next; in other instances problems conceptually related are
grouped together. The simplest properties of inequalities are assumed known.
In all the problems of this section, small English letters designate real
numbers.
Theorems on Arithmetic and Geometric Means and Their Applications
We know, from formal mathematics courses, that the geometric mean of two
positive numbers a and b is less than, or equal to, their arithmetic mean,
/SFg^, (1)
and the equality holds only if a = 6. This is proved as follows.
If we square both members of the inequality and clear of fractions, we arrive
at
iab g (a + 6)2 .
Expanding the right member, transposing iab to the right side, and so on, we
obtain
0 g a^ - 2a6 + 62 = (a - 6)2 ,
which clearly is true for all numbers a and 6, since the square of any real
number is nonnegative.
Hence, inequality (1) holds for every real number. Moreover, it is evident
that (a — 6)2 can be zero only if a = 6; that is, the last inequality reduces to
the equality only for a = 6. Therefore, this criterion must hold also for
inequality (1).
Inequality (1) may be rewritten in the following equivalent form, which we
shall use hereafter:
If we expand the left member of (1'), clear of fractions and put all terms in
the right member, we obtain
0 £ 2a2 + 262 - (a2 + 2a6 + 62) = (a - 6)2 .
Use of inequalities {1) and {!') simplifies the solution of the first of the
problems which follow. These two forms of the inequality are useful in the
derivation of many generalizations, the most important of which are the propositions
of problems 268 and 283.
The arithmetic mean of n positive numbers ai, aa, -•-,an is defined by the
following expression:
. , , a\ + at + • • • + an
Ania) = .
n
The geometric mean of n positive numbers ai, ai, • •• ,an is defined as the nth
root of their product:
r„{a) = Vaiaa- •On .

Problems (255-261) 63
Finally, the harmonic mean of n positive numbers is the number H{a) such
that
1 1/a + llai+ ••■ + l/a„
H{a) n
(the reciprocal of the harmonic mean of n numbers is the arithmetic mean of
the numbers inverse to the given ones). In particular, the harmonic mean of
two numbers a and b is determined by the equation
c ~ 2\a ^ b ) ■
from which c = 2a6/(a + b).
255. (a) Prove that, of all rectangles having the same given
perimeter P, the square encloses the greatest area.
(b) Prove that, of all rectangles having the same given area
S, that of smallest perimeter is the square.
256. Prove that the sum of the legs of a right triangle never
exceeds i/ 2 times the hypotenuse of the triangle.
257. Prove that for every acute angle a:
tan a + cot a; § 2 .
258. Prove that if a + b = I, where a and b are positive numbers,
then
,2 / 1 \2 25
2
h^hi^-i)'-
Determine for what values of a and b the equality holds.
259. Prove, given any three positive numbers a, b, and c, the
following inequality holds:
(a + bXb + c){c + a) ^ 8abc .
Show that the equality holds only for a ~ b =^ c.
260. For what values of x does the following fraction have the
least value?
— — {a and b positive).
x'
261. A butcher has an inaccurate balance scale (its beams are of
unequal length). Knowing that it is inaccurate, and being an honest
merchant, he weighs his meat as follows. He takes half of it and
places it on one pan, and he places the weights on the other pan;

64 Some Distinctive Inequalities
then he weighs the other half of the meat by reversing this
procedure, that is, by removing the weights and placing the meat on
that pan. Thus, the butcher believes he is giving honest weight.
Is his assumption correct?
262. (a) Prove that the geometric mean of two positive numbers
is equal to the geometric mean of their arithmetic and harmonic
means.
(b) Prove that the harmonic mean of two positive numbers
a and b does not exceed the geometric mean, and that the equality
holds only if a = 6.
263.* Prove that the arithmetic mean of three jxisitive numbers
is not less than their geometric mean, that is,
and that the equality holds only if a = b = c.
264. Prove that, of all triangles with the same given perimeter,
the greatest area is enclosed by the equilateral triangle.
265. Given a three-faced pyramid having a right trihedral angle
at the vertex. Designate the edges from the vertex by x,y, and z.
For what x,y, and z is the volume of the pyramid a maximum if
it is known that
X + y + z = al
266. Given six positive numbers Ou Oi, Oa, bu bz, bs. Prove that the
following inequality holds:
^(a, + 6,)(a2 + biXa^ + b^) ^ ^a^aia^ + VbM^ .
267. A Special Case of the Theorem Concerning the Arithmetic and
Geometric Means. Given 2"" positive numbers a\,ai, ■■•,aim. Prove
the inequality
r^m g Azm{a) ,
that is,
jm , fll + gg + ■ ■ • + a^n
Waiai- ■aim g -^ ,
and that the equality holds only if all the numbers a\, ai, • ■ •, aim are
equal.
268.* Theorem of the Arithmetic and Geometric Means for n Num-

Problems {262-274) 65
bers. Prove that for any n positive numbers d, Ca, ••-.fln
r,(a) S A.{a) ,
that is,
n, . a, +02+ ■ ■ ■ + On
Vaifla' • -On g -^ ,
and that the equality holds only if Oi = 02= • • • = a„.
269. (a) Consider all sets of n positive numbers whose sum is a
given number k. Prove that the maximum product of the numbers
of any such set is attained when all the numbers are equal.
(b) Given n positive numbers Ci, Ca, •••,a». Prove that
^ + ^ +
02 O3
+ ^^n.
Oi
270. Prove that for n positive numbers 01,02, ■
inequality holds,
H{o) g t'io) ,
S Voi02- • -On
. On the following
that is.
(^ + ^+...+^)
\ Oj O2 On/
and that the equality is obtained only ii Oi = 02 = • • • = On.
271. Prove that for two positive numbers o and b
n-i/-rr-^ O + nb
Vob" ^ —;- ,
« + 1
and that equality can hold only if o — b.
272. Prove that for any set of positive numbers 01,02, •■
(a, + flj + • • ■ + a„)( — + — + ■ • • + —) g «'.
\ Oi O2 On/
When does the equality hold?
273. Prove that for any integer « > 1
'« + 1\"
». < (^)-
274. Prove that the following inequality holds for any four posi
tive numbers d, 02, Oi, a»:

66
lala\ g (■
aiaiasdi
Some Distinctive Inequalities
a: + 2a2 + Sa, + 4a,'
10
•-T-
275. Prove the following.
(b) 1 • 2» ■ 3' • 4« • • • «" < P" + n^
"2« + 11["("+')]/2
([a] means "the largest integer in a").
276. Let fli, ^2, ■•■,an be jxisitive numbers, and let
s = a: + Oi + ■■■ + On .
Prove that
(1 + a,)(l + aO' ■•(! + a,) g 1 + s + 1^ +|J- + ■ •
«!
277. Prove that for every integer n
VTVTVT---'V2^^n + l .
278. For which value of x is the product
(1 - xm + x)(l + 2xY
a maximum, and what is this value?
279.* Inscribe between a given segment of a circle and the arc
of the circle the rectangle of greatest area.
280. From a square piece of cardboard measuring 2a on each side

Problems {275-281) 67
a box with no top is to be formed by cutting out from each corner
a square with sides b and bending up the flaps, as shown in Figure
4. For what value of b will the box contain the greatest volume?
Two Generalizations of the Theorem Concerning
Arithmetic and Geometric Means
The power mean of order a of n positive numbers a\,ai, ••■,an is defined
to be the number
in particular, if a = A; is a whole number, we obtain
s*(a) = 7°? + g^ + • • • + < _
y n
It is easy to see that Si(a) = A{a) and S-i(a) = H{a).
if « = 0, the expression for Sa is meaningless. On the other hand, it can
be proved that if o -► 0, then Sa(a) tends to the geometric mean r(a).T
Therefore, it is convenient to define So(a) = r{a). (An additional justification for
this definition is given in problem 282.) The power mean of order 2 is referred
to as the quadratic mean.
Inequality {!') (see the remark at the beginning of this section) can now be
stated as follows: The arithmetic mean of two numbers does not exceed their
quadratic mean (and the equality holds only if the numbers are equal).
281.* (a) Prove that the arithmetic mean of « positive numbers
does not exceed the quadratic mean:
/ fli + fla + • • • + fln y-
2 2 2
a, + fla + • • • + fln
The equality holds only if the numbers are all equal.
(b) Let k be any integer greater than 1. Prove that the
arithmetic mean of n positive numbers does not exceed their jxiwer
mean of order k:
< a'l + 02+ ■■■ + at
/ Ol + Ol + ■•■ + fln \
\ n / ~ n
The equality holds only if all the numbers are equal.
T That is,
lim —! -] = Vajat'--an •
a-.o \ n /
See V. E. Levine, "Elementary proof of one theorem of the theory of means,'
Math. Educa., Issue 3, pp. 177-181. Moscow, 1958.

68 So>ne Distinctive Inequalities
282. Prove that the power mean of order aoi n jxisitive numbers,
for o: > 0, is not less than the geometric mean, and, for a < 0, is
not greater than the geometric mean (equality holds only if all n
numbers are equal.)
Remark: The theorems of problems 268 and 270 are particular cases of this
proposition.
283.* Theorem of Power Means. Prove that if a < 0, then the
power mean of order a does not exceed the jxiwer mean of order |9:
/af+ a?+ ■■■ +atyi'' < /af+ af + •■■ + agV'^
The equality holds only if a, = aa = ■ • • = a».
284. (a) The sum of three positive numbers is equal to 6. What
is the smallest value which the sum of their squares can have?
What is the smallest value which the sum of their cubes can have?
(b) The sum of the squares of three positive numbers is
equal to 18. What is the smallest possible value for the sum of the
cubes of these numbers? What is the smallest possible value for
the sum of these numbers?
The symmetric mean of order k oi n positive numbers a\,ai, •••.On (where
k is a natural number not exceeding n) is defined to be the kth root of the
sum of all possible products of these n numbers taken k at a time:
* '""- - "■ -^ aiaa--•at-iat + i + ••• + an-t^ia,t-;t + 2-
„ , , * /aiai- • -aic +
S»(a) = y
It is clear that 2,(a) = A{a), Zn{a) = r{a).
285. Prove that
(SO"^(St+,)*^"'-(St-.r'.
286. Theorem of the Symmetric Mean. Prove that if ^ > /, then
St(a) g Si(fl).
The equality holds only if ai = aa = • • • = a,.
287. Given that the sum of all six possible pairwise products of
four numbers is equal to 24. What is the smallest value jxissible
for the sum of the four numbers? What is the greatest possible
value for the product of the numbers?
288. Let a; + |3 + r = n-.
(a) Find the smallest possible value for

Problems (282-292) 69
a B r
tan — + tan y + tan ^ .
(b) Find the largest possible value for
<* t B ^ r
tan —- • tan -— • tan —- .
2 2 2
The Cauchy-Buniakowski Inequality
The following elementary inequality is readily verified;
aibi+ath^ ► a? + a^/65+ bl
or,
(a,6, + aibz)' S (a? + a22)(6? + 62). ( ^ )
Expanding both sides and collecting all terms on one side we obtain
(aibt - atbty S 0 .
It follows that inequality (1) becomes an equality if
atbi = aj)i ,
that is, if
at _ ai
61 62
Inequality (1) yields a significant generalization which is important in
inequality theory and has useful applications in mathematics and physics.T
289. The Cauchy-Buniakowski Inequality. Prove that for any 2«
real numbers fli, fla, ■ • •, On and b^bi, •••,6„ the following inequality
holds:
(a,6, + aibi + • • ■ + aA)' ^ {a\ + al+ ■ ■■ + al){b\ + b\+ ■■■ + bl) .
The equality holds only if
_ai ^ __ .. __ ^
bi bi b„ '
290. Use the Cauchy-Buniakowski inequality to derive the results
of problem 272.
291. Use the Cauchy-Buniakowski inequality to obtain the theorem
of problem 281 (a).
292. Prove that if a; + |3 + r = ff, then
T This inequality is sometimes referred to, in other texts, as the Cauchy-
Schwarz inequality [Editor].

70 Some Distinctive Inequalities
tan^ -^ + tan^ -f- + tan^ "^ ^ 1 •
Z o A
293. Prove for any positive numbers x,, Xt, •■•,x„; yuyi, ■•■, y^:
V{x: + y,Y + {X2 + yiY + • • • + (x„ + ynY
g '^xl + xl+ ■■■ +xl + V_
y\ + yl+ • •• + yl.
294. Let Q be the sum of all the jxissible pairwise products of the
n jxjsitive numbers d, Ca, • • •. a,, and let P be the sum of their
squares. Prove that
295. Prove that, given 2« positive numbers pi, p2, ■ ■ •, pn', x,, Xj,
•■■,Xn, the following inequality holds:
{PiXi + piXi + ••■ + pnXnY
^{Pi+Pl+ ■■• + pnXPiXl + p2xl + • • • + P„xl) .
296. Verify that for any three arbitrary numbers .r,, Xa, Xa the
following inequality holds:
297.
len
Vx,
298.
(1-
Prove that if
lyi +
Let
Vxiy^ +
Oj, at, • •
h + ¥■
' X,,Xu • ■
")'
•,Xn
• • • + t/x„jv„
^Vx>
•,a„; bub
-h-
;yuyi.
+ Xi+ • • •
'2, • •
•,bn; c
1
■■■,y
+ Xn
\,Ci, ■
xl + -
n are
■Vy
■ • ,c
^x'
positive numbers,
i + yi+ •
»; di, di, •
■ • + ^'n .
• •, rfn be
four sequences of positive numbers. Prove the inequality
{Uibiddi + OlbiCidi + • • • + OnbnCndn)*
g (a! + aj + aj + • • • + alXbt + bl + b\+ ■■■ + bV)
X (cl + c5 + c5 + • • • + cV){d\ + dl + d\+ ■■■ + d\).
299.* The Cauchy-Buniakowski inequality (problem 289) verifies
that the relationship
{al + al+ ■■■ + alXbl + bl+ ■■■ +bl)
{oibi + oibi + • • • + OnbnY
where a,, ai, • • •, an! b^, bz, • • •, 6„ are two sequences of positive num-

Problems {293-301) 71
bers, is greater than or equal to 1 (and is equal to 1 only if — =
-p = ••• = -r-]- Prove that this value is always included between
02 b„/
^ , / VMiMiJm^mi — \/mimilMiMiy
_ / VMiMilminii + i/mimj/AfiAf; V "I
where Mj and w, are, respectively, the greatest and the least of the
numbers fli, fla, •••,a», and Mj and Wa are, respectively, the greatest
and least of the numbers bu bi, • • ■, 6,. In which case does the value
exactly equal the following?
Some Additional Inequalities
300. Chebycheff's Inequality. Let a,, Oi, • • •, a, and bx, bi, • • •, 6, be
two nonincreasing sequences of numbers. The following inequality
holds;
fli + gg + • • • + a. _ bx + bi+ • •• + bn Oibi + atbt + ■ ■ ■ + a.6.
n n ~ n '
the equality holding only if a, = Ca = • • • = a» and bj = bi= ••• =6,.
Remark: It is possible to show that if ai, 02, •■•.On is a nonincreasing
sequence of numbers, and if 61,62, •••,6n is nondecreasing, then
ai + ai + • •■ + an 61 + 62 + ■ • • + 6n ai6i + 0262 + • ■ • + Onbn
n n ~ n '
The proof of this proposition is left to the reader.
301. Let p and q be jxisitive rational numbers for which
T + --1-
P Q
Prove that for any jxisitive numbers x and y the following inequality
holds:
^ 1 . , 1 .
xy g —x" + —y'> .
P Q

72 Some Distinctive Inequalities
Remark: For p = q = 2 we obtain the Elementary Theorem of the Arithmetic
and Geometric Means.
302. Let a and |9 be positive rational numbers, where a + 0 = 1.
Prove that for any positive numbers d, Ca, ■••.^nl bi,bi, • ••,bn the
following inequality holds:
a?6f + atbt + • • • + atb^n ^ (a, + a^ + • • ■ + OnYib, + b^+ ■■■ + 6„)» .
Remark: If a = 0 = J, it is readily seen that we obtain the inequality of
problem 297, which is equivalent to the Cauchy-Bunialcowslci inequality.
303. Holder's Inequality. Let p and q be positive rational numbers
such that
P Q
Prove that for any positive numbers Xu Xi, •••,^n; .Vi, Va, •••,.Vn the
following inequality holds:
X\y\ + Xiyi + • • • + x„jv„
g (xf + X? + • • • + xly"{,y\ +y\+ ... + yiyi" .
Rem,ark: If p = g = 2, this inequality becomes that of Cauchy-Bunialcowslci
(problem 289), which, in turn, is a special case of Holder's inequality.
304. Let fli, 02, ■ ■., On', bu bt, .. ■, b^; • • •; /i, h, •••,/„ be ^ sequences
of positive numbers, and a, 0, .. -, Xhe k positive number such that
a+ 0 + ■•■ + ^ = 1 .
Prove that
g (a, + aa + • • • + a.yib, + 6^ + • • • + 6„)S- • •(/, + /a + • • • + /„)^ .
305. Let a-i, Oi, ..., On be n positive numbers, and let g be their
geometric mean (9= ^aiCa-'-an). Prove that
(14-a,)(l + a2)---(l + an)^(l +!/)".
306. Prove that if fli, fla, • • •, fln; 61, 62, • ••,6„; • ■ ■', lu h, ■ ■ ■, L are
^ sequences of positive numbers, then, the following holds:
^a.aj- • -an + ^M^- • -6, + • • • + ^l,h. • •/„
S ^(a, + 6, + • • • + /,)(a2 + 62 L ... _,_ /^)(a„ _,_ ^, _,_...+ /„)
307. Let x,y, and 2 be positive numbers for which
x + y + z = l .

Problems {302-308) 73
Prove that
(-iX'-fX'-l)^-
308. Minkoivski's Inequality. Let a^ at, ■ • •, a^; bi, bi, • • •, b„\
lull, •■•,ln, be k sequences of positive numbers. Prove that
Va\ + al + ■ ■ ■ + al + Vb\ + bl + ■ ■ ■ + bl
+ ■■■ + Vl', + ll+ ■■■ + ll
S Via, + 6, + • • • + l,Y + {ai + bi + --- + UY + • • ■ + (a„ + 6„ + • ■ ■ + /„)'.
Remark: The inequality of problem 308 [a generalization of the result of
problem 186 (a)l can also be written in the form
Siia) + Stib) + ••• + StiD g Sia + b-\ +1),
where Si is the quadratic mean of n numbers (see p. 67).
A more general formulation of Minkowski's inequality is as follows. If
ai, ai, •••, an', bt.bi, •• • .bn', •••; lu h, •••, In, are k sequences of positive numbers,
then
S,(a) +5.(6)+...+5.(01 = ^-^'' + ''+•••+'' '''*>'•'
I g Sa(a + b + ■•• +1) if a < 1 .
In particular, the inequality of problem 306, which may be written
r{a) + rib) + ■•• + r{i) ^ r{a + b + ••• +i)
or
So(a) + Soib) + ••• + Soil) S So(a + 6 + •. • + 0
is a special case of Minkowski's inequality for or = 0'

12
DIFFERENCE SEQUENCES AND SUMS
Consider the sequence of numbers
Mo, Ml,M2, • • •, M,,, • • • .
The first difference seqiience of this sequence is the set of numbers
<"
M<"
M<"
<"
■ence
<'
m1»'
M<»'
= Ml — Mo;
= M2 — Ml;
= M3 — M2 ;
= Un+l — Mre
is the diff«
= M<" - M<"
= M<" - mJ"
= M<" - mJ"
The second difference sequence is the difference sequence of the previous
sequence;
i'2' =«"'.-«("
, (t) „(<:)
Analogously, the sequence of differences of kth order, m^'", m;*' , m^"', • • ■, m;;
is the sequence obtained by working on the (k — l)st sequence of differences,
M^*"", MJ'~^', Mj'~'', ■■■. For example, if the initial sequence of numbers is
the arithmetic progression 1,5,9,13,17, ■•■, then the first row of differences
consists of the numbers 4,4,4,4, ■••, and the differences of second order form
74

Problems 75
a sequence of zeros; 0,0,0,0, ■ • •. If the initial sequence is the set of squares
of integers, 1,4,9,16, 25, 36, 49, ■ ■ •, then the differences of first order form the
sequence of odd numbers: 3,5,7,9,11,13, ■■■; the differences of second order
form the sequence 2, 2, 2, 2, ■•■, and the third sequence (differences of third
order) consists of zeros. [In the examples Investigated we quickly arrived at
a sequence of zeros, and this is related to the general proposition of 309 (b).]
The sequences of differences of a finite sequence of numbers can be
conveniently written in triangular array:
Mo Ml M2
M
*1 "n-i
(1)
I
Here it is apparent that each number is the difference of the two adjacent
numbers of the row above. For an infinite sequence of numbers the triangular
(infinite) array has the form
Mo Ml M2 ■ ■ • V^,
K'
In a fashion analogous to finding the successive sequences of differences of
a set of numbers we can also define sequences of sums. The sequence of
sums of first order of the set of numbers Mo, Mi, Ma, • • •, Un, ■ • •, which we shall
designate by writing m^', mj", iij", • • ■, m^", • • •, is defined by
Ml + M2
= Mre + Mre+i
The sequence of sums of kth order of the numbers Mo, Mi, • ■ •, Mk, ••• is
obtained from the {k — l)st row of such sums. We shall designate the sums of
kth order by «^*' ,«;*',-••, «i" .■■■ •
For example, if the initial set is the sequence of ones, 1,1,1,1,--., then
the sequence of sums of first order consists of two's; 2, 2, 2, 2, • • •; the sequence
of sums of second order is 4, 4, 4, 4, • ■ •; the third sequence is 8, 8, 8, 8, • • •;
and so on. If the initial set is the sequence of natural numbers, 1,2,3,4,5,
• ■-, then each sequence of sums will form an arithmetic progression;

76 Difference Sequences and Sums
3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13,
8, 12, 16, 20, 24,
20, 28, 36, 44,
and so on.
Sequences of successive sums of a finite set mc Mi, • • •, Mn can be conveniently
displayed in triangular array:
Mo Ml M2 ••• Mn-l Mn
(2) ,;(2) . ,-(2)
"n «
^n-2
Here, each number is the sum of the two adjacent numbers in the row above.
If we consider an Infinite sequence of numbers Mo, Mi,M2, • • •, Mn, then the
triangular array continues indefinitely.
We now consider a related concept, Pascal's Triangle (or the Arithmetic
Triangle):
1
1 1
1 2 1
13 3 1
14 6 4 1
Here, the rows are bordered on each end by ones, and the interior integers are
obtained as the sum of the two adjacent numbers of the previous row.
For convenience we shall start the row enumeration of the Pascal triangle
with the number zero; that is, the number one at the apex of the triangle will
be thought of as the 0th row; the sequence 1, 1 constitutes the first row, and
so on. We shall designate the {k + l)st element of the nth row as C* (that
is, in each row, too, we shall start counting from zero). Using this terminology,
we have the following format for Pascal's triangle:
CI
CI C\
Co /-il /-i2
2 ^2 ^2
r* /^* /^2 /^3
^3 "^3 "^3 "^3
CI C[ CI CI C\
A number of properties of the members in the Pascal triangle have been

Problems {309-314) 77
developed in the book by B. B. Dynkin and V. A. Uspensky, Mathematical
Conversations, Issue 6, Section 2, Chapter III, Library of the Mathematical
Society. The material contained in the problems of this section are closely
related to the material in the interesting popular book by A. E. Markuskevich,
Reflexive Series, Government Technical Publishing House, Moscow, 1950.
The sequence of numbers obtained by successively substituting, for x in a
polynomial P{x) = aox" + aix"'^ + ■■ ■ + aic-ix + aic the sequence of integers
1,2, 3, ...,n [that is, the sequence P(l), P(2), ■ •., P(n)] will be called the kth
order sequence of Fix). A special case of a kth order sequence is the sequence
1*, 2*, 3*, 4*, ..., n*, . •. [that is, P{x) = x"].
309. Let Mo, Mi,2<2. •••,Mn be a sequence of ^th order; that is, let
Mn ~ ao«* + ai«*"' + ••• + Ok.
(a) Prove that ul" forms a sequence of {k — l)st order.
(b) Prove that the {k + l)st difference sequence of this
sequence consists only of zeros.
310. Prove that if «„ = ao«* + ai«*'' + • • • + a*, then all the
numbers of the ^th row of the difference sequences Wo, Uij W2, * * ' , Wn, * * '
are equal to Ookl.
311. Prove that:
(a) Un^ = ClUn + ClUn+l + ClUn + 1 + • • • + C^Un+k',
(b) ul" = {-IfCtu, + (-l)*^-'Ci«„+,
+ {-If-'ClUn + i + ■■■ + CUn + k.
312. Prove that
n — !)(« —
kl
Ci = »{n-lXn-2)...{n-k+l) ^^ ^ ^^ ^
where k\ = l-2-3---k.
313. Prove that
;<„ = CUo + CUi" + CWo'' + ■■• + CW,"' .
314. Assume that the {k + l)st row of successive differences
[differences of {k + l)st order] of some seqnence consists of zeros, but
that the ^th row consists of nonzero numbers. Prove that this
sequence is a sequence of order k.
Remark: The theorem represented by this problem is the converse of the
theorem of problem 309 (b). There we were to prove that the (k + l)st row
of the differences of a kth order sequence consists of zeros. Here we are to
prove that if the {k + l)st differences of some sequence consists of zeros, then
the sequence is of kth order.

78 Difference Sequences and Sums
315. Find the formula giving the sum of the series
P + 2* + 3* + • • • + «* .
316. (a) Prove that the sum 1* + 2* + 3* + • • • + «* is a
polynomial in n of degree ^ + 1.
(b) Calculate the coefficients of «*+' and of «* of this
polynomial.
317. We say that a sequence of integers is divisible by a number
d if every number of this sequence is divisible by d. [For example,
the sequence of numbers «" — n is divisible by 13; the sequence of
numbers 3*" — 2*" is divisible by 35; the sequence of numbers n^ —
5«' + 4« is divisible by 120. See problems 27 {d), 28 (a), (b)].
Let M„ be a ^th order sequence, «„ = Uan'' + ai«*^' + • • • + Ok, where
the coefficients ati,ai,ai, •••,a* are relatively prime integers. Prove
that if the sequence u„ is divisible by an integer d, then d is a divisor
of k\.
318. Calculate {CVf + {Cif + {Clf +■•■ + {Clf.
319. Using the result of problem 313, prove Newton's binomial
formula:
(a + bf = 0" + ka<"'b + ^'^^ ~ ^\''-V + • • • + Kk - l> • ■2-\ y, _
320. Consider the sequence l,-r-,-;r. •••. —.•••. Construct the
2 3 n
successive-difference triangle;
11111
2 3 4 5 6 ■■■
_1 _1 _1 _1 _1
2 6 12 20 30 '"
1111
3 12 30 60
_1 _1 _1
4 20 60 '"
j_ j_
5 30
_j_
6
Turn this triangle 60° clockwise such that the apex consists of the
number 1;

Problems (315-320) 79
1
_j_ j_
2 2
j_ _j_ j_
3 6 3
_JL 1 _1 1
4 12 12 4
1 _j_ J_ _j_ j_
5 20 30 20 5
_j_ JL _1 1 _1 1
6 30 60 60 30 6
Disregard the minus signs of this triangle, and divide through every
row by the number at the end of that row to obtain
1
1
> 1
1
1
4
1
1 1
i ^
1 1 1
3 3
1 1 1
6 4
1 1 1
10 10 5
1
Finally, substitute for each number its reciprocal (that is, replace
alb by bja).
Prove that this end result gives Pascal's triangle.

SOLUTIONS
1. Consider the total number of handshakes which have been
completed at any moment. This must be an even number, since every
handshake is participated in by two people, thus the total number
is increased by two. The number of handshakes, however, is also
the sum of the handshakes made by each individual person. Since
this sum is an even number, the count of the people who have shaken
hands an odd number of times must be even (otherwise, odd times
odd would given an odd contribution to the total).
2. In order to traverse the chessboard, stopping precisely once on
each square, the knight must move 63 times. At each move the
knight goes from a square of one color to a square of another color.
Thus, in an even number of moves the knight is again on a square
of the same color as that of the square he started from, and in an
odd number of moves he is on a square of the other color. Therefore,
the knight can not arrive at the opposite end of the diagonal of the
chessboard in 63 moves: the initial and final squares are the same
color.
3. (a) Let us denote the minimum number of transfers necessary
to construct a pyramid consisting of n rings on the second peg (under
80

Solutions {1-3) 81
the conditions given by the problem) by k{n). Clearly, ^(1) = 1.
Further, if « = 2, then to transfer the second ring to the second peg,
we must first transfer the first ring from the second peg to the auxil-
liary peg; then we place the second ring on the second peg and
transfer the first (smallest) ring to the second peg. Thus, k{2) = 3.
If « = 3, then to transfer the lowest (largest) ring to the second peg,
in the necessary arrangement, we must first move the two rings
already on the second peg to the auxilliary peg. This requires k(2)
moves, and k(2) moves will be required again to replace the rings on
the second peg after the largest ring is moved from the first peg to
the second peg. Thus,
k(3) = 2/fe(2) + 1=7.
In an analogous way find
k{4) = 2/fe(3) + 1 = 15;
k{5) = 2/fe(4) + 1 = 31 .
In general,
k{n) = 2k{n - 1) + 1 .
Noting that, for example, ^(3) = 2' — 1, ^(4) = 2' — 1, and so on, we
assume as an induction hypothesis that k{n — 1) = 2"~' — 1. Then
k{n) = 2k{n - 1) + 1 = 2(2"-' - 1) + 1 = 2» - 1 .
Thus, by the principle of finite mathematical induction, it follows
that k{n) = 2" - 1 for all n.
(b) Designated by K{n) the least number of moves necessary to
remove n rings from the rod. From the beginning position it is
possible to remove either the first ring [see Figure 5(a)] or the second
[Figure 5(b)]; consequently, K{1) = 1 and K{2) = 2 (for two rings, we
first remove the second ring, then the first).
In order to remove the fth ring it is necessary to remove the 2 — 2
preceding rings; otherwise the fth ring cannot be moved to the end
of the rod. On the other hand, if the (f — l)st ring is already removed,
then the fth ring cannot be removed [see Figure 6(a)] (it is evident
that if three rings are removed, then the fourth cannot be removed).
But if the (f — l)st ring is removed, then the (f + l)st ring can easily
be removed [see Figure 6(b) and (c)].
Now it is not difficult to answer the question posed by the problem.
In order to remove the last of the n rings it is first necessary to
remove the first « — 2 rings. This can be done in K{n — 2) moves.

82
Introductory Problems
Figure 5
after this the final ring can be taken off in one more move. It then
remains to remove the {n — l)st ring. We will designate by k{n) the
number of moves necessary to remove only the Kth ring, under the
condition that all the preceding rings have already been taken off.
We obtain
K{n) = K{n - 2) + 1 + k{n - 1) .
We shall now find an expression for the number k{n). Clearly, in
order to remove the «th ring from the rod we must put the (« — l)st
ring back on the rod. This can be done in k{n — 1) moves [the same
number of moves which were necessary to remove the (« — l)st ring
from the rod, the moves now being done in reverse order]. The «th
ring is now easily removed from the rod, requiring only one
additional move. Finally, the (« — l)st ring must be taken off the rod,
for which k{n — 1) more moves are needed. Thus, we obtain
k{n) = 2k{,n - 1) + 1 ,

Solutions (1-3)
83
, 'J^^^^
jmHiirif
& &
UMj"
Figure 6

84 Introductory Problems
from which we easily derive
k{n) = 2» - 1
[see the solution to problem (a)].
Now the formula which determines K{n) takes the form
Kin) = Kin - 2) + 2»-' .
But since K{V) = 1 and K{2) = 2, we readily find, for « = 2w (an even
number) that
K{n) = K{n - 2) + 2»-' = K{n - 4) + 2»-' + 2"^'
= K{n - 6) + 2»-' + 2»-' + 2»-' = ■ • •
= K{2) + 2"-' + 2"-' + 2»-' + ■ ■ ■ + 2'
9n+l 93 1
= 2 + ^-^ZT " y^2"" ~ ^^ ■
If « = 2w + 1 (an odd number),
K{,n) = /f(« - 2) + 2»-' = K{,n - 4) + 2»-' + 2»-'
= /f(« - 6) + 2»-' + 2"-' + 2»-' = ■ ■ •
= K{\) + 2»-' - 2"-' + 2"-' + ■ ■ ■ +2^
9n+l 92 1
= 1 + ^^ = |(2»--1).
4. (a) We divide the coins into three groups: two having 27 coins
each and one having 26 coins. A first weight trial is made by
placing a group of 27 coins on each of the two pans. If the pans do not
balance, the counterfeit coin is among those in the lighter pan. If
the scale is in balance, the counterfeit coin is among the 26 un-
weighed coins. Therefore, it suffices to solve the following problem;
To find, by three weight trials, a light counterfeit coin among 27
coins (the problem of detecting the counterfeit in the group of 26 coins
can be reduced to this by simply adding to the set of 26 coins a
genuine coin from the 54 which were weighed).
For a second weight trial we divide the 27 coins into three groups
of nine each and place a group of nine coins on each of the two pans.
This will reveal which group of nine coins contains the counterfeit.
The group of nine coins containing the counterfeit is then divided
into three groups of three coins each. A third weight trial will tell
which group of three coins contains the counterfeit. Finally, a fourth
weight trial involving two of the three doubtful coins will reveal the
counterfeit.
(b) Let ^ be a natural number which satisfies the inequalities

Solutions {1-4) 85
3* ^ n and 3*-' < n. We shall show that the number k satisfies the
conditions of the problem.
First we show that, at most, k weight trials are enough to allow
detection of the counterfeit coin. We divide the coins into three
groups such that in each of two equal groups there are 3* ' (or fewer)
coins and the number of coins in the third group does not exceed
3' '(this is possible for n g 3'). The two groups having the same
number of coins are placed on the pans of the balance; this enables
us to determine which group contains the counterfeit [see the
solution to problem (a)]. If the group containing the counterfeit coin
contains fewer than 3* ' coins, we add to it enough (genuine) coins
from the other two groups to give it 3'' coins. This group of 3'"'
coins containing the counterfeit is again divided into three groups,
as before, and a second weight trial is made, as before. The
procedure is continued until after, at most, k weight trials we arrive at
a group containing only one coin—that is, we have located the
counterfeit coin.
It is now necessary to show that k is the minimal number of weight
trials which will guarantee the detection of the counterfeit coin under
all circumstances. {Note: We might, under certain circumstances,
succeed with fewer weight trials. For example, if two coins are
chosen at random and compared, we might be fortunate enough to
have chosen the counterfeit coin as one of them. However, this does
not give us a procedure by which we can be sure, under all possible
circumstances, of detecting the counterfeit by the required number
of weight trials.)
In each weight trial, as outlined above, the coins are divided into
three groups, two of which are placed on each of the two pans, and
the third being the unweighed group. If with an equal number of
coins on each pan the scale balances, then, of course, the
counterfeit is in the third group. If the pans are out of balance, we know
that the counterfeit is on one of the pans, although a prior knowledge
as to whether the counterfeit is lighter or heavier than the rest is
needed to tell us on which of the two pans it lies.
Let us assume that in an arbitrary sequence of weight trials the
result of each weighing is least favorable with respect to enabling us
to detect the counterfeit coin; that is the counterfeit is always in
that group of three which contains the largest number of coins.
Then upon each weight trial the number of coins in the group
which contains the counterfeit will not be less than ^ the
total number of coins (that is, upon division of the coins into three

86 Introductory Problems
groups, one of the groups must contain not fewer than 3 of them).
Then after k — \ weight trials the number of coins in the group
containing the counterfeit will be not less than —^j, and, since
«>3'^', the counterfeit will not be found by ^ — 1 weight trials.
Remark: It can be shown that the answer to the problem can be expressed
in the following form: The minimal number of weight trials necessary to
detect the one counterfeit coin in a collection of n coins is (log3(n — j]) + 1, where
the brackets designate "the largest integer in the number" (see the note just
prior to problem 101).
5. One block is placed on each pan (first weight trial). There are
two possible outcomes;
Oh the first weight trial one of the pans is heavier. In this event
one of the blocks must be aluminum and the other duraluminum. We
now place both blocks on one pan and weigh them against pairs of
remaining blocks (those being divided into nine pairs arbitrarily).
Any pair of blocks which outweighs the first pair must consist of
two duraluminum blocks. If the first pair is the heavier, then both
blocks of the second pair are alminum. If both pairs balance, the
second pair contains one aluminum and one duraluminum block.
Thus, for this first event the number of duraluminum blocks can be
determined by at most ten weight trials.
On the first weight trial the pans balance. In this event both blocks
are aluminum or both are duraluminum. As before, we now place
both blocks on one pan and weigh them against pairs of remaining
blocks. Assume that the first k pairs of blocks from the nine pairs
have the same weight as the test blocks, and that the {k + l)st pair
tested have a different weight. (If ^ = 9, then all the blocks weigh
the same, and so there are no duraluminum blocks. The event in
which ^ = 0 falls into the general case.) Suppose, for definiteness,
that the {k + 1) st pair is heavier than the test blocks [the reasoning
which follows will be quite analogous if the {k + l)st pair is lighter].
Then the original two blocks, as well as all those of the first k pairs
tested, must be aluminum. Therefore, in the l + (^+l) = ^ + 2
weight trials already made we have found ^ + 1 pairs of aluminum
blocks. Now we compare the two blocks of the {k + l)st (heavier)
pair. [This is the {k + 3)rd weight trial.] If both blocks are of the
same weight, they must both be duraluminum; if they are not of
the same weight, one is aluminum and the other is duraluminum.
In either event we are able, after ^ + 3 weight trials, to display a
pair of blocks of which one is aluminum and the other duraluminum.

Solutions {,5-6) 87
By using this pair we can determine in, at most, 8 — ^ weight trials
how many duraluminum blocks remain among the 20 — 2(^ + 2) =
16 — 2k unweighed ones, using the technique employed in the first
event. The number of weight trials used in this second event is then
equal to k + 2, + {?, - k) = W.
6. (a) Divide the coins into three sets of four coins each. For a
first weight trial we place a group of four coins on each pan. There
are two possibilities, which we shall investigate separately:
(1) The pans balance.
(2) One pan outweighs the other.
The pans balance. In this event the counterfeit coin is in the
unweighed set, and all eight coins on the scale are genuine. We
number the coins of the doubtful group 1,2,3,4. We carry out second
weight trial by placing coins 1, 2, and 3 on one pan and placing the other
three coins now known to be genuine on the other pan. There are
two possibilities:
(A) The pans are in balance. In this event coin 4 is the
counterfeit. A third weighing, comparing coin 4 with a genuine one, will
tell whether it is lighter or heavier.
(B) One pan is heavier. In thjs event the counterfeit is one of
coins 1,2, or 3. If the genuine coins are the heavier, then the
counterfeit is a light coin, and vice-versa. One more weight trial
will identify which of coins 1,2, or 3 is a light coin, hence
counterfeit [see the solution to problem 4(a)]. If the pan containing coins
1,2, and 3 is the heavier, then the counterfeit coin is heavier than
a genuine one. One weight trial will identify it.
One pan outweighs the other. In this event all the other coins are
genuine. Let us designate the coins on the heavier pan by the
numbers 1,2,3,4 (if one of these coins is false, then it is heavier than
the others) and the coins on the lighter pan by 1', 2', 3', 4' (if one of
these coins is false, then it is lighter than the others). A second
weight trial is made by placing coins, 1,2, and 1' on one pan and
coins 3, 4, and 2' on the other. Again, there are several possibilities:
(A) The pans balance. In this event the counterfeit coin is either
3' or 4' (and is lighter than a genuine coin). A third weight trial is
made by placing coin 3' on one pan and coin 4' on the other; the
lighter coin will be the counterfeit.
(B) The pan containing coins 1, 2, and 1' is heavier. In this event
coins 3,4, and 1' are genuine; were either coin 3 or coin 4 heavier
than the others, or were coin 1' light, then in the second weight

88 Introductory Problems
trial the pan containing coins 3,4, and 2' would have been heavy,
which was not the result for this case. Therefore, the counterfeit
coin is either coin 1 or coin 2 (and it is a heavier coin), or else it is
coin 2' (and it is a lighter coin). A third weight trial is made,
placing coin 1 on one pan and coin 2 on the other. If the pans balance,
then the counterfeit coin is 2'. If the pans fail to balance, then the
counterfeit coin is on the heavier pan.
(C) The pan containing coins 3,4, and 2' is heavier. Reasoning
as before, we conclude that coins 1, 2, and 2' are genuine and that
if one of the coins 3 or 4 is counterfeit, then it is a heavier coin
than the others, and if coin 1' is the counterfeit, then it is lighter.
A third weighing is made by placing coin 3 on one pan and coin 4
on the other. If the pans balance, then the counterfeit is 1'; if, on
the other hand, one pan is heavier, then it contains the counterfeit
coin.
(b) We shall prove in three stages, (A), (B), (C), that if the num-
3" — 3
ber of coins is A^g —-—, then the counterfeit coin can be detected
(and determined to be heavy or light) by n weight trials, and if
3" — 3
A^ > —-—, then n weighings do not necessarily suffice (see the hint
to this problem). We shall solve first the following related problem,
applying relaxed conditions.
(A) Suppose we are given A^ coins, divided into two groups, which
we shall designate X and Y (we do not exclude the possibility that
one of the groups contains no coins). We assume that one of the A^
coins is counterfeit, and also that if the counterfeit is in the X group,
then it is lighter than all the others, but if it is in group Y then it
is heavier than all the others. We must show that if N ^ 3", then
the counterfeit coin can be detected by means of n weight trials on a
pan balance, and if N> 3", then this is not always possible.^ If group
Y contains no coins, the problem becomes as follows. There is one
counterfeit coin among A" coins, and it is lighter than the others; to
prove: that if A'g 3", then the counterfeit can be found by n weight
trials on a pan balance, and if A'> 3", then this is not always
possible; see problem 4(b).)
The proof will be given by mathematical induction. First we show
that if N ^ 3", the counterfeit can always be detected by n weight
trials. If « = 1, that is if A'= 1,2, or 3, the proposition is quite
T This statement has one obvious exception: If AT = 2 and groups X and Y
each contains one coin, then, of course, the counterfeit coin cannot be detected.

Solutions (6) 89
obvious (except as noted in the preceding footnote). For example,
if N = 3, then it suffices to compare two of the coins from one group.
Assume now that it has been shown that if N ^ 3""', then the
counterfeit coin can be found by « — 1 weight trials. Now let N^ 3". Place
on each pan x coins from group X and y coins from group Y, where
X and V are selected to satisfy the inequalities
x + y i 3»-';
N~2{x + y) £ 3»-' .
IV — 3»-'
[For N^3" the inequality N - 2{x + y) i 3", or x + y^ —^r is
3" — 3"~'
compatible with x + y -^ ;- = 3""'; that is, it is always possi-
N — 3"~'
ble to choose numbers x and y such that 3"~' ^ x + y^ ].
If the pans balance, the counterfeit coin is among the A^ — 2(x + y)
coins which were not placed on the scale; if one of the pans is
heavier, the counterfeit is either among the x coins of group X on the
lighter pan, or among the y coins of group Y on the heavier pan.
But according to the induction hypothesis we can, in either event,
find the counterfeit coin by conducting « — 1 additional weight trials
[since both N — 2{x + y) and {x + y) fail to exceed 3"~'l.^ This
proves, by induction, that ii N ^ 3", then n weight trials suffice for
finding the counterfeit.
We now prove that if N> 3", then the counterfeit cannot, in
general, be detected by n iveight trials. (By "in general" we mean
that there simply does not exist a sure program which will always
locate the false coin in n trials. There is always the possibility, for
example, that if we select two coins at random, one of them might
be the counterfeit; but we are not concerned with this sort of
accidental success.) For this proof we make an additional assumption to
relax our conditions. We assume that in addition to the two sets X
and y of coins, together containing N > 3" coins, we have at our
disposal a quantity of coins all knoivn to be genuine. We designate this
last group of coins by Z(how many there are is not important). We
shall show, by using these auxiliary coins, that the counterfeit
cannot, in general, be found by ti weight trials.
It is easily verified that if « = 1 (that is, if the total number A^ of
coins in X and Y exceeds 3), then one weighing will not always suf-
* If iV > 2, then x = \,y = \ is not an exception, because there are now,
beyond the two coins, some number of coins known to be genuine. Comparison
of one of the genuine coins with either one of the doubtful coins will enable
us to find the counterfeit by one weighing.

90 Introductory Problems
fice to locate the counterfeit coin. Assume now that it has been
proved that if the number A^of coins in groups X &nA Y exceeds 3"-',
then it is not, in general, possible to detect the counterfeit by « —1
weight trials. We must show, then, that in this event if A^> 3", the
counterfeit cannot always be detected in n weight trials. Suppose
that in the first weight trial we have placed on the first pan x coins
from group X, y coins from group Y, and z coins from auxiliary
group Z, and that we have put on the other pan x' coins from group
X and y' coins from group Y, so that x + y + z = x' + y' (clearly, it
would be useless to put coins from Z on both pans). Let tv be the
number of coins of groups X and Y which have been left off the
scale {x + x' + y + y' + tv = N). Now the scale may be in balance,
the counterfeit is among those coins not placed on the scale. If u>
exceeds 3"-', then, by our induction hypothesis, « — 1 additional
weighings will not, in general, suffice to locate the counterfeit there,
and we will already have used up one weight trial. Thus, on the
first weight trial, in order to guarantee even the possibility that n
trials will suffice, it is necessary that tv g 3""'. Hence, on this first
trial,
x + y + x' +y' -- TV-3"-' > 3" - 3"-' = 2-3''-' .
If the pans do not balance, the imbalance is caused either by a light
counterfeit in the X group or by a heavy counterfeit in the Y group.
Hence, we must deal with either a group of x + y' coins (if the pan
with X + y + z coins is lighter) or a group of x' + y doubtful coins.
But according to the relation x + y + x' + y' > 2-3'"\ the larger of
the numbers x + y' and x' + y exceeds 3"-'. We must be prepared
to deal with this larger number of coins, and according to the
induction hypothesis « — 1 additional weight trials will not always
suffice to identify the counterfeit. This induction completes the proof
of case (A).
(B) Suppose we are given A^ coins containing one counterfeit which
differs in weight from the others, but that we do not know whether
the counterfeit is lighter or heavier. Assume tve have available an
extra coin tvhich tve knotv to be genuine. We shall show that if
3" — 1
the counterfeit can altvays be detected by n tveight trials; the
counterfeit can be shotvn to be lighter or heavier than the genuine coins; for
3" — 1

Solutions (6) 91
n weight trials do not, in general, suffice.
3" — 1
First, let A^^ —-—. If « = 1 (that is, if A^= 1), one weighing
will obviously suffice. Assume that for
3"-' - 1
N^
2
« — 1 weight trials suffice we shall show that for
3" — 1
n weight trials will suffice. We place on one of the pans x of the
A^ given coins together with the extra genuine coin, and we place on
the other pan x+l coins. There remain N — 2x — 1 unweighed
coins. We choose the number x to satisfy the requirement
2x+ 1 g3''-';
3"-' — 1
N-2x-l^ 2 ■
3" — 1/
It is clear that such an x can always be chosen ii N ^ —-—I in this
31-1 _^ I 3" — 1 3" ' — 1 \ 2 \
case, A^ S — = 3" ' 1. If the pans balance,
Ci £1 £1 /
then there remain
unweighed coins plus a quantity of coins (those on the balance) known
to be genuine. Therefore, according to case (A) we can find the
counterfeit coin by making not more than « — 1 additional weight
trials. If the pans do not balance, then the x coins on one pan and
the x+l coins on the other pan form two groups containing a total
of 2x + 1 ^ 3"~' coins, to which we can apply the result of problem
A just investigated. Therefore, « — 1 further weight trials at most,
suffice here also. This completes the proof that, under the conditions
of this case, if
then n weight trials suffice to identify the counterfeit.
We now show that if
3" — 1
N>-
- 2
then it is not always possible to solve the problem with only n weight

92 Introductory Problems
trials. For n = l(that is, for N > 1) one weighing will not be enough.
Once more we proceed by induction. Assume that for
it has already been shown that « — 1 weight trials are not enough.
We investigate the event
We place on one of the pans x of the A^ coins and, in addition, z
coins known to be genuine (here we may assume that we have not
just one but many genuine coins at our disposal). We place on the
other pan x + z coins from the given set A^. Let us designate by iv
the number of coins from A^ which remain off the balance. Inasmuch
as the pans may be in balance, the number w of coins left off the
3" ' — 1
balance must not exceed r ; if the number does exceed this
value, then, according to the induction hypothesis, n weight trials
will not suffice to locate the counterfeit. But in this event 2x+z>3"'^
/ 2" — 1 \
I or, A^> —-—1. If the balance is not in equilibrium, we can
apply to the coins belonging to groups X and Y, which are made up
of the doubtful coins and which lie on one or the other of the pans,
the results of case (A). It follows from the inequality 2x + z > 3"^'
that for the unbalanced condition of the scale, n weight trials do not
suffice.
(C) Having obtained the foregoing preliminary results, we now
return to the original problem. We shall prove that given N coins,
tvhere
3" — 3
one of which is counterfeit {but it is not knotvn whether it is lighter
or heavier than the others), the counterfeit can be detected by n weight
trials and simultaneously shown to be cither light or heavy.^
If we place x coins on each pan, there remain N — 2x coins not on
the scale. The number x is selected such that
2x < 3"-' ,
3"-' — 1
^ Clearly, if only two coins are involved, tine counterfeit cannot be found by
weiglning.

Solutions (7) 93
If the pans balance, then the false coin is among the unweighed ones,
of which there are
3"-' — 1
Moreover, we now have on hand 2x coins known to be genuine, and
in view of the result obtained in case (B) we are able to find the
counterfeit by « — 1 additional weight trials. If one of the pans
outweighs the other, then we can apply the result of case A to the
coins on the scale, since the total number of coins on the two pans
is 2x < 3"~', and « — 1 additional weight trials suffice to locate the
counterfeit.
We shall now prove that if
1,1 3" - 3
then n weight trials will not, in general, suffice. For the first weight
trial we place x coins on each pan, leaving w coins off the scale. If
the pans balance, then in view of case (B), « — 1 further weight
trials will suffice to locate the counterfeit and to determine whether
3-1-1 _ -^
It is light or heavy only if w does not exceed ~ . But in this
event
2x > ^—^ - — ^ = ^'^" '—^ = 3-' - 1
Since 2x is an even number, 2x > 3"~', and in view of the results
of case (A), we cannot determine the counterfeit coin with n weight
trials if one of the pans is heavier.
Thus, we have proved the generalized version of the given
problem. Now we need note merely that
^"Y^ = 1092 > 1000 > 363 = i^—-^
in order to obtain the answer to our specific problem; that is, k = 7.
7. (a) If the third link is disengaged from the chain, then there
are three pieces; the single link, a two-link piece, and a four-link
piece. On the first day the traveler gives the single link to the
innkeeper. On the second day he gives the innkeeper the two-link piece,
receiving the single link back in change. On the third day the
traveler pays the single link; on the fourth day he presents the four-

94 Introductory Problems
link piece, receiving as change the single link and the two-link piece.
On the fifth day he gives the single link, and on the sixth day the
single link is returned to him as change for the two link piece.
Finally, the single link pays for the seventh day's lodging. Hence,
only one link need be disengaged from the chain.
(b) It will be convenient to consider first the following problem.
If k links are disengaged from an «-link chain, where ^ is a fixed
number, how large can n be such that any number of links from 1
to n can be obtained by taking one or more of the severed pieces
of the chain? To solve this problem, we first investigate which links
would be most advantageous to remove. After removing k single
links we can gather from these any number of links from 1 to k.
But if we want ^ + 1 links, we must consider the remaining pieces
of chain and in particular those pieces having ^ + 1 or fewer links.
Clearly, the most convenient arrangement would be to have a piece
of chain with exactly ^ + 1 links. Then we could gather any number
of links from 1 to 2/fe + 1. In order to collect 2/fe + 2 = 2 (/fe + 1) links,
we need another piece containing 2{k + 1), or fewer, links. The most
convenient situation would be to have a piece with exactly 2(^ + 1) links;
we could then gather any number of links from 1 to (2^ + 1) +2(^ + 1) =
Ak + 3. The next step would be to have available a piece of chain
with Ak + A = A{k + 1) links. Continuing this reasoning, the most
advantageous method of removing links from the chain would be to
have pieces of the following lengths (setting aside the individual
severed links):
k+\, 2{k + 1), 4{k + 1), 8{k +!),•••, 2''{k + 1) .
Thus, any number of links from 1 to
n = k + [{k +l) + 2(k + l)+4{k+l)+ ■■■ + 2>'{k + 1)]
^k + (2'+' - \){k + 1) = 2'+'(* + 1) - 1
can be built up by taking pieces of the chain.
Thus, if 2*/fe ^ « g 2'+'(ife + 1) - 1, then it is possible to make k
breaks in the chain, but removal of ^ — 1 links will not suffice to
solve the problem. In particular, if
2 ^ « S 7, then k = 1
8 g « g 23, then k = 2
24 g « ^ 63, then k = 2,
64 S « S 159, then k = A
160 g « i 383, then /fe = 5;
384 g « g 895, then k = &;
896 g « ^ 2047, then k = 7 .

Solutions {,8-9) 95
Therefore, if « = 2000, the least number of links which can be
disengaged is 7. The conditions of the problem will be satisfied if we
select those links such that the 8 pieces of chain we obtain (excluding
the 7 individual severed links) have, respectively, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128,
256, 512, and 977 links.
8. Let A be the first of the selected students (that is, the tallest
of the short), and let B be the second of the selected students (the
shortest of the tall). If A and B stand in the same row, then B is
taller than A, since B is the tallest student in that row. If A and
B stand in the same column, then again B is taller than A, since A
is the shortest student in that column. Finally, if A and B do not
stand in either the same column or the same row, let C be that student
standing in the same column as does A and in the same row as does
B. Then B is taller than C (since B is the tallest in that row), and
C is taller than ^ (since A is the shortest in that column). Hence,
again B is taller than A; and so in every possible case B is taller
than A.
9. First, it follows from the conditions of the problem that each
gear weighs either an even number of grams or an odd number of
grams. The reasoning is as follows. Since any set of twelve gears
can be divided into two groups of equal weight, a set of twelve gears
will weigh an even number of grams. This total weight remains an
even number if one of the twelve gears is exchanged with the
thirteenth gear. But this is possible only if the exchanged gear and the
thirteenth gear are both of even weight or both of odd weight, and
this holds for any of the twelve gears initially weighed. Hence, all
the gears are of even, or all are of odd, weight.
Subtract now from the weight of each gear the weight of the
lightest gear (possibly two or more gears have the same minimum
weight; this is unimportant). This may be thought of as producing
a "new" set of gears, and this new set clearly again satisfies the
conditions of the problem. (One of the gears, and possibly more, must
now be thought of as having "zero weight".) It is easily seen that
each gear of the new set has even weight (counting 0 as an even
number), since if all the gears were of odd weight initially, then an
odd number was subtracted from each individual weight; if they
were all of even weight initially, then an even number was
subtracted from each individual weight.
If now we divide each weight by 2 and think of this as providing
a "new" set of weights, this new set again satisfies the conditions

96 Introductory Problems
of the problem.
Assume now that not all the gears are of the same weight. In
this case, not all the weights of the second set (obtained by
subtracting the weights of the lightest gear from each of the original weights)
will be zero. If we continue to divide by 2, thus obtaining "new"
sets satisfying the conditions of the problem, we finally arrive at a
set of gears of which some are of even weight (at least one is of zero
weight) and some are of odd weight (continued division of an even
natural number by 2 finally produces an odd number). But such a
set satisfying the conditions of the problem has been shown to be
impossible. This contradiction proves the assertion of the problem.
Remark: The conditions of the problem require that all the gears be of
integral weight, but the result can be extended to weights which are rational
numbers. If we multiply each of the weights by the least common multiple of
all the denominators, we obtain a "new" set of weights, all integers, and all
of which still satisfy the conditions of the problem, and we go on from there.
Moreover, if we allow the weights to be irrational numbers, the extension can
again be made, since irrational numbers can be approximated by rational
numbers to as close a tolerance as desired. (The reader is invited to carry out
such a proof, although a rigorous demonstration is by no means a simple taslc.)
10. Beginning with the third row of the number triangle we write
the first four numbers of each row, but putting in place of an even
number the letter e, and in place of an odd number the letter d:
e e d 0
d e e d
d e e e
e d d e
0 e e e
Note that the fifth row of the array coincides with the first row.
But the evenness or oddness of the first four numbers of every row
of the number triangle depends only upon the evenness or oddness
of the first four numbers of the preceding row. Hence, in the above
array any row will periodically duplicate itself in the fourth row
following. Since an even number occurs in each of the first four
rows shown above, an even number must occur in every subsequent
row.

Solutions (10-12) 97
11. The plan is to number the squares consecutively from 1 to 12,
starting, say, from the red chip, and continuing on through the chips
and around the circle, and then to rearrange the squares by putting
them in an order in which it is possible to move a chip from one
square to the next. That is, after square 1 we place square 6 (since
by the conditions of the problem it is possible for a chip to move
from square 1 to square 6, and vice-versa), then after square 6 we
place square 11 (since a chip may move from square 6 to 11), and
after square 11 we place square 4, and so on. After this
rearrangement we have the following order of squares:
The chips (red, yellow, green, blue, designated R, Y, G, B) are
shown adjacent to their original positions; R on square 1, Y on 2,
G on 3, and B on 4. The rule by which the chips may now move
is simple: A chip may move one square in either direction, provided
that square is unoccupied. Clearly, the only way in which a chip
can change places with another is for it to move around the rectangle
in either direction, but now a chip can neither jump over nor occupy
the position of another chip. Thus, if chip R moves to occupy square
4, then B must occupy square 2, Y must occupy square 3, and G must
move to square 1. If R occupies square 2 then B must occupy square
3, Y must move to square 1, and G will occupy square 4. If R
occupies square 3, then B occupies square 1, Y moves to 4 and G
moves to square 2. Other than these three rearrangements, no
arrangement differing from the initial one is possilbe.
12. First solution. Let n be the number of coconuts each man
received when the pile of coconuts was divided the next morning.
Then 5« + 1 coconuts were in the final pile. The last man to have
raided the pile the night before must have taken — nuts, since
^M -1-1 9^*1 J- Q
prior to that there must have been 5 • -.— + 1 = ^— co-
4 4
conuts in the pile. The next-to-last (penultimate) man to have raided
1 25« -|- 9
the pile took — • nuts, and prior to that the pile contained

98 Introductory Problems
5. J_ ^^" +.9 _,_ 1 =, ^^^" + ^^ coconuts. The man who raided prior
4 4 16
, ,, , , , 1 125« + 61 , . •, fr 1 125« + 61 , ,
to that took — • : nuts from a pile of 5-— • h 1 =
4 4 4 4
625« + 369 ,, , r u- . 1 1 625« + 369 . , ^_ ^
-^ ; the man before him took —- • nuts from a
64 4 64
pile of 5 . 625^369 ^ ^ ^ 3125« + 2101. ^^^^^^ ^,^ .^^^ ^^^ ^^ ,^^^
64 265
arisen the night before took -— • " "t — nuts from the original
4 256
pile, which contained
J_ 3125« + 2101 . _ 15625« + 11529
4 ■ 256 1024
265« + 265
= 15« + 11 +
1024
coconuts. Since A^ must be an integer, 265(« + 1) must be divisible
by 1024. The least integral value of n which will make 265(« + 1)
divisible by 1024 is 1023 (since 265 and 1024 are relatively prime).
Thus,
A^= 15-1023 + 11 + 265 = 15621 .
Second solution. The problem can be solved more readily and with
much less calculation if we consider the conditions imposed on the
total number of coconuts. The first condition asserts that the first
division of the total number of nuts by 5 yields a remainder of 1,
that is, for some number /, A^= 5/+ 1. The numbers A^ satisfying
this condition appear in the sequence of natural numbers at intervals
five integers apart, and if we know one of the numbers, we can find
as many more as we wish by adding or subtracting multiples of 5.
The second condition asserts that k = (4/5) (A^ — 1) = 4/ {k is the
number of nuts remaining for the second man's raid) gives a remainder
of 1 when divided by 5; that is, ^ = 5/i + 1, for the suitable h. This
is equivalent to the requirement that / yield a remainder of 4 when
divided by 5, or that A^= 5/ + 1 yield a remainder of 21 when
divided by 25. Numbers satisfying this condition are found in the
natural number sequence at intervals of 25, and if we know one
such number, we can obtain the others by adding or subtracting
mutliples of 25. The third condition asserts that ki = (4/5)(^ — 1) =
4/i yields a remainder of 1 upon division by 5; this condition
determines the remainder yielded upon division of/i by 5, or the remainders

Solutions {13) 99
obtained by dividing k and / by 25, or the remainder obtained by
dividing A^ by 125. All the conditions together determine the
remainder obtained by dividing A^by 5* = 15,625. These numbers
appear at intervals of 15,625 in the sequence of natural numbers.^
We can now calculate the remainder which A^ yields upon division
by 5*, but this is not necessary. One number satisfying all the
imposed conditions is —4, which upon division by 5 yields a quotient
of —1 and a remainder of +1. If we subtract the number 1 from
— 4 and divide the difference by 4/5, then divide the result by 5, we
again obtain a remainder of +1. Accordingly, upon all further
divisions by 5 we will obtain the same remainder of +1. The
number —4 cannot, of course, be the answer to the problem, since A^ has
to be a positive integer. But since we do know one number which
satisfies the conditions of the problem, we can find as many others
as we wish by adding multiples of 5". The least positive number
which we can add to satisfy the given conditions is 5* itself; we
obtain -4 + 5" = 15625 - 4 = 15,621.
13. Let n be the number of sheep in the herd. Then the brothers
received n rubles for each sheep, and so they received a total of
N = n-n — n^ rubles. Let d represent the digit in the tens place of
the number «, and let e be the digit in the units place; then n =
lOrf + e, and
A'= (lOrf + ef = lOOrf^ + 20rfe + e^ .
It follows, from the manner in which the money was divided, and
since the older brother had one more selection from the money than
did his brother, that there must have been an odd number of tens
in A", plus a remaining number less than 10. But lOOrf^ + 20rfe =
20d{5d -1- e) is divisible by 20 and so contains an even number of tens.
Consequently, the number e^ must contain an odd number of tens.
Since e < 10 (being the remainder obtained by dividing n by 10), the
only possible values for e are 1,4,9,16,25,36,49,64, or 81.
Of these numbers, only 16 and 36 contain an odd number of tens,
so the possibilities for e^ are limited to 16 or 36. Both of these
numbers end with the digit 6, which means that the remainder the
younger brother received in place of 10 rubles was 6 rubles. Thus,
the older brother received 4 rubles more than did the younger. To
make the division even, the older brother would have to give the
t The argument here would be carried out in American schools by the use of
congruence arithmetic [Editor].

100 Introductory Problems
younger brother 2 rubles. Therefore, the penknife was worth 2
rubles.
14. (a) Our calendar is constructed on the following scheme. Every
year has 365 days except for leap-years (those years whose
identifying number is divisible by 4—for example, 1960). The leap-years
have 366 days (the extra day being February 29). However, there is
an exception to this rule: any year whose identifying number is
divisible by 100 but not by 400 has only 365 days instead of 366; that
is, those are not leap years. For example, the years 1800 and 1900
were not leap years; also, 2100 will not be a leap year. However,
2000 (being divisible by 400) will be a leap year. The problem asks
on which of the two days, Saturday or Sunday, New Years Day
more frequently falls.
We shall show that any 400-year period of time presents a periodic
pattern, in the sense that the next 400-year period will exactly
duplicate the calendars of the previous 400-year period (for example,
this month's calender is exactly the same as that of exactly 400 years
ago). This interval of 400 years contains an integral number of
weeks. Leap years have 52 weeks and 2 days, and other years have
52 weeks and 1 day. In the course of four years, of which one is
a leap year, there are 4-52 weeks plus 5 days. In the course of 400
years there would be an additional 500 days, but because three of
these years are divisible by 100 but not by 400 (and so are not leap
years) the 400 years will have only 497 days in addition to 400-52
weeks; that is, there are an additional 71 weeks. Therefore, the
problem can be limited to any 400-year period.
Let us investigate the 400-year period from 1901 to 2301. Every
fourth year is a leap year (since there is no exception for leap years
in this interval). In span of 28 years there will be one "extra" week,
owing to leap years; in addition, there will be an additional 28 days,
or 4 weeks, over an exact number of weeks. Thus, a 28-year
interval yields an integral number of weeks: 28-52 + 5 weeks.
We select a particular New Year's Day: January 1, 1952, which
fell on a Tuesday. Since 1952 was a leap year, and a leap year has
2 days over 52 weeks, January 1, 1953, fell on a Thursday, but
January 1, 1954, fell on a Friday (1953 not being a leap year), January
1, 1955, fell on a Saturday, and so on. January 1, 1951, fell on a
Monday, January, 1, 1950, fell on a Sunday, and so on. In the 28-
year period 1929-1956, inclusive, January 1 fell exactly four times on
each day of the week. This distribution was exactly the same for

Solutions {14) 101
the 28-year period 1901-1928, inclusive. We recall that a 28-year period
in which every fourth year is a leap year contains an integral
number of weeks, and, consequently, we repeat the same distribution of
New Year's Days over the days of the week as obtained for the
previous 28-year period. The interval 1901-2096 (inclusive) contains 196
years, a number divisible by 28 (the year 2000 not providing any
exception for leap year). In this interval. New Year's Day will have
fallen exactly the same number of times on each day of the week.
Further, January 1, 2097, will fall on the same day of the week as
did January 1, 1901, January 1, 1929, and so on—it will fall on a
Tuesday. Thus, New Year's Day of 2100 will fall on a Friday, and New
Year's Day of 2101 will fall on a Saturday (2100 is not a leap year).
The 28-year period 2101-2128 will differ from the 28-year period 1901-
1928 in that the period begins not on a Tuesday but on a Saturday.
This calls for a corresponding shift in the days on which New Year's
Day will fall. However, in the period 1901-1928 New Year's Day
fell exactly four times on each day of the week, and this will
happen also in the period 2101-2128. The 28-year intervals 2129-2156
and 2157-2184 will follow the same pattern. The year 2185 begins
on the same day as did 2101—Saturday; this allows us to find the data
for the period 2185 to 2201. Simple calculation shows that in the
interval from 2185 to 2200 New Year's Day will fall twice each on
Monday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, and Saturday, but three times
each on Sunday and Tuesday. New Year's Day of 2201 will fall on
a Thursday. In the course of the 3-28 = 84 years, from 2201 to 2284,
New Year's Day will fall the same number of times on each day of
the week. New Year's Day 2285 will fall on the same day it will
in 2201—Thursday. This allows us to determine the data for the
period 2285-2300. In this interval January 1 will fall twice each on
Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, and Saturday, and three
times each on Sunday and Friday. Similarly, over these periods in
the course of which New Year's Day will fall the same number of
times on each day we counted 2+2 = 4 Mondays, 1+3 + 2 = 6
Tuesdays, 1 + 2+2 = 5 Wednesdays, 1 + 2 + 2 = 5 Thursdays, 6
Fridays, 4 Saturdays, and 6 Sundays. It follows that New Year's
Day falls more often on Sunday than on Saturday.
(b) Employing methods analogous to those used in problem (a),
we can show that in the 400-year interval the thirtieth day of the
month will fall on Sunday 687 times, on Monday 685 times, on
Tuesday 685 times, on Wednesday 687 times, on Thursday 684 times, on

102 Alterations of Digits in Integers
Friday 688 times, and on Saturday 684 times. Thus, the thirtieth
day of the month falls most often on a Friday.
15. It is clear that if the final digit of an integer is deleted, the
integer is reduced by a factor of at least 10. If that final digit is
zero then, of course, the number is reduced by exactly the factor
10, and so all such numbers automatically satisfy the conditions of
the problem.
Assume now that if the final digit of a number x is deleted, then
the digit is reduced by an integral factor exceeding 10, say, by the
factor 10 + a(a S 1). Let y be the quotient obtained by dividing x
by 10, and let z be the remainder; that is, x = 10>' + z{z ■£ 9). If the
last digit of x is deleted, then the deleted digit is z, and the new
number is equal to y. The condition of the problem then calls for
the equation
or the equation
from which we obtain
x={,\Q + a)-y ,
IQy + z = {\Q + a)-y ,
z = ay .
Since z < 10, both a and y must be less than 10. Therefore, except
for the numbers divisible by 10, the only integers meeting the
conditions of the problem are two-digit numbers; also, if the final digit
is deleted, the original integer can be reduced by, at most, a factor
of 19(11 g 10 + a < 19). It is easily shown that only the following
two-digit numbers are reduced by a factor of 11 when their last digit
is deleted: 11, 22, 33, 44, 55, 66, 77,88, 99. (If 10 + a = 11, then a = I;
hence z = ay = y, and x = 10>' + z = lly, where y = 1, 2, 3, • • •, 9.) It
can be shown, in an analogous way, that the only two-digit integers
reduced by a factor of 12 upon deletion of the final digit are 12, 24,
36, 48 (2 = ajv = 2y, where only jy = 1,2, 3, 4 are possible, since 2<10,
and X = 12jv). The numbers diminished by a factor of 13 are 13, 26,
39; the numbers diminished by a factor of 14 are 14 and 28. It is
evident that the only numbers which can be reduced by factors of
15, 16, 17,18,19 are these numbers themselves.
16. (a) Let the integer sought have ^ + 1 digits. It may be
written in the form 6 10' + y, where >' is a ^-digit number (it may
possibly begin with one or more zeros). The conditions of the problem
are expressed by

Solutions (15-17) 103
610*^+jv = 25y ,
or
6-10*^
Clearly, it is necessary that k ^2, since 60 is not divisible exactly
by 24 and y is an integer. For k ^2 the integer y is equal to
25-10*"^; that is, y has the form 250- • 0, where there are k — 2 zeros.
Therefore, all the numbers sought are of the form 6250--O, where
there are n zeros and h = 0,1, 2,3, • • •.
(b) Solve this problem: Find a number whose first digit is a and
which is reduced by a factor of 35 when its final digit is deleted
Proceeding as in problem (a), we have the equation
where y is an integer [see solution of problem (a)]. But the right
member of this equation cannot possibly be an integer a ^ 9 and
Remark: Proceeding as we did in problems 16 (a) and (b), we can show that
an integer beginning with a given digit a can be reduced by an integral
factor b upon deletion of the digit a only if a < b — I and the (proper) fraction
7 r can be represented as a finite decimal fraction (that is, all the prime
0—1
factors of 6 — 1 other than 2 and 5 are factors of a, of sufficient multiplicity).
For example, no integer can be reduced by a factor of 85 by deleting its first
digit, since 85 — 1 = 84 includes 3 and 7 among its factors and no digit is
divisible by both 3 and 7. Again, any number which is reduced by a factor
of 15 upon deletion of its first digit must commence with 7, since 14 has 7 as
a factor. A general criterion which will give the necessary form of an integer
having a Icnown first digit a and which is reduced by a factor b upon deletion
of the first digit is usually easy to find.
17. (a) First we show that no integer can be diminished to J its
original value by deleting a digit standing farther from its beginning
than the second place. Let the digits of the number A^be oo, a\, ai,- ■ ■,
a'(a^ i= 0); that is,
flo • 10" + fli • 10"-' + ■■■ + an = N.
N
Assume that — is an integer, and that it has been obtained by
deleting a digit past the second position. We have
flolO"-' + a,10"-= + ... = ^ .

104 Alterations of Digits in Integers
If we multiply this equation by 10 and subtract from it the initial
equation for A^, we obtain
— < 10-— .
9
A''
This IS a contradiction, since — is a smaller number, and
^ = ao-10'-' + ••• ^ 10"-' .
We recall the criterion for divisibility of an integer by 9 (a number
is divisible by 9 if and only if the sum of its digits is divisible by
9). Now, if A^ is divisible by 9, as is also the number obtained from
A" by deleting the first digit of A", then this first digit must be 0 or
9 (since it must by itself be divisible by 9). Since Oa ^ 0, we must
have flo = 9 if A" is to meet the conditions of the problem. But then
A" A"
the number —■ has the same number of digits as does A", and so —-
cannot be obtained from A" by deleting its fiirst digit. This
contradiction means that the only possible deletion of a digit from A" in
order to meet the conditions given by the problem is that of the
second digit. Thus,
^ = flolO"-' + a^lO"'' + ■■■ + a,.
N
Since — must agam be divisible by 9 (that is, 00+^2+03 H \-a„
is a multiple of 9, as was Oa + a^ + Oi + ■ ■ ■ + a„) either a, = 0 or
fli = 9. If we assume that a, = 9, and if we multiply the expansion
N N
for — by 10 and subtract the expansion for A", we obtain — =
(02 - 9)10"-' + • • •, and since 02 g 9, then
which is impossible.
Therefore, the conditions of the problem can be met only if the
second digit of A" is zero and if this is the digit deleted. Thus,
A"- y = a„• 10" - a„• 10-' ,
or
= A" - flo ■ 10" + flo ■ 10"^'= A" - flo-9 • 10"^

Solutions {18) 105
Finally,
9 9 9 « " •
A''
This equation states that to divide — by 9, we merely delete the
first digit flo- This solves problem (a).
(b) In solving problem (a) we arrived at the necessary relation
^ = 7V-a„.10"-'-9 ,
from which it follows, upon solving for A^, that
a„-10"-'-81
N =
8
This is the form that A^ must have. It is evident that oa cannot be
either of the digits 8 or 9, inasmuch as the second digit of A^ is
required to be zero. If we try successively Oo = 1,2,3,4,5,6,7, along
with the least necessary value of « which will make A" an integer,
we have the following seven numbers, which satisfy the conditions
of the problem:
10,125; 2025; 30,375; 405; 50,625; 6075; 70,875 .
These numbers, together with all products by 10* (^ = 1, 2, 3, • • •)
constitute all the integers which satisfy the conditions of the problem.
18. (a) The proposition is equivalent to the assertion that the
integer is diminished by some factor m when the third digit is
deleted. Let
A'=ao-10" + ailO''-' +a2l0"-=+ ■• -|-a„ .
Then
10—= ao-10" +ailO'-' +03-10''-^ + ••• + a„-10 .
m
If m < 10, then subtraction of the first equation from the second
yields the inequality A" < 10"~', which is impossible, since
m
10- m 1_
m ^ 10 '
and
yrA" = flo• 10"-' + ••• s 10"-' .

106 Alterations of Digits in Integers
w — 10
If m>ll, then A^ < 10"~', which also is impossibile for an
m
analogous reason (-^^ > tt:)- Again, if w = 11, then we must
\ m 10/
I N N
have ■— N < 10"~'; that is, —= — has two digits fewer than A^, which
II m 11
is an impossibility.
The only possibility of obtaining a number satisfying the
conditions of the problem is to let m = 10. Therefore, the conditions
require numbers all of whose digits, except the first two, are zero.
Such integers satisfy the requirement and hence describe the
numbers sought.
Remark: It is possible to show, by similar reasoning, that the only integers
which are diminished by an integral factor when the kth digit, where k > 3,
is deleted are those having zeros after the first k — I digits.
(b) The requirement that a number A^ be diminished by an
integral factor m when its second digit is deleted is expressed as follows:
N= flolO" + a,-lO"^' + a^lO"-' + ■ ■ ■ + a„ ,
~ = aolO'-' + Oi-lO'-' + ■■■ +a„.
m
It follows that
N
= N-ao-lO' - ai-lO"-' + Oo• 10-',
m
or, upon solving for A^,
^^ (9go + g,)'10''-'->w .
w — 1
These equations can be combined to yield
7V= «„10" + «.10-' -«„-10-' + (9^0+ ^0-10"-'
»2 — 1
But, on the other hand, we know that A" is an (w + l)-digit number
beginning with digits Oa and a,:
A'=aolO" + a,-10"^' + at-W'^ + • • ■ + a, ,
where we may assume that not all the digits az, ■ ■ ■ ,a, are zero
(otherwise the problem leads to investigation of two-digit numbers
N', see the solution to problem 15). The following inequality must
hold:

Solutions (18) 107
0 < - «„10- + -(^^° + ^'^-^Q'"" < 10-
m — 1
or, equivalently,
flo < r~ < flo + 1 . (2 )
w — 1
As a consequence, we have the following results. The required
numbers A^ are expressed by (1), where 0 g oo S 9, 0 g oi g 9. Since
A^ is an integer, and m and m — 1 are relatively prime, the proper
fraction — can be written as a terminating decimal. When
w — 1
this is done the possible values of oa, oi and m must satisfy
inequalities (2) in addition, it is necessary to add to the possible values of
A^ the two-digit numbers obtained in the solution of problem 15).
There now remains only successive investigations of the possible
values for oa.
(1) flo = 1. Here, inequality (2) yields
1 Q
1 < ———, w - 1 < 18 ;
»2 — 1
^ < 2, w - 1 > 4 .
w — 1
Applying the >« — 1 successive values 5, 6, 7, • • •, 17, and selecting,
each time the appropriate value of oi, we obtain
N= 108; 105; 10,125; 1125; 12,375; 135; 14,625;
1575; 16,875; 121; 132; 143; 154; 165; 176;
187; 198; 1625; 195; 192; 180,625; 19,125,
to each of which we can adjoin an arbitrary number of zeros.
Proceeding in an analogous may, we obtain the following:
(2) ao = 2:
A" =2025; 21,375; 225; 23,625; 2425; 25,875;
231; 242; 253; 264; 275; 286; 297; 2925 .
(3) flo = 3:
A" = 30,725; 315; 32,625; 3375; 34,875;
341; 352; 363; 374; 385; 396.
(4) a„ = 4:
A'^ 405; 41,625; 4275; 43,875; 451; 462; 473; 484; 495 .

108 Alterations of Digits in Integers
(5) flo = 5:
A^= 50,625; 5175; 52,875; 561; 572; 583; 594 .
(6) flo = 6:
A^=6075; 61,875; 671; 682; 693.
(7) a„ = 7;
N= 781; 792 .
(8) a, = 8:
A^ = 891 .
There is no A^ for oa = 9.
In toto, including the results of problem 15, there are 104 values
for A^. An arbitrary number of zeros can be adjoined to each of
these.
19. (a) First solution. Let X be the »z-digit number obtained by
deleting the first digit 1 from the integer sought. That integer is
then 10'^-\-X, and the new number is lO.Y+1. The condition of
the problem yields
(lO" + X)-3 = 10;<f + 1 ,
or
y_ 310"- 1
^- 7 •
The last equation provides a condition for finding X: 3-10" = 3000- • •
must yield the remainder 1 upon division by 7. Direct division by
7 shows that the least number of zeros necessary after 3 to produce
a remainder of 1 is 5; that is, 3 10= = 300,000 = 7(42,857) + 1. Thus,
the least possible value for the integer X is 42,857, and hence the
number sought is 142,857.
To find other such numbers, we note that in dividing 3000--by 7
we need not stop at the first remainder 1; any quotient obtained for
the remainder 1 will serve as an X. It is readily seen that the other
numbers will be
142,857,142,857; • • •; 142,857,142, 857- • • 142,857;- • •
k times
Second solution. Let x be the second digit of the number sought,
let y be the third digit, and so on; that is, the number has the form
\xy--zt (the over bar denotes a succession of digits rather than a
product). The condition of the problem states

Solutions (19-20) 109
Ixy- ■ -zt-Z = xy- ■ -ztl .
It is at once apparent that t = 7 (in no other case will the product
on the left yield a final digit 1). Therefore, the tens digit t on the
right is 7. But this is possible only if 2-3 ends in 7 — 2 = 5 (3-2 plus
a carry-over of 2 must yield 7); that is, 2 = 5. There is a carry-over
of 1. The product, 3 times the hundreds digit on the left, plus the
1 carried over, must yield 5; and so on. The reader can readily make
up an organized format for this process. For example,
1 4 2 8 5 7 42857
X 3= 1
4-1 = 3, 2-0 = 2, 8-2 = 6, 5-1=4, 7-2 = 5
(the calculations are made from right to left). The smallest possible
number occurs when we reach the digit 1 on the left, 142,857.
If this process is continued, we obtain other numbers satisfying
the conditions by stopping whenever we have adjoined another 1 on
the left:
• • •; 142,857,142,857- •142,857; • • • .
k times
(b) When an integer is tripled, the resulting integer can have
the same number of digits only if the initial digit of the first
number did not exceed 3. As we saw in problem (a), the first digit can
be 1. We shall show now that it cannot be 3.
If the first digit of the integer sought is 3, we see from the
required equality 3rv-• •2-3 = xy-■-23 that its second digit (that is, x)
must be 9. But 3 times any integer beginning with 39 yields an
integer having one more digit. Hence the first digit of any integer
meeting the conditions of the problem cannot be 3.
It is left to the reader to show that the numbers sought may
begin with the digit 2. The smallest such number is 285,714; all such
numbers are of form
285,714,285,714- -285,714 .
k times
The proof is quite similar to that of problem (a).
20. Since after multiplication by 5 the number of digits remains
the same, the initial integer must begin with the digit 1. This
digit then becomes the final digit of the new number, which is not
divisible by 5.

110 Alterations of Digits in Integers
The solutions for the digits 6 and 8 are similar.
21. First solution. Since the number of digits is not increased
after multiplication by 2, the first digit of the initial number cannot
exceed 4. Since after the transfer of the first digit to the end we
have an even number (twice the original number), the first digit must
be even; hence it must be either 2 or 4.
Consider now the number X obtained by deleting the first digit of
the original number sought. Reasoning as we did for problem 19
(a), we obtain
that is,
or else
that is,
(210'" + X)-2 = 10^+2
4-10"-2 210™-1
A' =
(410'" + A')-2 = 10^+4
8-10'"-4 2-10'"-1
X=-
8
However, both of these formulas are impossible, since they do not
yield integers (the numerator is odd for both).
Second solution. As in the first solution we conclude that the first
digit of the number sought must be either 2 or 4. We use the
notation employed in problem 19 (a). We have
2xy- ■■zt-2 = xy- ztl
or else
4xjv ■ • • 2/ • 2 = XV • • • zt\ .
In the first case, t can be only 1 or 6 (otherwise the product on
the left cannot end with the digit 2). But if < = 1, then on the left
is a number not divisible by 4, and on the right is a number divisible
by 4 (an integer being divisible by 4 if and only if the number
composed of its last two digits is divisible by 4). If < = 6, then on the
left is a number divisible by 4 (product of two even numbers), but
on the right is a number not divisible by 4 (ending in 62).
In the second case, t can be only 2 or 7. If < = 2, then [as in the
second solution of problem 19(a)], necessarily, 2 = 1, and it follows
that the product on the left is divisible by 8 (product of a number

Solutions (21-22) 111
divisible by 4, since it ends in 12, and 2), but the number on the
right is not divisible by 8 (ending in 124).
The demonstration for t = 7 is left to the reader. It is quite
similar to the foregoing solutions.
22. (a) First solution. A number increased seven-fold upon
transfer of its first digit to the end must commence with the digit 1
(otherwise the larger number would contain more digits than the
original). As was done in problem 19 (a), we let X be the w-digit
integer obtained by deleting the first digit, 1, of the number sought.
Then, as in the previous problems,
(MO" + A')-7= 10^+ 1 ,
which yields
.^,_7-10"' - 1
^~ 3 •
But it is obvious that there is no m for which X can be an w-digit
number i > 10" 1.
A similar demostration will prove that there is no number which
is increased nine-fold by transfer of its initial digit to the end of the
number.
Second solution. We conclude, as in the first solution, that the
number sought must begin with the digit 1. Using the terminology
explained in problem 19 (b), we have the following statement of our
problem:
Ixy- ■ -zt-l = xy- --ztl .
It follows that the product tl must end with the digit 1, which
requires that t=3. Insertion of this digit for t yields Ijy- • zS-l—y- ■ -zSl.
Since 3-7 = 21, and the product of of z3 by 7 ends in the succession
of digits 31, this product has 1 as a final digit. Consequently, z is
also equal to 3. A similar procedure shows that each successive
digit (from this end forward) is equal to 3. However, the initial
digit of the number must be 1, which is impossible.
Therefore, there does not exist any integer which increases
sevenfold upon transfer of its first digit to the end.
(b) First solution. Inasmuch as the number to be obtained upon
multiplying the sought integer by 4 must not contain a greater
number of digits than before, the initial digit cannot exceed 2. Since
transfer of the initial digit to the end must produce an even num-

112 Alterations of Digits in Integers
ber, that digit must be 2. If now we designate by X the w-digit
number obtained from the number sought, upon removing the first
digit we obtain
(2-10" + X)-4 = 10^+2,
or
8- 10" - 2
X
6
8-10" — 2
which is an impossibility, since > 10" [see the first solution
0
of problem (a)].
Second solution. As in the first solution, the first digit of the
number sought must be 2. Moreover,
2xy-zt-4=xyzt2 ,
and it follows that t = 3 or 8 {t-4 ends in 2).
If t = 8, then the final two digits on the right form the number
82, and the integer is not divisible by 4. U t = 3, then
2xy •23-4= XV •232,
hence
2xy--z0-4 = xy-z20
and
2xy-■■z-4 = xy-■■z2
In the same manner we find that the number 2xv--2 has the same
property as did 2xy- ■ zt. By applying the same reasoning as before
we find that, necessarily, 2 = 3. Continuing this line of reasoning,
and moving from right to left, we find that the tens position of the
number must have the digit 3. But the initial number must
commence with the digit 2. This is obviously impossible.
23. First solution. Let us designate the digits of the integer
sought by x,y, ■■•,z,t. Then proceeding as in problem 19 (a), we
obtain
1
7xy • • • 2< • "o" = XV • • • zt7
or
xy--zt7-3 = 7xy- -zt

Solutions (23) 113
It is clear that < = 1; we can determine the digit z (17-3 yields 51;
this means that z = 5), and, moving from right to left we obtain,
successively, the digits forming the integer sought. The process
ends when we obtain the digit 7. It is convenient to display the
result in the following form:
241379310344827586206896551 7241379310344827586206896551
7-3=
(the calculations are made from right to left). Thus, the least integer
satisfying the conditions of the problem is 7,241,379,310,344,827,586,
206,896,551.
If in the course of these calculations we do not stop when we first
obtain a 7, we can find additional numbers which satisfy the
conditions of the problem. All such numbers will be of the form
7241379310344827586206896551 • • • 7241379310344827586206896551
k times
Second solution. Let Ixyz ■■ ■ t be the integer sought. Division by
3 must yield the integer xyz ■ ■ ■ tl. We write this requirement in
the form
Ixyz • • • < I 3
xyz-- tl .
It is clear that x = 2 is necessary. If we replace x by 2 in the
dividend and quotient, we can find the next digit of the quotient,
and this is also the third digit of the dividend; we can then
determine the third digit of the quotient, which is the fourth digit of the
dividend, and so on. The process is complete when the final digit
of the quotient is 7 and simultaneously the dividend is exactly
divisible by 3. This dividend is then the number sought and is the
least integer having the required property.
The following arrangement is a convenient scheme for carrying
out this computation (the numbers in the second row are written last):
72413793103448275862
7 12 4 11 23 27 9 3 1 10 13 14 24 8 22 17 25 18 6 2
24137931034482 758620
0 6 8 9 6 5 5 1
20 26 28 19 16 15 5 21
6 8 9 6 5 5 17

114
Alterations of Digits in Integers
The least integer is found to be 7,241,379,310,344,827,586,206,896,551.
Third solution. As in the first solution of problem 19 (a), set up
the formula
(7-10"- + X)-~-=10X+7 ,
from which
X:
7-10"- 21
29
The problem then becomes that of finding an integer of form 70,000, • • •
which upon division by 29 yields the remainder 21. It is left to the
reader to verify that the same solution is obtained as before.
Remark: A similar algorithm may be employed to solve the following
generalized problem:
Find the least integer having a given first digit which is diminished to J its
original size when the first digit is transferred to the end, To make the
solution possible for integers having 1 or 2 as a first digit, let us agree that a
zero may be put as the first digit of the quotient (and this is then the second
digit of the dividend). The only nonzero integers satisfying the requirements
are (in addition to that produced above):
1,034,482,758,620,689,655,172,413,793
2,068,965,517,241,379,310,344,827,586,
3,103,448,275,862,068,965,517,241,379
4,137,931,034,482,758,620,689,655,172,
5,172,413,793,103,448,275,862,068,965
6,206,896,551,724,137,931,034,482,758
8,275,862,068,965,517,241,379,310,344
9,310,344,827,586,206,896,551,724,137
The same procedure will solve the following problem:
Find the least integer commencing with a given digit a which is decreased
by a factor I when the first digit is transferred to the end.
24. (a) The conditions of the problem may be expressed by the
equality
xy
zt ■ a — tz
yx
where a is one of the numbers 2, 3, 5, 6, 7 or 8.
If a = 5, then x must be 1; otherwise the number on the right
will contain one digit too many. (The case in which x is 0 may be
excluded, since upon multiplying each side by 2 and deleting the

Solutions {24) 115
final zero we obtain y • ■ ■ zt = 2-tz • ■ ■ y\ that is, we arrive at the
same problem as for a = 2.) But the integer tz ■• ■ y\ is not
divisible by 5. Analogous reasoning will prove that a cannot be 6 or 8.
If a = 7, then x again must be 1. In this case, t must be the
digit 3, otherwise \y •■■ zt-1 fails to end with the digit 1. But the
equation ly • • • zi-7 = Zz ■ ■ ■ y\ is clearly impossible, since the left
number is greater than the right number.
If a = 2, then x cannot exceed 4. Since the integer tz • ■• yx must
be even, x is either 2 or 4. If a: = 4, the digit t (the first digit of
4.V • ■ ■ zt-2) can be only 8 or 9, and neither 4jv ■ ■ ■ z8-2 nor Ay ■ ■■ zB-2
ends with the digit 4. If a: = 2, then t (the first digit of 2y ■■■ zt-2)
can only be 4 or 5; but neither 2jv ■ ■ ■ 24-2 nor 2jv • ■ ■ 25-2 can end
in 2.
Finally, if 2 = 3, then x cannot exceed 3. \i x = 1, then t must
be 7 {t-Z ends in 1); if a: = 2, then t must be 4; if a: = 3, then t must
be 1. But in the first case, tz ■■■ yx is certainly greater than xy ■ -zt-Z,
and in the second and their cases it is clearly smaller.
(b) Let xy ■ ■ ■ zthe an integer which is i its inversion. We then
have
xy • ■ ■ zt-A = tz ■ ■ ■ yx .
Since xy ■■• zt-A is to contain the same number of digits as does
xy ■ ■ ■ zt, the digit x can be only 0, 1, or 2. Since tz ■ ■ ■ yx must be
divisible by 4, it follows that x must be even, and so the only
possibilities are x = 0 (if we allow 0 to be counted as a digit at the
beginning of the integer), or a: = 2.
Suppose a: = 0. Then t = 0 or else t = 5. Write oy ■ ■ ■ yt-A =
tz ■ ■ ■ jvO; we note that t cannot be the digit 5 (regardless what digit
V is), and so the only possibility is t=Q. We can now write y- ■ ■z-A=
z • ■ • y; that is, if a number meeting the condition of the problem
begins with 0, then it also ends in 0, and the integer obtained by
deleting these two zeros will also meet the conditions of the problem.
It suffices therefore to investigate a: = 2, for which 2y ■ ■ ■ zt ■ A =
tz ■ ■ ■ y2. Since 2-4 = 8, t can be only 8 or 9, but t = 9 can
immediately be eliminated as a possibility. Thus, t = 8, and we can write
2>'---28-4 = 82--->'2. Since 23-4 > 90^^ can be only 0, 1, or 2; also,
the tens digit of any product of form 28-4 must be odd. Thus, y = \.
Since we know the final two digits (12) in the product 21 • • • 28 ■ 4,
we can easily find the only two possibilities for the next successive
digit: 2 can be only 2 or 7. But 21-4 > 82, which means that 2 = 7.

116 Alterations of Digits in Integers
Hence, the number must have the form 21 • • ■ 78. We note that
the integer 2178 satisfies the condition of the problem, and hence it
is the only such four-digit number. We now consider solutions in
terms of integers having more than four digits. We must have
21uv ■ • ■ rs78-4 = 87sr ■ ■ ■ vul2
which may be written
84-10'+^+ 312 + uv- rsOO-4
= 87-10'+^+ 12 + sr--- vuOO,
or
uv ■ ■ ■ rs-4 + 3 = 3sr - ■ ■ vu.
Since when the number uv ■■■ rs is multiplied by 4, and 3 is added,
the digit 3 is produced as the leading digit of the resulting
calculation, the digit u must be at least as great as 6, but since 3sr ■- ■ vu
must be odd, the only possibilities are 9 or 7. We shall investigate
both possibilities.
When M = 9 we have
9v - • - rs - 4 + 3 = Zsr • • ■ v9 ,
from which it follows that s = 9(s-4 must terminate in 6; if s = 4,
then 34r ■ ■ • vQ is smaller than 9v - - - r4-4 + 3), and so
9i,... r9-4 + 3 = 39r--- i^ .
That is (for u = 9), in order for 2\uv ■ ■ - rs78 to meet the conditions
of the problem, the final digit of uv ■ ■ ■ rs must also be 9. In
particular, uv ■ ■ ■ rs must be 9, 99, 999, and so on. We obtain the
numbers
21,978; 219,978; 2199; 978; - - - .
We can easily verify that all such numbers satisfy the conditions of
the problem.
When M = 7 we have
7v ■■■ rs-4 + 3 = 3sr ■■■ v7 .
Reasoning as we did initially in this problem, we find that s = 1,
V = 8,r = 2; that is, the digit sequence uv • ■■ rs must have the form
78 - • • 21. We can easily verify that if the digit pairs 78 and 21 are
inserted between 21 as the first digit pair, and 78 as the last digit
pair, the resulting integer satisfies the conditions of the problem:
For example.

Solutions {25) 117
21 78 21 78 21 78-4 = 87 12 87 12 87 12 .
But according to the treatment for m = 9 we will also obtain
solutions if we insert the digit 9 in the appropriate positions. For
example, the following numbers are solutions:
0; 2178; 21,978; 219,978; • • • ,
2199 • ■ ■ 978, 2199 ■ • • 9978, ■ • • . ( i )
k times {k + 1) times
The insertion of the digit 9 may be made after any sequence 21,
provided it is also made in the equivalent location counted from the
other end of the number. Thus, any sequential array of digits of
the form
P^Pi ■ ■ ■ Pn-^P.P.-^ ■ ■ ■ PiP^ ,
where each letter Pi is one of the numbers from the display (1). For
example
2,197,821,978 ,
2,199,782,178,219,978 ,
21,978,021,997,800,219,978,021,978 ,
02,199,999,780 .
(The last number can be considered a solution if we allow zeros at
the beginning of the number.)
It may be proven in an analogous way that all integers which are
increased by a factor of 9 upon reversal of the digits can be obtained
by sequentially placing together integers of the form
0; 1089; 10,989; 109,989; ■ ■ •; 1099 ■ ■ • 989; 1099 • ■ ■ 9989; ■ ■ ■
k times {k + 1) times
in the same fashion as done for (1).
25. (a) Let A^ be the number sought. Designate the number formed
by the first three digits of A^ by p, and the number formed by the
final three digits of A^ by q. Then the conditions of the problem
yield
6(1000/> + ^) = 1000^ +/> (=6^"),
or
(1000? + />) - (lOOO/" + q) = 999{q - />) = 5N;
that is, A^ is divisible by 999.

118 Alterations of Digits in Integers
Further, P + q = (1000/' + q) - 999p = N- 999/>, and it follows that
p + q also must be divisible by 999. But p and q are each three-
digit numbers, and obviously neither is 999; consequently, p + ^=999.
We find, without difficulty, that
(1000^ + p) + (1000/> + q) = 1001(/> + q)=^7N,
which yields 7N = 999,999, or A^ = 142,857.
(b) Reasoning as we did in problem (a), and designating by p the
integer formed by the first four digits of the derived number A^, and
by q the integer formed by the final four digits of N, we obtain
7N = 10,001 (/> + q) = 99,999,999 ,
which fails to yield an integer for A^, since 99,999,999 is not
exactly divisible by 7.
26. Let a: be a number satisfying the condition of the problem.
Since 6x must be, along with x, a six-digit integer, the first digit of
X must be 1 (and the following digit cannot exceed 6). Hence:
(1) The leading digits of the numbers x, 2x, 3x, 4x, 5x, and 6x are
all different and, as a result, must comprise all the digits contained
in the integer x (each of these digits must appear in the original
number x).
(2 ) All the digits of x are different.
None of these digits is O(otherwise one of the above products starts
with 0), and so the final digit of x must be odd (otherwise 5x ends
with an 0); also, the final digit must differ from 5 (otherwise 2x ends
in 0). Consequently, the final digits of the numbers x, 2x, 3x, Ax, 5a:,
and 6a: are all different, which implies that these digits comprise all
the digits appearing in x. Therefore, one of these final digits is 1.
Since only the number Zx can terminate with a 1 (2,r, Ax, 6x being
even, 5a: having 5 as a final digit, and x itself already having 1 as
its first digit), it follows that x must end with the digit 7; 2a: ends
with the digit 4; 3x ends with the digit 1; 4a: ends with the digit 8;
5a: ends with the digit 5; and 6x ends with the digit 2.
Now, the first digits of these numbers are the individual digits of
the digit set comprising x; we display them in increasing order,
using (asterisks to represent unknown digits):
a: • 1 = 1 **** 7 ,
a: ■ 2 = 2 **** 4 ,
a: ■ 3 = 4 **** 1 ,

Solutions (26-27) 119
a:-4 = 5 ****8 ,
x-5 = 7****5 ,
x-6 = 8****2 .
In this display, not only must each row contain (on the right) all
six distinct digits 1,2,4,5,7, and 8, but each column must contain
these six distinct digits, in some order. Suppose that x-2 and x-5
have the same digit a in a certain position, say in the third position
{a can have only one of the two values not assumed by either the
first or the last digit of either of the two investigated numbers).
Since the difference x-5 — x-2 = x-3 will be a six-digit number,
either the digit 0 or the digit 9 will stand in its third position (since
we can take, at most, a unit carry-over into this place for the
subtraction). But this is an impossibility, since we already know that
the number x-3 will contain neither an 0 nor a 9 as one of its digits.
Therefore, in the above display of a:1,a:-2, ••■ the sum of the
digits in any column is 1 + 2 + 4 + 5 + 7 + 8 = 27. We can therefore
add the right member of this display and obtain
a:-21 =2,999,997 ,
whence x = 142,857, which is the integer sought. As a check we
have:
X = 142,857 , 4x = 571,428 ,
2x = 285,714 , 5x = 714,285 ,
3x = 428,571 , 6x = 857,142 .
27. (a) By factorization, n^ — n = (« — 1)«(« + 1). The factors on
the right represent three consecutive integers, whence one of them
is divisible by 3.
(b) «* — « = «(«—1)(«+1)(«^ + 1). If the integer n terminates
with one of the digits 0,1,4,5,6, or 9, then one of the first three
factors on the right is divisible by 5. If n ends in one of the digits
2, 3, 7 or 8, then n^ ends in 4 or 9, and in this event n^ + 1 is divisible
by 5.
(c) «' — « = «(«—l)(«+l)(«^ — « +1)(«^+«+1). If « is
divisible by 7, or yields a remainder of 1 or 6 upon division by 7, then
one of the first three factors on the right is divisible by 7. If n
yields a remainder of 2 when divided by 7 (that is, n = 7k + 2), then
n^ yields a remainder of 4 when divided by 7 (that is, «^=49/j^+28^+4),
and so «^ + « + 1 is divisible by 7. Similar reasoning shows that if

120 Tlie Divisibility of Integers
n = 7k + 4, then again n^ + n + 1 is divisible by 7. For the
remainders 3 or 5, «^ — « + 1 is divisible by 7.
(d) «"-« = «(«-!)(« +!)(«» +«' + «' + «2+1). If « is
divisible by 11, or yields the remainder 1 or 10 upon division by 11,
then one of the first three factors is divisible by 11. If this
remainder is either 2 or 9(« = 11^ ± 2), then n' clearly yields a
remainder of 4; «* yields a remainder of 5 = 16 — 11; «" yields a
remainderof9=20-ll[«* = «'-«^ = (lU + 5)(ll/fe2+4) = (lU,+5X11/^2+4) =
12U,/fe2 + 11(4/^1 + 5ki) + 20], and «« yields a remainder of 3=25-22.
It follows, in either case, that «' + «' + n* + «^ + 1 is divisible by
11. In the same manner we can easily verify that if one of the
remainders is ±3, ±4, or ±5 (the only remaining possibilities upon
division of n by 11), then «' + «* + n' + n' + 1 is divisible by 11.
(e) «"-« = «(«-l)(« + l)(«'+l)(«'-«'+!)(«'+ «' + !)■ The
procedure is analogous to that of problem (d). If n is divisible by
13, or yields upon division by 13 the remainder ±1, then one of
the first three factors is divisible by 13; if n yields the remainder
±5, then «^ + 1 is divisible by 13; if the remainder is ±2 or ±6,
then «' — «^ + 1 is divisible by 13; if the remainder is ±3 or ±4,
then «* + «^ + 1 is divisible by 13.
28. (a) The difference of like even powers of any two numbers
is divisible by the sum of the bases (one of the factors is this sum).
Hence, 3'"' - 2" = 272" - 8^" is divisible by 27 + 8 = 35.
(b) It is readily verified that
n^ — 5«^ + 4« = «(«2 — 1)(«2 — 4)
= (« -2)(« - 1)«(«+ 1)(« + 2) .
The factorization displays five consecutive integers. One of them
must be divisible by 5; at least one of them is divisible by 3; at least
two of them are divisible by 2; and one of these two is divisible by
4. Thus, the product of the five consecutive numbers is divisible by
5■3-2-4 = 120 [see the solution of problem 27 (a)].
(c) Prime factorization of the given number yields
56,786,730 = 2-3-5-71113-31-61 .
We must show that mnitn^" — «*°) is divisible by each of these
relatively prime numbers. If m and n are both odd, then rrf" — tf" is
even; consequently, mn{nf — «") is also even, so it is divisible by
2. Further, it follows from problem 27 that if k is equal to 3, 5, 7,
11, or 13, and if n is not divisible by k, then the difference «*^'—1

Solutions (28-31) 121
must be divisible by k. In particular, if neither n nor m is divisible
by 3, then w«» - 1 = (w^°)^ - 1 and n"" ~ 1 = {n^'Y - 1 are divisible
by 3; that is, m^" and «" yield the same remainder, 1, upon division
by 3. Hence, if mn is not divisible by 3, then m*° — «*° is divisible
by 3, which means that in all cases mninf" — tf) is divisible by 3.
It can be shown, in the same way, that the difference
is divisible by 5 in the event that neither m nor n is divisible by 5,
and is divisible by 7 if 7 fails to divide either m or «, and the
analogous conclusion holds for 11 and for 13. Thus, mn{m^'' — «*») is
divisible by 2-3-5-7-1M3.
Divisibility of mn{nf — n^") by 31 and by 61 is demonstrated in
similar fashion (since «^' — n is, for all integral «, divisible by 31,
and «"' — n is, for all integral «, divisible by 61; problem 240).
29. We shall use the identity
n' + 3n + 5 = {n + 7)(« - 4) + 33 .
If this number is to be divisible by 11, then for the suitable
«, (« + 7)(« — 4) must be divisible by 11. Since (« + 7)— («—4) = 11,
either both terms are divisible by 11 or neither is. Hence, if
(« + 7)(« — 4) is divisible by 11, then it is divisible also by 121, and
(« + 7)(« - 4) + 33 fails to be divisible by 121.
30. The given expression factors to
(>w — 2n){m — n){m + n){m + 2«)(w + 3«) .
If « =^ 0, no two of these factors are equal. However, the integer
33 can be factored only as a product of at most four factors:
33 = (-ll)-3-l-(-ll) ,
or
33= ll-(-3)-l-(-l) .
If « = 0, the given expression becomes m', which cannot equal 33
for any integral value of m.
31. Every integer is either divisible by 5 or else can be represented
in one of the forms 5^ + 1,5^ + 2, 5^ — 2, or 5^ — 1. If the number
is divisible by 5, then its 100th power is divisible by 5^ = 125; hence,
we need only investigate the case for integers not divisible by 5.
According to the binomial theorem.

122 The Divisibility of Integers
1 on.QQ
(5^ ± !)'»» = (5^)'«» ± • ■ ■ + (5/^)' ± 100-5/fe + 1 ,
where every term except the final one contains 5^ as a factor, and
so numbers of this form leave a remainder of 1 upon division by
125. Also,
(5/fe ± 2)'«» = (5/fe)'°« ± ■ ■ •
, 100-99,
1-2
-(5/fe)2-2='«±100-5/fe-2"+2'
Again, each term, except the final one, contains 125 as a factor.
The number 2'°° can be represented in the form
50-dQ
(5 - 1)=» = 5=» - ■ ■ ■ + ——"^ - 50-5 + 1 ,
1 ' ^
from which the remainder 1 is obtained upon division by 125.
Therefore, the only two remainders possible when the 100th power
of an integer is divided by 5 are 0 (if the integer itself is divisible
by 5) and 1.
32. The problem may be characterized as follows. If n is
relatively prime to 10, then «'"' — « = «(«'°° — 1) is divisible by 1000;
that is, «'°° — 1 is divisible by 1000. First, it is obvious that if n
is an odd integer, then «'°° — 1 = («" + 1)(«" + 1)(«" — 1) is
divisible by 8. Further, from the result of the preceding problem we
know that if n is not divisible by 5, then «'»° — 1 is divisible by
125. Thus, we see that «'°° - 1 is divisible by 8-125 = 1000 if n is
odd and not divisible by 5, and these conditions are satisfied if n is
relatively prime to 10.
33. Let A^ be the integer sought. The condition of the problem
requires that N' — N end in three zeros, that is, that it be divisible
by 1000. Since m - N= N{N- 1), and since A"and A"- 1 are
relatively prime, divisibility by 1000 is possible only if one of these
factors is divisible by 8 and the other by 125 (neither A" nor N — 1 is
divisible by 1000, since A" is a three-digit integer).
If A" is a three-digit integer divisible by 125, then A"— 1 is
divisible by 8 only ii N = 625 (as we can easily verify), whence A"— 1 =
624. It is also easily verified that if A"— 1 is a three-digit integer
divisible by 125, then A" is divisible by 8 only if A"— 1 = 375, or
A" = 376.
Now, since A"*"' — 1 is (for k ^ 2) divisible by N — I, it follows
that N'' - N= N{N''-' - 1) is for all integral k divisible by N{N-1) =
N^ — N. Therefore, if A"^ — A"ends in three zeros, then A"* — A" will.

Solutions (32-34) 123
for all k ^2, end with three zeros; that is, A^* will end in the same
three digits as does N. It follows that the numbers 625 and 376 (and
only these) satisfy the conditions of the problem.
34. The two final digits of A^" can be found in the following
manner. The number A^" is divisible by 4 (since A^ is even);
further, A" is not divisible by 5 (since then it would be divisible by 10,
which denies the hypothesis). Hence, A" is representable in the form
5^ ± 1 or 5k 7iz2 (see the solution of problem 31). The number
{5k ± ly = (5/fe)" ± ^^^(5/fe)" + • • ■
+ ^Y^(5^)^±20-5^+ 1
yields the remainder 1 when divided by 25, and the number
{5k ± 2)" = (5/fe)" zt ^Y^(5^)'»-2 + • • •
+ ^Y^(5/fe)^-2'»±20-5/fe-2"' + 2"
yields the same remainder upon division by 25 as does
220 = (2'«)2 = (1024)^ = (1025 - 1)^ ,
that is, 1. Since A"" yields the remainder 1 upon division by 25, it
follows that the final two digits of this number can be only 01, 26, 51,
or 76. In asmuch as A"" is divisible by 4, the possibilities narrow
down to the number 76(sincea number is divisible by 4 if, and only
if, the number formed by its final two digits is so divisible). This
yields 7 as the digit standing in the tens place of A"".
We shall now find the final three digits of A""". The number A"""
is divisible by 8. Further, since A" and 5 are relatively prime, it
follows that A"'"" yields the remainder 1 upon division by 125 (see
the solution of problem 31); that is. A"'"" = 125/fe + 1. But A""" =
(125/fe + 1)^ = (125^)2 + 250/fe + 1 also yields the remainder 1 upon
division by 125. Therefore, the only possibilities for the final three
digits of A""" are 126, 251, 376, 501, 626, 751, and 876. Since A""" is
divisible by 8, it is clear that A""" ends in 376. Thus, the digit in
the hundreds place of A""" is 3.
Remark: It is easily reasoned that the number N'"" must end with the
digits 376.

124 The Divisibility of Integers
35. The series 1 + 2 + 3 +•••+« is equal to "^^'J" \ Hence,
we must show that if k is odd, then Si = 1* + 2* + 3* + • • • + «* is
divisible by —^^-^—-.
We first note that for odd k, a* + b'' is divisible by a + b. Two
cases will now be examined.
n is an even integer. Here, the sum Sk is divisible by « + 1, since
each of the sums
i" + «^2*^ + (« -1)^ 3*^ + (« - 2)^ • • -, (^\ + (f-+1)'
is divisible by
l + «[ = 2 + («-l) = 3 + («-2)= •■■ =f+ (f-+l)]-
The sum Sk is divisible also by —, since
P + (« - If, 2' + (« - 2)', 3' + (H - 3)\ ■ ■ ■ ,
(f-r-d-rd)
wi
are all divisible by —.
w + 1
« 25 a« odd integer. Here the sum Sk is divisible by —-—, since
P + „., 2* + („ -1)^ 3' + («- 2)^. • ■. (^)*+(^)X^)*
«+1
are all divisible by —-—. Also, Sk is divisible by n, since
!' + («- 1)', 2' + (« - 2)\ 3' + (« - 3)', • ■ ■,
are all divisible by n.
36. Let A^ be written in the form
A' = a„-10" + a„-,10"-' + a^-ilO"^^ + • ■ • +a,10 + a„
(the Ok are, of course, the digits of A"). Subtract from A" the number
M = flo — fll + fla — ^3 + ■ ■ ■ ± On

Solutions {35-38) 125
(that is, the algebraic sum, taken with alternating signs, of the digits
of A^). A simple regrouping of terms yields
N- M= a,(10 + 1) + ai{W - 1) + a,{W + 1)
+ a.(10' - 1) + • • • + a„(10 ± 1) ,
which is divisible by 11 since each term on the right is divisible by
11. [In fact, upon division by 11, 10* = (11 — 1)* yields the remainder
— 1 if ^ is odd and the remainder 1 if ^ is even, as binomial
expansion will show.] The number A^ is divisible by 11 if, and only if,
the number M is divisible by 11 (zero, of course, is considered divisible
by all nonzero integers). A criterion, then, is as follows; A number A^
is divisible by 11 if, and only if, the difference of the sum of digits in
the odd-number (1st, 3rd, 5th, •••) positions and the sum of digits in
the even-number (2nd, 4th, •••) positions is divisible by 11.
37. The number 15 yields the remainder 1 upon division by 7; it
follows that
15^ = (7-2 + l)-(7-2 + 1) = 7«, + 1
also yields the remainder 1 upon division by 7, as does
15^ = 15^-15 = (7«, + l)-(7-2 + l) = 7«2 + 1 .
It is now easily verified that every power of 15 yields the remainder
1 upon division by 7. Now if the sum 1 + 2 + 3 + 4+ ••• +14 =
105 is subtracted from the given number, the difference can, after some
simple regrouping and factoring, be displayed in the form
13(15 - 1) + 12(15^ - 1) + 11(15^ - 1) + • • •
+ 2(15" - 1) + 1(15'^ - 1) ,
that is, each term is divisible by 7. But since the difference between
the given number and the (decimal) number 105 (= 7-15) is divisible
by 7, it follows that the given number is also divisible by 7.
38. Let K be an «-digit integer. In the set of natural numbers
containing « + 2 digits and beginning with the digits 10 (that is,
with numbers of aspect lOoiflz • • ■ fln, this notation indicating the
integer 1-10"+^ + Oi-10" + Oa-10""'+ ••• +a„) there can always be found
at least one digit which is divisible by the «-digit number K.
Suppose this number is lObibi ■ ■ ■ b,. Then, to satisfy the conditions of
the problem, both the numbers bj)i---bn^0 and b^bi ■ ■ ■ bj)\ would
have to be divisible by K. Their difference is 9, which then also
must be divisible by K. Since the only divisors of 9 are 1, 3, and

126 The Divisibility of Integers
9, these are the only numbers which can satisfy the conditions of
the problem.
39. We must show that the number
A^= 27,195« - 10,887» + 10,152»
is divisible by 26,460 = 22-3^-5-72. The proof will be given in two
steps:
(1) A^= 27,195"-(10,887»-10,152»). Now, 27,195 = 3-5-7^-37, and
so this number is divisible by 5-7^ The difference shown in the
parentheses is divisible by
10,887- 10,152 = 735 = 3-5-72
(since a^" — b^" is divisible by a — b). Hence, A^is divisible by 5•7^
(2) A^=(27,195»-10,887') + 10,152». Now, 10,152=2^-3^-47 is divisible
by 2--3\ The difference shown in the parentheses is divisible by
27,195 - 10,887 = 16,308 = 2^-3'-151 .
Thus, A' is divisible by 2^-Z\
Since A^ is divisible by 5-7^ and by 2^-3\ it follows that A^ is
divisible by the product of these (relatively prime) numbers, and this
product is 26,460.
40. It is readily verified that
11.0 _ po = (11 _ 1)(119 _,_ IP _,_ IP _,_... _,_ IP _,_ 11 _,_ 1)
The second factor of the right number is divisible by 10, since it is
the sum of ten integers each ending with the digit 1. Inasmuch as
both factors on the right are divisible by 10, their product is
divisible by 100. Therefore, ll'°-l is divisible by 100. Therefore, ll'»-l
is divisible by 100.
41. We have
2222''"=' + 5555"" = (2222"^ + 4"^)
+ (5555"" - 4"") - (4"" - 4"22) ^
Consider the three terms enclosed by parentheses. The first is
divisible by 2222 + 4 = 2226 = 7-318(since a" + 6" is divisible by a + b
if n is odd), and so this term is divisible by 7. The second term is
also divisible by 7, since it is divisible by 5555-4 = 5551 = 7-793
(a" —6" is always divisible by a~b). The third term may be written
42222/43.133 _ 1) — 42222/g41111 _ p .
clearly it is divisible by 64 — 1 = 63, and hence by 7.

Solutions (39-44) 127
42. We use mathematical induction. The number aaa, consisting
of three identical digits (the overbar indicating, as before, that the
integer is given by the succession of digits shown), is divisible by 3
(since the sum of these digits is 3a, which is divisible by 3). Assume
that the proposition has been proved for any integer consisting of
3" identical digits. The expanded integer consisting of 3"+' identical
digits can be written in the following form:
aa ■ ■ ■ a aa • • ■ a aa ■ ■ ■ a = aa ■ ■ ■ a-100 • • • 0100 • • • 01 .
3" times 3" times 3" times 3" times 3" digits 3" digits
There are two factors on the right. The first factor is divisible by 3",
according to the induction hypothesis. The second factor is divisible
by 3 (the sum of its digits being 3). Therefore, the product is
divisible by 3"^'.
43. First note that 10« - 1 = 999 999 is divisible by 7 (in fact,
999 999 = 7 • 142,857). It follows that W (for any integer A') yields
upon division by 7 the same remainder as does W, where r is the
remainder obtained by division of A^ by 6, since if N = 6k + r, then
IQf - ic = 10'''+'- - lO-- = 10'-(10" - 1),
and since 10** — 1 = (10*)* — 1 is divisible by 10' — 1, which in turn
is divisible by 7, then 10" — 10'' is divisible by 7. This means that
10" and 10'' yield the same remainder upon division by7.^
Now, it is readily verified that every integral power of 10 yields
a remainder of 4 upon division by 6 (that is, 10 s 4 mod 6). The
exponents of each term of the sum given in the problem are all
powers of 10, hence each exponent is congruent to 4 modulo 6. This
means that we can replace each of the ten terms by 10' in order to
find the remainder upon division by 7. We have
10' + 10' + • • • + 10' = 10'' 1,000,000 = 7-14,285 + 5 .
10 terms
Therefore, the remainder is 5.
44. (a) Any even power of 9 may be expressed in the form
92„ = 81" = 81-81 81
^ ,—^—■
H times
t In more familiar terminology, 10" is congruent to lO"-, modulo 7, or 10"=
lO'-lmod 7) [Editor].

128 The Divisibility of Integers
and therefore ends with the digit 1. Any odd power of 9 can be
written as 9^"+' = 9-81'' and therefore ends with the digit 9. Since
9^^°' is an odd power of 9, it must end with the digit 9.
It is obvious that 16" ends with the digit 6 for all « ^ 1. Hence
any power of 2 whose exponent is a multiple of 4 (that is, 2'") ends
with 6, since 2'" = 16". Now, 3' — 1 is divisible by 3 + 1 = 4, and so
2(3<) _2-2('^'"", which is the product of 2 and an integer ending with
6, must end with 2.
(b) If we find the remainder yielded upon division of 2^" by 100,
it will be the number formed by the two final digits of 2"^ We first
show, that the number 2'°°° yields the remainder 1 upon division by
25. In fact, 2'° + 1 = 1024 + 1 = 1025 is divisible by 25; and so
2"-l =(2'»+ 1)(2'»-1) is divisible by 25. Thus, 2'°°°-l= (2")=»-l,
being divisible by 2" — 1, is also divisible by 25, and so upon
division by 25 the number 2'°°° yields the remainder 1.
It follows that the final two digits of 2'°°° can be only 01, or
01 + 25 = 26, or 01 + 50 = 51, or 01 + 75 = 76. Since 2'°°° is divisible
by 4, the only possibility among these four numbers is 76. Thus, 2^*^^
is the quotient obtained by dividing an integer ending in 76 by 2.
The only possibilities are 38 and 88. Since 2"^ is divisible by 4,
there remains the one possibility, 88, for the final two digits.
As above, we investigate the remainder obtained upon dividing
3"^ by 100. We recall that every even power of 9 ends with the
digit 1 and that every odd power ends with the digit 9 [see the
solution to problem (a)]. Now consider the remainder obtained upon
division of 9^ + 1 by 100. We have
9= + 1 = (9 + l)-(9' - 9' + 9^ - 9 + 1)
= 10-(9*-9-' + 9^-9+ 1) .
The numbers 9', 9^ and 1 all end with the digit 1, and the numbers
9^ and 9 end with 9. Thus, 9' + 9^ + 1 ends with 3, and 9^ + 9 ends
with 8, which means that the number 9' — 9^ + 9^ — 9 + 1 must end
with 5. Accordingly, 9^+1 must yield upon division by 100 the
remainder 10-5 = 50. It follows that 9'° - 1 = (9* + l)-(9= - 1) is
divisible by 100, and since 3'°°° - 1 = 9=°° - 1 = (9'°)^° - 1 is divisible
by 9'» - 1, it follows that 3'»»» - 1 is divisible by 100. Thus, 3'°»»
ends with the digits 01. But this number is, of course, divisible by
3; consequently, the carry-over from the hundreds place of 3'°°° to
the tens place must be 2 (if it were 0 or 1, then 3'°"° would not be
divisible by 3). Therefore, the number 3"=' = 3'°°°/3 must end with
the same two digits as the number 201/3 = 67.

Solutions (45) 129
(c) We must find the remainder, upon division by 100, of
the number 14'""' =(7-2)'""'. First we find the remainders, upon
division by 100, of 7'""' and 2("").
The number 7' - 1 = 2401 - 1 = 2400 is divisible by 100. It follows
that if n = 4k {k being an integer), then 7" — 1 is divisible by 100
(since 7'* - 1 = (7*)* - 1* is divisible by 7' - 1). Now, 14" = 2"-7"
is divisible by 4; consequently, 7"'"' — 1 is divisible by 100, which
means that 7'""' ends with the digits 01.
In the solution of part (b) it was shown that 2^° — 1 is divisible
by 25; hence, if « = 20^, then 2" - 1 is divisible by 25. We will
now find the remainder obtained from division of 14" by 20. Clearly,
14" = 2"-7". But 2" = 4•2'^ Since 2'2 - 1 = (2')^ - 1 is divisible
by 2' - 1 = 16 - 1 = 15, it follows that 4(2'2 - 1) is divisible by 20,
and consequently 2" = 4-2'^ yields upon division by 20 a remainder
of 4. Further, 7" = 49-7'^ Since 7'^ yields a remainder of 1 upon
division by 20 (12 is divisible by 4, whence 7'^ — 1 is divisible by
100), it follows that 49-7'^ yields upon division by 20 the same
remainder as does 49, that is, 9. Similarly, 14" = 2"-7" yields upon
division by 20 the same remainder as does the product 4-9 = 36, that
is, 16; or 14" = 20k + 16. It follows that 2'""' = 2'«-2"'^ yields upon
division by 25 the same remainder as does 2'* = 65,536; that is, 2'""'
can end only with one of the numbers 11, 36, 61, or 86. Since 2'""'
is divisible by 4, the final two digits must be 36.
Therefore, since 7'""' ends with the digits 01, and 2'""' has as
its two final digits 36, the product 7'""' -2'""' = 14'""' ends with 36.
45. (a) We make use of the fact that the product of two numbers
ending respectively with the digits a and b will have the same final
digit as does the product a-b. This provides a simple solution for
the problem. We consider successively greater powers of 7, keeping
track of the final digit only: 7^ ends with the digit 9; T = 7-T with
the digit 3; 7' = 7-V with the digit 1; and T = I'-T with the digit 3.
Moreover, we find that (7')' ends with the digit 7 [(7')^ ends with
9; (7')=' ends with 7; (7')' ends with 1, and, finally, (7')' ends with 7].
We find, at the next stage, that the number ((7')')' ends with the
same digit as does T (the digit 3), and the number (((7')')')' ends
again with the digit 7, and so on. Continuation of this process must
then yield the following rule. For an odd number of exponents 7
we obtain a final digit 3, and for an even number of exponents we
obtain a final digit 7. Since 1000 is an even integer, the number
sought has 7 as its final digit.

130 The Divisibility of Integers
If an integer ends with a two-digit number A, and another integer
ends with a two-digit number B, then the product of the two integers
ends with the same two-dight number as does the product AB.
This fact allows us to find the final two digits for the number
mentioned by the problem. We easily verify, by the methods used
above, that T ends with the two-digit number 43, and (7')' ends with
the same two digits as does 43', namely 07. It follows that in taking
successive 7th powers, 7, T, {TY, • • •, we obtain for an odd number of
such "raises" a number with final digits 43, and for an even number
a number with final digits 07. Therefore, the number in which we
are interested must end with 07.
(b) In the solution of problem (a) we saw that 7' ends with
the digit 1. Therefore, 7"^ = (7*)* also ends with the dight 1, and
ytt+r^ where k is one of the numbers 0,1, 2, or 3, ends with the same
digit as does 7'' (since 7'*+''= 7'*-7''). Thus, the problem reduces to
finding the remainder, modulo 4 (that is, after division by 4), of the
"exponential part" of the given number.
The power to which 7 is raised is again a power of 7. We must
determine the remainder obtained by dividing the latter power by 4.
Now 7 = 8-1, and it follows that: 7^ = (8 - l)-(8 - 1) yields upon
division by 4 the remainder 1; V = 7^-(8 — 1) yields upon division by
4 the remainder —1 (equivalent, upon division by 4, to the remainder
3); and, in general, every even power of 7 yields upon division by 4
the remainder 1, and odd powers yield the remainder —1 (that is,
+ 3). For the number in question, we are concerned with an odd
power of 7, since the exponential part is itself a power of 7, and,
consequently, owing to the conditions of the problem, it is of form
741+3 Therefore, it ends with the same digit as does 7\ that is,
with the digit 3.
Since 7* ends with 01, 7''+'' ends with the same two-digit number
as does T. Therefore, the given number ends with the same two
digits as does 7^ that is, 43.
46. Consider the following five numbers:
(1)
(2)
Z, = 9.
Z^ = 9^. = (10 - If ■
= lO^'-Ck-lO^'
••• +C]r,-10-1
(where the integers not explicitly displayed are obviously divisible
by 100). Now, Cz, — 9, and hence the two final digits of Zt are the
same as the final two digits of 9-10 — 1 = 89.

Solutions (46) 131
(3) Za = 9^2 = (10 - 1)^2
= 10^2 - Ck,-10^2-' + • • • - C\-W + Cz,-10 - 1 .
Now, Zz ends with 89; consequently, Cz^ = Zi ends with 89, and
„ _ Z^{Z2j:2j)_^ ■■■89 ■ ■■■88
^^2- 1.2 1-2
(the dots designating unknown digits) ends with the digit 6.
Accordingly, the final three digits of the number Z3 will be the same
as the final three digits of the number -600 + 890 - 1 = 289.
(4) Z. = 9^3 = (10 - 1)^3
= 10^3-Cz,^10^3-' + ■•• + C\,-W - Cl,-W + Cz,-\Q - \ .
Since Z3 ends with 289, Ck = Z3 ends with 289;
Z,{Z, - 1)
12
1)(Z, - 2)
■289 ■ ■■•288
12
•■289 ■ ■■•288 ■
■■■287
ends with 16, and
^' 123 123
ends with the digit 4. Hence, the final four digits of Z, will form
the same number as do the final four digits of the number 4000 —
1600 + 2890 - 1 = 5289.
(5) Z5 = 9^4 = (10 - ly* = 10^* - Cz.^10^.-' + ■ ■ ■
- Cz.^10* + cl^-w - a.^io^ + Cz,-\o -1.
Since Z. ends with 5289, Cz, = Z. ends with 5289;
■■■5289 ■ ■■•5288
12
■5289 ■ ■■•5288 ■ ■■■5287
ends
ends
with 116
a.=
with 64;
a.
t
Z,{Z,
and
ziz,
1^
- ix^. -
123
-1)
2
-2)
123
„, ^ ZIZ, - 1)(Z. - 2)(Z. - 3) ^ ■■■5289 ■ ■■■5288 ■ 5287 ■ ■■■5286
' 1234 1234
ends with the digit 6. Therefore, Z5 ends with the same digit as
does the number
- 60,000 + 64,000 - 11,600 + 52,890 - 1 = 45,289 .

132 The Divisibility of Integers
Further, since the final four digits of the number Zs coincide with
the final four digits of Z,, it follows that the final five digits of the
number Ze = 9^' = (10 — 1)^5 coincide with the final five digits of the
number Zs (= 9^0- It can be shown, in exactly the same way, that
all the numbers of the sequence
Zsi Zs = 9^5; Z7 = 9^0; • • •; Ziooo = 9^m9; Z,ooi = 9^i™o
end with the same four digits, namely the digits forming the number
45,289. Thus, Ziooi is the number A^ called for by our problem.
47. Using the formula for the sum of a geometric progression,
we find
50-000 _ -^ ^ 50'°°° - 1
50 - 1 ~ 49
Now 1/49 forms a periodic decimal; it is found (by tedious but
straightforward division) to have a period of 42 digits:
-^=0.(020408163265306122448979591836734693877551) ,
or, in abbreviated form
49
where P expresses the 42 digits written above.
The mu
imilarly.
iltiple
M =
of 42 nearest
j^QIOOH
49
J^O'003
49
= 10'
1
1000
[003 .
IQIOOfi
is
1
49
1008 = 24-42. Conseqi
- =
1
49
PP-- P.
24 times
— = PP-- P
49 ^—^—i
24 times
lently,
is an integer consisting of 1008 digits, which can be arranged in 24
repeating groups of 42 digits each (the number M consists not of
1008 digits but of 1007, since the number P begins with a zero).
We construct the difference between the number A^ in which we
are interested and the number M:
Riooo. in'ooo 1 iniooa 1 Riooo ina
\r ^ M = — — — ~ — - i^ • lO'ooo
49 49 49 ■

Solutions {47-49) 133
Since the difference N — M oi two whole numbers is an integer,
and 10'°°° is relatively prime to 49, it follows that 5'°°° - 10' must
51000 j^Qa
be divisible by 49. Hence, the number x = — is an integer,
and the difference A^—M= 10'°°°-a: terminates with 1000 zeros.
Hence the final 1000 digits of A^ coincide with those of M, namely
qPP-P
23 times
where ^ is a group of 34 digits consisting of the last 34 digits of
the number P.
48. The number of zeros at the end of a number indicates how
many times the number 10 enters as a factor. Now, 10 = 2-5. In
the product of all the integers from 1 to 100 (that is, in 100!) the
factor 2 enters to a higher power than does 5. Hence 100! is
divisible by 10 as many times as the factor 5 appears (and will terminate
in this many zeros). Up to and including 100, there are 20 integers
which are multiples of 5. Four of these (25, 50, 75, and 100) are also
multiples of 25, that is each contains 5 twice as a factor. Therefore,
in the number 100! the factor 5 is encountered 24 times, and so there
will be 24 zeros at the end of this integer.
49. First solution of probletns (a) and (b).
(a). Let t + I, t + 2, ■ ■ ■, t + n he n consecutive integers for
some arbitrary integer t. We first determine, for a prime number
p, to what degree /> is a factor in nl, and to what degree this prime
enters as a factor in the product {t + I) ■ ■■ {t + n). Designate by w,
the number of integers in the sequence 1,2, •••,« for which p is at
least a simple factor, by >«j the number of integers for which p is
at least a twofold factor, and so on. Then the degree to which p
enters as a factor in n\ is given by m = nii + m2 + ■ ■■.
If Si is the number of integers of the sequence t + 1, t + 2, ■ ■ ■,
t + n which are divisible by pi and Sj is the number of integers in
this sequence which are divisible by p^, and so on, then the degree
s to which p enters as a factor of {t + 1) ■ ■ ■ {t + a) will be s =
Sl + S2 + • • • .
Now, the number of integers in the sequence t + I, ■ ■ ■, t -\- n which
are divisible by p is not less than w,, since among the integers
t + 1, ■ ■ ■, t + n are the numbers t + p, t + 2p, ■ ■ ■, t + )n,p, and in
each interval between t + kp to t + {k + l)p {k = 0,1, 2, ■ ■ ■, mi - 1)
there is at least one integer which is divisible by p. Thus, s, ^ nti.

134 The Divisibility of Integers
and, analogously, s^ ^ nii, and so on, and so s S m. This means
that every prime factor of n\ enters as a factor of {t -\- \) ■ ■ ■ {t + n)
to a degree not less than it enters as a factor of n\. That is, the
number {t -\- \) ■ ■ ■ {t -\- n) is divisible by n\
(b) The product of the first a factors of n\ is, of course, a\.
The product of the following six consecutive integers of n\ is,
according to problem (a), divisible by b\. The product of the next
successive c consecutive integers of n\ is divisible by c\, and so on.
Since a + b -\- ■ ■ ■ + k ^ n, \t follows that n\ is divisible by a\b\ ■ ■ ■ k\.
Alternate solution of problems (a) and (b) using the result of problem
101. Problem (b) will be considered first. The power m to which
the prime /> is a factor of a\ is, as we have seen, equal to m =
nil -\- nil + • • •, where m, is the number of integers of the sequence
1,2, •••, a of which p is at least a simple factor; Wa is the number
of integers of which p^ is a factor; and so on. The number of
integers in this sequence which are multiples of p is given by — ; the
the number of integers which are multiples of p^ is given by ^ ;
and so on, where — M ^ ' ''' ^^^ ^^^ greatest integers in —,
—, ••• (see the remark just prior to the statement of problem 101).
P
Thus, ni = \ — + ~r + ■ ■ • Let /> be a prime number; then the
degree to which p enters as a factor of the numerator is equal to
— +^+--. The degree to which /> is a factor of the
denominator is
Since n'^ a -\- b + ■ ■ ■ + k, we have (using the result of problem 101,
part 1)
that is, p enters the numerator as a factor to a higher degree than
it enters the denominator and so the given fraction is an integer.
The proposition of problem (a) immediately follows. Consider the

Solutions {50) 135
product {t + a)!. According to what has just been proven,
(< + a) ■ ■ ■ (< + \W - 1) ■ ■ ■ 1 ^ (a + t)\ ^ {t + l)---{t +a)
aU{t - 1) ••• 1 altl a\
is an integer.
(c) («!)! is the product of the first n\ integers. These n\
integers can be written as the product of (« — 1)! product sets each
containing n\ successive integers. Each of these sets is, according
to the solution of problem (a), divisible by «!.
(d) Designate the integers by a, a + rf, a + 2rf, • • •, a + (« — \)d.
We first show that there exists an integer k such that the product
kd yields a remainder 1 when divided by n\. Consider the («! — 1)
numbers d, 2d, 3d, ■ ■ ■, («! — l)d. None of these numbers is divisible
by «! (since d and «! are, by hypothesis, relatively prime). Further,
no two products pd and tjd, where p and q are distinct integers less
than n\, can yield the same remainder upon division by «! (otherwise
pd — qd = {p — q)d would be divisible by «!). Hence the n\ — 1
integers all yield different remainders upon division by «!, and so, for
some k, the remainder 1 appears upon division by «!, that is, kd =
r-nl + 1.
If now we designate ka by A, we have
ka = A
k{a + d) = A + kd = {A + 1) + r-nl ,
k{a + 2d) = A + 2kd = (^ + 2) + 2rn\ ,
k[a + (« - \)d\ ^ A +{n- l)kd = [A + (« - 1)] + (« - l)r-n[ .
It follows that
k^a + d){a + 2d) ■■■ [a +{n - l)d]
gives the same remainder upon division by «! as does
A{A + 1){A + 2) • • • [^ + (« - 1)] .
The latter product is divisible by n\, in view of the result of problem
(a); also k" is relatively prime to n\ (since if k is not relatively prime
to «!, then neither is kd). Therefore, «! divides a{a + d){a + 2d) ■ ■■
[a + {n - V)d].
50. The number of combinations of 1000 elements taken 500 at a
time is given by
1000!
(500!)^ ■

136 The Divisibility of Integers
Since 7 is a prime number, the highest power of 7 which is a factor
of 1000! [see the second solution of problem 49 (b)] is equal to
The highest power of 7 in 500! is equal to
and so the degree to which 7 enters the denominator of the fraction
is 82-2= 164. Thus, both numerator and denominator contain the
factor 7 exactly the same number of times. When 7'*' is cancelled
out of numerator and denominator, no multiple of 7 remains in the
resulting number. Therefore, the integer represented by Cfooo is not
divisible by 7.
51. (a) It is readily seen that every prime number satisfies the
given condition, since p does not appear as a factor in {p — 1)!. If
« is a composite number which can be written as the product of
two unequal factors, a and b, then both a and b are less than « — 1,
and consequently, both appear in the composition of (« — 1)!. This
means that (« — 1)! is divisible by ab = n. If « is the square of a
prime p > 2, then « — 1 = />^ — 1 > 2/>, which implies that both p
and 2p enter into the product composition of (« — 1)!. Hence, (« — 1)!
is divisible by p-2p = 2p^ = 2n. Thus, all the composite numbers
except 2^ = 4 may be eliminated. However, 4 satisfies the condition
of the problem, as well as do all the prime numbers less than 100:
2, 3, 4, 7,11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41,
43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97 .
(b) It will be shown that (« — 1)! fails to be divisible by n^
in the following cases only: n is prime, n is twice a prime, n is the
square of a prime, « = 8, « = 9.
If n is neither a prime number, nor twice a prime, nor the square
of a prime, nor the numbers 8 or 16, then n may be written as a
product a-b, where a and b are distinct numbers, neither of which
is less than 3. Assume 6 > a S 3. Then the numbers a, b, 2a, 2b, 3a
are all less than « — 1; moreover, a, b, and 2b are clearly distinct
from each other, and at least one of the numbers 2a or 3a differs
from a, b, and 2b. Hence, in (« — 1)! there appear the distinct factors
a, b, 2b, 2a, or else a, b, 2b, 3a (and possibly all of a, b, 2a, 2h, and 3a

Solutions {51-52) 137
appear separately as factors of that product). In every case, (« — 1)!
is divisible by a^b'^ = n'K
Moreover, if « = />^ where /> > 4 is prime, then n — I > 4p, and
(« — 1)! contains as factors all of the numbers p, 2p, 3p, 4p and hence
is divisible by p* = n^. If n = 2p, then (h — 1)! is not divisible by
p^, and so it is not divisible by n^; when « = 8 or « = 9, (« — 1)! is
not divisible by n^ (7! is not divisible by 8^ nor is 8! divisible by
9^); if n = 16, (« — 1)! is divisible by n' (since 15! contains as factors
the numbers 2, 4 = 2S 6 = 3-2, 8 = 2^ 10 = 2-5,12 = 2'-3,14 = 2-7, and
so is divisible by 2'+2+'+3+'+2+' = 2" = 16^-23).
Thus, the condition of problem (b) is satisfied by all the numbers
which satisfy the condition of problem (a), and in addition by the
integers 6, 8, 9, 10,14, 22, 26, 34, 38, 46, 58, 62, 74, 82, 86, 94, that is, all
primes, doubles of primes, and the integers 8 and 9.
52. Assume that the integer n is divisible by all numbers m -^i/n,
and consider the least common multiple K of all these numbers m.
Of course, all prime numbers p i\/n are included, as well as powers
up to />* g "l/T^, but />*+' > "i/Tj. Assume that there are / primes
which are less than t/«, and designate them by pi,pi, ■■■,pi. The
least common multiple of all the integers less than \/n will be the
product K= />f'/>j^ • • • />?', where ki is the integer such that
From the / inequalites
Pi' iVn < p'^"^' (f = 1,2, •••,/).
Vli < Pi'^'
we obtain
(-i/¥)' </.?'+' •/.^+' pi'*'.
However,
/,^+>^-' • • • /.f'^' = /.f'/.^ ■■■pi'-PiPi---pi^K^
(since /)f'/>^ ■ ■ ■ pV = K), and, consequently, pipi ■ ■■ Pi ^ K. Hence,
we have
(-l/¥)' < K^ .

138 The Divisibility of Integers
Inasmuch as n is divisible by K, we must have K ^ n, whence
(l/ «)' < n^. Therefore, / < 4. Since pi, pt, • • • pi, are primes less than
"l/TT, pt = 7 > i/ n (the fourth prime number is 7), and so « < 49.
If we examine the integers less than 49, we readily ascertain that
only the following integers satisfy the conditions of the problem:
24, 12, 8, 6, 4, 3, 2 .
53. (a) Designate five consecutive integers by
« — 2, « — 1, «, « + 1, « + 2 .
Then
(« - 2Y + (« - ly + n^ + {n + IV + {n + 2y = 5«^ + 10 = 5(«^ + 2) .
If 5(«^ + 2) is a perfect square, then it mush be divisible by 25
(it has the prime factor 5, which must appear twice), hence («^ + 2)
must be divisible by 5. This is possible only if the final digit of n-
is 8 or 3, and no square of an integer ends in either of these digits.
(b) Of three consecutive integers, one is divisible by 3,
another yields a remainder of 1 upon division by 3, and the third yields
remainder of 2 (or, equivalently, a remainder of —1). Upon
multiplication of two such integers, the remainders obtained from division
by any number are also multiplied; actually,
{pk + rXqk + s) = pqk^ + pks + qkr + rs= k{pqk + />s + qr) + rs .
Hence, if a number yields the remainder 1 upon division by 3, then
all of its powers yield the remainder 1 upon division by 3; if the
remainder is —1, then all of the odd powers of the number will
yield the remainder —1, and the even powers will yield the
remainder 1.
Thus, given three even powers of consecutive integers, we have,
upon division by 3, the remainder 0 for one power and the remainder
1 for the other two.
Therefore, the sum of even powers of three consective integers
yields the remainder 2 when divided by 3 (or, equivalently, the
remainder — 1); but no even power of any integer, as we have just
shown, can yield this remainder upon division by 3.
Remark: The even powers referred to in problem (b) need not be the same.
In problem (c) note that the even powers referred to are all the same.
(c) As we saw in the solution of problem (a), the sum of
even powers of three consecutive integers yields a remainder of 2

Solutions {53-54) 139
when divided by 3. It follows that the sum of even powers of nine
consecutive numbers yield a "remainder" of 6 upon division by 3,
that is, this sum is divisible by 3. We must show that such a sum
(wherein the even powers are the same) is not divisible by 3^ = 9.
Of nine consective integers, one is divisible by 9, and the others
yield remainders from 1 to 8. If 2k is the (even) power to which
the nine consecutive integers are raised, then the sum yields the
same remainder upon division by 9 as does
0 + P'' + 2"' + Z^'' + A^'' + 5" + 6" + 1^'' + 8^*
or the sum
2(11- _,_ 4* _,_ 7*)
(since 3^ and 6^ are divisible by 9; P and 8^ = 64 each yield a
remainder 1; 2* = 4 and 7^ = 49 yield remainders of 4; 4^ = 16 and
5^ = 25 yield remainders of 7).
Now note that P = 1, 4^ = 64, and V = 343 all yield the remainder
1 upon division by 9. It follows that \i k = 31, then p + 4*^ + 7* =
P + 64' + 343' yields the same remainder upon division by 9 as does
p + p + p = 3; it is not divisible by 9. U k = 3l +1, then P + 4' +
7*^ = I'-l + 64'-4 + 343'-7 yields the same remainder as does the sum
PI + 1-4 + 1-7 = 12; it is not divisible by 9. If ^ = 3/+ 2, then
P' + 4* + 7* = I'-l + 64'-4^ + 343'-7^ yields the same remainder upon
division by 9 as does the sum PI + 1-16 + P49 = 66; it is not
divisible by 9.
54. (a) The sum of the digits of each number is 1+2 + 3 + 4 +
5 + 6 + 7 = 28. It follows that both numbers yield a remainder of
1 upon division by 9 (an integer yields the same remainder upon
division by 9 as does the sum of its digits). But if AjB = n, or
A = hB, where n is an integer different from 1, then, since B =
9N + 1, it follows from A = nB = 9M + n that n must yield a
remainder of 1 upon division by 9. The least value which n can
assume is 10. However, AjB < 10, inasmuch as A and B are both
seven-digit numbers.
(b) Designate the integers sought by A^, 2A'', 3A^. Since an integer
yields the same remainder upon division by 9 as does the sum of
its digits, the sum N + 2N + 3N must yield the same remainder
upon division by 9 as does 1 + 2 + 3+ ••• +9 = 45 in order to meet
the condition imposed by the problem. Hence, 6A^ (and consequently
3A^) is divisible by 9.
Since 3A^ is to be a three-digit number, the first digit of A^ cannot

140 The Divisibility of Integers
exceed 3. It follows that the last digit of A^ cannot be 1, since the
integer 2N would end with 2 and 3A^ would end with 3, and then
none of these three digits is available to begin N. The integer A^
cannot terminate with 5, since 2N would end with 0. Assume now
that the final digit of A^ is 2; then the final digits of 2A^ and 3A^ are,
respectively, 4 and 6. The remaining two digits for 3A^can be chosen
only from 1,3,5,7,8, and 9. Since the sum of all the digits of 3A^
must be a multiple of 9, the first two digits of 3A^ are either 3 and
9 or 5 and 7. By checking all the possibilities, we find that the
following three-digit numbers satisfy the condition of the problem:
192, 384, 576. Analogously, we can investigate the cases for which
A^ terminates with 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, or 9. This procedure will produce
three additional solutions: 273, 546, 819; 327, 654, 981; and 219,438,657.
55. A perfect square can terminate in only one of the digits
0,1,4,9,6, or 5. Moreover, the square of an even integer is
obviously divisible by 4, and the square of an odd integer yields the
remainder 1 upon division by 4 [since {2k + 1)^ = A{k^ + k) + 1]. Hence,
no square can end with any of the pairs 11, 99, 66, or 55, since
numbers ending in the digits 11,99,66, or 55 yield upon division by
4 the respective remainders 3, 3, 2, and 3).
We now investigate which remainders are possible when a perfect
square is divided by 16. Every integer can be represented in one
of the following forms:
8/fe,
8/feztl ,
8/fe±2,
8A'±3,
8/fe±4 .
The squares of these numbers have the following forms:
16(4/^^) , 16(4/^2 ± 3/fe) + 9 ,
16(4/^2 ±k) + \ , 16(4/^2 ±Ak + \) .
16(4A'^ ± 2/fe) + 4 ,
These forms show that the square of an integer is either divisible
by 16 or will yield a remainder of 1, 4, or 9 when divided by 16. The
possibility of ending with 1 or 9 has been excluded. A number ending
with the succession of digits 4444 yields a remainder of 12 upon
division by 16 and therefore must also be eliminated as a possibility
for a perfect square.
Therefore, if a perfect square ends with four identical digits, then

Solutions {55-56) 141
these digits must be zeros (for example, 100^ = 10,000).
56. First solution. We designate the sides of the rectangle by x
and y, and the diagonal by z. According to the Pythagorean Theorem,
We are to prove that the product xy is divisible by 12. We shall
first show that xy is divisible by 3, then that it is divisible by 4.
Since
iZk + 1)^ = 3(3/^^ + 2/fe) + 1 ,
and
iZk + 2Y = 3(3/^^ + 4/fe + 1) + 1 ,
the square of every integer which is not a multiple of 3 yields a
remainder of 1 upon division by 3. Therefore, if neither x nor y is
divisible by 3, then the sum x'^ + y"^ will yield a remainder of 2 when
divided by 3 and thus cannot be the square of any integer. Hence,
a necessary condition for x"^ + y"^ to be the square of an integer z is
that at least one of a: or jy be a multiple of 3, which in turn means
that xy is divisible by 3.
Further, not both x and y can be odd numbers, since if x = 2m + \
and jv = 2« + 1, then
;t:2 _|_ jy2 _ 4,^;2 _|_ 4^ + 1 + An'^ + 4« + 1
= 4(w^ + « + w^ + «) + 2 ,
which cannot be the square of an integer (the square of an odd
number is odd, and the square of an even number is divisible by 4).
If both X and y are even, then their product is certainly divisible
by 4. Assume then that x is even and y is odd. We have x = 2m,
JV = 2« + 1. The number 2^ (and hence z) is then odd (the sum of
even and odd). If we write 2 = 2/> + 1, we have
{2mY = {2p + 1)^ - (2« + 1)^=
= Ap"- + 4/> -h 1 - 4«' - 4« - 1 ,
or
m" = p{p + 1) - «(« + 1) .
It follows that w^ is an even number (each term of the above
difference is the product of two consecutive integers and so is even).
Therefore, since ni is even, x = 2m is divisible by 4, and so the
product xy is divisible by 4.

142 The Divisibility of Integers
Second solution. It follows from the formulas of the solution of
problem 128 (a) that the sides x and y of such a rectangle can have
lengths expressible as a: = 2tab, y = <(a^ — b^), where t, a, b are any
integers for which a and b are relatively prime. [The diagonal length
is then the integer t{a^ + b^).] If at least one of the integers a or b
is even, then x is divisible by 4. If both a and b are odd, then x
is divisible by 2 and y is divisible by 2, hence xy is divisible by 4.
Further, if either a or b is divisible by 3, then x is divisible by 3;
if neither a nor b is divisible by 3, then; one of them yields a
remainder of 1 when divided by 3 and the other a remainder of 2,
or else both yield the same remainder. In both cases y = t{a + b){a — b)
is divisible by 3. Therefore, in every case the product xy is
divisible by 12.
57. We see from the formula giving the roots of a quadratic
equation,
-b±Vb'' -4ac
X = —
2a
that the roots of the given quadratic equation will be rational if,
and only if, the discriminant b^ = 4ac is a perfect square. Let b =
2« + 1, a = 2/> + 1, c = 2^ + 1. Then we can write:
b^ - 4ac = (2« + 1)^ - 4(2/. + 1)(2^ + 1)
= 4«^ + 4« - I6pq -8p-8q - 3
= S^nirL±lL^2pq-p-q-l) + 5.
Since this number is odd '^ 7~—— is integral, since one of the
factors of the numerator is necessarily even , it can be the square
of an odd number only. Now, every odd number can be written as
4^± 1, and so the square of an odd number has the form
{Ak ± If = 16/e^ ± 8/e + 1 = 8(2/e^ ±k) + \ .
That is, the square of an odd number always yield the remainder 1
upon division by 8. Therefore, since b^ — Aac is odd, but yields a
remainder of 5 upon division by 8, it cannot be a perfect square.
58. We have
J_ 1 1 3w' + 6» + 2
n « + 1 « + 2 ~ «(« + 1)(« + 2)

Solutions {57-59) 143
The numerator of this fraction is clearly not divisible by 3, but the
denominator is divisible by 3 (being the product of three consecutive
integers). Hence, since there is an uncancelled factor in the
denominator of the reduced fraction which differs from 2 and 5, the decimal
representation certainly is nonterminating. We shall show that the
denominator is not relatively prime to 10, hence that the period of
the decimal expansion is a deferred one.
Of the two integers n and « + 1, one must be even and the other
odd. If n is odd, then 3«^ is odd, and so the numerator of the
fraction is odd; hence it has no factor 2. If n is even, then « + 2
is divisible by 2, and the denominator is divisible by 2^ But the
numerator is divisible only by 2, since if n =2k, then
3«^ + 6« + 2 = Uk"" + 12/fe + 2 = 2(6/^^ + 6/fe + 1) ;
and so the denominator has a factor of 2 not shared with the
numerator. Therefore, the denominator of the reduced fraction is not
relatively prime to 10, and so its representation as a decimal must have
deferred periodicity.
59. (a) and (b). Of the fractions composing the sum
2 m\ « « + 1 n + m
we select that one whose denominator contains the highest power of
2 as a factor; there can be only one such term. Now, if we rewrite
each term of the sum so as to have as denominator the least common
multiple of all the denominators, then each of them, save the selected
fraction, will acquire the factor 2 in its numerator, but the selected
fraction will acquire only odd factors. Therefore, when the fractions
are added in this form, the resulting numerator will be the sum of
several even numbers and exactly one odd number, but the (common)
denominator will be even. Hence the numerator will be odd and the
denominator even, and so the sum cannot be an integer.
(c) Consider that term of the summation whose denominator
contains as a factor the highest power (say n) of 3. Since all the
denominators are odd, no fraction of form „ »« can appear as a term
of the sum K. If we obtain the least common multiple of all the
denominators, and express all the fractions with this denominator,
then each of them, except the selected fraction, will acquire a factor
3 in its numerator, but the numerator of the selected fraction will
not have a factor 3. Consequently, we obtain for K a fraction whose

144 The Divisibility of Integers
denominator is divisible by 3 but whose numerator is not divisible
by 3. This cannot be an integer.
60. (a) We consider the sum using denominator (/>—!)! For the
numerator of the sum we obtain the sum of all possible products of
the numbers 1, 2, •••,/>— 1, taken p — 2 at a time. Since the
denominator {p — 1)! of the sum is not divisible by p, we need only
show that the sum of all distinct products of 1, 2, •••,/> — 1, taken
/> — 2 at a time, is divisible by p"^.
We designate the sum of all possible products of the numbers
1, 2, •■■,«, taken ^ at a time, by ni:
ffi = 1 + 2 + 3+ ••• +«,
/7^= 1-2 + 1-3 + ••• + 1« + 2-3 + 2-4+ ••• + 2-«
+ 3-4+ ••• +3« + 4-5+ ••• +(«-l)-«,
nl= 1-2-3 ••• • « = «!
We shall show that if n + I = p is a prime number, then all the
sums
Hn, nl, ■■■, nr'
are divisible by p, and that /7^ ' itself is divisible by p^. The
assertion of the problem will follow directly from the latter statement.
Consider the polynomial
Fix) ={x- IXx - 2Xx -3) ■■■ (x-n) .
If this product is multiplied out, we obtain
P{x) = x' - nix'-' + nlx'-^ - ■■■ + nl
(by our hypothesis, n is even).
Consider, further, the expression P{x)[x — {n + 1)]. This can be
expanded in two ways:
P{x)[x - (« + 1)] = (.t" - nix'-' + nlx'-^ _ ... + nl)[x - (« + 1)],
and
P{x)[x - (w + 1)] = (a: - 1)(a: - 2)(a: - 3) • • • (a: - «)(a: - « - 1)
= {x- l){[(;c - 1) - l][{x - 1) - 2] • • • [(;c - 1) - «]}
= {x- l)-P{x -l) = {x- l)[{x - 1)" - n\{x - 1)"-'
+ nl(x - 1)"^ - ■■■ + n:].

Solutions {60) 145
We then have the equality
{x' - //!.a:"-' + kIx"-'' - • • • + nl)[x ~{n+ 1)]
= (a: - !)»+' - niix - D" + nl{x - 1)"-' - • •. + nlix ~ 1). (J)
If two polynomials are equal for all x, then they are identical—
we can equate the coefficients of like powers of x from both sides
(designating by Cn = («) the {m + l)st binomial coefficient), and obtain
the following system of equations:
//'„ + («+!) = CUy + n\ ,
n\ + (« + l)n\ = C'+, + CnH], + nl,
nl + {n + \)n\ = Cn+i + Cln\ + C\-,n\ + lA ,
n •
The first of these equalities is obvious. From the second, third,
••, «th, we derive
(« + 1) - Cl. = 1, (« + 1) - CUi = 2, •••,(« + 1) - C' = « - 1
"n ^^ Cn + 1 »
2//^ = C'„ + 1 + Cln\ , , ^^
(« - l)/7r' = C%, + Cl-'n\ + Cl~-\nl + • • • + ClnT'.
Since, by assumption, n + \ = p is prime,
.k _ r^k _ Pip- \){p-2) ■■■ {p- k +1)
c" — r
V-^n + l — V-^p
1-2-3 --k
is, for k < p, divisible by p (since the numerator of this fraction is
divisible by p and the denominator is not). Therefore we see from
the first formula of (2) that n\, is divisible by p, from the second
formula that n\ is divisible by p, and so on up to divisibility of
//r' by p.
Finally, we substitute x = p into the basic equation
(a: - 1)(a: - 2Xx - 3) • • • (a: - /> + 1)
fp-iA' lip-xA-^ -r • ■ • -r •• p~\
= a:"-' - //p-iAr"-^ + //p-iAT"-' - /J^p-iAT"-' + • • • + /7? '

146 The Divisibility of Integers
We obtain
(/> - 1)! = /"■-' - nl-.p"-^ + ffp-,/."-^
- frl-,pp- + ■■■ + nlz\p^ - nlzlp + //?:! .
But /7pl} = {p — 1)!. If we cancel (/> — 1)! from both sides, factor
out p, transpose ffpli to the left side, and so on, we obtain
fTp-l = PiP"-' - n\-,pp-' + n\-,pp-' - • • • + nlz\),
from which we find that lll~-\ is divisible by p"^ (the expression in
parentheses is, as we have shown above, divisible by p li p > 3.
(b) Using the common denominator [(/> — 1)!]% we arrive at
a sum
[{p - m'
where A is the sum of all possible products containing /> — 2 distinct
factors taken from the numbers P, 2% 3% •••,(/> — 1)^ (or, as
characterized before, "taken /> — 2 at a time"). To show that A is divisible
by p, we shall consider the square of the sum nlz\ [the terminology
has the same meaning as in problem {a)]. Since the square of a
polynomial is equal to the sum of the squares of its individual terms
plus twice the sum of all possible pairwise products of the terms,
the sum {nl'\y consists of the terms of A plus a series of numbers
(all the possible doubled products). We consider one of these doubled
products:
2[l-2--(!-l)(! + l) •••(/>-1)1 X [1-2 •••(;•-1)0 + 1)... (/,_!)].
This may be written in the form
2[l-2-3 •••(/.- l)-l-2 •••(/ - 1)(/ + 1) ...(;• - 1)0 + 1) ... (^ _ 1)].
Summing all such terms shows that
{nl-:[y = A + 2{p- \)\nl--\,
whence
A = {nl-lY - 2{p - l)\n;z] .
In view of what has been proved in problem (a), A is divisible by
/). as was to be shown.
61. The fraction is reducible if, and only if, its reciprocal is
reducible. Hence we may consider , , o = a + —■, . n ■ This

Solutions {61-62) 147
a^ + 1
simplifies the problem to proving irreducibility for 3 „ , which
is reducible if, and only if, its reciprocal is reducible. We have
a' + 2a , a
= a +
fl= + 1 a^ + 1 ■
Continuation of this procedure leads to examination of \la, which
clearly is irreducible for any integer a.
62. We first show that, for any integer b, the number of differences
Ok — ai which are divisible by h is not less than the number of
differences k — I which are divisible by h. We first determine how
many differences at, — ai are divisible by b.
Assume that «o of the integers 01,02. ■■■,a„ are divisible by b,
that «i of them yield the remainder 1 upon division by b, that «2 of
them yield the remainder 2, and so on up to «4-i integers that yield
a remainder of b — 1 when divided by b. Since an integer yields
precisely one of the remainders 0,1,2,3, ■■■,b— 1 upon division by
b, it is clear that
The difference a^ — ai is divisible by b if, and only if, the two
terms yield the same remainder upon division by b. The number of
differences a^ — ai divisible by b since both terms are divisible by
b will be designated by Cl„ = "°^"°^~ ^^ [clearly, there are 1 + 2 +
• • • + («o — 1) of them]; the number of differences a\, — ai divisible by
b since both terms yield a remainder of 1 upon division by b will be
J • I J u ^2 «l(«l — 1) J I ^2 «4-l(«4-l — 1)
designated by Cni = —-^^-^ ~, and so on up to C„5_, = ^ „
differences Ok — ai divisible by b since both terms yield the remainder
b — 1 upon division by b. It follows that the total number of
differences fli — ai divisible by b is exactly
y^ «0(«0 - 1) _|_ "'("' ~ 1) «4-l(«4-l - 1)
2 "^ 2 2
This expression may by rewritten as
»r^ nl + nl + nl+ ■■■ + «4-i _ «o + «. + «2 + • • • + «4-i
2 2
_ nl + nl + nl+ ■■■ + n\-i _ n_
2 2 ■
The following expansion can be made:

«2 1
-^ + Y [(«0 - «l)^ + («0 - «2)' + • ■ • + («4-2 - «4-l)'
148 The Divisibility of Integers
«S + «1 + «3 + ••• + «>-■
2
_ («Q + «i + K2 + • • • + «t-l)' — 2«Q«i — 2«Q«3 — • • • — 2«t-3«t-l
2
= -y + — {((«o - «i)^ - «5 - «?] + [(«o - nif - nl- rh]
+ • • • + [(«4-2 - «4-l)' - «4-2 - «4-l]}
- («5 + n\) - («5 + «') - • ■ • - («4-2 + «4-i)]
m2 \
= Y + -r- [(«o - «i)' + («o - «2)' + ■ • ■ + («4-2 - «4-i)'
- (6 - i)(«S + «5 + • • • + «4-i)].
[Note that in the last term within parentheses, «o, «5, • • ■, «4-i each
appear (la — 1) times.] We transfer to the left member all the terms
containing squares of «i, and divide both members by h, obtaining
Y («o + «? + «'+••• + «»-i)
^ r£_ {no - rtiYino - n^f + ■ • ■ + («4-2 - «4-i)'
~ 26 + 2b
from which we obtain
A/= ("o - "■)' + ("o - "0" + • • • + («4-i - «4)° _«!. _ n_
2h + 26 2 ■
We can show, in the same way, that the number A^' of differences
k — I (where k and / are integers such that « ^ ^ > / ^ 1) which are
divisible by b is exactly equal to
^, ^ (m - n[f + {,m - n'^f + • ■ • + {n',-^ - nj-.Y n' _ n
•2h ^ 2b 2 '
where «i is the number of integers of the sequence 1,2,3, •••,«
which give a remainder of k upon division by b.
It follows immediately from the formula just obtained that if n = mb
(that is, if « is a multiple of b), then the number N is not less than
N'. The numbers «o. «i. • • •. «4-i are all equal to m, and consequently
the sum of the squares of the pairwise differences of the numbers
vanishes. It is less obvious that if n yields the remainder r =^ 0
upon division by b (that is, n — mb + r, 0 < r < b), we obtain the
inequality N'^ N'. Here, r of the numbers n'o,n[, •••,«J-i (in par-

Solutions (63) 149
ticular, the numbers n'l, ni, ■ ■ ■, n'r) are equal to m + 1, and the
remaining numbers, n'o, «r+i, • ■ •, ni-i, are equal to m. In order to prove
that A^cannot be less than A^', we employ the following formal method.
Since the sum of the b numbers >2o, «i, • • •, «6-i is equal to « =
mb + r, at least one of these numbers, say fit, does not exceed m
[otherwise the sum of these numbers would be not less than b {m + 1) > «].
We now add one more number, a„+i, to the numbers 01,^2, • ••,«»—
a number giving a remainder of t upon division by b. Then the
number of differences at — ai is augmented by the n differences:
Of these new differences exactly
Hi will be divisible by b. Now, the number of differences ^ — / is
augmented by the n differences (« + 1) — 1, (« + 1) - 2, • • •, (« + 1) — «,
and it is clear that m ^ tit of the differences will be divisible by b.
Therefore, if we prove that at least as many of the CLi differences.
Ok — ai, ior k > I and ^, /= 1, 2, •••,« + 1, are divisible by b as before
(that is, as among the differences Ok — ai for ^, 1 = 1, 2, • • -, «), then
it will follow that of the number C\^ of differences Ok — ai {k > i,
k,! = 1,2, ■ ■■, n) no fewer will be divisible by b than were divisible
among the differences k — I, where k, I = 1,2, ■ ■ ■,n. If « + l is
divisible by b, then our quest is ended: the result sought follows
from what we have done (it is analagous to the case n = mb). If
« + 1 fails to be divisible by b, then we adjoin another integer to
the sequence ai,az, • • •, a„, a„+,,—and we may continue adjoining
additional integers until their number does form a multiple of b. This
completes the proof of the initial assertion.
The proposition of the problem follows immediately, li b = p is
any prime number, then p divides at least as many factors Ok — ai
as it does factors k ~ I; the same assertion will be true for />^/>^ • • •.
Thus, every prime p will enter the numerator as a factor to an order
at least as great as it enters the denominator; therefore, the
denominator of the fraction obtained by multiplying together all numbers
of the form ^^ _ ^' ■ will divide the numerator, and so that product
will be an integer.
63. The numbers of our sequence may be expressed in the form
1 + 10' + 10* + • • • + 10'*. We shall investigate, along with these
numbers, the integers of form 1 + 10^ + 10' + 10« + • • • + 10^*. It is
readily shown that
10'*^+' - 1 = (10' - 1) • (1 + 10' + 10« + • • • + 10"),
10"+2 _ 1 = (102 _ 1). (1 + 10^ + 10' + • • ■ + 10=') .

150 The Divisibility of Integers
Moreover, it is clear that
10'*+' - 1 = (10'*+' - 1)(10"+' + 1) .
Comparison of these equalities yields
10'*+' - 1 = (10' - 1)(1 + 10' + 10« + • • • + 10'*)
= (10' - 1)(1 + 10' + 10' + • • • + 10'*)(10'*+' + 1) ,
or, since ^^^' ~ | = 10' + 1 = 101,
(1 + 10' + 10« + • • • + 10'*) • 101
= (1 + 10' + 10' + • • • + 10'*)(10'*+' + 1) .
Since 101 is a prime number, either 1 + 10' + 10' + • • • + 10'* or
10'*+2 + 1 is divisible by 101. If ^ > 1, then whichever of these two
numbers is divisible by 101, the quotient will exceed 1; hence
1 + 10' + 10' + ••■ + 10'* is, for ^ > 1, expressible as the product
of two (nontrivial) factors. If ^ = 1, we have the number 10' + 1 =
10,001, which is a composite number (10,001 = 73-137).
Remark: It is possible to prove in a similar way that the following numbers
are all composite;
100 •■ • 0100 ■ ■ ■ 01, 100 ■ ■ ■ 0100 ■ ■ ■ 0100 ■ ■ ■ 01, •■■ .
{2k'+l) (2kTT) {2kT^) ^FfT) (2A;TT)
64. (a) We have
a"« - 6"« = (a"' + f'Xa^' - ¥')
= (a«' + 6")(«^' + 63')(a32 - 6^2)
= (a«' + 6«')(a^' + 6^')(a'« + 6"=)(a'« - 6'«) = • • •
= (a" + 6")(a^' + 6^')(a'« + 6'«)(a« + ¥)
X {a* + b*){a^ + b^){a + b){a - b) .
Consequently, the required quotient is equal to a — b.
(b) As in part (a),
g'*+' - 6''+' =a-b
(a + 6)(a' + 6')(a' + 6')(a« + 6") • • • (a'*"' + 6'''')(a'* + 6'*)
65. We note that
2'" - 1 = (2'""' + 1)(2'"'' - 1)
= (2'""' + 1)(2'"-' + 1)(2'"-' - 1) = • • •
= (2'"-' + 1)(2'"'' + 1)(22"-' + 1) • • • (2' + 1)(2 + 1)(2 - 1).

Solutions {64-69) 151
(See problem 64. The last factor, 2—1, can be disregarded.) Thus,
the integer 2^" - 1 = (2^" + 1) - 2 is divisible by all the numbers of
the given sequence which it exceeds. It follows that if 2^" + 1 and
2^* + 1, where k < n, have a common nontrivial divisor, then this
common divisor must also divide 2, and hence must be 2. Since all
the integers of the sequence are odd, it follows that there exists no
common divisor for any two of them.
66. The number 2" is not divisible by 3. If 2" yields the remainder
1 upon division by 3, then 2" — 1 is divisible by 3; if 2" yields the
remainder 2 upon division by 3, then 2" + 1 is divisible by 3.
Therefore, in all cases one of the two numbers, 2" — 1 or 2" + 1, is
divisible by 3; hence, if both integers exceed 3, they cannot both be
primes.
67. (a) If a prime number p > 3 yields the remainder 2 when
divided by 3, then 8p — 1 is divisible by 3. Hence, to meet the
condition of the problem, p must yield the remainder 1 when divided
by 3. But 8p + 1 is divisible by 3. If /> = 3, then 8/> + 1 = 25, which
is composite.
(b) If p is not divisible by 3, then p^ yields the remainder 1
when divided by 3 [see the solution of problem 53 (b)], and then
8p^ + 1 is divisible by 3. Hence, the condition of the problem can
be met only if /> = 3. But then 8/>^ — 1 = 71 is a prime number.
68. If /> > 3 is a prime, it can yield only 1 or 5 as a remainder
upon division by 6 (if /> = 6^ + 2, or p = 6k + 4, then it is an even
number; if p = 6k + 3, then it is divisible by 3). Hence, the square
of the prime p must have one of the two forms 36^^ + 12« + 1 or
36«^ + 60« + 25. Each of these integers yields the remainder 1 when
divided by 12.
69. As explained in the solution of problem 68, a prime number
p > 3 must have one of the two forms 6n + 1 or 6;2 + 5. Given three
distinct primes, all exceeding 3, at least two of them must yield the
same remainder upon division by 6. The difference between these
two numbers, which is d or 2d, where d is the common difference
of the arithmetic progression, is then divisible by 6, whence,
necessarily, the common difference d is divisible by 3. But since d is the
difference of two odd numbers, it is also divisible by 2. Therefore,
in every case, d must be divisible by 6. [See also the solution of
problem 70 (a).]

152 The Divisibility of Integers
70. (a) Since all primes exceeding 2 are odd, the common
difference of the arithmetic progression sought must be an even number;
hence, we may eliminate 2 as a possible term of the progression.
Also, since there are certainly three successive terms of the
progression, all of which exceed 3 and which by themselves must form
an arithmetic progression, the common difference d must be
(according to problem 69) divisible by 6, that is, divisible by both 2
and by 3.
We now show that d must be divisible by 5. Assume d is not
divisible by 5. Then the numbers
a,a + d,a + 2d,a + MyO + ^d
all yield different remainders upon division by 5 (if two of the
remainders are equal, then it is easily shown that d is divisible by 5,
a contradiction of the assumption just made). Thus, one of the
numbers of the progression is then divisible by 5. Since all the
term of the progression are prime, this is a contradiction. Hence
d must be divisible by 5. We can show, in the same manner, that
d must be divisible by 7. (This conclusion cannot be reached for
11, since there are to be only ten terms in the progression, and
a,a + d, ■ ■ ■ ,a + 9d would not necessarily provide a number divisible
by 11.) Therefore, the common difference d of the progression must
be a multiple of 2-3-5-7= 210; that is, d= 210/fe.
According to the conditions of the problem,
flio = a, + 9rf = a, + 1890/fe < 3000 .
This inequality is impossible for k ^ 2, hence, necessarily, k = 1. It
follows that
a, < 3000 -9d= 3000 - 1890 = 1110 .
Now, 210 =11-19 + 1; consequently, the {m + l)st term of the
progression may be represented in the form
flm+i = fli + (11 19 + 1) • w = 1119>« + (fli + m) .
It follows that if a, yields a remainder of 2 upon division by 11,
then a,o is divisible by 11. If Oi yields a remainder of 3 when divided
by 11, then a^ is divisible by 11, and so on. Therefore, a, cannot
yield upon division by 11 any of the remainders 2, 3, 4, •••, or 10.
If fli ^ 11, then since a, is prime it cannot be divisible by 11; this
means that either Oi = 11 or Oi yields a remainder of 1 upon division
by 11. Further, since 210 = 13-16 +16 + 2, and so

Solutions {70) 153
flm+i = a. + (13-16 + 2)w = 13-16m + (a, + 2m) ,
it may be shown that if a^ is divisible by 13, it can yield as a
remainder only one of the numbers 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, or 12. Since a, is odd
(as are all the terms of the progression), either oi = 11 or it can be
written in one of the following forms:
2-11 • 13/ + 23 = 286/ + 23 , 286/ + 155 ,
286/ + 45 , 286/ + 177 ,
286/ + 67 , 286/ + 199 ,
Since a, < 1110, the possible values for Oi are limited to the integers
11; 23, 309, 595, 881; 45, 331, 615, 903; 67, 353, 637, 925;
155, 441, 727,1013; 177, 463, 749, 1035; 199, 485, 771, 1057 ,
of which the following are prime:
11, 23,881, 331, 67, 353, 727, 1013, 463,199 .
We have found the necessary conditions for the existence of the
progression sought; namely, d = 210, and Oi equal to one of the prime
numbers listed. We must test each of the possibilities (for example,
fli = 11 is quickly found untenable, since then a^ = 221 = 13-17, which
is not prime). Exactly one of the above primes, Oi = 199, will
produce an acceptable progression:
199, 409, 619, 829, 1039, 1249,1459, 1669, 1879, 2089 .
(b) This problem is solved in a manner analogous to the
solution of problem (a); however, the progression found there cannot
be extended since the following term fails to be prime.
If fli ^ 11, then, proceeding exactly as in problem (a), we find that
the common difference d of the progression sought must be a
multiple of 2-3-5-7-11 = 2310 {d = 2310/fe). It follows that
flu = a, +23100/^ > 20,000 .
Hence we need investigate only the case for which a, = 11. Here,
we can have only d — 210^. Since 210 = 13-16 + 2, we can write for
the general term of the desired progression
a„+, = 11 + (13-16 + 2)kn = 13(16/fe« + 1) + 2{kn - 1) .
However, for any ^ = 1,2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, or 10, we can always find
an « g 10 such that kn — 1 is divisible by 13, whence a„+i fails to
be a prime number. (These values of n are, respectively, 1,7,9,10,
8, 2, 5, 3, 4.) li k = 6 and d = 210-6 = 1260, then

154 The Divisibility of Integers
a. = 11 + 3 • 1260 = 3791 ,
which is divisible by 17. Therefore, if oi = 11, then necessarily
k > 10, and so d^ 2100, but then a.j > 20,000.
71. (a) If the difference of two odd numbers does not exceed 4,
then they cannot have a common divisor which exceeds 4. Thus,
two of the five consecutive numbers can either have at most a
common divisor of 2, 3, or 4 or be relatively prime. At least two
of the five consecutive numbers must be odd, and of two consecutive
odd numbers at least one will fail to be divisible by 3. Hence there
is at least one odd number among the five consecutive integers which
fails to be divisible by 3. This integer will necessarily be relatively
prime to the remaining four integers.
(b) The reasoning employed here closely resembles that used
in problem (a), but it is much more involved. If the difference of
two odd numbers does not exceed k, then they cannot have a common
divisor which exceeds k. To determine whether two integers are
relatively prime, it suffices to consider only prime factors; hence it
suffices to show that, given sixteen consecutive integers, it is always
possible to find one of them which fails to have in common with
any one of the other integers a divisor of 2,3,5,7,11, or 13. That
integer will be relatively prime to all the others.
First we discard the even numbers of the sixteen successive
integers. There remain eight consecutive odd numbers. Divisibility
by 3 clearly holds for either
(1) the first, fourth, and seventh of these eight numbers,
(2) for the second, fifth, and eighth numbers, or
(3) for the third and sixth numbers.
Divisibility by 5 holds for either the first and sixth, or for the second
and seventh, or for the third and eighth, or for one number only
(the fourth or the fifth). Divisibility by 7 holds either for the first
and eighth or for only one of the other integers. One, and only
one, of the odd numbers can be divisible by 11, and only one by 13.
If not more than five of the eight consective odd numbers are
divisible by one of the primes 3, 5, or 7, then there must exist among
the remaining three (or more) odd numbers at least one which is
divisible neither by 11 nor by 13. Since that number will fail to
have 2,3,5,7,11, or 13 as a factor, it will be relatively prime to all
the other integers of the original sequence of sixteen numbers.
We now consider the case in which the number of odd integers
divisible by 3, 5, or 7 does not exceed six (which is the maximal

Solutions {71) 155
number of odd integers of the sequence which can be so divisible).
We first assume that three of the eight odd numbers are divisible
by 3. Then, depending upon which three numbers these are (first
and fourth and seventh, or second and fifth and eighth), two
remaining numbers can be divisible by 5 (third and eighth, or first
and sixth), and one of the remaining numbers might be divisible
by 7.
If we strike out the (at most) five numbers divisible by 3 or by
5, there will remain either the second and fifth and sixth or the
third and fourth and seventh of the eight odd numbers. We consider
the first case. The second, fifth and sixth odd numbers stand either
in the fourth, tenth, and twelfth positions of the original sequence
of sixteen numbers or in the third ninth and eleventh positions of
that sequence. In the first-named positioning two of these odd
numbers must fail to have 7 as a divisor; and, of these two, neither
can have a common divisor of 13 with any other number of the
original sequence, since both differ from all the other numbers by
less than 13. Since at most one of these two numbers is divisible
by 11, at least one remains which cannot be divisible by 2, 3, 5, 7, 11,
or 13 and so must be relatively prime to all the other numbers of
the original sequence. In the second-named positioning (third, ninth,
and eleventh), if one of these odd numbers has the factor 13 in
common with another number of the original sequence of sixteen
consecutive numbers, it can be only that number standing in the
third position. If we throw out that number, we are left with
numbers in the ninth and eleventh positions. Only one of these two
numbers can be divisible by 7; whichever it is, the remaining one
cannot have a factor of 11 in common with any other number of
the original sequence, since it differs from all of them by a number
less than 11. Hence at least one number will be relatively prime to
all the others of the original sequence. The argument for the case
in which the third, fourth, and seventh numbers of the sequence of
odd integers remain after those divisible by 3 or by 5 are thrown
out is quite analogous, and is left for the reader.
If only two numbers of the sequence of eight odd numbers are
divisible by 3 (the third and sixth), then it is possible for two of
the remaining numbers (the first and eighth) to be divisible by 7,
and two more can be divisible by 5 (the second and seventh). If
these six numbers are struck out, only the fourth and fifth of the
eight odd numbers are retained, and these two are not divisible by
3, 5, or 7. Each of these remaining two numbers will be relatively

156 The Divisibility of Integers
prime to the other fifteen numbers of the original sequence, since
each of them will differ from the remaining fifteen numbers by less
than 11, and hence could not share with any of them a common
divisor of 11 or 13. This completes the proof.
Remark: The proposition may be proved for any sequence of successive
integers fewer than sixteen (say, ten or twelve) by techniques similar to that
used above. The proposition does not hold for a sequence of seventeen
numbers.^ Whether such a proposition is true for k> \1 numbers, or for special
numbers k, is not known.
72. Since 6 = 3-2, the product in question will be the same as
that obtained by multiplying the integer Ai consisting of 666 digits
9 by the integer Bi composed of 666 digits 2. But ^i is 1 less than
1C° (the digit 1 with 666 zeros following); and so if 5, is multiplied
by Ai, the result is the same as multiplying 5, by 10"* (which
yields an integer composed of 666 digits 2 followed by 666 zeros)
and subtracting the integer 5,. It clearly follows that the result
will be a number of form
22 • • • 2177 • • • 78 .
^665~" ^l65~^
73. The number 777,777 is exactly divisible by 1001, yielding the
quotient 777. Hence the number
777 •• • 700000 ,
yields, upon division by 1001, a quotient of
777 000 777 000 ■ ■ ■ 777 000 00 .
the grouping 777,000 repeated 166 times
Moreover, the number 77,777 yields a quotient of 77 and a
remainder of 700 upon division by 1001; and so the quotient obtained
by dividing A by 1001 has the form
777 000 777 000 • • • 777 000 77 ,
^ If—— -^
the grouping 777,000 repeated 166 times
and there is a remainder of 700.
74. Since the integer 222,222 is not a perfect square, the integer
^ The "counter-example" displayed in the original Russion text is incorrect
and so not given here [Editor].

Solutions {72-74)
157
sought has the form 222,222 a^ai ■ ■ ■ a„, where a^, a%, • • •, a, are to be
determined.
First assume that the integer n is even: n = 2k. We shall employ
the usual process for finding the square root:
1/22 22 22 a,a8
16
• • Oik-iOik = 471 405
87
7
941
1
6 22
609
9424
4
13 22
9 41
3 81 a^a%
3 7696
942805
5
X\ XiX^ Cl<iQ.\oCliiCl\z
4 7 1 4 0 2 5
(the fifth digit of the result is 0, since Xi can be only 4 or 5, and
analogous reasoning shows that the sixth digit, if it is to terminate
the square root and produce a least number, will be 5).
The remainder now vanishes if a^ = 4, am = 0, an = 2, 0,2 = 5 and
Xi = 4, Xi = 7, Xi = 1; it is easily deduced that aa = 6 + 1 = 7 and
a, = (7 + 9) — 10 = 6. Hence the smallest integer with an even
number of digits and satisfying the conditions of the problem is
222,222,674,025 = 471,405= .
Now we assume that n is odd, 2^ + 1, and we obtain
1/2 22 22 2a,a8a9
1
OikOu+i = 149071
24
4
122
96
289
9
26 22
26 01
29807
7
21 2a^ 08^9
20 86 4 9
298141
1
298142
X\^X^X%X^(1^^(1\\
2 98142
ArsATaArTAraArgATiofl 12^13
Since the number formed by the digits Xu X2 is not less than 33
( = 119 - 86) and does not exceed 43 ( = 129 - 86), it follows that the
sixth digit of the root is 1. Hence the extraction of the root does
not end here, but continues. Consequently, the smallest number
having an odd number of digits, and satisfying the conditions of the
problem, is not less than the twelve-digit number 222,222,674,025.
Therefore, this is the number sought.

158 Some Problems in Arithmetic
75. If the positive number or is less than 1, then i/or is less than
1. Assume that the decimal representation of i/ar mentioned in the
problem has fewer than 100 digits 9 at its beginning. This implies
that -[/ a < \ — (~j7r) • If we square both sides of this inequality,
we have
/ 1 \100 /I \M0
/ 1 NIOO / 1 \200 / 1 \100 /IN™
^"^^-Kl^) +(l^) <^-(ir) ;therefore..<l-(-) .
which means that the decimal representing or cannot begin with 100
digits 9. This contradiction proves the proposition of the problem.
76. The desired number commencing with the digits 523 and
divisible by 7-8-9 = 504 can be written in the form 523,000 + Z,
where X is a three-digit number. Ordinary division yields 523,000 =
504-1037 + 352; that is, 523,000 yields a remainder of 352 when
divided by 504. Since the sum of 523,000 and the three-digit number
X must be divisible by 504, it follows that X can be equal to
504 - 352 = 152 ,
or to
2-504-352 = 656
(the number 3-504 — 352 has four digits). Hence the two numbers
523,152 and 523,656 satisfy the conditions of the problem.
77. Let A^ be the desired four-digit number. The conditions of
the problem gives
N= 13U+ 112= 132/+ 98 ,
where k and / are positive integers. Since A^ is a four-digit number,
it is clear that
/ _ N-99, ^ 10,000 - 98 ^ „^ „„
' " 132 < 132 "
that is, / g 75. Further,
13U + 112 = 132/ + 98 ;
\Z\{k - l) = l-U .
It is evident that if k — I is not zero, then / — 14 exceeds 130 in
absolute value, which is impossible if / g 75. Therefore, necessarily,
k — I = 0, or k = I. This yields

Solutions (75-78) 159
/ - 14 = 0 ,
k = 1=14;
N= 131-14 + 112 ( = 132-14 + 98) = 1946 .
78. (a) The number given in this problem has 2« digits and may
be written as follows;
4-10'"-' + 9-10'"-' + 410'"^' + 9(10'"-' + 10'"-' + ■ ■ - + 10") + 5-10""'
+ 5-10"-' = 4-lO-''"-' + 9-10'"-' + 4-10'" ■' + 9-10" ^^" ' ~ ^
+ 5-10"-' + 5-10"-' = 4-10'"-' + 9-10'"-' + 5-10'"^' - 10"
+ 5 -10"-' + 5 -10"-' = -i- (8■ 10'"-' + 18■ 10'"-' + 10-10'"-'
- 2-10" + 10" + 10"-') = -i-(9-10'"^' + 910'"^'-910"-')
[(10" - 1) + 10"-']-9-10"-'
This number is equal to the sum of the arithmetic progression
having common difference 1 and having 10"-' as its first term and
10" — 1 as its last term (the number of terms of this progression is
equal to 10"— 10"-'= 9-10"-'), which is the sum of all the «-digit
integers.
(b) The number of integers (in the sum) which have a given
digit a as first digit (a may be 1,2,3,4, or 5) is 6-6-3 = 108 (since
any of the six digits 0,1,2,3,4,5 may stand in the second or in the
third position, and any one of the three digits 0, 2, 4 may terminate
the even integer). Consider the contribution made to the sum by
the thousands column: when the digit 1 stands here the sum is
1-108-1000; when the digit 2 stands here, the contribution of this
column to the sum is 2-108-1000; and so on. Thus, the contribution
made by the thousands column to the sum is the total
(1+2 + 3 + 4 + 5)-108-1000 = 1,620,000 .
Now we consider, in analogous fashion, the contribution to the
sum made by the hundreds place of the numbers. For any digit b
in this (second) position there are 5-6-3 — 90 possible numbers in the
other positions. This column contributes to the sum the total
(1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5)-90100 = 135,000 .
(We need not consider here the numbers in which the digit 0 stands

160 Some Problems in Arithmetic
in the hundreds position; they contribute 0-90-100 = 0 to the total
for this column.)
In a similar manner we find that the sum contributed by the tens
column is (1 + 2 + 3 + 4+ 5)-90-10 = 13,500; and the sum contributed
by the units column is (2 + 4)-5-6-6 = 1080. Therefore, the sum
sought is equal to
1,620,000 + 135,000 + 13,500 + 1080 = 1,769,580 .
79. We first investigate the integers from 0 to 99,999,999. In so
doing we "fill in" with zeros at the beginning, all integers having
fewer than eight digits so that these integers have the format of
eight-digit numbers. We then have 100,000,000 eight-digit "numbers."
To write all of these, we shall need a stockpile containing 800,000,000
digits. Now, if we write 00,000,000 at the top of a sheet and
99,999,999 at the bottom and, moving from the top down and from
the bottom up, fill in the successive numbers (always filling in with
zeros where necessary), we readily see that each digit (including
zero) will be used exactly the same number of times. That is, if
the stockpile of 800,000,000 digits is partitioned into ten bins, each
labeled for a different digit, then each bin will contain 80,000,000
digits all of the same kind.
Now we calculate how many zeros we have used to fill out
integers containing fewer than eight meaningful digits. There are nine
one-digit numbers (omitting zero), 99 — 9 = 90 two-digit numbers,
999 — 99 = 900 three digit-numbers, and so on. To fill out the one-
digit numbers, we used seven zeros; to fill out the two-digit numbers,
we needed six zeros; and so on. Hence the total number of
extraneous zeros required for filling out the numbers (disregarding the zeros
used for the first "number," 00,000,000) is given by the series
7-9 + 6-90 + 5-900 + 4-9000 + 3-90,000
+ 2-900-000 + 1-9,000,000 = 11,111,103 .
We now append the digit 1 to the first number 00,000,000, thus
obtaining all the integers from 1 to 100,000,000. In order to write
all these numbers we need 80,000,000 twos and the same number of
threes, fours, and so on up to and including nines; we also need
80,000,001 digits 1 and 80,000,000 - 11,111,103 = 68,888,897 zeros.
80. In all, there are nine one-digit numbers, 99 — 9 = 90 two-digit
numbers, 999 — 99 = 900 three-digit numbers; and, in general, there
are 9-10" «-digit numbers.

Solutions (79-82) 161
One-digit numbers occupy nine positions in the sequential array
written in the problem. Two-digit numbers occupy the next 90-2 =
180 positions; three-digit numbers occupy the next 900-3 = 2700
positions; four-digit numbers occupy the next 9000-4 = 36,000 positions;
and five-digit numbers occupy the next 90,000-5 = 450,000 positions.
It is clear that the digit of interest to us appears in one of the five-
digit numbers, since we have filled only 38,889 positions before
starting to write five-digit numbers, and when we have appended
the five-dight numbers we will have filled 488,889 places.
To find out how many five-digit numbers are in the interval from
the 38,889th to the 206,788th position, we divide the difference
206,788 - 38,889 = 167,889 by 5:
206,788 - 38,889 = 5-33,579 + 4 .
Thus, the digit sought must belong to the 33,580th five-digit number,
that is, to the number 33,579 (since the five-digit numbers began with
10,000). The digit sought is the fourth digit of this number: 7.
81. Assume that the decimal 0-1234-•• is periodic, that n is the
periodicity (number of digits in a period), and that k is the number
of digits encountered before the periodic position starts. Consider
the integer 10" (the digit 1 followed by m zeros), where m is not
less than n + k. In composing the decimal we wrote in succession
all the integers; hence any chosen number A^ will appear somewhere
(it will surely appear when we append the «th integer). Since in
the sequence of numbers written in to make up the infinite decimal
m'S.n + k zeros must be encountered, it follows that the only
possible period consists of one zero—a situation which does not hold
for this decimal. Hence the decimal is not periodic.
82. Let us take nine weights weighing «% (« + If, (« + 2)% - - -,
(« + 8)^ units (for a suitable n) and group them in three sets as
follows:
Set I: n\ in + 5)S (« + If.
Then, n" + (« + 5)' + (« + 7)^ = 3«^ + 24« + 74.
Set II: (« + D\ (« + Z)\ (« + 8)^ .
Then, (« + 1)^ + (« + 3)^ + (« + 8)^ = 3«^ + 24« + 74.
Set III: (« + 2)\ (« + A)\ (« + 6)'.
Then, (« + 2Y + (« + 4)^ + (« + 6)^ = 3«^ + 24« + 56.
For any allowable n the total weights of the first and second sets

162 Some Problems in Arithmetic
are equal, and the total weight of the third set is lighter by 18 units.
If we do this for « = 1, we will have taken the first nine weights
and grouped them as follows: Set I: 1, 6, 8; Set II: 2,4, 9; Set III:
3, 5, 7. The first two sets are equal in weight, and the third is 18
units lighter. We now do this for « = 10 (thus choosing the next
nine weights), but after the groupings we interchange the second
and third sets, which means that the second set is 18 units lighter
than the other two sets. We do this for the third set of nine weights
(« = 19), and after grouping as for the first trial we interchange the
first and third sets, whence the first set is 18 units lighter than
the other two sets. It is now clear how the three final groupings
may be made.
83. Draw a ray from the pin through one of the vertices of the
polygon. If this ray turns through 25^ , then it must contain another
vertex of the polygon. Now, 25^° is 17/240 of the circumference.
Since 17 and 240 are relatively prime, if the ray is turned through
an angle of 25^ any number of times up to 239 times, it will
not duplicate a prior position. If the ray is turned through this
angle m times, it turns through 17w/240 circumferences. In order
for the ^th and /th turns of the ray to fall on a prior position,
17^/240 circumferences must differ from 17//240 circumferences by
an integral number; that is, —^stt^—- must be an integer.
Therefore, k — I must be divisible by 240. It follows that either ^ = / or
k ^ 240. Counting in the initial position we obtain 240 different rays.
One vertex lies on each of these rays, and hence there can be no
fewer than 240 vertices. On the other hand, the 240-sided polygon,
upon rotation through 17/240 of a circumference, coincides with its
initial position. Hence the least number of sides which the polygon
can have is 240.
84. (a) The first digit of each of the three-digit numbers must
be the smallest possible one; hence we may assume that the three
numbers have the form
L4^, 2Bb, 3Cc ,
where the overbar indicates a succession of digits; for example,
255 = 2-10' + B-lO + b.
We shall show that necessarily: A < B < C; a < b < c; each of the
digits a,b, and c is greater than any of the digits A, B, and C.
(1) Assume A > B. Then Aa > Bb, and so

Solutions (83-84) 163
lA^Wb -2M-\Bb
= (100 + 1^4^X200 + Bb)- (200 + ^)(100 + Bb)
= 100 (Aa -Bb)> 0 ,
which would mean that
Wb-2A^-3Cc < \Ah ■ 2Bb-3Cc ,
whence the product on the right would not be the least, as required.
The assumption B > C will produce a similar contradiction.
(2) Assume a > b. Then
TAh^Bb- \Ab-2Bi
= (10-L4 + a)(10-25 + b) - (lOO + bXlOW + a)
= (10-25 - 10- L4)(a - 6) > 0 ,
which would mean that
L46-25^-3Cc < E4^-2S6-3Cc ,
which again is a contradiction. The result b < c \s similarly shown.
(3) Assume C > a, or C = a + x, where x > 0. According to the
first demonstration C is the largest of the digits A,B,C\ and according
to the second demonstration a is the smallest of the digits a, b, c. In
this case we would have
l^a-3Cc - l^C-3ac = l^a-(3ac + 10a:) - {lAa + x){Zac)
= x{\.0-lAa~Zac) > 0 ,
which yields the contradiction
lAC-2Bb-3ac < lAa-2Bb-3Cc .
It follows from (1), (2), and (3) that
A<B<C<a<b<c,
whence the product sought is composed as follows:
147-258-369 .
(b) It is clear that the largest digits must be the initial digits of
each number; hence we may write the product in the form
9Aa-8Bb-7Cc .
Employing techniques analogous to those used in problem (a) we

164 Some Problems in Arithmetic
readily prove that; A < B < C; a < b < c; each of the digits a, b, c
is smaller than any of the digits A, B, C. That is,
a<b<c<A<B<C,
and so the product sought is
941-852-763.
85. Write m + {m + 1) + ■ - ■ + (m + k) = 1000. Using the
formula for the sum of an arithmetic progression, we have
^'"+'' .{k + l) = 1000 ,
or
(2m + k){k + 1) = 2000 .
Since (2w + ^) — (^ + 1) = 2m — 1 is odd, one of the two terms on
the left is even and the other is odd. Moreover, it is clear that
2w + ^ > ^ + 1. Since 2000 = 2'•5^ its odd factors are only 1, 5, 25,
and 125. For odd (k + 1) we need consider only 1, 5, and 25; for odd
{2m + k) we can have only 125. Hence the problem has the following
readily found solutions:
2m + k = 2000,
2w + /fe = 400,
2mJrk = 80,
2w + ^ = 125,
^ + 1
^+1
k+\
k+l
= 1.
= 5,
= 25,
= 16,
m = 1000,
m = 198,
w = 28,
m = 55,
^ = 0;
^ = 4;
/fe = 24;
/fe = 15 .
86. (a) Let A^ be an integer which is not a power of 2. Then
the following equation can be written:
N=2''{21+ 1),
where 2* is the greatest power of 2 appearing as a factor of A^,
k^O, / ^ 1, and 2/ + 1 is the greatest odd divisor of A^. Consider
the arithmetic progression
(2*^ - /) + (2*^ - / + 1) + • • • + (2*^ - / + 2/ - 1) + (2*^ - / + 21)
= (2/ + 1)(2'- - / + 2*- - / + 2/) ^ 2*^2/ +\) = N.
If some of the 2/ + 1 consecutive integers which form the
progression are negative (that is, / > 2*), then it is possible to cancel them
with the first-appearing positive integers. It is readily shown that
at least the final two terms of the progression must remain un-

Solutions (85-86) 165
cancelled. (If only the final term of the progression were to remain,
we could set up the equation 2* + / = A^ = 2*(2/+ 1), which would
imply that k = —1.)
Assume now that some number of form 2* can be written as the
sum of m consecutive positive integers n, n + 1, ■ ■ ■, n + m — 2,
« + w — 1. Then
2*+' = 2[« + (« + 1) + • • • + (« + w - 2) + (« + w - 1)]
= m{n + n + m — 1) = m{2n + w — 1) .
But the difference (2« + w — 1) — »; = 2« — 1 is an odd number, and,
consequently, one of the numbers, m or 2« + w — 1, must be odd
(and both differ from 1 since, by hypothesis, w > 1 and n > 0). This
means that the equality derived above, 2*+' = m(2n + w — 1), is
impossible since 2*+' cannot have an odd divisor other than 1.
(b) We have, for any m > n + 1,
(2« + 1) + (2« + 3) + (2« + 5) + • • • + (2m - 1)
(2« + 1) + (2w - 1) , , , , , ,
= -^^ —-;-^ ■ {m — «) = (w + «) • {m — n) .
[If w = « + 1, then there is only one term; there are (w — n) terms.]
Hence if a number A^ can be written as the sum of consecutive odd
numbers, then it is a composite number (the product of numbers
m + n and m — «). Now, any composite odd number A^ can be
written as the product of two odd factors a and b, {a's.b > 1), and
so we can write
N — a-b = {m + n){m — n) ,
where we set m = ^-^— and n = ^—r—. (Note that for b > \,
m> n + V). Hence, N= {m + n\m — n) is the sum of a sequence
of consecutive odd numbers, the odd numbers from a — b + \ to
a + b — \. Clearly, no prime number can be represented in this
form, since then the prime would be the product (w + n){m — «),
whence w — « = 1, and so the series reduces to one term, the prime
number itself. This proves the first assertion.
Now, in the formula N = {m + n\m — n), the factors m + n and
m — n are either both even or else both are odd (their difference is
even). Hence if A^ is an even integer, both of these factors must
be even. In this case A" is divisible by 4; therefore, an even number
A" which fails to be divisible by 4 cannot be written as a sum of
consecutive odd numbers. On the other hand, if A'= An, then A" can

166 Some Problems in Arithmetic
be written as the sum of the two consecutive odd numbers 2« — 1
and 2« + 1.
(c) It is readily seen that
(«*-' -« + !) + («*-' - « + 3) + • • • + («*-' -1)
+ («*-' + !)+•••+ («*-■ + « - 3) + («*-' + n - 1)
(«*-' -« + !) + («*-' + « - 1) .
— '—^ i_ . fi = fi"
(all the terms of the sum are odd, since «*-' and n are simultaneously
even or odd).
87. Designate the four consecutive integers by «, « + 1, « + 2,
« + 3. If 1 is added to their product, we have
«(« + 1)(« + 2)(« + 3) + 1
= [«(« + 3)][(« + 1)(« + 2)] + 1 = («^ + 3«)(«^ + 3« + 2) + 1
= («^ + 3«)' + 2(«^ + 3h) + 1 = («^ + 3« + 1)^ .
Therefore, the product of the four numbers is one less than the
square of the integer n^ + 3« + 1.
88. We shall show that the set of integers can contain only four
different values. Assume the contrary—that among the 4n integers
there are five of them, 01,0^,03, a,, a-., all distinct. Let us agree that
Oi < Si < a, < at < Oi.
Consider the integers 01,02,03,0,. Under the conditions of the
problem it is possible to form a proportion out of these integers.
Hence the product of the extremes will be equal to the product of
the means. This is feasible only if
OiO, = Oi03
(the equation OiO, = o^o, is impossible, since Oi < o^ and 03 < o,; it
is clear also that o^ot = 030, is impossible).
Now consider the integers o^, 02,03, o^. Again, if a proportion is
to be formed, the only possibility is 01^5 = o^o,. Consequently, we
must have o^o, — OiO^, which is a contradiction, since o, ^ ot.
Therefore, the set of 4n numbers cannot contain more than four
distinct integers, and so at least one of the integers must appear n
times.
89. We note, first, that the difference of two positive integers is
odd if, and only if, one of the integers is odd and the other even;
we obtain an even difference only from two even or two odd integers.

Solutions {87-89) 167
Let us designate an even number by the letter e, and an odd number
by the letter o. For four arbitrary integers A, B,C, and D, we have
the following "essentially different" possible even-odd combinations
and arrangements:
(1)
(2)
(3)
e, €f 6f € y
e, e,e,o \
e, e,o,o .
(4)
(5)
(6)
e, 0, e, 0
e, 0, 0, 0
0, 0, 0, 0
All other arrangements can be obtained by "cyclic permutation" of
these six arrangements (that is, by moving an arrangement to the
right, and putting the fourth integer in the first place, and so on,
not changing the order of appearance). We shall show that, in every
case, after not more than four steps (as described in the problem)
we must arrive at four even numbers. First, combination (1) already
consists of four even numbers; combination (6) achieves the desired
effect in the first step; combination (4) becomes combination (6) in
one step, so it arrives in the desired form in two steps; combination
(3) becomes combination (4) in one step, so it becomes combination
(1) in three steps; finally, combinations (2) and (5) become, in one
step, combination (3) [for combination (5) we first employ cyclic
permutation], so in four steps we achieve the sought combination
(1). Thus, in every case, we arrive at a quadruple of four even
numbers in at most four steps.
We continue the process of forming new quadruples of numbers, and
now we are working entirely with even integers. It is readily
reasoned that after at most four more steps, we obtain numbers
divisible by 4 (if some of the even numbers are not already divisible
by 4, we divide all numbers by 2, and in four steps we have numbers
divisible again by 2); in at most four more steps we obtain integers
divisible by 8, and so on. If the process is continued long enough,
we must be able to arrive at a quadruple of numbers divisible by
any desired power of 2. Since the numbers we obtain are decreasing
in absolute value, we must arrive at a point where we have at least
one zero, and finally at a point where we have four zeros (this will
occur in at most 4" steps, albeit we will usually arrive at this point
much earlier).
Remark: The analogous theorem may be proved for any number 2* of
positive integers. For n numbers, where n is not a power of 2, the proof does
not carry through. For example, if the members are 1,1,0, we never do
arrive at the triple 0,0,0. We have:

168 Some Problems in Arithmetic
1,
0,
1,
1,
1,
1,
0,
1,
0,
1,
1,
0,
We note, further, that the numbers A, B, C, and D can be rational numbers—
case not essentially different from the case in which A, B, C, and D are
positive integers. Here the fractions may be written with a common denominator
and the procedure carried out as before. The proposition fails to hold for
irrational numbers.
90. (a) It is readily seen that if the first 100 integers are displayed
in the following order, the condition of the problem is satisfied.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11
30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31
50 49 48 47 46 45 44 43 42 41 60 59 58 57 56 55 54 53 52 51
70 69 68 67 66 65 64 63 62 61 80 79 78 77 76 75 74 73 72 71
90 89 88 87 86 85 84 83 82 81 100 99 98 97 96 95 94 93 92 91
(b) From whatever arrangement of the 101 integers has
been presented we select the first integer, labeling it a["; then (always
moving left to right) we select the next integer ai" which follows
and exceeds a\'\ and so on. This produces an increasing sequence
a','\ai\ ••-,0;" (which may conceivably end at the first integer). If
more than ten numbers appear in this sequence (2 > 10), the problem
is solved. If, however, 2 < 10, we cross out the integers already
used, and from the remaining 101 — 2 integers we begin the
construction of a new sequence, following the same procedure. We
then obtain a new increasing sequence a\^\ oi", ■ ■ ■, alf.
Continuation of this process creates from the ordered set of 101 integers a
number of increasing sequences. If any one of them contains more
than ten integers, the problem has heen solved. Hence we need
consider only the case in which none of the sequence we have made
up contains more than ten integers.
Since there are 101 integers in all, the number k of increasing
sequences must in this case be at least equal to 11. But then it is
possible to select from the 101 integers a decreasing sequence of
eleven integers. A procedure for doing this follows.
We select as the final element of the sequence to be constructed
the final element of the final sequence ai*'. Then if we select from
the previous sequence that number among those of the original

Solutions (90-91) 169
sequence not yet crossed out, which just precedes ai^', that number
will exceed al|^'; otherwise ai^' would have appeared in the preceding
sequence. This selected number ay'"" is placed to the left of al^' in
the new sequence. Now we work with Oj'''". In the sequence just
preceding the (k — l)st, the element which had appeared just before
0'/'" (among those not already crossed out in the original sequence)
will exceed a'/'". This number is placed to the left aj'"" in the
new sequence being formed. We can continue in this manner,
selecting larger and larger numbers, each appearing earlier in the
initial array of 101 numbers, and it is clear that we can make at
least eleven such selections.
Remark: It can be proved in analogous way that (n — ly positive integers
can be arranged in such an order that no n of them will follow sequentially
in either an increasing or a decreasing order, but that among k > {n — ly
integers a sequence of n increasing, or decreasing, numbers can be selected
sequentially from the initial array.
91. (a) Reduce each of the 101 selected numbers by the greatest
power of 2 which divides it, thus obtaining 101 odd numbers. Since
there are precisely 100 distinct odd numbers from 1 to 200, at least
two of the 101 odd numbers must be identical. This means that
among the 101 numbers originally selected there exist two whose
factorizations differ only by a power of 2. The smaller of these two
numbers must divide the other.
Remark: A proof by mathematical induction is also possible.
(b) The desired numbers can be selected in the following
manner: The fifty odd numbers from 101 to 199; the odd numbers
from 51 to 99, each multiplied by 2 (twenty-five numbers); the odd
numbers from 27 to 49, each multiplied by 4 (twelve numbers); the
odd numbers from 13 to 25, each multiplied by 8 (seven numbers);
the odd numbers from 7 to 11, each multiplied by 16 (three numbers);
and finally, the three numbers 3-32,5-32, and 1-64. These total 100
numbers, all less than 200, and none of which is divisible by any
other.
(c) Assume that it is possible to select 100 integers, none
exceeding 200, such that no one of them is divisible by any other.
We shall show that none of the numbers 1-15 inclusive can appear
in the selected set.
As in the solution of problem (a), we divided out of each number
the largest power of 2 which appears as a factor. We obtain a

170 Some Problems in Arithmetic
second set consisting of 100 odd numbers, none exceeding 200. No
two of these odd numbers belonging to the second set can be equal
(otherwise the corresponding original numbers would differ from
each other only by a factor which is a power of 2, and so one would
be divisible by the other). Accordingly, the 100 odd numbers of the
second set are 1, 3, 5, • • •, 199.
Since 15 divides 45, the integer 2*-15 of the initial set must have
or > 0, since otherwise 15 would divide 45-2*, which also appears in
the initial set. This means that 15 cannot have appeared in the
initial set. The same line of reasoning eliminates the possibility
that 13,11, or 9 appeared in the initial set. We now consider the
integer 7. It is clear that 7-2*, which is a number of the initial
set, must have or > 1. But suppose that or = 1. Since 7 divides 49,
which in turn divides 147, and since both 49 •2» and 147•2>' belong to
the initial set, it is clear that i3 = r is impossible, hence not both 0
and r can be zero. But r is certainly zero, since the initial set
centains no integer exceeding 200. Therefore, 7-2 must divide 49-2*;
this eliminates both 7 and 14 from appearance in the initial set. The
same line of reasoning shows that the integers 5, 10, 3, 6, and 12
cannot belong to the initial set. The integer 1 is automatically
rejected, by hypothesis, and the integer 2 is rejected, since its
inclusion would give precisely the set of 100 odd numbers between 1
and 200, a set which clearly fails to meet the conditions of the
problem.
There remain for consideration only the integers 4 and 8. Were
4 to belong to the initial set, then 2" could not be a factor of any
other member of the initial set unless or ^ 1. But this is impossible,
since it would eliminate the appearance of the integer 3 from the
second set (neither 3 nor 6, as has been shown, can belong to the
initial set). By similar reasoning the integer 8 is shown to be
impossible of inclusion in the initial set. Therefore, none of the
integers from 1 to 15, inclusive, can appear in the initially selected set.
Remark: It can proved, in general, that out of the first 2k (or fewer)
integers it is impossible to select {n + 1) integers having the property that no one
of them is divisible by another, but that it is possible to select n (or fewer)
such integers. If 3' < 2k < 3' + ', then out of the first 2k integers it is
impossible to select K integers, one of them less than 2*, such that no number
is divisible by another. But k such numbers can be selected, provided the
least is equal to 2*. For example, from 200 numbers it is possible to select
100, the least equal to 16, not one of which is divisible by another.

Solutions (92-93) 171
92. (a) Consider the absolute values of the "least" remainders
obtained upon divisible by 100. That is, if a number a yields a
positive remainder exceeding 50, then increase the quotient by 1 to
obtain a negative remainder; a = lOOtj — r, where now 0 < r < 50.
Since (counting zero) there exist 51 possible distinct remainders not
exceeding 50 in absolute value, and since there will be 52 such
remainders obtained upon dividing 52 numbers by 100, at least two
of these remainders are equal in absolute value. If these two
remainders have the same sign (+ or —), then the difference of the
corresponding dividends is divisible by 100; if they are opposite in
sign, their sum is divisible by 100.
(b) Let a,,a2,a3, ■ ■-.aim be given integers (in any order).
Consider the sums
s, = fli ;
Si — at + Oi ;
s.i ^ a, + Oz + Oi ;
Sioo = Oi + ai + ai + • • • + flioo .
There are 100 such sums; therefore, unless one or more are
divisible by 100, at least two of the sums must yield the same remainder
upon division by 100 (there being only 99 different positive remainders
possible). If we subtract the smaller of the two sums yielding
equal remainders from the larger, we obtain a sum of the form
flt+i + aic+i + • • • + flm, which is divisible by 100.
93. Starting with some initial day, say Monday, assume that the
chess player plays a, games; on Monday and Tuesday he plays aa
games; in the three-day period Monday through Wednesday he plays
fla games, and so on, by the end of the 77th day he has played an
games. Consider the following sequence of integers:
Oi, ai, Oi, ■ • ■, a^^ ;
a, + 20,02 + 20, •••,0,7 + 20 .
We have, in all, 2-77 = 154 integers, none of which exceeds
132 + 20 = 152, inasmuch as an is not, according to the imposed
conditions, to exceed 11 • 12 = 132 games played in eleven weeks. Hence
at least two of these 154 integers must be equal. However, no two
integers of the sequence a^ai, •••,an can be equal, since the chess
player has played at least one game every day; similarly, no two of

172 Some Problems in Arithmetic
the integers a, + 20, Oa + 20, • • •, 077 + 20 can be equal. Therefore,
we must have, for some k and some /, the equality
fli = fli + 20 .
This equation states that Ok— ai = 20: on a succession oi k — I days—
from the (/ + l)st to the ^th, inclusive—the chess master played
exactly 20 games.
94. First solution. Consider the remainders obtained upon dividing
the following numbers by A^:
1,11,111, •••,1111 •• 1 .
A^ times
Since it is possible to obtain at most A^— 1 different nonzero
remainders from these A^ numbers, then one of these numbers is
divisible by A^ (in which case the proof is completed), or else two
of them, say
A'= 11 ••• 1 and L= nil ••• 1 {I > k),
k times / times
must yield the same remainder upon division by A^. But in the
latter case the difference
L - A" = 11 • • • 100 • • • 0
{l — k) k times
times
is divisible by A^.
If A^ is relatively prime to 10, then, since L — /f = 11 • • • I^IO* is
(/—^) times
divisible by A^, it follows that 11 ••• 1 is divisible by A^.
times
Second solution. Consider the decimal expansion of 1/A^:
—-r- = O-bibi ■ ■ ■ bkOiOi ■ ■ ■ ai ■■■ ,
where Oibj represents the succession of digits, and where a,ai ■ ■ ■ oi
is the "periodic" part of the decimal expansion. This can be
rewritten in the following form:
_V bjbi ■ ■ ■ bkOjai • • • fli — btbt ■ ■ ■ bk
N " 99 • • • 900 • • • 0
/ times k times

Solutions (94-95) 173
It follows that the number >! = 99 • • • 900 • • • 0 is divisible by A^.
/ times k times
But A =9^,, where ^, = 11 • • • 100 • • • 0. We now consider the
/ times k times
number
5 = 11 • • • 100 • • • Oil • • • 100 • • • 0 • • • 11 • • • 100 • • • 0 ,
/ times k times / times k times / times k times
which is obtained if the number A, is written nine times successively.
It is clear that the number B, equal to the product of A, by
100 •• • 0100 • • • 0 • • • 100 • • • 01 ,
digits digits digits
8 times
is divisible by 9 (the sum of its digits being divisible by 9).
Therefore, the number B, consisting entirely of ones and zeros, is divisible
by 9^, = ^, and hence by A^.
If A^ is relatively prime to 10, then 1/A^ yields a decimal which is
periodic, and so B will consist entirely of ones.
95. We shall consider only the final four digits of the integers of
the Fibonacci sequence wherever these integers contain five or more
digits; that is, we shall deal with a sequence of integers all less
than 10*. Let a^ designate the (four-digit) number appearing in the
^th place of this sequence (that is, the final four digits of the ^th
term of the Fibonacci sequence). If we know the integers a^+i
and fli, we can easily find Ok-i, since the four digits composing Ok-i
will depend only on the corresponding four digits of Ok+i and Ok.
Now, if for two natural numbers k and n we find that Ok = fln+t and
flt+i = a»+t+i, then it will follow that
Ok-I — On+k-l ,
aic-l = On+k-l,
fll = fln + l
(since any number of a Fibonacci sequence is the positive difference
between the two succeeding numbers). However, since a, = 0, it
must then follow that On+i = 0; an integer terminating in four zeros
will stand in the (« + l)st place of the Fibonacci sequence.

174 Some Problems in Arithmetic
It will suffice to show, then, that there exists an identical pair
among the 10* + 1 pairs:
a,,
Oi,
flios.
flio*+i.
at,
fla.
ai08+2
But this certainly must occur in the set of numbers Oi, a^, oa, • ■ ■,
a,o8+2, since none of them exceeds 10*, and from the 10* integers
0,1,2,3, 4,--^ggg we can obtain only 10*-10*=10» distinct pairs
(the first number can assume at most 10* distinct values, and the
second number can take on only 10* distinct values).
Remark: It can be shown that the first integer of this Fibonacci sequence
which will end in four zeros stands in the 7501st place (see the boolc by B. B.
Dynlcin and V. A. Uspenslcy, Mathematical Conversations, Issue 6, Library of
the USSR Mathematical Society, especially problem 174 and the discussion of
it).
96. Consider the decimal parts of the 1001 numbers:
0a = 0,a,2a:,3a, ■■-, lOOOo;
(the difference between the given number and the largest number
not exceeding the given number). This yields 1001 positive numbers,
is decimal form, all less than 1. Partition the interval between 0
and 1 on the real-number axis into 1000 intervals (we shall assume
that each interval contains its left end point but not its right end
point). We shall investigate how the points of the above sequence
are distributed among these intervals of length 1/1000. Since there
are 1000 intervals and 1001 points, at least one of the intervals must
contain two (or more) points. This shows that there exist two
distinct natural numbers, say p and q (neither exceeding 1000) such that
the difference between the numbers pa: and tja: is less than 1/1000.
Say that p > q. Consider the number {p — q)ix = pa — qa. Since
poi= P + di qa — Q + di, where P and Q are integers, and d\ and
di are decimals pa and qa, it follows that {p — q)a = {P—Q) + dt — di
differs from the integer P — Q hy less than 1/1000. This implies
that the fraction — differs from a by less than 0.001 ( |.
p-q \p-qJ
97. First, it is readily seen that none of the fractions under con-

Solutions (96-97) 175
sideration is an integer. Further, no two of these fractions can be
equal, for if, say,
kjm + n) _ Ijm + n)
m n
(where k is one of the numbers 1, 2, ■■■ ,m — 1, and / is one of the
integers 1,2, •••,«— 1), we would have
k__ J_
m n '
k
m = — n ,
which contradicts the fact that m and n are relatively prime
(inasmuch as / < H and so cannot be divisible by «)•
Consider now a natural number A less than m + n. The fractions
m + n 2{m + n) _ _ k{m + n)
m ' m ' ' m
will be less than A, or k{m + n) is less than Am, if k is less than
Am
. Clearly, the number of such fractions is equal to the
intern + «
of the fractions , Similarly, the fractions
m + n _\ m + n
m + n 2(m + n) _ l{m + n)
» » '' *»
n n n
will be less than A for / < . The number of such fractions
m + n
in the fractions .
m + n _\ m + n
Ayyt iT.M
The numbers and are nonintegral, since m, n, and
m + n m + n
m + n are pairwise relatively prime, and the sum of these two
numbers is A:
Am An __ .
m + n m + n
But if the sum of two numbers or and (3, neither an integer, is equal
to an integer A, then [or] + [j3] = ^ — 1. (The proof of this follows
immediately from Figure 7.) Thus,
\_m + n _\ \_m + n J

176 Some Problems in Arithmetic
which implies that in the interval (0, A) on the real-number axis
there exist precisely ^ — 1 of the fractions.
Figure 7
The proposition of the problem follows immediately. Let us first
assume that ^ = 1; we see that none of the fractions is in the
interval (0,1). Let A = 2; since there is one fraction in the interval
(0, 2), it follows that this fraction must be in the interval (1, 2). Let
^ = 3; since the interval (0, 3) contains two of the fractions, it follows
that the interval (2, 3) contains just one of them. Continuation of
this reasoning completes the proof of the proposition.
98. First Solution. If a number a is in the interval
1000 ^ 1000
m + I
then there are obviously, m integral multiples of a which do not
exceed 1000: a, 2a, 3a, • • •, wa. Now, if we designate by k, the
number of given integers which lie between 1000 and —-—, by ki
the number which lie in the interval I——, —r—), by ki the number
which lie in the interval (—r—, }, and so on, then we have, in
all, ki +2k2 + 3k3 + ■ ■ ■ numbers, not exceeding 1000, which are
multiples of at least one of the given numbers. But, according to
the conditions of the problem, all these multiples are different, and so
/fe, + 2/^2 + 3/^3 +•• • < 1000 .
It remains to be shown that the sum of the reciprocals of all the
given integers is less than
._]_._]_. _J_ _ 2k, + 3^2 + 4^3 + • • •
' 1000 "^ ' 1000 1000 1000

Solutions (98) 177
(here we have replaced k, of the largest of the numbers by —-—,
the following ki numbers by —-—, the following k, numbers by
, and so on). Now we have
4 /
2k, + 3^2 + 4^3 + • • •
= {k, + 2kl + 3^3 + • • •) + (*1 + *2 + *3 + • • •)
= {k, + 2kt + 3/fea +•••) + « < 1000 + « < 2000 ;
consequently, the sum of the reciprocals of the numbers is less
than 2.
Second Solution. We introduce an important variation of the
foregoing type of reasoning. The number of terms of the sequence
1,2, •••,1000 which are divisible by an integer Ok is obviously the
, , . , r 10001 . 1000 o. .u 1 f !.• 1
greatest integer m . Smce the least common multiple
L Ok _] Ok
of any two of the integers ouoi, •■■,an exceeds 1000, not one of the
numbers 1,2,3, • • •, 1000 can be divisible by two of the integers
fli.fla. •••,«>.• It follows that the number of terms of the sequence
1,2,3, •••,1000 which are divisible by at least one of the integers
fli, flj, ■ • ■, a, is equal to the sum
r 10001 r 10001 rioooi , ... , fioooi
L «1 J L fla J L «3 J L «n J '
Since there are 1000 numbers in the sequence 1,2, •••,1000, it is
clear that
[l^] + [iM] + ... + [iM]^iooo.
But the greatest integer in a fraction differs from the fraction itself
by less than 1; that is,
r 10001 1000-1 r 10001 looo ^ rioooi looo ^
L fll J a, ' L «2 J Oi ' ' L «n J fln
Consequently,
that is.

178 Some Problems in Arithmetic
< 1000 + n< 2000 ,
1000 1000 1000
+ + + •■
a, Oi fla
and so
1000
Oi at On
Remarks: The estimation of this bound can be made very precise. Consider
all the multiples of those given integers which do not exceed 500. Now, ki of
the given integers will exceed 500; ki + h of the integers will not exceed 500,
but will exceed "~^; ki + ki of them will not exceed "-5—, but will exceed
-^-r—; and so on. It follows, as in the first solution, that the total number of
integers not exceeding 500, and which are multiples of at least one of the given
n numbers, is equal to
(ki + k,) + 2{ki + ki) + 3{ks + h) + ■ ■ ■ .
Therefore,
(ki + ki) + 2{k, + ki) + 3(k( + ki) + ■ ■ ■ < 500 .
We note now that the difference
500-Kki + ki) + 2{k, + h) + •••]
expresses the number of integers, not exceeding 500, which are not multiples
of any one of the given integers; and the difference
1000 -{k, + 2ki + 3k3+ •••)
is the number of integers not exceeding 1000 which fail to be multiples of any
one of the given integers. Consequently,
500 - [{ki + ki) + 2(k, + ki) + 3{k6 + h) + ■■■] < 1000 - {k, + 2kt + 3ki + ■■■),
from which we obtain
(ki + ki) + 2(kz + ki) + 3(ki + ke) + ■ ■ ■ < 500 .
It remains to note that
2ki + 3ki + ika + 5k4 + 6ki + 7ke + ■■■
< (k, + 2ki + 3ki + ikt + 5ki + &k^ + ■ ■)
+ [{ki + ki) + 2{k, + k,) + 3{ki + ke)+ ■■■]
< 1000 + 500 = 1500 .
Thus, the sum of the reciprocals of all of the numbers is less than
2k, + 3ki + ika + ■■
1000
or less than U.
Analogously, if initially we consider the multiples of those given integers
not exceeding 333, we can prove that the sum of the reciprocals of the given
numbers is less than IJ.

Solutions (99) 179
Note that the number 1000 in this problem can be replaced by any other
integer.
99. Consider the conversion of — to a (periodic) decimal (see the
P
footnote accompanying the solution of problem 38).
, = A-OiOi- ■ •aifliflj- • •aifliflj- • ■
Here, A is the whole part of the quotient obtained ujxin division of
tj by p. We can write
q = Ap + <j, ,
where the remainder q, is less than p. Moreover, Aa, will be the
whole part of the quotient obtained ujxin division of 10^ by p {Aa,
is the integer composed of the digits of A followed by the digit a,):
10^ = AarP + Qt ,
where q^ < p. Similarly,
W-q = Aa,a2-p + q,, • • •, 10*-^ = Aa,a2- ■ -Ok-p + qk, ■ • • .
The periodic part of the decimal begins again at the point where
division of 10*^ by p yields the remainder first obtained, qk = q,, ujxin
division of q by p. Thus, the number k of digits composing a period
of the decimal is determined as the least power of 10 such that 10*-^
yields on division by p the same remainder as did q. For this k
it is clear that 10*^ — q = (10* — 1)^ is divisible by p whence 10*-1 is
divisible by p, inasmuch as p and q are relatively prime {p itself is
prime).
Assume now that k is even: k = 21. Since 10" - 1 = (10' — 1) x
(10' + 1) is divisible by p, either 10' — 1 or 10' + 1 is divisible by the
prime p. But 10' — 1 cannot be divisible by p, since if it were, it
would yield the same remainder as does q ujxin division by p, and
the period of the fraction — would be / instead ot k = 21. Hence,
we must conclude that 10' + 1 is divisible by p.
It follows from this conclusion that the sum — + — is an
P P
integer. But
10'^
+ , = Aa,ai-■-ai. ai+\ai+i-•-anaiai-■-ar
+ A. OiOi- ■ -0101+,• ■ -air

Hence, the sum of the decimal fractions
0, aj+iflj+s- • -anaiai- • -ar • ■ +0, a^ai- • -aiai+r • -an- • ■
is an integer. Since each of these positive decimals has a value less
than 1, this sum must be 1 = 0.999-••, which is jxissible only if
a, + flj+i
Oi + ai+2
ai + Oil
It immediately follows that
01+02+ ••
2/
If k is odd, the equation
01+02+ • •
k
= 9,
= 9,
= 9.
• + 02i
• + Oi
9
2 •
9
~ 2
will not be possible, since k is not divisible by 2.
100. The numbers of digits in the period of the fractions — and
o P"
"^l are equal to the least jxisitive integers k and /, respectively,
^n+l
such that 10* — 1 is divisible by />" and 10' — 1 is divisible by />"+'
(see the solution of the preceding problem). Consider the difference
(10' - 1) - (10* - 1) = 10*(10'-* - 1).
Since this difference is divisible by />", 10'-* — 1 is divisible by />".
We shall show that W — 1, where d is the greatest common divisor
oi I — k and k, is also divisible by />".
Write I — k = qk + r; we can then write
10'-* - 1 = 10'*+' - 1 = lO'dC* - 1) + (10' - 1).
But 10«* - 1 = (10*)' - 1' is divisible by 10* - 1, whence by />", and
therefore lO' — 1 is divisible by p". Similarly, it may be shown that:
10'' — 1 (where r, is the remainder obtained upon division of k by r)
is also divisible by />"; that 10'^ — 1 (where ^2 is the remainder
obtained upon division of r by ri) is divisible by p"; that 10'' — 1 (where
ra is the remainder obtained ujxin division of ri by ^2) is divisible by
p"; and so on. (This process, by which a diminishing sequence of
remainders is obtained, is called the Euclidean Algorithm.)
It is readily shown that the sequence of jxisitive integers r, ri, rt,
■ ■ ■ must include the number d\ since both I — k and k are divisible

by d so IS r = {I — k) ~ qk; since both k and r are divisible by d, so
is Tu since both r and r\ are divisible by d, so is ri, and so on.
Consequently, all the (remainders) numbers of the sequence we have
been forming are divisible by d; further, this sequence of positive
integers is decreasing and so must terminate with 0. If the final
nonzero remainder is Tk, then rk~\ is divisible by Tk (since the
following remainder is zero); Tk-i is divisible by rk (since now both rk-\
and Vk are divisible by Vk); rk^i is divisible by Vk (since both rk-i and
Tk-i are divisible by rk), and so on. Finally, k and I — k are divisible
by Kk. The inequality rk > d would contradict the fact that d is the
greatest common divisor oi I — k and k; hence, n = d. (Clearly,
Vk < d is impossible, since d divides rk =/= 0.)
Now, k has been defined as the least integer such that 10* — 1 is
divisible by />". Therefore, since 10'' — 1 is also divisible by />", it
follows that d = k, and I ~ k is a multiple of k, which means that /
is a multiple of k; that is, / = kr.
We can expand 10' — 1 as follows:
10' - 1 = lO'^'- - 1
= (10' - 1)110"-'" + W-^" + • • • + 10' + 1] .
Since 10* — 1 is divisible by p", 10* yields a remainder of 1 when
divided by />". It follows that 10" = 10'-10* yields a remainder of 1
when divided by />"; 10"' = 10"-10* yields a remainder of 1 when
divided by />"; and so on. Therefore, each term of the parenthetical
sum on the right, above, yields a remainder of 1 when divided by
/>", and hence the remainder of this sum is r. It follows that if
10' ' fails to be divisible by />""', then the least value of / such that
10' — 1 is divisible by p"*^ is pk, inasmuch as 10"* — 1 is divisible by
/>"+', but is not divisible by /""^^ (since the expression in parentheses
is not divisible by p'^).
The assertion of the problem follows.
101. (1) If X is any real number, it can be written in the form
X = [x] + or, where a is a nonnegative number less than 1.
We write the number >" as >- = [>-] + (3 (0 g j3 < 1). Then x -\- y =
[A + [>"] + or + (3. Since or + (3 ^ 0, it is clear from this equation
that [x] + [y] is an integer which does not exceed x + y. Since
[x + y\ is the largest integer which fails to exceed x -\- y, it follows
that [x + y]-^ [x\ + [y\.
(2) First Solution. Write x = [x\ + a, where 0 ^ a' < 1. Assume
that the integer [x\, when divided by n, yields the quotient q and

182 Some Problems in Arithmetic
the remainder r:
[x] = tjn + r (0 g r ^ « - 1).
We then have
n n
X = qn + r + oi = qn + rt ;
where r\ = r -\- a < n\ — = 0+—t- — =0= -LL ; which proves
n «L«J L«J
the assertion.
Second Solution. Consider all integers divisible by n but not
exceeding X. Clearly, there are — of them. Consider, also, all
L « J r r^cl "1
integers divisible by n but not exceeding [x\. There are -^^^ of
these. Since these two integers are the same, we have
vfy\i\
(3) First Solution. Let x =[x\ + a. Since 0 g a; < 1, then a is
equal to one of, or lies between two successive fractions of, the
sequence
_2. J_ A « - 1 n_
n ' n ' n ' ' n ' n '
Assume that the fractions in question are — and ; that is,
n n
that
— S ar <
Now,
L- 1 "
' +
X
we
- k
n
+ "
have
- 1
- k
n n
= [x] + a:-\ < [x] -\ +
= [a:] + 1 ,
=.[x] + a+ ^^-^^ ^[x] + -^ + ^^-^ = [x] + l,
n n n n
and

Solutions {101) 183
X + ^?-:ii = W + ^ + «^ < W + ^+J-+ iL:^
n
It follows that
W ^ [x+ 1] g ••• g [x+ "~^~^] < [X] + 1 .
[X] + 1 g [^+ ^] g ••• ^ [^+ ^] < [^1 + 2 ;
that is,
Since after the first n — k numbers, there remain k, we have
[x] + • • • + Tx +^^-^] = (« - k)[x\ + ^([x] + 1) = n[x\ + /fe .
But this is can be shown to be equal to the integral part of nx.
Since k ^ na < k + \, then «ar = ^ + j3, where 0 g (3 < 1. As a result,
[nx] = [«[x] + na] = [n[x] + ^ + j3] = n[x] + k .
This proves that
[x] + Tx + i-1 + • • • +\x+ ^~^A = [nx] .
Second Solution. Consider the left member of the given equation.
If 0 g •«■ < —, then all the numbers x, x -\ , ■ ■ ■, x -\- are less
n n n
than 1, and so the integral part of each is 0; also [nx] = 0. Thus
the equation holds for such values of x.
Now let X be arbitrary. If we multiply x by —, all the terms on
n
the left are "shifted" once to the right, and the final term.
[-^].

184
Some Problems in Arithmetic
becomes [x + 1], which exceeds [x] by 1. This means that
multiplication of X by — increases the left member of the equation by 1. The
n I
right member is also increased by 1 when multiplied by —. For
n
X it is possible to find a number or, where
0 gar < —,
n
such that X differs from or by —, where m is an integer. It follows
n
that the equality is preserved for all x.
102. Consider all those points of the Cartesian plane having integer
coordinates ("integer jwints") x and y, where 1 ^ x ^ q — 1 and 1 g
y ^ p — 1. These points lie within a rectangle OABC the lengths
of whose sides are OA = q and OC = p (Figure 8). There are
{q — l)(/> — 1) jxiints. Draw the diagonal OB of the rectangle. It is
,
]
p
1]
\
o
iy
^^-^—"
^'"~'
-—k- ^
q
nv
M
_ D
■^
l*x
Figure 8
clear that no integer point will lie on this diagonal, since the
coordinates {x, y) of all the points of the diagonal OB are related by
the proportion
X
y
OA
AB
P
and since q and p are relatively prime, there do not exist integers
X q
X < p and y < q such that — = -^ .
y p

Solutions (102-109) 185
We note now that the number of integer points whose abscissa is
equal to k, where k is some positive integer less than q and which
appear under the diagonal OB, is equal to the integral part of the
length of the segment MN shown in Figure 8. Since
this
OA
number is —^ .
[f]-R
Hence, the sum
^]-m-
q '
-[^
-DPI
Q \
is equal to the total number of all integer points appearing under
the diagonal OB. There are, in all, {q — l)(/> — 1) integer points in
the rectangle; because of the symmetrical pattern of these jxiints and
the fact that OB bisects the rectangle, exactly half of these points
lie under the diagonal (none lies on the diagonal). Therefore,
It is shown in the same way that
103. First Solution. The equation is valid, trivially, if «= 1.
Proceeding by mathematical induction, we shall show that if the
equality is assumed to hold for an integer n, then it must hold for
« + 1.
If « + 1 is not divisible by k\ then
n + \ = qk + r (lgrg^-1),
and n = qk + r', where r' = r — \; that is, 0 g r' g ^ — 2. It follows
that the integers —-— and — coincide (both are equal to q).
If, then, « + 1 is divisible by ^, or « + 1 = qk, then
that is,
[^]^[t]--

186 Some Problems in Arithmetic
Hence,
—7— = — , if ^ is not a divisor of « + 1;
—7— = T" M" ^ ' '^ * 's a divisor of « + 1.
It follows that:
That is, if
[fh[fV--[f]"-''-■■■-'■■
then
[^] + [^] — [f^]—■ — '■--■
That is, if
then
[^]-^[^] —<« + >(St]
Si + S2 + • • • Sn + S„+
Second Solution. The number of integers of the sequence 1,2,3,
• • •, « which are divisible by any chosen integer k is equal to —
(these will be the integers k, 2k, 3k, ' >\ ~r p )• The sum obtained
by totaling this divisor each time it appears is /^ "t- (that is.

Solutions {103)
187
^ + ^+---+^; — timesy We have the following results.
(a) The sum I yj + TyJ + • • • + y^\ + • • • + T^J is equal to
the number of integers of the sequence 1,2,3, •••,« which are
divisible by 1, plus the number of integers of this sequence which are
divisible by 2, •••, plus the number which are divisible by n. But
this is precisely the sum t\ -\- ti + ta -\- ■• ■ + <» given in the problem.
(b) The sum ir^l + "^^ + • • • + ^[^1 + • • • + mF^I is equal
to the sum obtained by adding the integer 1 each time it appears as
a divisor of a number of the sequence 1, 2, 3, • • •, «, plus the integer
2 taken each time it appears as a divisor of one of the number of
this sequence, plus the integer 3 taken each time it appears as a
divisor, and so on. But this is precisely the series Si + Sj + S3 +
•• • + s„.
Third Solution. An elegant geometric solution suggested by the
second solution will be given. Consider the equilateral hyperbolas
y=—, or, equivalently, xy = k (of which we shall take only the
X
branches in the first quadrant, see Figure 9).
Figure 9
We note all the points in the first quadrant which have integral
coordinates (integer jxiint). Now, if an integer x is a divisor of the
integer k, then the point {x,y) is a point on the graph of the
hyperbola xy = k. Conversely, if the hyperbola xy = k contains an
integer point, then the x-coordinate is a divisor of k. Hence, the
number of integers tk which are divisors of the integer k is equal
to the number of integer points lying on the hyperbola xy = k. The

188 Some Problems in Arithmetic
number tk of divisors of k is thus equal to the number of abscissas
of integer jxiints lying on the hyperbola xy = k. Now, we make use
of the fact that the hyperbola xy = n lies "farther out" in the quadrant
than Ao xy = \, xy = 2, xy = 2i, • ••, xy = n ~ \. The following
implications hold.
(a) The sum ti + t-z + • ■ • + tn is equal to the number of integer
points lying under (or on) the hyperbola xy = n. Each such point
will lie on a hyperbola xy = k, where k g n. The number of integer
points with abscissa k located under the hyperbola is equal to the
integral part of the length of the segment MN [Figure 9 (a)]. That
is, — , since MN = — (compare with the solution of problem 102).
L * J k
Thus, we obtain
'—'■--'-[f]-[f] + [f] —H-
(b) Write alongside each integer point [Figure 9 (b)] the number
equal to its abscissa; then, Si + S2 + • • • + s« is equal to the sum of
the integers — for the integer points located under (or on) the
hyperbola xy = n. But the sum of the integers for all such points
for a specific abscissa k is equal to M — . Hence, we have
Si + S2 + S3 + • • • + Sn
[f]+<f]+{f]—«m
104. It is readily shown that (2_+ V~2Y + (2 - V~2Y is an
integer: if (2 + 1/ 2 )" = fln + 6„"l/ 2 , where a„ and bn are integers,
then (2 — 1/ 2 )" = On — ^nl/ 2 (this follows from the binomial
formula, but may also be shown by mathematical induction). Since
(2 - l/T)" < 1, it follows that
[(2 + l/Y)"] = (2 + i/Y)" + (2 - i/Y)" - 1 ,
and, consequently,
(2 + i/T)" - ["(2 + l/Y)"] = 1 - (2 - VTY .
But since (2 — 1/ 2 ) < 1, we can, by taking the power n
sufficiently high, make (2 — 1/ 2 )" as small as we wish. If (2 — 1/ 2 )" <
0-000001, then
(2 + l/Y)" - [(2 + l/T)"] = 1 - (2 - l/Y)" > 0.999999 .
105. (a) First Solution. Since (2 + i/T)" + (2 - i/T)" is an

Solutions (104-105) 189
integer (see the solution to problem 104), and since (2 — i/ 3 )" < 1,
it follows that
[(2 + \/Ty] = (2 + \/TY + (2 - -i/T)" - 1 .
If we expand (2^1/3)" by the binomial formula, we obtain
(2 + -i/T)" + (2 - VTy = 2(2" + O-'-^S + Cn2''-'-3' + ■••) ,
which is divisible by 2. Therefore, [(2 + "i/T)]" = (2 + l/T)" +
(2 - VT)" - 1 is odd. _
Second Solution. The number (2 + l/ 3 )" can be written in the
form On + bnV' 3 , where a, and bn are integers. We shall show that
fln — 36n = 1 .
The proof will be carried out by mathematical induction. First, if
« = 1, then a, = 2, 6, = 1, and 2= - 3-1 = 1.
Now, assume that for some n
(2 + VTy = fln + br^VT ,
where al-'ibl = \. Then for (2 + ■i/T)''+' we have
(2 + -l/T)»+' = (fln + b,VTt2 + \/T) = (2fln + 36n) + (fln + 2bn)VT .
We see that a„+i = 2^, + 36n and bn+i = an + 2bn. Consequently,
al^, - 36n+, = (2an + ^bnf - 3(an + 26n)= = al-3bl=l.
Therefore, al — 36n for any n.
Thus, we have
[an + bnVT] = fln + [bnVT] = fln + [VW]
= fln + [l/flj - 1] =an+ {an - 1) = 2an - 1 .
That is, [(2 + "l/T)"] = [a, + bnVT)] is odd.
(b) We note that
[(1 +\/TY] = i^^ + ^^^^ + ^^ ~ "^''^^" - 1 • 'f « is even,
1(1 + VTy + (1 - i/T)" , if n is odd.
Consequently, the expressions on the right are integers [see the
solution to problem (a)]. For n even, 0 < (1 — l/ 3 )" < 1; for « odd,
-1 < (1 - i/T)" < 0 .
We shall investigate separately the cases for even n and odd n.
n is even: n = 2m. Then

190 Some Problems in Arithmetic
[1 + i/Ty] = (1 + i/T?" + (1 - -i/Ty» - 1
= {(1 + i/T?}- + {(1 - VTyy - 1
= (4 + 2-i/T)" + (4 - 2VTy - 1
= 2'"{(2 + VTr + (2 - i/T)"} - 1.
But the number in the braces is clearly an integer, and so the number
[(1 + "l/~3" )^"] = 2"A^ — 1 is always odd. Hence, if n is even, the
highest jx)wer of 2 by which [(1 + "l/ 3 )"] is divisible is zero.
n is odd. n = 2m + 1. Then
[(1 + -i/Ty*'] = (1 + i/Ty"*' + (1 - VTy^+'
= (4 + 2-i/T)»(i + i/T) + (4 - 2-i/T)»(i - i/T)
= 2»{(2 + -i/T)»(i + i/T) + (2 - i/TMi - i/T}
= 2»{[(2 + VTr + (2 - i/T)"]
+ -i/T[(2 + i/T)" - (2 - VTr]}.
Let (2 + l/T)" l/ 3 , where a„ and b„ are integers; then
(2 - l/T)" = a„ + 6„"l/T. Substitution yields
[(1 + -l/Ty-''] = 2'"{a„ + 6„-l/T + a„ - 6„-l/T
+ -1/T 1/3 - a„ + 6„-l/ 3 )}
= 2»(2a„ + 66„) = 2»+'(a„ + 36„) .
But a„ + 36„ is odd. In fact,
{a„ + 3b„Xa„ — 36™) = aL — 96^ = (a™ — 3*™) — 66L = 1 — 66L
[see the second solution to problem (a)]. Since 1 — 6bl, is odd, both
factors, (a„ + 3bm) and (a„ — 36™), are odd. Hence the greatest power
of 2 by which [(1 + i/ 3 )"] is divisible, for n = 2m + 1, is equal to
m
-' = ^ = [f]-'-
106. Since (2 + l/ 5 )" - (2 - l/^")" is an integer, and since
— 1 < (2 — 1/3")" < 0 (for p odd; see the solutions to problems 104
and 105), it follows that
[(2 + VTy] = (2 + Vsy + (2 - VTy.
Use of the binomial formula yields
(2 + i/T)'-+ (2-1/3")"
= 2(2" + Cl2'-'5 + Cl2'-'5' + ■•■ + Cr'2-5"--"/^) ,

Solutions (106-107) 191
so that
[(2 + VTy] -2"+'
= 2(0"-^5 + O'-'S^ + • • • + Cr'2-5">-"/0 .
All the binomial coefficients
^2_ Pip-I)
^'~ 1-2 '
^«_ p{p-lXp~2Xp-3)
^'•~ 1-2-3-4
»
cr' = p
are divisible by the prime p (they are integers, and the numerators
are divisible by the prime p, but the denominators are not). This
means that the difference [(2 + "l/'S")"] — 2"+' is divisible by p.
107. c;="^"-^^"-^>;--^"-^ + ^> ■ Exactly one of the p
P'-
consecutive integers n, n — 1, n - 2, ■ • ■, n — p + 1 is divisible by p;
— = —, and the dif-
/> J P
ference given in the problem takes on the form
nin - 1)- • -(A^ + DNjN - 1)- ■■(«-/>+ 1) _ N_
Pl P "
We observe now that the integers n,n — 1, ■ ■ ■, N + I, N — 1, • • •,
n — p + 1 (the integer A^ being omitted) yield all the possible positive
remainders 1,2, •••,/> —1 upon division by p, inasmuch as the p
successive integers from n to n — p + 1 must yield all these
remainders including 0, and we have left out the sole integer divisible
by p. Now we shall show that
nin - D- • -(A^ + IXA^ - D- • •(« - P + D - iP - 1)1
is divisible by p. We write the equations
n = kip + a, ,
n - \ = kip + ai ,
N + 1 = kip + ai ,
N- 1 = ki+,p + ai+
n - p + 1 = kp-,p + Op-

192 Some Problems in Arithmetic
where a,,a2, •••,ap-, are the integers 1,2, •••,/>— 1 in some order.
It is clear that if all the integers on the right are multiplied
together, every term of the expansion will contain /> as a factor,
except the term araz-••Op-,, and this term is equal to {p — 1)!. Thus,
the difference shown is divisible by p.
N
If we multiply this difference by the integer —, the product still
P
remains divisible by p; that is,
n{n~ D-■■(«-/>+ 1) _ N{p- 1)!
P P
is divisible by p. If we divide this difference by (p — 1)! [which does
divide it; see problem 49 (a)], we obtain
n{n - l)---(« - p + I)
Pl
This still is divisible by p, inasmuch as p and {p — 1)! are relatively
prime.
~ P -^"'IpI-
108. Let oi and |9 be two numbers satisfying the conditions of the
problem. For some selected jxisitive integer TV we consider all the
integers of the sequence [or], [2a;], [3a;], •••, which do not exceed TV;
we shall write these as [a], [2a], • • •, [no:]. Since [noi] S TV, where n
is maximal, we have [(« + l)a;] > TV, and hence «ar < TV + 1, (« + l)a; a
TV + 1, TV + 1 > «a; ^ TV + 1 — a;, or «a; = TV + /, where 1 > / ^ 1 - or.
We may show, in a similar manner, that if m is the maximal
integer such that the integers [|9], [2|9], [3|9], • • •, [mfi] all fail to exceed
TV, then w|3 = TV + /', where 1 > /' S 1 — |9. Since, according to the
conditions of the problem, we encounter in the sequences [a], [2ar],
■■■,[na] and [|3], [2|3], • • •, [m|3] each positive integer 1,2, 3,--sTV
exactly once, it follows that n + m = N. This implies that
or
-[-(i-i)]^i^i:
and
From the inequalities involving / and /' it follows that

Solutions {108) 193
or |9 or |3 or |9
Designating the sum — + — hy t, and dividing all the numbers of
or |9
the preceding inequality by A^, we arrive at the inequality
N - N '
which must be satisfied for any selected positive integer A^, no
matter how large. But since the first and third members of this
inequality can be made as small as we wish, it must follow that
1 — t = 0, from which it follows that t = — + ^r = 1- Further, it
or |9
is readily seen that the numbers or and j3 must be irrational, since
if a; = —, then we would have |9 = —-—, and this would imply
q p- q
that [qa] — [{p — q)^], which contradicts the conditions of the problem.
Assume now that or and |9 are irrational numbers, and that
— + -- = 1. Since necessarily or > 1 and (3 > 1, it will not be pos-
sible to find two equal numbers among the integers [or], [2(a;], [3ar],
■ • •, « or among the integers [0\, [2j3], [3(3], • • •.
We shall now show that, given any positive integer A^, either an
integer n can be found such that [neic\ = A^ or an integer m can be
found such that [m0\ = N, and both possibilities cannot exist
simultaneously. Let
[(« - l)ar] < N ^ [na],
[{m - 1))3] < N^ [w|3] .
These inequalities imply that
noi — a < N , nei > N;
m0 - 0 < N , m^> N
(neither na nor wj3 can be exactly equal to A^, since or and |3 are
irrational); that is,
nei= N + d ,
m0 = N + d' ,
where 0 < d < a, 0 < d' < 0. It follows that

194 Some Problems in Arithmetic
N d N d'
n + m = — + — -I-—-_l_—-
or or |3 |3
and, consequently,
— + —■ = n + m— N
d d'
is an integer. But since 0< — <1, 0< — <1, we have
or /3
Hence we arrive at the equality
which, since
d d' ,
1 1 1
or |3
is jxjssible only in the event that one of the numbers d or d' is less
than 1 and the other is greater than 1. But this means that of the
integers [na] = [N + d] and [w|3] = [A^+ d'], neither of which is less
than A^, one must be equal to A^ and the other must exceed TV.
109. First Solution. It is readily seen that (a) = a h ; Hence
we can put the equation we wish to derive into the following form.
Now let
7V=an-2'' + an-,-2''-' + ••■ + a,-2 + ao
(an,an-i, ■ • ■, fli, flo are either 0 or 1) be the expansion of TV in jxiwers
of 2 (as in the binary number system). We then have
= an-2''-' +an-,-2''-= + ••• + a, + ao ,
[f + |] = [«.-2.-..„.-,.2.-.+ ^..+^ + f]
= a„-2''-M-a„-,-2''-» + ■■■ + a, ,

Solutions {109) 195
r A^ , 1 "1 ran + 1 , fln-l , . go 1 „
and
[ 2n+2 + 2 J ~ L 2"+' "*" 2 J
(recalling that the a,- are either 0 or 1). Hence we obtain
= an(2»-' + 2»-^ + ... + 1 + 1)
+ an-i(2''-^ + 2"-' +--- + 1 + 1)+---+ a,(l + 1) + flo
= an-2» + an-i-2''-' + ••• +a,-2 + ao = A^,
which is what we wished to show.
Second Solution. It is obvious that the number of odd numbers
A^ ■ r A^+ 1 1 VN~\
exceeding A^ is equal to — if A^ is even, and is —-— = Mt + ^
2 /A^\ L 2 J L 2 J
if A^ is odd—or, equivalently, I —). Thus, the number of even
\ 2 / rA^"l
numbers not divisible by 4, and not exceeding A^, is equal to -j-
if A^ is either divisible by 4 or yields the remainder 1, and is equal
to -r + 1 if A^ yields a remainder of 2 or 3 upon division by 4.
L4J /jYx
In either event this number is I—). The number of integers not
^ '* ^ . TA^ "1
exceeding A^ which are divisible by 4 but not by 8 is: equal to —
if A^ is either divisible by 8 or yields one of the remainders 1,2, or
3; or else is equal to — + 1. In either event the number is equal
t„(f). LsJ
In a similar manner it is shown that: (-77-) is the number of
integers not exceeding A^ which are divisible by 8 but not by 16;
(—-J is the number of integers not exceeding A^ which are divisible
by 16 but not by 32; and so on. If we use these results to examine
all the numbers in which we are interested, we find that

196 Equations Having Integer Solutions
(f)-(f)-(f) —«■
which is wh^t we wished to show.
110. (a) Let a be the first digit, and b the last digit, of the
desired integer TV. Then the integer can be written as
A^ = lOOOa + 100a + lOb + b ,
or as
TV = 1100a + 116 = iKlOOa + b) .
Since this integer is to be a perfect square, and since it clearly must
TV
be divisible by 11, it must also be divisible by 121; that is, —— =
lOOfl + b must be divisible by 11. But
100a + 6 = 99a + (a + 6) = 11 -Qa + (a + 6) .
Hence a + b must be divisible by 11. Since neither a nor 6 exceeds
9, and since a is not 0, it follows that 1 g a + 6 ^ 18, whence
a + b=n.
This implies that
100a + 6 = ll-9a + 11 = ll(9a + 1) ,
A^ 100a + b
121 11
9a + 1 .
TV .
Since TV is a perfect square, —- is also a square. But among the
integers of form 9a + 1, where a ranges through the integer values
1 to 9, only 9-7 + 1 = 64 is a perfect square. This means that TV =
121-64 = 7744 = 88^
(b) Let a be the digit in the tens place of the desired integer,
and let b be the digit in the units place; that is, the number is
10a + b. If the order of digits is reversed, the integer becomes
106 + a. The conditions of the problem yield
10a + 6 + 106 + a = ll(a + b) = k\
where k is an integer.
It follows that k^ (hence k) must be divisible by 11; also, a -\- b
must be divisible by 11. Since a + 6 g 18, this implies that a + 6 = 11,
or k^ = 121. Therefore, the only jxissibilities for the integers sought
are

Solutions (110-111) 197
29, 38, 47, 56, 65, 74, 83, 92,
all of which satisfy the conditions of the problem.
111. Designate by a the two-digit integer formed by the first two
digits of the number A^ sought, and by b the two-digit integer formed
by the last two digits of TV. Then, A^ = 100a + b, and the conditions
of the problem yield
100a + b = {a + by ,
which may be written
99a = {a + by -{a + b) = {a+ bXa + b~l) . ( i )
Thus, the product (a + b)(a + b — I) must be divisible by 99. We
shall investigate the possible values for a and b.
(1) a + b= 99^, a + b— 1 = -r-- Since a and b are two-digit num-
k
bers, k ^2. The case k = 2, when used with equation (i), leads
immediately to a = 99 and b = 99. Similarly,
k = l ,
a + b=99 ,
a = a + b-l=98,
N = 9801 = (98 + ly .
(2) a + b= 11m, a + b— 1 = 9«, mn = a. Here we obtain 9« =
11m — 1. Since llw — 1 is thus shown to be divisible by 9, it
follows that m yields the remainder 5 upon division by 9 (it is easily
verified that if there were any other remainder, then llw — 1 would
not be divisible by 9). Hence, m = 9t +5, and so 9« = 99t +54, n =
lit + 6. We now have
a = mn = {9t + 5)(llt + 6) = 99;^ + 109< + 30 .
Since a is to be a two-digit integer, we must have t — 0; and,
consequently, a = 30, a + 6 = llw = 55, 6 = 25, A^ = 3025 = (30 + 25)^
(3) a + 6 = 9w, a + 6 — 1 = llw, mn = a. Reasoning as we did
above in part (2), we have the single possibility A^ = 2025 = (20 + 25y.
(4) a + 6 = 33w, a + 6 — 1 = 3«, or a + 6 = 3w, a + 6 — 1 = 33«,
which is untenable, inasmuch as a + 6 and a + 6 — 1 are relatively
prime numbers.
(5) a + 6 — 1 = 99^, a + 6 = —. Here we will have
k

198 Equations Having Integer Solutions
a + b-l = 99 ,
a + 6 = 100 ,
_{a + bXa + b~l)
99
100,
which is an impossibility.
Therefore, the conditions of the problem can be satisfied only by
the numbers 9801, 3025, and 2025, and these numbers do satisfy the
conditions.
112. (a) Since the numbers are to contain only even digits, they
can begin only with 2, 4, 6, or 8; hence we need examine only those
integers between 1999 and 3000, 3999 and 5000, 5999 and 7000, and
7999 and 9000. Accordingly, the square roots of such possible four-
digit integers must be between 45 and 55, or 63 and 71, or 77 and
84, or 89 and 95. Further, since (lOx + yY = lOOx^ + Wxy + y\ it
follows, ior 0 < y ^ 9, that the tens digit of the number (lO.r + yY
is odd or even simultaneously with the tens digit of y'- (the 20xy term
contributes an even digit to that place, and lOOx^ contributes a zero
digit). Hence the square root of the numbers sought cannot end with
the digit 4 or the digit 6.
Since the square roots of the numbers sought must be even, we
are left with only the following four possibilities:
68^ = 4624 ; 80^ = 6400 ;
78^ = 6084 ; 92^ = 8464 .
These four integers satisfy the conditions of the problem.
(b) Reasoning analogous to that used in problem (a) shows
that there does not exist any number composed of four odd digits
and which is a perfect square.
113. (a) We shall designate the hundreds, tens, and units digits
of the integers A^ sought by x, y, and z, respectively, so that N =
lOOx + lO^- + z. The condition of the problem, then, is
lOOx + lOy + z = x\ + y\ + z\ .
Since 7! = 5040 is already a four-digit number, none of the digits
can exceed 6. Consequently, N cannot exceed 700, which implies
that no one of the digits can exceed 5 (since 6! = 720). At least one
of the digits must be 5, otherwise the greatest value obtainable for
x\-^y\-^z\ would be 3-4! = 72 < 100, whereas A^ is a three-digit
number. The possibility x = 5 can be eliminated, since in that event

Solutions (112-114) 199
A^S 500, but the greatest value obtainable for x\ + y\ + z\ is 3-5! =
360. This, in turn, implies that x cannot exceed 3. Further, it can
easily be reasoned that x cannot exceed 2; in fact, 3! + 2-5! = 242 <
300. Now, the number 255 does not fulfill the conditions of the
problem; if only one digit of the number sought is 5, then x cannot
exceed 1, since 2! + 5! + 4! = 146 < 200. Moreover, since 1! + 5! +
4! = 145 < 150, we must conclude that y cannot exceed 4.
Consequently, 2 = 5, since we have shown that at least one of the digits
has to be 5. Therefore, we must have x= \, 4 S >" ^ 0, and 2 = 5.
This allows us to find the one possibility for the solution of the
problem—a number satisfying the problem's condition is N = 145.
(b) The desired numbers A^ cannot have more than three
digits, since in the extreme case (9^ + 9^ + 9^ + 9^ = 4-9^ = 324) we
obtain only a three-digit number. Hence we can write, for the
integers, A^ = lOOx + lO^- + 2, where x, y, and z are the respective digits
of the number (from left to right, and allowing the jxissibility of
X = 0, or even both x = 0 and y = 0).
The problem then iinjxises the condition
lOOx +Wy+z = x'+y' + z\
or, equivalently,
(100 - x)x + {10 - y)y = z{z - 1). (i)
The last equation implies that, necessarily, x = 0; if this is not the
case, we have on the left an integer not less than 90 [x ^ 1, 100 — x ^
90, (10 — y)y ^ 0], and the integer on the right is not more than
9-8 — 72. Consequently, equation (i) can be replaced by
(10 - y)y = z{z - 1).
It is readily verified that this equation cannot be satisfied by any
nonzero y (recall that y and z are digits). If y = 0, then there
remains only the trivial jxissibilities 2 = 0 or 2 = 1.
Hence, except for N=0, there is only the solution N = I.
114. (a) Clearly, the numbers A^ which are sought cannot have
more than four digits, since the sum of the digits of a five-digit
number cannot exceed 5-9 = 45, and the square of this number is
2025, a four-digit number. Further, since 4-9 = 36, and 36^ = 1296,
if A^ is a four-digit number satisfying the condition of the problem,
its first digit cannot exceed 1. But 1 + 3-9 = 28, and 28^ = 784,
whence even four-digit numbers are excluded from consideration.
Thus A^ can have at most three digits. Assume, now, that A^ =

200 Equations Having Integer Solutions
lOOx + lO^- + z, where x,y, and z are digits (the possibility x = 0 is
allowed, as is x = y = 0).
Now the condition of the problem can be written in the form
lOOx JrXOy + z = {x + y + zf ,
or
mx + 9y = {x + y + zY - {x + y + z)
= {x + y + z){x + y + z-l) .
It follows from the above equality that one of {x + y + z) or
{x + y + z — V) is divisible by 9 (not both can be divisible by 3 since
they are relatively prime). Also, \^x-\-y-\-z^27. We shall
investigate all possible cases.
(1) x + y + z~\ = Q; 99x + 9y = Q, x = y = 0, 2=1; A^ = 1.
(2) x + y + z = 9;99x + 9y = 9-8 = 72, x = 0, 9y = 72, y = %, z = 1;
A=81 [=(8 + m.
(3) x + y + z~l = 9; 99x + 9>' = 9• 10 = 90, x = 0, 9y = 90, which
is impossible.
(4) x + y + z=m; 99x + 9>' = 18-17 = 306, x = 3, >- = 1, 2 = 18 -
(3 + 1) = 14, which is impossible.
(5) X + >- + 2 - 1 = 18; 99x + 9>' = 19-18 = 342, x = Z, >- = 5, 2 =
19 — (3 + 5) = 11, which is impossible.
(6) x + y + z = 27; 99x + 9y ^ 27-26 = 702, x = 7, >- = 1, 2 = 27 -
(7 + 1) = 19, which is impossible.
Therefore, the conditions of the problem are satisfied only by the
numbers 1 and 81.
(b) The cube of a three-digit integer can contain no more
than nine digits; hence, the sum of the digits of the cube of a three-
digit number cannot exceed 9-9 = 81 < 100. This implies that the
numbers sought cannot be three-digit numbers; and the same kind
of reasoning will show that such a number cannot have more than
three digits. The integer, or integers, sought can have at most two
digits.
The cube of a two-digit integer cannot have more than six digits,
and the sum of the digits of such a cube cannot exceed 6-9 = 54,
whence the numbers sought cannot exceed 54. However, if a number
not exceeding 54 is cubed, the first digit of the cube cannot be
greater than 1; but then the sum of the digits of the cube cannot be
greater than 1 + 5-9 = 46. Thus, the numbers sought cannot exceed
46.
Proceeding as before, we find that if an integer does not exceed

Solutions {115) 201
46, its cube contains at most five digits, and since this cube is less
than 99,999, the sum of the digits is at most equal to 4-9 + 8 = 44.
The cube of 44 is a five-digit number ending with the digit 4. Hence
the number 44 must be thrown out as a possibility. The numbers
sought cannot exceed 43.
Now we make use of the fact that the sum of the digits of every
positive integer yields the same remainder upon division by 9 as does
the number itself upon division by 9. It follows that any of the
integers sought must yield the same remainder upon division by 9
as does its cube. This is possible only if this remainder is —1, 0,
or 1 (solution of r' = r).
Thus, the numbers sought do not exceed 43, and they can yield
upon division by 9 only the remainders —1, 0, or 1. Only the
following thirteen integers can satisfy these conditions:
1;
8, 9, 10;
17, 18, 19;
26, 27, 28;
35, 36, 37.
Of these possibilities, the following integers satisfy the condition of
the problem:
1 (P = 1) ;
8 (8' = 512) ;
17 (17' = 4193) ;
18 (18' = 5832) ;
26 (26' = 17,576);
27 (27' = 19,683) .
115. (a) Direct verification assures us that for x < 5 the only
positive integers solving the given equation are x= I, y = 1 and
X = 3, >" = 3. We shall show that no solution exists for x ^ 5. We
note, first, that
1! + 2! + 3! + 4! = 33
ends with the digit 3; and 5!,6!,7!,-- all end with the digit 0.
Therefore, if x ^ 5, the sum 1! + 2! + ■ ■• + x! terminates with the
digit 3 and therefore cannot be the square of any integer y.
(b) Two cases will be considered.

202 Equations Having Integer Solutions
z = 2n is an even integer. This case is readily reduced to problem
(a), inasmuch as y^" = {y^f. For even integers z the solutions are
X =^ \; y = \; z is any even number;
X = 'i; y = ±3; 2 = 2.
z is an odd number. For 2=1 any value of x, and the
corresponding obvious value of y, will suffice. Let 2^3. We note that
1! +2! +3! + ■•■ +8! =46,233.
This number is divisible by 9, but not by 27, whereas for all « ^ 9
the number 9! is divisible by 27. The sum 9! + 10! + • ■ ■ + x! is
therefore divisible by 27; and so, for x ^ 8, the sum 1! + 2! + ■ ■ ■ +
x\ is divisible by 9, but not by 27. In order for y' to be divisible
by 9 it is necessary that y be divisible by 3, but then y' must be
divisible by 27 (for z ^ 3). Consequently, for x ^ 8 and 2^3 the
given equation has no solution in integers.
It remains to consider the case for x <%. We have 1! = 1 = P,
where z can be any integer 1! + 2! = 3 (which does not provide an
integer solution for 2^3), 1! + 2! + 3! = 3^ (a solution arrived at
earlier, but not for the case of odd z) and
1! + 2! + 3! + 4! = 33 ,
1! +2! + ••■ +5! = 153,
1! +2! + ■■■ +6! = 873,
1! + 2! + ■■■ +7! =5913.
As can be easily verified, none of these integers is an integral
power (^3) of any natural number. Thus, for odd z we have only
the following additional solutions:
x= \; y = \; z = any odd number;
X = any natural number; >- = l! + 2! + ■ ■ ■ + x!; 2 = 1.
116. Let
a' + b' + c' +d' = 2'' .
We shall designate by p the greatest power of 2 which divides all
four integers a, b, c, and d. Upon dividing both sides of the above
equation by (2")^ = 2^'' (an even power of 2), we obtain
al + bl + cl + dl = 2'-'" ,
where at least one of the four integers ai,6i, c,, rf, is odd. If exactly
one, or if exactly three, of the integers a,,bi,c,,di are odd, then
a\ + bl + cl + dl is odd, and in this event the equality is impossible.

Solutions {116-117) 203
If two of the integers are odd, say a\ —2k + \ and 6i = 2/ + 1, and
two are even, say Ci = 2m and di = 2n, then we may write
a\ + b\ + c\jrd\ = Ak^+Ak + \+AP+Al+\+ Am' + An'
= 2[2(/fe^ + /fe + /^ + / + m^ + «0 + 1] ,
which is a contradiction that a] + b\ + c\ + d\ = 2""^" cannot have an
odd divisor (the expression in brackets cannot be 1 except for k =
/ = w = « = 0; ci = rfi = 0 and c = d ~ 0). If all four integers are
odd, that is, oi = 2^ + 1, 6i = 2/ + 1, c, = 2w + 1, rfi = 2« + 1, we
have
a] + b\ + c\ + d\ = Ak' + Ak + \+ AP + 4/ + 1
+ Am' + 4w + 1 + 4«^ + 4« + 1
= 4[^(^ + 1) + /(/ + 1) + m{m + 1) + «(« + 1) + 1] .
Now, the product of two consecutive integers must be an even
integer, and so the expression in the brackets immediately above is
odd. Under the circumstances, its value can be only 2° = 1. This
implies that n — 2p = 2, n = 2p + 2, and k = l = m = n = 0, a, = bi =
c, = d, = I, a = b = c = d = 2p.
Therefore, if n is an odd number, then 2" cannot be written as
the sum of four squares; if n = 2p is even, then 2" can be expressed
as the sum of four squares only in the following way:
2'" = (2"-')' + (2'--')' + (2"-')' + (2"-')' .
117. (a) First Solution. The equation
x' +y' +z' = 2xyz
is satisfied hy x = y = z = 0. It is obvious that no other solution is
available which involves zero value for any one of x,y, or z; hence
we may assume that none of them can vanish. We can write
X = 2'*x, ,
y = 2^y, ,
z = '^z^,
where X\,y\,z\ are odd (if any one of x,y,z is initially odd, then the
exponent for 2 can be taken to be 0).
Since x,y, and z enter the equation symmetrically, we may assume,
with generality, that or i j3 g r- We shall now determine by what
jxjwer of 2 the left member of the equation is divisible.
(1) If or < |3 g r, or else if ar = |3 = r, then after factoring out

204 Equations Having Integer Solutions
{2oiY = 2^", there will remain the sum of an odd and two even
numbers, or else the sum of three odd numbers—that is, an odd
number.
(2) If or = |3 < r, then it is possible to write
X = 2-^2/^ + 1) ,
y = 2^21 + 1),
2 = 2''-2m .
In this case,
X' +y' +z^ = 2"'[{2k + ly + (2/ + 1)^ + {2my]
= 2^'^4/fe2 + 4/fe + 1 + 4/2 + 4/ + 1 + 4)«2)
= 22''+'[2(/e2 + k + P + l + ni') + 1] ;
after factoring out 2'"+', there remains in the brackets an odd number.
On the other hand, the right member of the equation is divisible
by 2'*+^+'>'+'. Also, the right member must be divisible by the same
power of 2 as is the left member.
For case (1) we must have 2ar = a' + j3 + 7--i-l. Since a; ^ (3 g 7-,
we arrive at the untenable inequality 2ar ^ 3ar + 1.
For case (2) it follows that 2ar+l=ar + (3 + r + l- Since or =
0 < r, the following inequality is implied, which again is impossible:
2ar + 1 > 3ar + 1.
Therefore, there fails to exist any solution in integers for x^ +
y^ + z^ = 2xyz, except the trivial one x = y = z = 0.
Second Solution. Since the sum of the squares is to be an even
number, it may be reasoned that either all three of the numbers x^,
y'lZ" (hence also x,y, and z) are even, or one of them is even and
two are odd. But in the last event, the sum would be divisible only
by 2 and the product 2xyz would be divisible by 4. Hence we must
conclude that x,y, and z must all be even: x = 2x,, y = 2yu z = 22,.
If we substitute these into the given equation and divide through by
4, we obtain
x] + y\ + zl = 4x,y,z, .
As above, this equation implies that Xi,yi, and 2, are all even
numbers, and so we can write Xi = 2x2, yi = ^y^, 2, = 222, which
yields the equation
^2 + yl + zl = 9xiy2Z2 ,
which, in turn, implies that also Xi.yi, and 22 are all even numbers.

Solutions (118) 205
Continuation of this process leads to the conclusion that the
following set of numbers are all even:
X, y, z;
X
X
X
X
^-i =
yi =
yi ■=
yk =
y
2'
y
4'
y
8'
y
2"'
2l =
Zl =
Zi =
Zk =
z
2'
z
4"
z
8'
z
2"'
(the numbers Xk,yk,Zk satisfy the equation xl + yl + zl = 2''+^XkykZk).
But this is possible only if x = y = z — 0.
(b) As above, it may be proved that the only integer solution
of the equation x' + y' + z^ + v^ = 2xyzv is x=y = z=v = 0. Here,
it suffices to make the special investigation for the case where the
highest power of 2 which divides x, y, z, and v is the same; that is,
when
X = 2-^2^ + 1) , y = 2-^2/ + 1) ,
z = 2'i2m + 1), v = 2'\2n + 1),
where or is a nonnegative integer, and k, I, m, and n are integers.
Then
X' + y' + z' + v'^ 2^"[(4/fe^ + 4/fe + 1) +- (4/^ + 4/ + 1)
+ (4w^ + 4»2 + 1) + (4«^ + 4« + 1)]
= 22''+2(^2 _|_ ;^ _|_ /2 _|_ / _|_ ;^22 _,_ ^ _|_ „2 _|_ „ _|_ 1)
= 2'''+'[k(.k + 1) + /(/ + 1) + m{m + 1) + «(« + 1) + 1].
Now, the last expression in brackets must be odd (the terms which
are products of two successive numbers are even). Therefore, the
greatest power of 2 which divides the left mem^ber of the equation
has exponent 2ar + 2. But, in the original equation, the highest power
of 2 which divides the right member is 2*"+'. Accordingly, we must
conclude that 2ar + 2 = 4ar + 1, which is untenable for any integer or.
Remark: A second solution of problem (b), which is analogous to that of
problem (a), is left to the reader.
118. (a) Let x,y,z be any three nonnegative integers satisfying
the equation

206 Equations Having Integer Solutions
x" Jry' + z^ = kxyz . ( i)
We shall show, first, that it is always possible to assume
^ kyz ^ kxz ^ kxy , „.
(none of the integers on the left of (i) can exceed half the value of
the right member). To show this, assume, for example, that z >
—-^. Then consider not x,y,z, but the lesser integers x,y, and z, =
kxy — z, which clearly also satisfy equation (i):
x^ + y^ + {kxy — zY = kxy{kxy — z).
If any integer of this new triple is greater than the product of the
other two multiplied by —, we again make a similar substitution
until the conditions of {2) are satisfied (after which the process will
fail to yield decreasing numbers for x,y,z).
Assume now that x ^ y ^ z. First, since y £ z £ -—-, it follows
that
= 2 '
kx^2.
Equation (i) can be restated in the form
"■+(f-y-(f)'-
Since z g —^, if in the left member z is replaced hy y ^ z, the
numerical value is increased (or remains the same if y = z)\
consequently.
x' +y' +
This yields the inequality
Further,
X
it follows from
/kxy
\ 2
■2 + 2y'
X ^ y
-.)'.
^ kxy^
that
k^xY
4
y' + 2y' § kxy';
that is, kx ^ 3.

Solutions {118) 207
Hence, we have 2 ^kx ^Z; that is, kx is equal to 2 or 3. But if
kx — 2, then equation (i) assumes the form
x^+y^ + z^ = 2yz ,
or
x^ + {y -zy = Q;
thus X = 0 and kx = 0 instead of 2. Therefore, kx = 3, which means
that k can have only value 1 or 3. It is readily verified by examples
that these values for k are jxissible [see the solution of problem (b)].
(b) Reasoning similar to that employed for problem (a) is
used here. There we had x^ + 2y^ ^ kxy^; since kx = 3, this inequality
can be rewritten in the form
x' + 2y' ^ 3y' ,
or
x'^y' .
However, we assumed x g y; consequently, x = y. Assume now
that in the basic equation, (i), x =y, kx = 3. We obtain
2x^ + z^ = 3xz ,
or
(2 - xXz - 2x) = 0 .
Thus, z = X or z = 2x. Since
- 2 2 2 '
it is impossible for z to be equal to 2x. Therefore, z = x.
Accordingly, for condition (2) to be fulfilled, we must have x =
y = z. But, inasmuch as kx = 3, x can be only 1 or 3, and we obtain
two solutions for equation (1):
X = y = z = 1 {k = 3);
x = y =z = 3 {k = l) .
In the solution of problem (a) we saw that any three integers x,
y, z which satisfy condition (i) can produce other solutions, by
successive replacements of the form z, = kxy — 2 of (2). But if z, =
kxy — 2, then z = kxy — z,; hence every solution of equation (i) can
be obtained from the least solution by successive substitutions of
form z, = kxy — z. In particular, we obtain in this way the following
solutions for equation (i) (up to 1000):

208
(1) For /fe = 3:
Equations Having Integer Solutions
(2) For k = \:
X
2
2
2
5
5
X
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
6
6
15
y
1
1
1
2
5
13
34
89
233
5
29
169
13
29
y
3
3
6
15
39
102
267
15
87
39
z
1
3
2
5
13
34
89
233
610
29
169
985
194
433
z
3
6
15
39
102
267
699
87
507
582
The fact that solutions corresponding to ^ = 1 can be obtained from
those corresponding to ^ = 3 by simple multiplication by 3 follows
from the fact that the least triple (3, 3, 3) satisfying the equation for
^ = 1 is related to the least triple for ^ = 3 by the factor 3.
119. If the relatively prime pair x,y is to meet the conditions of
the problem, the following equations must be solvable in integers:
x^ + 125 = uy ,
y^ + 125 = vx .

Solutions {119) 209
We shall show that a solution of these equations produces not merely
the relatively prime pair x and y satisfying the conditions, but two
other pairings x, u and y, v which satisfy the same conditions. That
is, we shall show that x= + 125 is divisible by u and u^ + 125 is
divisible by x, and also that y^ + 125 is divisible by v and v"^ + 125
is divisible by y.
First, x= + 125 = uy means that x^ + 125 is divisible by u. The
equalities yield
u^y^ = X' + 250x^ + 125^ ;
u\vx - 125) = X* + 250x^ + 125^ ,
and, finally,
xiuH - X' - 250x) = 125(m= + 125) ,
from which it follows that u^ + 125 is divisible by x (which is
relatively prime to 125, otherwise x and y would not be relatively prime).
Also, the integers x and u are relatively prime, for if x and u had
a common divisor of d, then 125 = uy — x'^ would also be divisible by
rf(that is, d = 5), and, consequently, y would be divisible by d (since
y'^ = vx — 125). It may be shown, in exactly the same way, that the
integers >" and v are relatively prime, and the square of either when
increased by 125 is divisible by the other.
We redesignate our integers x,y,u,v as follows: x = Xa, y = x^,
u — x-,,v = X2. If M^ + 125 = x-iX, then the pair of integers u, x^2,
that is, x-,,x-2, also satisfy the conditions of the problem. Thus, if
v^ + 125 = x^y, then the pair of integers v, Xa, that is, Xi, Xi, also
satisfy this condition. Hence, beginning with an integer pair
satisfying the conditions of the problem, it is possible to construct an
infinite double-end array of integers,
' ' ', X-i, X-\, Xo, X\, Xi, •■• ,
where neighboring pairs satisfy the equation
xi + 125
— Xa-\ t
xLi + 125
Further, in the given array the ratio of the sum of a pair
neighboring an integer to that integer is constant;

210 Equations Having Integer Solutions
Xa ■^«^a+l ■^«'^«+l
Xg -\- {Xg + l -\- 125) Xg -\- XqXa + i Xg -\- Xg+j
■^W'^a+l XoiXg^i ■^a+1
This observation is helpful in extending the double-end array of
integers above: it we designate -^^ ^^ by t, we will have
Xg
Xa+l ^^ IXg Xg-] f
■^«-l -= tXg Xg + j .
Now we must develop a procedure which will help us determine
all such arrays which yield solutions of the problem. We note, first,
that if then
_ Xa+i + 125 Xit+i -^
■^a+2 — > = -ia + l ,
and if Xg-, ^ Xg, then Xa-i > Xa-,; hence every chain of integers
augments in both directions from some least integer (or equal pair
of least integers, and two neighboring numbers of the chain can be
equal only if both are 1).
Let xo be the least integer of the solution-chain:
We shall show that Xo < \/i25 < 12.
We first observe that the number t, referred to above, is an integer
exceeding 2. In fact, it follows from the equation
J Xg-l -\- Xg+\ Xg -\- ■y«-f2
that t is an integer. Hence Xg and x^+i are relatively prime, and
consequently
Xg
cannot have in its denominator a divisor of Xg+,, and
2 Xg ~r Xg^2
cannot have in its denominator any divisor of Xg. Further,

Solutions (119) 211
^ _ xi + xi+, + 125 xj + al+, ^
or xi + xl+, ^ 2xaXo+, (since x^ + xi+, - 2x<,x„+, = (x<, - x»+,Y a 0).
Thus, < a 3. Now, since
= ^1^-1 — -^0 — Xq{X^ ^o) — ^o(^-| — ^o)
g x,x-, — xl= 125 ,
it follows that at least one of the (nonnegative) integers x, — Xo and
X-, — Xo fails to exceed 11. Supjxise that x, — xo ^ 11. We have
^ ^ Xo + X? + 125 .
XaX,
. _ 2 ^ xl + x'+ 125 - 2xax, _ (x, - XqY + 125
Xu^i Xo[xa + (;c, - Xo)]
But t S 3 and so < — 2 S 1; consequently,
{x, - Xo)= + 125 ^xl + Xo{x, - Xo) ,
which is impossible if Xo S 12 > {x, — Xo) [since here xl > 125,
Xa{x, - Xo) > (x, - Xo)=].
It remains now to test for xo all integers that are less than 12 and
which are relatively prime to 125; for such an Xo, x, is an integer
such that Xo + 125 is divisible by x, (that is, x, is a divisor of
xl + 125), and x] + 125 is divisible by Xo. Since xl + 125 = x,x-,, we
may use the fact that x, is the smaller of the neighbors of xo to
obtain
Xo g X, g Vxl + 125 .
It is not difficult to verify that all pairs Xo, x, satisfying the
conditions of the problem can be expressed as follows:
l,l(^^^'+;:+^^^=127); 1.2(^ = Ii±fii25=65);
1.3(, = i!+^l±i25^45); 1,6(.=
^^^^^^P+ 7-+125 ^25); 1.9(.=
2,3(^ = ^iiff^ = 23); 6.7(.=
P + 6^ + 125
1-6
P + 9= + 125
1-9
6= + 7= + 125
6-7
= 27);
= 23);
-)•

212
Equations Having Integer Solutions
This yields the following solution arrays:
, 15,001, 126, 1, 1, 126, 15,001, •••;
, 4094, 63, 2, 129, 8383, ■■•;
, 1889, 42, 1, 3, 134, 6027, •••;
, 15,261, 566, 21, 1, 6, 161, 4341, •■■;
, 10,826, 449, 18, 1, 7, 174, 4343, •••;
, 7369, 321, 14, 1, 9, 206, 4729, •■•;
, 22,658, 987, 43, 2, 3, 67, 1538, •••;
, 2501, 522, 109, 23, 6, 7, 29, 138, 661, 3167, •••.
All possible pairs of relatively prime positive integers x,y, less
than 1000, such that x^ + 125 is divisible by y and y'^ + 125 is
divisible by X, are given by the following tables.
126
1
63
1
2
42
1
3
566
21
1
6
1
1
1
2
129
1
3
134
21
1
6
161
449
18
1
7
321
14
1
9
987
43
2
3
18
1
7
174
14
1
9
206
43
2
3
67
522
109
23
6
7
29
138
109
23
6
7
29
138
661
120. The problem gives rise to the following system of equations
to be solved in integers (where x, y, z, u are the integers sought);
x^ + >- + 2 + M = (x + t;)S
^-^ + X + 2 + M = (>- + t<;)\
2= + X + >- + M = (2 + 0' ,
M^ + X + >> + 2 = (m + S)^
or.
>> + 2 + M = 2VX + V^ ,
X + z + u = 2wy + w' ,
x + y + u = 2tz + t\
z + y + z = 2su + s'.
(i)

Solutions {120) 213
If we add the equations of (i), we obtain
(2y - 3)x + (2m; - 'S)y + (2< - 3)2 + (2s - 3)m
+ y^+ zf^ + r+ s^ = 0. (2)
Note that in equation (2) at least one of the numbers 2v — Z,2w — 3,
2< — 3, 2s - 3 is negative; otherwise there would be on the left of
the equation the sum of positive integers. Let us assume that
2t; — 3 < 0; This is possible only if t; = 0 or t; = 1. In the first
event, the first equation of system (i) yields y + z + u — 0, which is
untenable for y, z, u all positive. Hence it must be assumed that all
the integers v,w,t,s are positive, and that v ~ \. In this event
equation (2) can be rewritten in the form
X = {2iv - 3)j' + {2t - 3)2 + (2s - 3)u + tv' + t' + s' + I . (3)
We now consider the several possibilities.
The numbers x,y,z,u are all distinct. Here, the integers v,iv,t,s
are also all different; if, for example, v = w, the difference of the
first two of the equations (1) yields y — x = 2v{x — y), which is
impossible for positive v and x ^ y. Further, if we assume v = 1, the
first of equations (i) yields 2x = y + z + u — 1,
1,1,1 1
which is inconsistent with equation (3), where the coefficients of y,
z,u in the right member are positive integers (since w, <, or s cannot
be equal to 1 because they are distinct from v which is equal to 1).
Therefore, this case is not possible.
Precisely tivo of the integers x, y, z, u are equal. Here we must
separately investigate two cases.
If 2 = M, then t = s. Equation (3) and the first of equations (i)
now yield:
X = {2iv - 3)y + 2{2t - 3)z + w^ + 2F + 1 ;
2x = >- + 22 - 1 .
As before, these equations are inconsistent.
U X =^ y, then u> = v = 1. Equation (2) and the first of equations
(i) yield, respectively,
2x = {2t - 3)2 + (2s -3)u + t^ + s^ +2;
X = Z + U — 1 .

214 Equations Having Integer Solutions
Substituting the second equality in the first, we have
{2t - 5)2 + (2s - 5)m + <= + s= + 4 = 0 , (4)
from which it follows that at least one of the two members 2t — 5
or 2s — 5 must be negative. Assume 2t — 5 < 0; since t > 0 and t + 1
(for V = \, t + V, since z =t^ x), it follows that t = 2. Now, if twice
the first of equations (i) is added to the third equation, we obtain
42 + 4x + 6 = 4x + 22 + 3m ,
3
that is, 2 = —M — 3. Substituting this into equation (4), along with
< = 2, we have
(4s - 13)m + 2s= + 22 = 0 .
Clearly, 4s — 13 < 0. Since s > 0, s ^t 1, s ^t 2, we must have s = 3.
If these values are now substituted into equations (i), there results
a system of three linear equations in three unknowns:
x + 2+M = 2s + l,
2x + M = 42 + 4 ,
2x + 2 = 6m + 9 .
We easily find that x{= y) = 96, 2 = 57, m = 40.
The integers x,y,z,u are two pairs of equal numbers. Assume that
X — y and z = u. In this event, the first of equations (i) yields x =
2z — 1; if this is substituted in (2), we obtain
x={2t -3)z + t' + 1 ,
and so
{2t-5)z + t^ + 2 = 0 .
It follows that 2t -5 < 0, and since t > 0, t =^ I, we have t = 2.
Equations (i) may now be written
X + 2z = 2x + 1 ,
2x + 5=4z + 4 ,
whence x{= y) = 11, z{= u) = 6.
Three of the integers x, y, 2, u are equal. It is necessary to consider
two cases.
If >- = 2 = M, then equations (3) and the first of equatians (i) take
on the form

Solutions (121-122) 215
X = 3{2w - 3)y + 3m;= + 1 ;
2x = 3y -1 ,
and these, clearly, are inconsistent.
If X = >> = 2, then the first of equations (i) is
2x + u = 2x + 1 ,
from which we find u = 1. The last of equations (i) becomes
3x = 2su + s= = 2s + s=;
^ _ s{s + 2)
3 ■
But X must be an integer; hence either s or s + 2 must be divisible
by 3. That is, s = 3k, x = k{3k + 2), or s = 3k-2, x = {3k - 2)k.
Here k is an arbitrary integer.
All the numbers x,y,z,u are the same. In this case, the first of
equations (i) yields 3x = 2x + 1, x = 1. Hence we have the following
solutions for the problem:
x = y—%, 2 = 57, M = 40; x == y = W , z = u = 6 ;
x—y — z — k{3k ±2), M = l; x=^y=z = u=l.
121. Let X and y be the numbers sought:
X + y = xy ,
or,
xy-x-y+l = l,
{x - l){y - 1) = 1 .
Since 1 may be expressed as the product of two whole numbers
in only two ways, we must have
x-l = l, >'-l = l;
that is, X = 2, y =^ 2, or else,
x-1 = -1, ^--l^ -1 ;
that is, X = 0, y = 0.
122. We shall show, first, that at least one of the jxisitive integers
x,>',2the sum of whose reciprocals is equal to 1, must be less than
4. In the equation

216 Equations Having Integer Solutions
111,
— + — +— = 1 ,
X y z
if all of the integers x, y, and z exceed 4, then the sum — + — + —
1113 X y z
must be ^ — + — + —- = —-. Assuming now that x ^ y ^ z, we
4 4 4 4
have at most two possible values for x: x = 2 or x = 3 (clearly,
X > 1). These two possibilities will be considered separately.
li X = 2, then — + — = 1 = -—. If we use a common de-
y z X 2
nominator for — + -rr — 0, we find the following necessary
y z 2
condition:
yz-2y -2z = 0 ,
yz-2y-2z + 4==4,
or,
{y - 2){z - 2) = 4 .
Since y and z must exceed 1, neither y — 2 nor 2 — 2 can be
negative, and only the following cases are possible:
>'-2 = 2, 2-2=2; ^=4,2=^:4.
>'-2 = l, 2-2 = 4; y = 3, >-= 6 .
If X = 3 , then — + — = 1 = -^, or
y z X S
2yz — 3y — 3z = 0 ,
4yz~6y~6z + 9 = 9,
{2y - 3)(22 - 3) = 9 .
Since >" ^ x = 3,2y — 3 ^3, and 22 — 3 ^ 3, there is only one possibility:
2>'-3 = 3, 22-3 = 3; y = 3, 2 = 3.
Therefore, all solutions of the problem are given by the equations
111,
2 + 3 + 6 '
111,
y + T + y = ^-

Solutions {123) 217
123. (a) If — + — = —, then we must have as a necessary con-
X V a
dition
or,
ax + ay = xy ,
xy — ax — ay + a^ = a^ ,
(x — a){y — a) = a'- .
The last equation has 2/t — 1 solutions, where ix is the number of
divisors of the integer a^ (including 1 and a^ as divisors). To obtain
all of these solutions, we may write the 2n possible systems of form
a^ a^
X — a = d, y — a = ^- and x — a = ~d, y — a = (where rf is a
a a
divisor of a^), and discard the system x — a — —a, y — a = —a, which
leads to the unsatisfactory result x = y = 0.
U a = 14, then a' = 196, and the divisors of a^ = 196 are
1, 2, 4, 7, 14, 28, 49, 98, 196.
We obtain the following seventeen solutions to the problem, which
correspond to the above.
X y
15 210
16 112
18 63
21 42
28 28
42 21
63 18
112 16
210 15
(b) The given equation may be converted, as in the solution
to problem (a) to the form
{x-z){y-z) = z'. (J)
Let t represent the greatest common divisor of the integers x, y, and
z; that is, x = x,t, y = ^-i^, z = z,t, whence x,, y,, and z, are a
relatively prime set (that is, there is no nontrivial divisor for all three).
Further, let us designate by m the greatest common divisor of the
integers x, and z,, and by n the greatest common divisor of ^-i and
13
12
10
7
-14
-35
-84
-182
-182
-84
-35
-14
7
10
12
13

218 Equations Having Integer Solutions
Zt. That is, we write x, = mxi, z, = mzi; y, = nyi, Zi = nzi, where
xi and 22, yi and Zi are relatively prime. The integers m and n are
relatively prime, since Xi,y,, and 2i have no common divisor. Since
Zi is divisible both by m and by «, we may write Zi = w«/>.
If we now substitute into the basic equation (i ) x = mxit, y = ny^t,
z = mnpt, and divide by mnt', we obtain
{Xi — np){yi — mp) = w«/>^ . (2)
But Xi is relatively prime to p, for w is the greatest common
divisor of the numbers Xi = mx^ and 2i = w«/>; analogously, yi and
/> are relatively prime. Ujxin expanding the left member of (2), we
see that x^y^ = x^mp + yinp is divisible by />. It follows that /> = 1,
and the equation takes on the form
(xj — n){yi — m) — mn .
Now Xa is relatively prime to n, for the three integers x, = mxi,
yv = nyi, and z, = w« are relatively prime. Consequently, x^ — n is
relatively prime to n, whence yi — m is divisible by n. Analogously,
Xi — n is divisible by m. Thus, Xi — n = ±m, y^ — m = ±«; x^ =
±yi — ±m + n. Therefore,
X = m(m + n)t ,
y = ±n{m + n)t ,
z = mnt ,
where m, n, t are arbitrary integers.
124. (a) It is readily reasoned from the equation x" = y^ that the
prime divisors of x and y must be the same:
x = pVp''---p7;
y=P^'P^^---Pt'>
where Pu pi, •■•, Pk are prime numbers. In view of this, and the
equation, we have
a:,y = |3,x, aty = jSaX, • • •, a^y = &kX .
We shall assume y > x. It follows that
or, < |3,, oTj < jSj, •••, oTi < |3i .
Consequently, y is divisible by x, or y = kx, for some integer k. We
may rewrite our equation as

Solutions {124) 219
x*' = {kxy.
If we take the xth root on both sides, we obtain x'' = kx, or x*"' = k.
Since y > x, then ^ > 1, which implies x > \. But 2^'' =2, and for
^ > 2 we always have x*"' > ^. In fact, if ^ > 2 and x S 2, then
x'-' ^ 2'-' > /fe ,
since already 2'-' > 3; and ior k = 2, x > 2,
x'-' = X > 2 = /fe .
Therefore, the only solution of the problem, in positive integers, is
x = 2, k =2, y = kx = A.
(b) We shall designate the ratio — by k, whence y = kx. If
X
we substitute this for y in the equation, we obtain
x'" = (kx)' ,
or, taking the xth root on each side and then dividing by x, we
obtain
x'-' = k ,
from which we obtain
x = k''"'-'' ,
V = kk''"'~" = /feW-"
Write the rational number as a fraction — in lowest terms.
^ - 1 q
Substituting this expression for into the formula, we have
k — 1
" ^ P • ' ^^ P - P • k-l- q •
X
(^r. '<^r
Since p and q are relatively prime, in order for x and y to be
rational numbers we must be able to extract the ^th roots of p and
oi p + q. But since, for q '^2 and p = n", we have the following
inequality
««</> + ^ <(« + 1)« = «« + />««-' + ^^~ n"-^ + •■■ ,
we must conclude that ^ = 1 is necessary.

220 Equations Having Integer Solutions
Therefore, all positive rational numbers satisfying the given
equation are given by the formula
where p is an arbitrary integer other than 0 or 1.
125. Let n be the number of eighth-grade students who participated,
and let m be the number of points assumed by each of them. The
total number of points won in the tournament is then nm + 8. This
number clearly is also equal to the number of games played. Since
there were, altogether, « + 2 players in the tournament, and each
played (« + 1) games (one with each remaining player), there was a
total of ^^ games played (two players to each game,
hence we divide by 2). Therefore, we have
mn + 8=^» + ^f + '\
or, after simplification,
«(« + 3 — 2m) = 14 .
Now, n is an integer, as is the number in parentheses (since m is
either an integer or a fraction having denominator 2).
Since n must divide 14, n can be only one of the numbers 1, 2, 7,
or 14. We must discard the possibilities « = 1 and « = 2, since in
either of these cases the total number of participants could not have
exceeded 4 and the two seventh graders could not have amassed as
many as 8 points.
There remain the possibilities « = 7 and « = 14. If « = 7, then
7(7 + 3 - 2m) = 14; m = 4. If n = 14, then 14(14 + 3 - 2m) = 14;
m = 8. Hence, there are two answers: « = 7 and n = 14.
126. Let n be the number of ninth graders who participated, and
let m be the number of points won by them. Then there were 10«
9
tenth-grade students, and they won a total of —m points. In all,
2 11
then, there were 11« participants in the tournament, and —m points
were won.
The total number of points won is, clearly, equal to the number
of games played. But since each of the 11« players played each other
once, there was a total of ^— games played, and so we have
the equation:

Solutions (125-127) 221
11 11«(11 - 1)
2 2
and thus,
m = «(11« — 1) .
But each ninth-grade student played 11« — 1 games (since there
were 11« participants in all), and the n ninth-grade players could
have amassed «(11« — 1) jxiints only in the event that each of them
won every game he played. But this is jxissible only if there were
just one ninth-grader playing; that is, necessarily, « = 1. Therefore,
since this is a jxissible solution, one ninth-grade student participated
and he won ten jxiints.
127. The conditions of the problem are (using Heron's formula for
the area of a triangle in terms of the lengths of the sides)
Vpip - a){p - b){p - c) = 2/. ,
where a, b, and c are jxisitive integers, and p = ^ . Let
p — a — X, p ~ b = y, and p — c = z. Then the above equation
becomes
Vix ^y ^ z)xyz = 2{x + y + z) ,
or, ujx)n squaring both sides and simplifying,
xyz = 4(x + V + 2) .
Here, x,y, and z are all integers, or else all of them are fractions
with denominator 2 (depending ujxin whether p is integral or not),
that is, all are half of odd integers. In the latter case, however,
the left member of the equation is actually a fraction and the right
member is an integer. Hence, x,y, and z are necessarily integers.
Let us assume that x'^ y ^ z. The equation yields
Ay + Az .
yz-A '
consequently,
^y±^^y.
yz — A
We multiply this inequality by yz — 4 (it is clear that yz — A > Q,

222 Equations Having Integer Solutions
since otherwise x would be negative) and investigate the resulting
inequality in y:
that is,
(y -y,){y -y,)£0,
where y, and yz are the roots of the quadratic equation in y, zy' —
8y — 4z = 0 (z being assumed fixed):
^ _ 4 + 1/16 + 4z'
z
^ __ 4 - -t/16 + 4z'
y2 .
z
However, yi is clearly negative here, which means that y — y2 > 0
{y itself being positive). Consequently, a necessary condition for
validity of inequality (i) is that
y-y,^0,
J, < 4 + V16 + 4Z'
z
Hence, we must have yz ^ 4 + l/lS + 4z^ , which implies 2^ — 4 ^
1/16 + 4z^ (for z ^ y). Squaring both members of this last inequality,
we obtain
z* - 82= + 16 g 16 + 42= ;
2* g: 122= ,
which can hold only for 2^3.
We shall consider the three possibilities.
(1) 2= l,^g 4 + 1/16 + 4 Q.
^ _ 4>' + 42 _ 4>' + 4
>'2 — 4 y — 4 '
We will obtain a positive integer for x only in the following cases
(for y < 9):
y = 5 (here, a: = 24) ,
y = 6 (here, ^ = 14) ,
y = 8 (here, x = 9) .

Solutions {128) 223
(2) z = 2,y^i±y^I±l<^;
^ 4y + 4z _ 4>' + 8 _ 2y + 4
yz-4~2y-4~'y-2'
This produces the integral x only if >> = 3 (yielding x = 10) or >> = 4
(yielding x = 6),
(3) z = 3,y = i±J^^T±l^4_ po, ^^^^3^ ^ = iy±J±.
3 yz — 4
will fail to be integer.
These possibilities yield the following five solutions of the problem.
X
24
14
9
10
6
y
5
6
8
3
4
z
1
1
1
2
2
X + y + z
30
21
18
15
12
^
a
6
7
9
5
6
6
25
15
10
12
8
c
29
20
17
13
10
128. (a) The problem clearly involves the solution, in integers,
of the equation
x^ + jy^ = 2^ .
If t is the greatest common divisor of x,y, and z, we may factor
out t^ from both sides of the equation to obtain an equivalent equation
(having the same solution triples x,y, z); hence, we shall assume from
the beginning that there is no common divisor for x,y,z. This will
imply that each pair of integers is relatively prime, since if two of
the integers have a common divisor, that number must also divide
the remaining integer.
Since now x, y, z are assumed to be relatively prime, it follows
that at most one of these unknowns can be even; if two them, for
example, are even, then the third must be even, and hence they
would not be relatively prime. Further, if x and y are both odd,
say X = 2^ + 1 and y = 21 + 1, we must have
x^ + y^ = {2k + lY + {21 + 1)= = 2[2(/fe= + /^ + /fe + /) + 1] .
Now, the square of the integer z is odd if z is odd, or divisible by
4 if 2 is even. Since the expression on the right for x^ + y'^ is not
divisible by 4, we must conclude that x^ + y"^ must be an odd number,
and so one of the integers x,y is even and the other odd; also z is
odd. We may, with generality, assume that x = 2xi is even.

224 Equations Having Integer Solutions
The equation may now be written in the form
(2a:, )^ --z'-y' ,
or,
„2_ z + y
Let —-^^ = u and ——^ = v; then z — u -\- v and y = u — v. The
integers u and v (recall that z and y are both odd) must be relatively
prime (otherwise z and y would not be relatively prime). Hence
since their product is a perfect square, each of them is a perfect
square; that is, u = a^ and v = b^ for some integers a and b. Finally,
we have
z = u + v = a^ + b^,
y = u — V = a^ — b^ ,
Xi = 'x/uti = ab ,
or, if now we relieve the condition that x, y, z be relatively prime
X = 2tab ,
V = t(a' - b') ,
z = t{a' + b'),
where a and b arbitrary relatively prime integers, a > b, and t is an
arbitrary integer.
These formulas yield all solutions of the problem.
(b) We shall designate the sides of the triangle by x, y, and
z {z being the side opposite the 60° angle). Using the law of cosines
from trigonometry, we have z' = x' + y^ — xy.
We must solve this equation in integers. It is convenient to use
a rather indirect method; we can put the equation into the format
[42 + {x+ y)Y = [22 + 2{x + v)]^ + [3{x - y)Y ,
or,
2(;2 = u'^ -\- v'^ ,
where m = 22 + 2(a: + y), v -2>{x — y), and it; = 42 + (a: + v). Now the
result of problem (a) can be used to obtain
II = 2tab ,
V = t{a^ - b') ,
w = t(a' + b') ,

Solutions {128) 225
where a and b are some relatively prime numbers and t is an arbitrary
integer.
Therefore, we obtain
42 + (a: + >-) = /(fl^ + b^) ,
22 + 2{x + >-) = 2tab ,
3{x -y) = t{a^ - b') .
Solution of this system of equations in three unknowns yields
62 = 2t(a' + b') - 2tab ,
3{x + y) = Atab - t{a^ + b^) ,
3{x -y) = t{a' - b') ,
and finally,
X = ^tb(2a - b) ,
y = -jta(2b - a) ,
2 = i-/(a2 + b' -ab) .
In order for the values of x, y, and 2 in these equations to be integers,
it is necessary that at least one of the numbers, t or a + 6, be divisible
by 3. [If t = 3/1, then the equations may be expressed in the form
X = /,6(2a - b) ,
y = t,a{2b - a) ,
2 = tia" +b' - ab) .
If a + 6 is divisible by 3, then either a = 3a, + 1, 6 = 36, + 2, and
X = t{3b, + 2)(2a. - 6,) ,
>' = /(3a.+1)(26,-a.+ 1),
2 = /(3a? + 36? - 3a,6, + 36, + 1) ,
or else a = 3ai + 2, 6 = 36, + 1, and
X = /(36, + l)(2a, - 6, + 1) ,
y = «3a. + 2)(26, - a,) ,
2 = /(3a? + 36? - 3a,6, + 3a, + 1) .1
If the equations we obtain are to be meaningful, it is necessary

226 Equations Having Integer Solutions
that 2a > b and 2b > a; that is, -^ < b < 2a. In order for these
conditions to hold, the largest of the three numbers x,y,z (if a > b,
the largest will be the number x) will be less than the sum of the
other two. That is, it will be possible to construct the triangle
using segments of lengths x,y, and z.
(c) Using the law of cosines, we have
z^ = x^ + y^ + xy ,
where z is the side of the triangle opposite the 120° angle and x and
V are the remaining sides.
This relationship can be rewritten in the form
[42 + (x- y)Y = [22 + 2ix - y)Y + [3{.x + y)V .
As in problem (b), we find
X = l-ta(a - 2b) ,
V = l-tbi2a - b) ,
z = -L^(a2 + bi - ab) ,
where a and b are relatively prime numbers such that a > 2b and at
least one of the integers / or a + 6 is divisible by 3.
129. In the triangle ABC (whose sides are a, b, c and whose opposite
angles are, respectively, A,B,C) suppose that B = nA. Then C =
180° — (w + l)A, and, consequently, by the law of sines,
b sinnA
(a) n
we have
a
c
a
2. Since
sin 2 A =
sin 3y4 =
b_
a
sin A '
sin (w + \)A
sin A
2six\ A cos A ,
■ 4 cos^ As\v\ A -
= 2 cos A ,
- sin >1 ,

Solutions {129) 227
— = {2cos AY-\ . (1)
a
But 2cosy4= \ ^, and so in the integral triangle 2co%A
be p
will always be rational. Let 2 cos A = ■^—, where p and q are inte-
Q
gers. Then, by (i), we have
a:b:c = q':pq:ip'-g').
If p and q are relatively prime, then the three integers q^, pq, and
p^ — q^ do not have any common divisor other than 1. It follows
that in all triangles satisfying the given condition B = 2A and having
least integral sides (not having a common divisor) the lengths of the
sides are expressible by the formulas
a = q^ ,
b = pq ,
c = p'-q\
where p and q are relatively prime integers.
In order actually to determine the triangle, where B = 2A, the
numbers p and q must satisfy the following condition: the angle A =
arccos -^ must be such that 0 < >1 < 60° (A must be less than 60°,
2q ^
since A + B + C = ?,A + C = 180°). Since cos 0 = 1 and cos 60° = -^,
p 2
this condition can be rewritten as 2 > ^*- > 1. The least integers p
Q
and q satisfying this condition are /> = 3, ^ = 2. It follows that the
smallest triangle with integral sides satisfying the condition B =^2A
will be the one having sides a = 4, 6 = 6, c = 5.
We proceed now to problems (b) and (c). Here it will be necessary
to use trigonometric functions of A to express sin5>l, sin6>l, and
s\x\lA. Successive applications of the identity involving the sine of
the sum of angles [or using the general formula of problem 222 (b)
given in the "Problems" section] yields the following identities:
sin 5A = (2 cos AY sin A — 3(2 cos Af sin >1 + sin >! ,
sin &A = [(2 cos AY - 1][(2 cos AY - 3]2 cos A^mA,
sin 7 A = [(2 cos AY - 2][(2 cos AY - 3]4 cos^ Asm A- sin A .
The calculations are then carried out exactly as in problem (a).

228 Equations Having Integer Solutions
Assume that 2 cos A = (plq), where p and q are relatively prime
integers; It follows from the identities for sin5 >1, sin6>l, and sin
7 A that triangles with integral (nonreducible) sides whose angles
satisfy the condition B=nA, where w = 5 or 6, have sides satisfying
the following formulas:
(b) For w = 5,
a = q' ,
b = q{p*-3p'q' + q'),
c = p{p'- q')iP' - V);
(c) For w = 6,
a = ^ .
b = pqiP' - q'){p' - 3q') ,
c = p'ip' - 2q')(p' - 3q') - q" .
(Here, p and q are relatively prime integers.)
In order that a triangle be actually determined by these numbers,
and where B = nA, the integers p and q must be such that:
(b') For « = 5,
0 < arccos-^ < 30» ,
2q
(c') For w = 6,
0 < arc cos ^ < -^ ^ 25°43' .
2q 7
Since cos 30° = -5—^, the integers p and q, for w = 5, must satisfy
the condition 2 > ^ >l/T = 1.732 • • • . The least integers p and
q which satisfy this condition are /> = 7 and q = 4 {q cannot be less
than 4 because — differs from a whole number by less than —-).
q 3
Therefore, the smallest triangle with integral sides, in which B=
5A, will be the triangle with sides
a = 1024 ,
b = 1220 ,
c = 231 .
For w = 6, the integers p and q must satisfy the condition
2>±>2cosir.

Solutions (130) 229
We find from tables that
2 cos i~ ~ 2 cos 25°43' == 1.802 .
Therefore, we find that, necessarily, 2 > -2- > 1.802. The least in-
Q
tegers p and q satisfying this condition are q = 6,p = II.
Substituting these values for p and q in the formulas, we find that the
smallest triangle with integral sides, in which B = 6A, will be the
triangle with sides
a = 46,656 ,
b = 72,930 ,
c = 30,421 .
130. Given a right triangle with integral sides x^ and y and
with hypotenuse z, where z also is an integer. It is readily
reasoned that x^,y^, and z are relatively prime, and so
x^ = 2ab ,
y^ = a' - b\
z = a' + b' ,
where a and b are relatively prime numbers, and a > 6 [see the
solution of problem 128(a)]. The second of these equations can be
rewritten as
a^ = b^ + y^ ,
whence a, b, and y can be expressed by means of the formulas
b = 2tu ,
y = t'-u',
a = t' + u',
where t and u are relatively prime integers [again using the results
of problem 128 (a)]. We obtain
x^ = 2{t^ + u^)2tu;
(^-^y = tuit' + u').
But t and u are relatively prime, which means that they are also
relatively prime to t^ + u^; consequently, since the product tu{t^ + u^)

230 Evaluating Sums and Products
is to be a perfect square, each of the factors must separately be
perfect squares:
t = xU
t' + u' = zl.
The last equation says that the under the initial assumption there
exists a right-angle triangle with sides t = xl and u = y^ and
hypotenuse 2i, where Xi,yi, and Zi are again positive integers and, of
particular importance, z, < 2[since, further, z*\ = {t^ + u^Y=a^<a^+b^=z].
Hence, if there exists any right-angle triangle each of whose legs
are squares of integers, and whose hypotenuse is an integer, then
there exists another such triangle which has a smaller hypotenuse.
Employing the same reasoning we can construct a succession of these
triangles with decreasing hypotenuse. Since all such hypotenuse
lengths are integral, we must arrive at a triangle whose hypotenuse
is of length 1. But this is a contradiction since 1 cannot be a sum
of squares of two positive integers.
131. We shall designate the left member of the equation by A
and the right member by B. Then A = B follows from:
nlA = 1-2-3--- n-A = (2«)! ,
«!-B = (2'*-«!)-[l-3-5 ■•• (2«- 1)]
= (2-4-6 ■ • • 2«)-[l-3 ■ • • (2« - 1)] = (2«)! .
132. (a) If we employ the identity
1 1 1
we obtain
*(* + 1) k k + l '
J- = l-J-
1-2 2 '
J_^ J 1_
2-3 2 3 '
11 1
3-4 3 4 '
1 1 1
(w — l)w w — 1 n '
Adding together all these equations, we obtain

Solutions (131-132)
(b)
1-2 2-3
Using the identity
1
*(* + !)(*+ 2)
, 1
+ (»-
If 1
_ 1
1)« ^
1
n
1
2L*(* + 1) (*+!)(*+2)
(which can be readily verified), we obtain
1
1-2-3
1
2-3-4
2Vl-2
= '(' -
2V2-3
2-3/' '
3-4/' '
231
3
1
•4-5 2V3-4 4-5/'
2L(«-2)(«-l) («-l)nJ
in - 2)(« - 1)m
Adding together all these equations, we obtain
1-2-3 2-3-4 3-4-5 (« - 2)(« - l)n
= -Lr-L L_].
2 L 2 (n - 1)mJ
(c) We use the identity (whose validity is readily established):
3L*(* + l)(* + 2) .(k + l){k + 2)ik + 3)\'
k{k + l)(*+2)(*+3)
This yields
2-3-4 3V1-2-3 2-3-4/''
3-4-5 3V2-3-4 3-4-5/'
i-4-5-6 3V3-4-5 4-5-6/'
1-2-3-4
1
2-3-
3^
1
(«- 3)(« -2)(«- 1)«
3 L («— 3)(« - 2)(« - 1) (« - 2)(m - 1)«J ■

232 Evaluating Sums and Products
Adding together these equations, we obtain
1-2-3-4 2-3-4-5 3-4-5-6 (« - 3)(« - 2)(« - 1)«
= ±[1- 1 1
3L6 (« - 2)(« - 1)«J ■
Remarks: If we "guess at" the results we expect to obtain (which is often
quite feasible, if we try a few small values for to), we can often prove the
general validity of a formula by using mathematical induction (see, for
example, the solution of problem 133).
It is possible to prove, also, that in general
1-2-3.--P 2-3-4---(p + 1)
1
'*'■"■ """(to -p+ 1)(to - p + 2)(to-p + 3)---to
=-^r—I I 1
p- lLl-2-3---(p- 1) (to -p + 2))(to -p + 3)(to-p + 4) ---to J
[the proof being analogous to that of problems (a-dash)].
133. These identities are most conveniently proved by
mathematical induction. We leave the verification of (a) and (b) to the reader,
but we give here the proof of the more general equation (c) of which
(a) and (b) are merely special cases.
The equation is valid for w = 1, since
1 9 T f, 1-2-3--/>(/> + !)
Assume now that the equation is valid for some n:
1-2-3 ■■■ p + ■ •• + n(n + 1) • ■ ■ (w + /> - 1) = f"—q •
p + 1
Then we have
1-2-3-- p + 2-3 ■■■ Pip + 1)
+ • • ■ + n{n + 1) • • ■ (w + /) - 1) + (w + 1) • ■ ■ (w + /> - 1)(m + P)
/> + 1
_nin + l)---{n+p) + (p + Din + I) ■ ■ ■ (n + p)
P + l

olutions (133-134) 233
_(w + l)---(w +p)in + p + l)
P + l
By mathematical induction we conclude that the equation holds
for all n.
134. First Solution, (a) We write the sequence of equations
P = P ,
2» = (1 + 1)» = P + 3-P + 3-1 + 1 ,
3» = (2 + ly = 2' + 3-22 + 3-2 + 1 ,
4' = (3 + ly = 3' + 3-3^ + 3-3 + 1 ,
(n + ly = n' +3n^ + 3n + 1 .
Adding all these equalities, and cancelling equal terms on both sides,
we arrive at
(n + ly = P + 3(P + 2^ + 3^ + • • ■ + w^)
+ 3(1 +2 + 3+ ■••+«) + « .
It follows that
p _,_ 22 -I- 32 _,_..._,_ „2
_ (w + 1)^ - 1 - 3(1 + 2 + 3 + • • • + w) - w
3
2n' + 6w' + 6w - 3w' - 3w - 2w w(2w' + 3w + 1)
6 ~ 6
n(n + l)(2w + 1)
6
(b) We write the sequence of equations:
P = P,
2* = (1 + 1)* = P + 4-P + 6-P + 4-1 + 1 ,
3* = (2 + ly = 2* + 4-2^ + 6-2^ + 4-2 + 1 ,
4* = (3 + ly = 3' + 4-3» + 6-3^ + 4-3 + 1 ,
(n + ly = n* + 4-n' + 6-w^ + 4-w + 1 .
Adding all of these equalities, and cancelling equal terms on both
sides, we obtain

234 Evaluating Sums and Products
(n + ly = 1* + 4(P + 2' + ■■■ +n')
+ 6(P + 2^ +•••+ «^) + 4(1 + 2 +•■•+«) + « .
We now use the result of problem (a) to obtain
V + 2' + ■■■ +n'
= ||-(„ + ly - 1 - Qn(n + mn+l)_ ^nin + l)_ ^J
= y{[(« + ly - !]■[(« + D' +1] -«(«+1)(2« +1)
- 2n{n + !)-«}
= 4[(« + 2)(«^ + 2« + 2) - (« + 1)(2« + 1) - 2(« + 1) - 1]
4
= -?-[(« + 1)(«^ + 2« + 2 - 2« - 1 - 2) + («^ + 2« + 2 - 1)]
4
= «(ZL±i)[(„. -!) + („+ 1)] = »'(» + !)'
4 4
(c) Proceeding as in problems (a) and (b), and using the
expansion (k + 1)» = *» + 5*' + 10*' + 10*2 _|_ 5yfe _l_ 1^ we obtain
(« + 1)» = P + 5 (1« + 2' + • • • • + «•)
+ 10(P + 2' +•••+«') + 10(P + 2' + • • • + «2)
+ 5(1 + 2 +•••+«) + « ,
from which we find, using the formulas from problems (a) and (b),
14. 94. . ... ... «(« + l)(2« + l)(3«' + 3«-l)
(d) We write
S, = P + 2' + 3^ + • • • + «' = "'^" + ^^'
4
[see problem (b)]. We then obtain
P + 3' + 5' + • • • + (2« - 3)' + (2« - D'
= [P + 2' + • • • + {2ny] - 2ni' + 2' + • • • + n']
" " 4 4
= n%2n + ly - 2«2 (« + 1)' = «'[(2« + 1)^ - 2(« + 1)^
= w»(4w2 + 4w + 1 - 2w2 - 4w - 2) = n\2n^ - 1) .

Solutions (134)
Second Solution, (a) Consider the following table.
1st row
2nd row
3rd row
235
*th row
«th row
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
k
k
k
k
The sum of all the integers of any row is equal to 1+2+3 \-n
that is, -^—- , and so the sum of all the integers of the table is
n(n + 1)
equal to n
Now let us sum up the numbers within any
region bounded by lines. For the region bounded by the ifeth row
and ifeth column we have the sum
1 +2+ ••■ +(*-l) + *-*
2 +* ~ 2* 2*-
Summing up all the regions in this way, we obtain
3
(12 _,_ 2^ _,_..._,_ „2)
1(1 + 2+...+„)=«!(^
from which we obtain
2r«'(« + 1) _L «(«_+ 1)1 _ njn + 1)(2« + 1)
P + 2^ +
^ 2r«'(« + i) , «(« +1)1 ^ «(«_
3L 2 4 J
(b) Consider the following table
1st row
2nd row
3rd row
*th row
«th row
P|
P
P
P
2'
2^
2^
2^
3^
3'
3^
3^
k'
k'
k"
k'
3^
k'
n^
n'
n^
n'
n'

236 Evaluating Sums and Products
The sum of all the integers of any one row of the table is
p _,_ 22 + 32 + . . . + „2 ^
that is, — -^ [see the solution of problem (a)]. Hence the
sum of all the integers of the table is equal to »'(" + ^X^^' + ^> .
6
However, the sum of the integers in the region bounded by the *th
row and ^th column is equal to
p + 2^ + •••+(*-1)= + k-k' = (^ - ly -1) + k'
b
This yields
4
3
(P
+
+ 2'
i»
+
+
2
• +
+ •
n') -
■■ +
1
2
«) =
(P + 2'
_ n^{n +
2*
+ ■••
1)(2«
6
+
+
+
1
6
n')
1)
i
k
from which, after some manipulation, and using the result of
problem (a), we obtain
4
(c) This problem can be solved in a method quite analogous to
that used in problems (a) and (b) by employing the integers P, 2%- • •«'.
It is left to the reader to carry out the details of the proof.
Remark: If we could "guess at" the results of problems 134 (a - d) by
considering small values of to, mathematical induction would serve to establish
the validity of the formulas.
135. If we add 1 to the left member of the given equation, we
can write
[(l+fl) + 6(l +fl)] +c{\ +fl)(l +b)
+ •■■ +/(! +fl)(l+6)---(l +k)
= [(1 +fl)(l+6)
+ d\ + a)(l + b)] + d{\ + a){l + b){\ + c)
+ ■■■ +/(l + fl)(l +b)---{\+k)
= [(l + fl)(l+6)(l + c)

Solutions (135-136) 237
+ d{l + fl)(l + 6)(1 +c)]+ ■■■ +1(1+ fl)(l + 6) • • • (1 + *)
= (1 +fl)(l + b){l + c)(l + d)
+ ••• +/(l+fl)(l+6)---(l +k)
= (l+fl)(l+6)(l+c) ■■■(! + /),
which proves the proposition.
U a = b = c ■ ■■ = I, then we have
a + a(l + a) + a(l + a)^ + a(l + a)'
+ • ■ • + a(l + a)"-' = (1 + a)" - 1 ,
where w is the number of integers a,b,c, •■•,/; writing I + a = x,
whence a = x — I, we have
(x - l){l + X + x^ + ■■■ + x"-') = a:" - 1 ,
which is the formula for the sum of a geometric progression.
136. (a) We add 1 to the sum we wish to determine, and we
obtain
(1! + M!) + 2-2! +3-3! + ■•• + n-n[
= (2! +2-2!)+ 3-3! + ••• +«•«!
= (3! +3-3!) + ••• + ww! =4! + ••■ + ww!
= (w! + ww!) = (« + 1)!;
therefore,
M! +2-2! +3-3! + ■•• + «•«! = (« + 1)! - 1 .
Remark: This result can be obtained from the formula of problem 135 by
sul)stituting o = 1, 6 = 2, c = 3, • • ■, J = to.
(b) We add to the summation under consideration the term
ci+i = 1. If we employ the fact that
we obtain
therefore,
(Cb+1 + Cb + i) + Cb+2 + Cb+3 + • • • + Cn+k
= (Cb + 2 + Cn+i) + Cb + 3 + • • ■ + Cn+i
= (Cb+3 + Cn+a) + • • ■ + Cn+i
= Cii + 4 + • • • + Cn+i = • • • = Cn+i + i;
Cb+1 + Cb+2 + Cb+3 + • • • + Cn+i = Cn+i+l ~ 1 .

238 Evaluating Sums and Products
Remark: This result can be obtained from the equation of problem 135 by
.... n + 1, n + 1 TO + 1 , n + 1
letting a =-p-. 6 =-^. c = ^-. ... J =-^ .
137. From the definition of a logarithm we obtain
= log„6 .
logi a
f In fact, if log6a = y, then b' = a, or a'/" = b, whence — = log^b.j
The equation can therefore be written in the form
log^2 + log^3 + ■ ■ • + log^lOO = logi.(2-3 • • • 100) ,
from which the desired conclusion immediately follows.
138. It will be shown by mathematical induction that the sum we
seek to determine is equal to ■ . First, the proposition is
flifla ■ ■ ■ a„
obviously valid for w = 1. Now, assume that the assertion is valid
for w - 1 positive integers, and consider the sum S of the given
fractions for n integers. From each of the w! terms of the sum S, we
can factor out the fraction , since this final factor
fli + 02 + ■ • ■ + a,
has as its denominator the sum of all the n positive integers (the
order of the addition being unimportant, since no integer is omitted).
Further, grouping in the parentheses separately the (w — 1)! terms
corresponding to those permutations of indices where the index 1 is
missing, the (w — 1)! terms corresponding to the permutations where
the index 2 is missing, and so on, we arrive at n separate sums, to
each of which we can apply the induction hypothesis, since each
comprises (w — 1) integers; for example, 02, Oa, •■■,an, or 01,03, ■■■,a„,
and so on.
Summing these, and using the induction hypothesis, we obtain
S = 1 f_J_ + ^ + ... + i )
fli + ... + a„ \a2a3 ■ ■ ■ a„ flifla ■ ■ ■ a„ 0.02 ■ • • a„-i /
^ 1 /a, +a2 + ... +a„\ ^ 1
ai + aa + ... + a„ \ a,a2 ■ ■ • a„ / aiai •. ■ a„
which is what we wished to show.
139. (a) Multiply the expression by 1 —5" to obtain

Solutions (137-140) 239
[M)(-i)](-l)(-ii)(-i)-(-ii^)
^[('-ir)(-ii)](-i)-(>-^)
Therefore
(-i)(>H)(-ii)-(-^)
_l-[l/(3'"^')]_3 A _ 1 \
l-(l/3) 2V 32n+i;-
(b) If we multiply by sin a, we obtain
(sin a cos a) cos 2a; cos 4a! ■ • • cos 2''a
= — (sin 2a! cos 2a!) cos 4a! ■ • • cos 2''a!
= — (sin 4a! cos 4a!) • ■ • cos 2''a!
4
1 • o» o» sin 2"+'a!
-—sin 2''a! cos 2''a! = ■
2" 2"+'
Therefore
sin 2"+'a!
cos oi cos 2a! cos 4a! ■ • • cos 2''a! =
2"+' sin a!
140. Since 2'" = 1024, we can write 2'»» = 1024'». Since 1000'» = 10",
which is the number with 1 as a first digit followed by 30 zeros, and
since 1024'" > 1000'», it follows that the number 2""> = 1024'» cannot
have fewer than 31 digits. However,
1024
1000
]i /1025v'^ /iiy
|'»'^U000/' \i0)
41
40
41
41 41
40 40
40 39
41 41 41 41 41 41 41
40 40 40 40 40 40 40
38 37 36 35 34 33 32
"^40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31

240
since
Evaluating Sums and Products
41 40 39
40 "^ 39 "^ 38
/41 , 1 40 , , 1 , \ „
(40= ^ + 40 = 39 = ^ + 39 = ^"^ ^ "")• """""'
2.00 = 1024'° < 10 • 1000'» ,
which implies that 2""° contains fewer than 32 digits. Therefore,
the integer 2""° contains exactly 31 digits.
Remark: This result is even more easily obtained by using logarithms.
Since log 2 = 0.30103, log 2'»» = 100 log 2= 30.103, and so 2'»» must have 31 digits.
But the technique used in solving this problem without using logarithms has
independent interest.
141. (a) First solution. We designate the product —
99 . 2 4
100 3 5
Since
2 14 3 6 5
3^2'5^4'7^6''
we have B > A. Now, clearly.
A-B- 1.2.3.4.5
2 3 4 5 6
It follows that
98 97 ,
■■'99^98'
6 98 99
7 99 100
3
4
6
7
99
100'
1
~ 100
5
6
98
99'
A' < AB =
100
whence ^ < -rx
Further,
B<2^ = |.|.|
since
^3 ±, 5_ 6_ X
3 4'56'7'^8
99
■ 100 '
98 99
'99'^ 100
Consequently,
A ^A > AB
—, which implies ^ > ^^^^
Second Solution. We write, as above.

Solutions {141)
1
2
Then,
A^
from which we obtain
V- 3^-1
22 42
< A'' < ^-!-
3 5
■ 4 ■ 6 ■
_ JL^ 32
22 ■ 42
5^- 1
6^
3^
^- A
■ ■ 100 ~ ^ •
5^ 99^
6^ 100^
99^- 1
100^
5^
»
99^
241
22 _ 1 42-1 6^-1 100^ - 1 ■
If we factor the factors of the numerator on the left and the
denominator on the right as differences of two squares, we obtain
1 2-4 4-6 98-100 ^, 1 3-3 5-5 99-99
< A^ <
2-2 4-4 6-6 100-100 -~ '' ^ 1.3 3.5 5.7 99.10I '
or, after simplification,
-1-<A^<-1--
200 101 '
lOi/T ^ ^ i/IoT ^ 10 '
which is what we set out to prove.
Remark: A more general relationship may be proved in exactly the same
way:
1 i 1. A 2w - 1 1
2Vn 2 4 6 2to i/2to
(b) We first show that if « > 1, then
13 5 2«-l 1
<
2 4 6 2« " V^n + 1 ■
This may be done conveniently by mathematical induction. If w = l,
we have
1 1
2 1/3 • 1 + 1 ■
Assume now that for some n
J_ _3_ _5_ 2w - 1 ^ _\
2 ' 4 " 6 " " 2w = l/3w + 1 ■
If both sides of this inequality are multiplied by-- —, it becomes
2w + 2

242 Evaluating Sums and Products
J_ A A 2« - 1 2« + 1 ^ 2« + 1
2 4 6 2« 2« + 2 = (2« + 2)-i/3« + 1 '
Now,
r 2« + 1 T
L(2«+2)i/3« + l J
(2« + D'
12w» + 28w2 + 20w + 4
. (2« + D'
■ {I2n' + 28n' + 19w + 4) + w
(2w + D' 1
(2w + lY{3n + 4) + w ^ 3w + 4 '
and it follows that
2« + 1 1
<
(2« + 2)v''3« + 1 ■" -i/3« + 4
Thus, we obtain
J_ _3_ _5_ 2« - 1 2w + 1 1
2 " 4 ■ 6 ■ ■ ■ 2« ■ 2« + 2 "^ l/3(« + 1) + 1 "
We conclude, by the principle of mathematical induction, that for
every n
13 5 2« - 1 ^ 1
2 4 6 2« =i/3« + 1 ■
(We note that equality holds only for w = 1.)
If now we let w = 50 in this last inequality, we find
1 3 5 99 _ 1 1 1
2 4 6 100 i/3 • 50 + 1 1/151 12.288.
which proves the assertion of the problem.
142. We start with
1 „5„ _ 1-2-3...100
1^^ inn —
2'°° ™~ 2=°(l-2-3...50)-2=°(l-2-3...50)
1-2-3...100 1-3-5...99
(2-4-6...100)-(2-4-6...100) 2-4-6... 100 '
and apply the results of problem 141 (a).
143. It suffices to determine which is the larger: 101" — 99" or 100".
Consider the relationship

Solutions (142-144) 243
101" - 99" (100 + D" - (100 - D"
100" ~ 100"
2(Ci-100"-' +CM00"-' + •••)
lOO"
njn - Din - 2)
= o (JL- , «(« - 1)(« - 2) \
UOO"^ 3!-100» + ■■■)
It is clear that the fraction on the left exceeds 1 if h ^ 50. We
show that this ratio exceeds 1 also for n — 49, We have
'Uoo
49 49-48-47 \ / 49 18,424\
1 An + 31.1003 + ■ ■ ■ j > '^ l^ 100 "•" 100" J
/49 100^ \ _
Uoo "•" loov ""
>2h7^ +
Now we show that if w = 48, the ratio under consideration is
smaller than 1:
/48 48-47 -46 48-47-46-45-44 \
UOO"*" 3!-100» "*" 5I-100' +---J
,ri8_
'Lioo
(l-2-3)-100» ' (l-2-3)(2-3)100»
"*" n .9.^^C9.'^^c9.^Mnn7 + ""' J
48^
(l-2-3)(2-3)(2-3)100'
r 48 1 / 48 Y 1 / 48 Y I
48
100 _ 9600 ^
1 _ J_/i8_V 9616 ^ •
6 I lOOJ
Clearly, now, the ratio is also less than 1 for all positive integers
less than 48.
Therefore, we finally obtain: 99" + 100" is greater than 101" if wg48
and is less than 101" if w > 48.
144. We first show that the product of n consecutive natural
numbers is greater than the nth power of the square root of the product
of the first and last of these numbers. Let the n integers be
a,a + l,---,a+w—1. Then the *th number from the beginning
will be a -\- k — \, and the *th number from the end will be a-\-n—k.
Their product is

244 Evaluating Sums and Products
(a + k- l)(a + n- k) = a^ + an- a + (,k- l)(n - k)
^a^ + an — a = a(a + n — I),
where the equality is obtained only for /fe = 1 or /fe = n. That is, the
product of two positive integers equidistant respectively from each
end of the sequence (for odd n, these two integers are taken to be
the common middle one) always exceeds the product of the two
extreme (first and last) integers. But then we have, for the product of
all the numbers,
a(a + 1) • • • (a + n - 1)
S [aia + n- l)]"' = [Vaia + n- 1)]-,
where the equality holds only if n = 1 or n = 2.
We shall show now that 300! > lOO"''. We have
1 •2-
26.-
bl ••
101 ••
201 ••
• • 25 > V'25" = 5";
• 50 > (1/26 • 50)" > 35";
• 100 > (i/bi . 100)»" >W;
■ 200 > v^lOO'»» • i/200'»» = 10"" • 2";
• 300 > v/200"'' • l/300'»» = 10"" • 2"
If we multiply together all the left members of these inequalities
and compare the result with the product of all the right members,
we obtain
300! > 5" • 35" • 70" • 10"» •2'»» • 3"
^ 550 . yss . 550 . j^^so . 10400 . 2'oo . 3*0
_ 10'°° • 7" ■ 14'° • 3'°
= 10"" • 21" • 42" • 14" > 10"" • 20" • 40" • 14"
_ 10550 . 225 . 425 . 1425 = 10550 . ^12"
= 10«''° • 1,12" > W" = lOO""" .
Remark. A more general result is shown in problem 148.
145. We first show that, for any natural number k ^ n,
1 +
n n^
We use mathematical induction. The proposition is obviously true
for k = I. Assume now that the proposition holds for a particular
value of k. We shall show that it then holds for k + I. We have

Solutions {145-148) 245
(-ir=(-^)'(-i)^-i)(-i)
WW n
We do not need here the fact that k ^ n, hence the inequality is
valid for any integral value of k. Assume now that k ■^ n. Then:
n n^ n' n^
k+ 1 (k + D'_ n(k + l)-k'
•^1 .. I .,2 ...1
<i+i±i + (^ii)!
since n(k + I) > k^ if n ^ k.
If we now substitute * = w in the inequality, we obtain
2 = 1 + —< 1 + —) <!+ — + —= 3.
146. In view of the result of the preceding problem, we have
/ 1 \ 1.000 000
(l.OOOOOD— = (l ^J^^^ > 2 .
147. It is clear that
(1000)'°°°" UOOO j ■ 1001 "V 1000 j ■ 1001 "^ 1001 "^
(see problem 145), and, consequently,
1000'°°° > lOOP" .
148. Assume that the given inequality is valid for some natural
number n. To prove it valid for w + 1, it suffices to establish the
validity of the following inequality:
/n + ly^' (n + ly"
(f) (f)"

246 Evaluating Sums and Products
Upon division by w + 1 these inequalities become
which follow from the inequalities 2^(1 H j < 3 .
It remains only to note that for w = 6 the validity of the assertion
of the problem follows, since
(|y=3^ = 729,
6! = 720 ,
149. (a) By the binomial theorem we have
(-i)
IN" 11 11
n n n n
1 . „ 1 ^ «(« - 1) 1 ^ «(«-l)(«-2) 1
n 2! n^ 3! n^
w(w - 1) • ■ • 2 1 n{n- 1) • -^ 1
"*"'"''' I'm — 1M M»-l "*"
(w — 1)! w"^' w! w"
—^0-i)('-l)-0-^).
and, analogously,
H('-7iT)('-^)
—^('-ttViX-irti) •••('-fri)
(» + l)!\ n + lA n + ll \ ii + lA li + U
Comparison of these expressions siiows tiiat

Solutions (149-150) 247
and the assertion of the problem follows immediately.
(b) We write
However, for w ^ 2
/ _ J_Y ^ , _ J_ , «(« - 1) J_ _ n(n - Din - 2) J_
\ «V " ' «= 2! «* 3! ««
«(«- 1)(«- 2)(«-3) 1
+
4!
-^-^^-[i('-i)(>-l)i=
« 2
ir(-i)(-|)(-|)i]
« 2 «^ 2 «»
On the other hand,
V « 2 «2 2 «V\ «/ 2 «2 2 n*^
Consequently, (1 ^j (1 + —j < 1, which means
(-ir<(-7^)".
from which the statement of the problem follows.
150. A proof by mathematical induction is given.

248 Evaluating Sums and Products
We show first that, for any natural number n,
->(f)"-
This inequality clearly holds for w = 1: 1! = 1 > —. Assume that
e
inequality (J) holds for some positive integer n; we must show that
",„.,,!>(^)"'.
In view of problem 149 (a), we have
1\"
e >
e
(-!)■
> 1 .
From (J) we obtain
/w + l\"+' e fn + 1\"
It follows, by the principle of mathematical induction, that (J) is
valid for all natural numbers n.
We now deal with the inequality
«! < «(f)" .
(2)
We show that this inequality holds for all integers w > 6. With the
aid of logarithm tables (natural logarithms are used here) it is readily
verified that inequality (2) is valid for n = 7:
that is, 6! < (—\ for In 6! = In 720 ~ 6.58, and In (—\ = 7(ln 7-1)
~ 6.62.
Assume now the validity of (2). By the results of problem 149 (b).

Solutions (151) 249
(-i)
n+l
> e;
that is,
1 \"+'
< 1
(-1)
But now, by (2), we have
(«+1)!=(«+1)«! <(« + !)« (—y
that is, the analogous inequality, in which n is replaced by w + 1,
will hold. Since inequality (2) holds for n = 7, it follows by
mathematical induction that it will hold for all n exceeding 6. This
completes the proof.
151. We note that in the sum
S = a:* + x*^' + x*-2 + ... + a: + 1 ,
if a: > 1, then the first term is numerically the greatest, but if a:<1,
then the last term is greatest. It follows that
(k + \)x'- > S > k + I, U X > I;
(k + Dx' < S < k + l, li X < I .
If both sides of these inequalities are multiplied by a:—1, it is found
that for a: =^ 1
(k + 1)a:'U - 1) > a:'+' -!>(* + l){x - 1) .
Assume now that x = —-—; then we find
p - I
jk + DP' /)*^' -ip- ir' (k + Dip - D*
(/>-!)'+' (/>-!)'+' (/>-!)'+'
Analogously, if we assume that x = , we obtain

250 Evaluating Sums and Products
{k + Dip + ly ip +1)*+' - /)*+' jk + DP"
It follows that
(/) + 1)'+' - /)'+' > (yfe + DP' > /)*+' - (^ - 1)'+' ,
or, letting p successively have the values 1,2,3, ••-,«:
2*+i _ i*+i > {k + 1)1' > 1'+' - 0 ,
3*+i _ 2*+i > {k + 1)2' > 2'+' - 1'+' ,
4'+' - 3'+' > (* + 1)3' > 3'+' - 2'+' ,
in + 1)'+' - «'+' > (* + l)w' > «'+' - (w - 1)'+' .
If these inequalities are added together, the following inequalities
result:
in + 1)'+' - 1 > (* + 1)(1' + 2' + 3' +•••+«') > «'+' ,
or, dividing through these inequalities by * + 1,
LV n) n'-^'J/fe+l
> 1' + 2' + 3' + ■ • • + w' > -J--w'+' .
k + 1
This is essentially the set of inequalities sought.
152. (a) First, it is readily seen that
w + 1 w + 2 2w 2w 2w 2w 2
n times
But also
«« + l^« + 2 2« 2l\n 2nJ
+ (;^+2-;^) + (;rT2+2-^2) + ••• +(^+i)]
_ J_r^ . 3w 3w 3w 1
~ 2 L 2«^ 2«^ + (« - 1) 2«^ + 2(« - 2) 2«2 J

' lutions (152-153) 251
J_r 3w 3w 3w 1
'^ 2 L2F"'"^^"'" " "*" 2«'J
(w + 1) times
1 / , ,^ 3 3,1 3,1
= — « + l) — = — + —< — + —,
2 2w 4 4m 4 w
which proves the assertions of the problem.
(b) It is first noted that
J_ 1 J_ J_ _ J_
3n "*" 3« + 1 "^ 2n "*" 2n ~ n '
It follows that
1 _1 1 /J_ 1 \
« + 1 '*' « + 2 "*" ■ ■ ■ "*" 3« - 1 "*" V3« "*" 3« + 1 /
<-^ + i-+.-+-^ + -^ = ?^ = 2.
ti n n n n
(2n — 1) times
On the other hand, we have
1 _i __L__j_r/_i 1 \
« + l"'"« + 2'''""'''3« + l~ 2 L\« + 1 3« + 1 /
+ WT2 + 3^j + W+1 + 3«-lj + • ■ ■ + (,3« + l + « + ljJ
2 L(2«
4w + 2 4w + 2
+ 1)^ - «^ (2n + 1)^ - (« - 1)^
4w + 2 _i_ .. _i_ 4n + 2
^ 1
(2« + 1)^ - (« - 2)^ ^ ^ (2« + 1)^ - n^}
1 r 4w + 2 4w + 2 4w + 2 1
^ 2 L(2« + D' (2w + 1)' "*" " " "*" (2w + 1)'J
(2n + 1) times
153. (a) We first prove that
2\/n + l-2\/ n < -7= < 2v^ w - 2l/n - 1
We write

252 Evaluating Sums and Products
2V^rrr - 21/T = zci/^rrr - vDivrrrT + vp
Vn + 1 + 1/w
2 ^ _ 2 1
Vn + 1 + 1/ « V n + l/li V n
The second part of the inequality is shown in an analogous manner.
Now we have
+ (i/T - i/T) + • • • + (1/1,000,001 - 1/1,000,000)1
= 1 + 2 (1/1,000,001 - i/T) > 2 • 1000 - i/T + 1
> 2000 - 3 + 1 = 1998 .
Analogously,
^ + ^ + ^+-- +v-i.oio,ooo <i + WT-i)
+ (i/T - i/T) + • • • + 1/1,000,000 - 1/999,999)]
= 1 + 2(1/1,000,000 - 1) = 1 + 2-999 = 1999 .
Consequently, the integral part of the sum
V2 V^ 1/1,000,000
is equal to 1998.
(b) A technique similar to that used in problem (a) yields
11 1
"i/io,ooo "'"1/10,001 ■■■ """1/1,000,000
> 2[(l/l0,001 - 1/10,000) + (1/10,002 - 1/10,001)
+ • • • + (1/1,000,001 - 1/1,000,000)]
and
2(1/1,000,001 - 1/10,000) > 2(1000 - 100) = 1800
1 + 1^+...+: 1
1/10,000 1/10,001 1/1,000,000
< 2[(i/io;ooo -1/9999') + (i/io;ooi - i/io;"ooo
+ • • • + 1/1,000,000 - 1/999,999)]
2(1/1,000,000 -1/9999)

Solutions (154) 253
= 2000 - 1/39,996 < 2000 - 199.98 = 1800.02 .
Therefore, the sum
1 1 1
1/10,000"*" 1/10,001"*" ■■■ "*" 1/1,000,000
is equal to, with precision to within 0.02, the number 1800.
154. We note, by comparing the two equations
\ n / n rv-
and
w 3 w^ 27 w»
(,,|iy.,,.i,±i,,|,i
that for every natural number n
('-i-iy>(-iy-
2 1/ 1 \'"
From this we obtain l+-r-- — >(1 + — I ; multiplication by «'/'
3 w \ n)
yields
and finally.
VT^ 2
Analogously,
„2/3 _,_ _2-„-(l/3) > („ + 1)2/3 ,
==>-t[^(« + i)' - ^^•
(l-|l-Y=l-2J- + i-i,-A-L>l-2i- + i,
\ 3 w / w 3 w^ 27 w" w w^
/ • 1 1 8 1 11 1 1 ^\ ^ u- u ■. r „
(smce —• __._>_ ____^0, from which it follows
\ 3 w* 27 «" 3 w^ 3 w' /
that
2 1,/, ly/'
3 w \ n)

254 Evaluating Sums and Products
Now we can write
1 1 1
«/T + 9/-F- + • • • +
^ 4 ' ^ 5 ' ^1,000,000
+ ••• +(^l,000,OOP- ^1,000,000^)]
,^, 3
= Y( ^1,000,002,000,001 - ^16) > y • 10,000 - ^54
> 15,000 - 4 = 14,996 .
However,
1 1 1
V 4 ' ^ 5 ' ' 1/1,000,000
<-|[(-^4^- ^^) + (^5^- ^4^)
+ •••+( ^1,000,0002 _ ^999,9992)]
/^. 3
= y( ^1,000,000,000,000 - ^ 9 X y(10,000 - 2) - 14,997
Thus, the integral part of the sum
^T^ VT^ ^ ^1,000,000
is equal to 14,996.
155. (a) It is readily seen that
10^ ' IP ' 1000^ 10-11 11-12 1000-1001
"\'io~W'^\n~w^ '" "•"ITooo ~TooTJ
and, analogously,
1^ l^+...+^J^<^ + .^+...+^ 1
10^ ' IP ' 1000^ 9-10 10-11 999-1000
"v¥~Toj'^vTo~TTJ"'" ■■■ "•"V999~loooj"^"9"~
< 0.112- 0.001 = 0.111 .
1000

Solutions (155-156) 255
Consequently, the sum "7^ +-777+ •" +10002 ' ^''''^ precision to
0.006, is equal to 0.105.
(b) We note, first, that
But, also
1.1.1 .1
+ 777 + 77^+ ••• +
10! 11! 12! ' 1000!
9 llO! ^ 11! ^ 12! ^ ^1000!/
= 1 flO - 1 , 11-1 12-1 1000 - 11
9 \ 10! "*" 11! "*" 12! + ■■■ + 1000! J
9 19! 10! 10! 11! 11! 12! 999! 1000!J
= (—- ——^ <- - = = 0.000000305 .
^9! 1000! y*^ 9 9! 3,265,920
Therefore, the sum
11 .1
lO!"*" 11! "*"■■■ "'"1000! '
with precision to 0.00000015, is equal to 0.00000029.
156. We shall show that the sum
11 11
2 3 w — 1 w
can be made greater than any given number N. Let AT be some
chosen integer, and take n = 7}". Then
1 + 1+1+1+...^-i-^ + l-.l+l+d + l)
234 w—In 2\3 4/
+ (^y + y + y + "8'j+'"+ (2^^-' + 1 "*" 2^^-' + 2
+ ---+^. + ^)>i+Y + i + y+---+i>^+i
2N times
levery sum in parentheses is greater than —; see problem 152 (a)].

256 Evaluating Sums and Products
Remark: This can also be proved as a consequence of problem 152 (b).
157. Designate by w* the number of undeleted fractions between
lo^ ^"^ T^' including — but not ^^. If the fraction j,
lying between these two fractions, is one of the undeleted numbers,
then of the numbers -—-, —- -, , ■ ■ ■ , -r -, —
10^ 10^ + 1' 10^ + 2 ' ' 10^ + 8' 10^ + 9
(all of which lie between —— and j, only the final fraction will
be deleted when those containing a digit 9 in the denominator are
crossed out. If — is one of the deleted numbers, then all of the
Q
additional fractions —r-, —r -, ■•■ , —r will also be deleted.
10^' 10^ +1 10^ + 9
It follows that
w* - 9wi-i .
Since «» = 8(of the fractions l,-:r, -:r, ■■ • ,-^, -pr, only — is deleted),
«, = 8 • 9 = 72;
«2 = 8 ■ 9^;
«* = 8 ■ 9'.
Now consider, for n < lO^^', the sum
1 1 1
Add this to the sum
1 + -;r + -T+ ■•■ +■
2 ' 3 ' 10"-+' - 1 '
after throwing out all those fractions having a digit 9 in the
denominator;
1 1
<h-
vioo
+ ■•■
1
^loT
+
1
12
+
i)
+ •■■
... _|_
1
888/"*"
1
20
...
+
• +
... -1-
VIO-"
1-)
88/
+ ••■
• +
(m
1
88...i
+ 1)
^
\)
times

Solutions (157-158) 257
< l-«o + ^-n. + 1^- «^ + ■ ■■ + TO^ • «-' +W--""'-
If we replace each summation in parentheses by the product of the
largest term contained therein and the number of terms in those
parentheses, we obtain
/ 9 92 9'»-i gm \
= H^ +T0 + IF+■■■+lo^ + To^j
^3.1-(9-/10-)<8.—1—= 8-10 = 80.
1 - — 1 - —
10 10
This verifies the assertion of the problem.
158. (a) Assume that in the summation 1 + —- -|- -— -|- ... -|- —the
4 9 n'
integer n is less than 2'+'. Consider the summation
1 + 1+1+-+- '
22 ' 32 ' ' (2*+> _ 1)2 '
and, as in the solution of problem 156, group the terms in the
following manner:
1 + (^-gi + -3IJ + (^-4! + -^ + "gl + y2 j
+ • • ■ + [ (2*)2 + (2* + ly + ■ • ■ + (2*+> _ 1)2] < ^ + (y^ + ~2y
/j_ j_ j_ j_\ r 1 1 1 ]
1+2+4+ +2' X 2'^'^'
2
This verifies the assertion of the problem.
Remark: It is possible to show, by similar techniques, that if n is any
number exceeding 1, then for any natural number n
11 1 2* - 1
i + 7;r + Tr:+ ■■• + —<■
2'» 3" n" 2°'-i - 1
This sum is bounded, and its bound is independent of n; that is, n can be

258 Evaluating Sums and Products
arbitrarily large. Problem 156 showed, on the other hand, that if a S 1, the
sum ^ '^ '^ + ^ + ■■• +~^ '^^n be made as large as we wish by taking n large
enough.
(b) It is readily seen that
J_ J_ J_ 1 J_
22 + 32 + 42 + 52 + ■ ■ ■ + „2
1)«
A 1-2"'" 2-3"'" 3.4 "'"■■■"'" («-l)«j 4
However, by problem 132 (a), we have
172 "*" ^ "•" ¥4 "•" ■ ■ ■ "^ (« - 1)« "" -^ ~ ^ "^ ^'
and, consequently,
which proves the assertion of the problem.
159. we shall show, first, that
111 11
V pi pi Pi/
where k is an integer such that 2' g w < 2'+', and pi is the greatest
prime not exceeding n. For this investigation we consider the
various factors in parentheses of the right member of the inequality.
Since every positive integer m from 1 to w can be written as the
product of powers of primes 1,3,5, ■■■,pi, we may write
m = 2'»i ■ 3«2 . 5'»a • ■ • pf' ,
where all the exponents citi,oii, •■■,cii are nonnegative integers not
exceeding k (zero 'exponents being, of course, allowable). We en-
,,.,111 11
counter as terms every fraction 1, -—, -—, —-, ■ • • , -, — as well
2 3 4 n — \ n

Solutions (159) 259
as some additional positive numbers. This means that the right
member of the inequality exceeds the left member.
If we take logarithms of both sides of the inequality, we find
\ 2 34 n ~ I n /
<log[(l+-i- + |+...+l:)(l+| + |+...+-l)
+ --+^)+log(l + | + |+---+^)
+ ...+,og(l+I^+i+...+].).
But for any integers k and /> ^ 2,
, /, 1 1 1 1\ 21og3
Consequently, we have
1 1 1 1 -(l/(/>*^')) 1
p p p 1 _ J- 1 - —
p p
' =1+ '
p~\ p-\•
It follows from the results of problem 145 that
1 V-i
and, clearly,
2 log 3 log 3
1 '
P P-I '
Hence we conclude that
log(l +1+ ... +±)<2M_3^2_M3^2_M3^ ... ^2_Mi
\/i n I I 6 o pi

260 Miscellaneous Problems in Algebra
2,0.3(|.i-.i.....i)
If there existed a natural number N such that for every positive
integer / the sum 1 +— + — + — + •■■ + — would be less than N,
2 3 5 p
then for all positive integers n the following inequality would have
to hold,
, /, 1 1 1 1 1 \
<21og 3(1+1 + 1+...+-i^)<2(Ar-l)log3.
from which it would follow that
l + ^ + T + T+--- +-^+-<3«'^-'>=M ,
2 3 4 n — I n
where TV, is independent of n. But it was shown in problem 156
that such an Ni does not exist; consequently, no number N can exist
such that, for all /, 1 + — + — -|- — -|- ... + — < AT.
2 3 5 pt
160. We have
b- c c - a a - b _ b'c - bc^ + ac' - a^c + a'6 - a6'
a b c abc
c\a - 6) + ab{a - b) - {ac + bc){a - b)
abc
(a - 6)(c' +ab- ac - be) (a - b)[c{c - a) - b{c - a)]
abc abc
^ {a - b){c - b){c - a) ^ _ {a-b){b - c){c - a)
abc abc
We shall now investigate + + . Let a' = b — c,
b — c c — a a — b
b' ■= c — a, and c' — a — b. Then
6'-c'=c-a-(a-6)=6 + c-2a.
From the condition a + 6 + c = 0, we have b -\- c — — a, from which
6' - c' = - 3a ,
b' -c'

Solutions (160-162) ;'.(.!
In an analogous manner we also obtain
c' - a'
0 =
c' =
It follows that
3
a' -b'
a b c _ 1 /b' -c' c' -a' a' ~b'\
b-c^ c~a^ a-b~ 3^ a' ^ b' ^ c' )'
Using the above formula, we obtain
a b _c_ JJ" (ft' -b'){b' -c'){c' -a')'
1 r (a' -b'){b' -c'){c' -a')~\
YL a'b'c' J
b ~ c c ~ a a — b
_ 1 {-3c) (-2a) {-3b) _ qbc
3 {b - c){c - a){a - b) {a - b){b - c){c - a) '
Consequently, if a + b + c = 0, then
/ b — c c — a a — b\l a b c \
\ a b c )\b — c c — a a — b)
^ r_ {ft^:^b)i^^2Sl^^fi_jZ.a[\^ _ Q a^ ] ^ Q
L abc JL {a - b){b - c){c - a)\
161. We have
0 = (a + 6 + c)» = a' + 6» + c» + 3a}b + 3a^c
+ 362a + 36^^ + 3c'^a + 3^^^ + 6a6c
= a" + 6" + c" + 3a6(a + 6) + 3ac(a + c) + 36c(6 + c) + 6a6c
= a' + 6" + c" - 3abc - 3a6c - 3a6c + 6a6c
= a" + 6" + c' — 3a6c .
It follows that a? + 6' + c' = 3abc, which is what we set out to
prove.
162. (a) First Solution. We have
a" + 6" + 3» - 3abc
= a' + 3a6(a + b) + b' + c^ - 3abc - 3ab{a + b)
= a» + 3a''b + 3ab' + 6" + c» - 3ab{c + a + 6)
= (a + 6)» + c^ - 3a6(a + 6 + c)
= l(a + 6) + c\[{a + 6)2 - (a + 6)c + c^\ - 3ab{a + 6 + c)

262 Miscellaneous Problems in Algebra
= (a + 6 + c) [(a + by - (a + b)c + c^ - 2ab]
= {a + b + c){a^ + 2a6 + b^ - ac ~ be + c^ - 3ab)
= {a + b + c){a^ + b^ + c^ - ab - ac - be) .
Second Solution. If in problem 161 we substitute x for a, we have
x^ -\- b'^ -\- c^ — ^xbc = 0, if a: + 6 + c = 0. Consequently, the equation
x' — ^bcx -\- b^ -\- d = Q has a root x = —b —c, from which it follows
that the polynomial x^ — 2>bcx -\- b^ -\- c^ is divisible by x — {—b —c) =
X -\- b -\- c. If in this result we resubstitute a for x, we find that
a^ -\- b^ -\- d — 3abc is divisible by a + b + c. Ordinary division
produces the other factor:
a^ + b' + d - 3abc = {a + b + c){a^ + b^ + d - ab - ac ~ be) .
(b) First solution. We have
[(a + 6 + c)' - a'] - {b' + d)
= [(a + b + c)-a][ia + b + c)' + a(a + 6 + c) + a']
- (b + c){b^ - be + d)
= (6 + c){[{a + b + c)^- b"] + a{a + c)
+ {ab + be) + (a^ - d)}
= (b + c){[(a + b + c) - b][ia + b + c) + b] + aia + c)
+ 6(a + c) + (a + c){a - c)}
= {b + c){a + c){a + b + c + b + a + b + a-c)
= 3(6 + c){a + c){a + b) .
Second Solution. Substitute, in the given expression, x for a:
{x + b + cf - x^-b^ - d.
\i X — — b, the expression vanishes; consequently, the equation
{x -\- b + cf — x^ — b^ ~ d = Q has as a root a: = — 6, and so {x + b+cf-
x^ — b^ — d is divisible by x -\- b. Resubstituting a for x, we can
conclude that (a + 6 + c)' — a' — 6' — d is divisible by a + 6.
It is similarly shown that {a -\- b + cf — a^ — b^ — d is also
divisible by a + c and by b -\- c. We can write (since the three factors
are clearly relatively prime)
{a + b + cf - a^ -b" - d = k{a + b){a + c){b + c) .
In order to determine the factor k, it suffices to equate, in this
equality, the coefficients of any like term from each side: for example,
the coefficient of a^b. If we set a = 0, 6 = c = 1, then we find ife=3.

Solutions (163-166) 263
163. In problem 162(a) we found that (a" +0^ + r^-a0-ar-0r) x
(at + 0 + r) = o:' + 0' + r' — 3ot^r- For at, (3, and r we substitute
^/ a , V b , and ^/ c , respectively; we then have
- ^ac - ^bc) = a + b + c-3 Vabc .
It follows that
_ ^_ _-■ ^^+ •^"^+ ^~'- •^«^- ^^- ^"^
^a + ^b + ^c a + b + c-3Vabi
Now it is not difficult to eliminate the radical from the
denominator of the fraction on the right:
^ a + ^ b + ^ c {a + b + cf - Zlabc
x[{a + b + cf + 3(a + 6 + c) Vabc + 9 V'^FF'] .
164. We saw in problem 162 (b) that {a -\- b -\- cf - a^ ~ tfi ~ c^
differs from the product (a + 6)(a + c){b + c) only by a constant
factor; hence it suffices to show that
(g _1_ ^ I ^\333a g3333 ^3883 ^3338
is divisible by a + b,a -\- c, and b -\- c. But this can be shown by
exactly the same proof used in problem 162(b).
165. We have
ia'^y - 1 a'' - 1
a'° + a' + l = ^"/ ^iL 1
a' — 1 a' — 1
^ (a")' - 1 (a^ - l)(a" + a^ + a' + a^ + 1)
^ (a - l)(a* + a' + a^ + a + 1) ~ (a - l)(a* + a' + a^ + a + 1)
_ (a' + a + l)(a" + a° + a' + a^ + 1)
~ a* + a' + a^ + a + 1
But division yields
a'2 + a« + a« + a' + 1
a' + a' — a* + a' — a + 1
a* + a' + a^ + a + 1
Consequently,
a'» + a' + 1 = (a^ + a + l)(a« - a' + a' - a* - a' + a" - a + 1) .
166. First Solution. Designate the dividend polynomial by B and

264 Miscellaneous Problems in Algebra
the divisor by A. Then
B- A = (x«'«« - x^){x<"""' - x«) + (x"" - x') + (x«««« - x")
+ (x"'« - x') + (x"" - X*) + (x'»" - x^)
+ U"" - x^) + (x"" - x)
= x»[(x'»r» -1] + A^[U'»)««« -1] + x'[(x'»)'" -1]
+ x«[(x'»r« - 1] + x'[(x'»)"' - 1] + x^lCx'")*" - 1]
+ X3[(10)33a - 1] + X2[(X10)"2 _ 1] + X[(X10)"1 _ 1] .
Each difference in parentheses is divisible by a:'" — 1, and so by
x'" — 1
A = —-. Therefore, B — Ais divisible by A, which means that
B must be divisible by A.
Second Solution. We have
X'> + X" + X' + A-« + X"- + X' + X^ + X'' + X + \
_ a:'" - 1 _ (a: - 1)(a: - adjx - ai){x - a,) ■ ■ ■ (x - a,)
x-l x-l
= (X - ay){X - Oi) •■■ {X - flg) ,
where a* = cos -— + i sin -rr- (* = 1,2, • • • , 9), since the roots of the
equation a:'" — 1 = 0, (that is, the ten tenth-roots of unity are of this
form (see the discussion of Section 9, Complex Numbers, preceding
the statement of problem 222). Consequently, in order to prove the
assertion of the problem, it suffices to verify that
y9999 _l_ ^6636 I J^T777 I jj^666 I j^5555 I j^iHi
+ ^3833 _,_ ^2222 _,_ ^Ull _,_ J
is divisible by each of the factors {x — a^), {x — a-i), ■■■ ,{x — a^).
This, however, is equivalent to the assertion that
y9999 I Y^i^^ _l_ J^7777 I y6666 I y5555 I y^iH
+ x^^^^ + a:"" + a:"" + 1 = 0 ( i )
has as roots a^,ai,ai, ••-.ag. We shall verify that these are roots
of equation (i). Since ai" = 1 (ife = 1, 2, 3, • • • , 9), it follows that
aT = ar™^" = ial'r^al = ai;
ar = ar^' = (a\yal = a\; etc. • • ■
„9999 . 8688 . „7777 . „««66 . „BBBB . <^^^ . „3333 . „2222 . „1111 . i
a* + a* + a* + a* + a* + a* + a^ + a* + a* +1
= a2 + a* + al + aj + rtj + rtj + at' + rtj + a* + 1 = 0
(* = l,2,---,9).

Solutions (167) 265
167. We shall find two numbers a and b to satisfy the equation
x' + px + q = x^ + a' + b^ ~ 3abx .
To do this, we must solve for a and b the following two equations
in two unknowns:
or, equivalently.
a^ + b^ = q, ab = —~ ,
a' +b' = q, a'b' = - ^ •
Now, It IS easily verified that a' and b^ are roots of the quadratic
equation z^ — qz — ^ = 0, and, consequently, we will have^
y 2 Y i+Z7 Y 2 y4+27
Now, in view of the result of problem 162 (a), we have
X' + px + q = x^ + a^ + b' - 3abx
= (a + 6 + x){a^ + b^ + x^ - ab-ax - bx) .
Therefore, the solution of the cubic equation reduces to the solution
of the first-degree equation
a + 6 +a: = 0 ,
from which we obtain
Xi = — a — b ,
or.
r - -' / 1 , Iff- , />' - V^ I QC . P'
f Formulas (1) are obtained from the formula displaying the roots of a quad-
ratic equation. The roots are real if — + rr a 0; '^^ ~7 + ^ < ^t '^len we will
be involved with the cube roots of imaginary numbers, and a and 6 will be
imaginary numbers. They may be found using the formula developed at the
beginning of Section 9, which enables us to find the nth root of a complex
number. For each of the three cube roots o, obtained from the number
— + ■,/~ + — , the corresponding 6 can be obtained from the relation ab =
y 4 ^27 K" 6
2
P.
3

266 Miscellaneous Problems in Algebra
and the quadratic equation
x^-(a+b)x +a' +b' -ab = 0 ,
from which it follows that
„ _ a±l>_ (a-b)\/T ■
^ " 2 + 2 ' '
fl + 6 (a-6)-l/T ■
where a and b are determined by formula (1).
168. First Solution. We designate v a + x by .v, thereby obtaining
a system of two equations:
"l/'^a + a: = .V , "i/a — .v = x .
We square these equations to obtain
a + X = y^ , a — y = x^ .
If the second equation is subtracted from the first, the result is
X + y = y^ - x\
or,
x^ - y' + X + y = (x + y){x ~ y + I) = 0 .
Two possibilities arise. First,
x + y = 0;
then y = — X and x^ — x — a = 0, which yields
>:>,.= y±/a+|
Or,
x-y + 1 = 0;
then >- = a: + 1 and a:^ + a: + 1 — a = 0, from which we obtain
*3,«= —^±-i/a —— .
These possibilities for the roots of the given equation must be
tested in order to eliminate any extraneous roots.
Remark: If only positive roots are considered, it may be readily ascertained
1 / 3"
that the equation will have the single root a;3= —-T + -i/a provided o § 1,

Solutions (168-169) 267
but will not have a root for o < 1.
Second Solution. We clear the radicals from the equation in the
usual way:
a — "i/a + X = x^ ,
(a — x'y = a + X ,
X* - 2ax^ -x + a2-a = 0.
We now have an equation of degree 4. However, this equation is
quadratic in the letter a; we shall use the device of solving for a in
terms of x:
a^ - i2x^ + l)a + X* - x = 0 ,
„ _ 2a:2 + 1 ± Vix* + 4x^ + 1 - ix* + 4x
_ 2x' + 1 ± V4x' +4x+l _2x^ + l± (2x + 1)
2 2
ai = Jc^ + .r + 1 , az = x^ — X .
The equation
a^ - {2x^ + l)a + X* - X = 0
has the two roots
ai = a:^ + a: + 1 , ai = x^ — x ,
and so we can write
a^ - (2jc^ + l)a + X* - x = (a- a,){a - d)
= {a — x^ — X — \){a m- x'^ + x) .
Therefore, we can write the quartic equation in the form
{x^ - X- a)(jc^ +x-a + \) = Q.
This is readily solved to yield
1 /T—_ 1 /—r
1 /T 1 / 3~
>:3..= -y±yj + a-l--y±i/a-^
169. First Solution. Let
x^ +2ax + }^ = y
Id
a + y a^ + a: - — = ^-i
16

268 Miscellaneous Problems in Algebra
Then the equation takes on the form
y ~yi.
We express x in terms of ^-i; calculation yields
1
x = yl + 2ay, +
16
We note that x is expressed in terms of yi by a quadratic formula
having exactly the same coefficients as that giving y in terms of x.
It follows that if we graph the functions
y = x^ + 2ax +
16
^-i
ay a^
+ x-
16
then the two graphs (parabolas) will be symmetrical with respect to
the line bisecting the first quadrant (See Figure 10; every point x=
Xo,y = yo of the first curve has an image point x = yo,yi = Xo on the
Figure 10
second curve). The points of intersection of these two curves have
AT-coordinates for which y = yi', these coordinates yield the roots of
the equation. These points must lie on the axis of symmetry of the
two curves, satisfying the conditions

Solutions {169) 269
y = x = yi .
If we solve the equation y = x, that is,
x^ + 2ax + T^ = X ,
we obtain
It is left to the reader to convince himself that for 0 < a < —-
4
both these roots are real and satisfy the given equation.
Second Solution. The problem can be solved in a more conventional
way. If we clear radicals in the usual manner, we obtain
^ 16'
(x'+2ax + a + y^V = a"
or, upon expansion and the collection of terms,
X' + Aax^ + ^4a' + 2a + Y^x^ + ^4a^ + ^a - 1 V
a_ 1 1 _
"•" 8 "•" 16 "*" 16^
The left member of this equation can be grouped and factored as
follows:
\x' + (2a - \)x' + ^x^
+ [(2a + Da:' + {W - \)x' + (y + "Yg) ^ ]
= [a:^ + (2a - Da: + ^][a:^ + (2a + 1)a: + (2a +i|)] .
This yields the solutions
a:' + (2a - Da: + Y^ = 0 ,
1 -2a
Xul = n
V(H^y~T6=

270 Miscellaneous Problems in Algebra
x' + (2a + l)x + 2a + ^ = 0,
Id
_ 1 + 2a
*3,< — r,
. Ill-2a \ - 17
If 0 < a < —-, the first two roots are real and satisfy the initial
4
equation; the last two roots are complex numbers.
170. (a) To yield a real number for the left member, for real
values of x, the expressions under the radicals in the left member
must all be positive. Let us designate these radicands, respectively,
starting from the innermost one (from 3a:), by y\,y\, ■■•,yl-\,y\; we
then have
3a: = a: + 2a: =
a: + 2>'. =
a: + 2>'2 =
= y\;
= y\,
-y\,
X + 2>'„-2 = y„-i,
X + 2>'„-i = y\ ,
where all the numbers ^-i.^-a, •••,>'„ are real and positive. The initial
equation takes on the form, in the new designation,
yn = X .
We shall now prove that y^ = x. Assume that x > yi. Then a
comparison of the first and second equations shown above will indicate
that ^-i > y2. Similarly, the second and third equations will imply
that yi > yt', we can continue, in a similar manner, to find
ya > y* > ••• > yn-i > yn.
Hence if x > yi, then x > >>„, which contradicts the equation y„ = x.
The assumption x < yi will lead, by analogous reasoning, to a similar
contradiction. Hence we must have yi = x.
Since y\ = 3a:, it follows that
3a: = a:^ ,
and so we may set down two possible values for x:
a:i = 3 , a:2 = 0 .
Both values satisfy the given equation.

Solutions {170) 271
Remark'. We can use another technique to solve this equation. We write
it as
/x + 2,y^rT2Vx+ ■■■ +2y^^rr2i = "^ • {d
n radicals
If we replace the final x of the left member by the entire expression for x as
given by (1), we have
X
- *'x + 2/a; + 2y^r+^rrTWT+W
2n radicals
If we again repeat this substitution, we obtain new equations of the same form,
except that we have, successively, 3n, 47i, ••• radical signs. Thus we arrive
at
/a; + 2/a; + Sv^J^
= ^'™^'^ + 2v"* + 2/^+--- +2,^^ + 2^ (2)
N radicals
It follows that
= /a; + 2[/a; + 2 /a; + 2 /a; _)_ ... 1 = *^ + 2a: ■ (g)
which yields a; = /3a;, x^ = 3x; consequently, xi = 0,X2 = 3. This shows that
the roots of equation (1) do not depend upon n [since the roots of (2) are
independent of to].
The reasoning used here cannot be considered a legitimate solution to the
problem, inasmuch as the existence of the limit shown in (2) has not been
established and hence cannot be legitimately employed for (3). However, the
reasoning can be rigorously justified by a more advanced discussion, which is
not undertaken here.
(b) We make successive simplifications of the fraction in the
left member:
1 + -L-.1+- ' 2X + 1.
x+l x+l x+l
X
l+J^=l+^+^ ''^'
2x + l ^ 2a: + 1 2a: + 1 '
x+l

272 Miscellaneous Problems in Algebra
We finally arrive at an equation of form
ax + b
ex + d
= X,
where a, b, c, and d are some integers (depending upon n). This
equation is in fact a quadratic equation x{cx -\- d) — ax -\- b, which
implies that the given equation can have at most two roots and hence
cannot be an identity (since then all values of x would satisfy it; in
particular a: = 0 fails to satisfy the equation).
Without an assignment of value for n we apparently cannot
determine these roots. However, let us assume that
1 + 1- = ..
X
The successive simplifications of the fraction yield
1 + — = x;
X
\ + — = x;
X
and we finally arrive at the identity x = x. Hence, under the assump-
x'^ — X -
1 + -1/T
tion, the roots of 1 H = x, or a:^ — a: — 1 = 0, that is,
X
Xi
Xi-
2
1 -VT
satisfy the given equation. Since the equation has at most two roots,
and we have found two roots for it, these represent the complete
solution of the problem.
Remark: We display still another method for solving the equation [compare
this with the remark following the solution of problem (a)].
We substitute for the final x shown in the "multi-storied" fraction^ its
expression as given by the equation itself. We then have an equation of
precisely the same form, except with 2n fractional designations,ff " Continuation
of the process leads finally to our writing
f Continued fraction is the terminology usually used for this concept [Editor].
tt Literally, "twice as many stories" [Editor].

Solutions {171)
1
1 +
1 +
1 +
1+ .
lim
1 +
1 +
1 +
+ 1+-
273
H)
The fraction bar is
repeated N times
where on the left we have an infinite continued fraction.
This yields
1
1 +
1
1 +
1 +
1 + .
1
1 +
Lt:
1 +
1 +
•]
that is, we obtain the quadratic in x,
l + x
(2)
1 + a;
which we assumed in the first solution of this problem. This proof now shows
that the solution of the equation does not actually depend upon n (a fact we
might have adduced at the conclusion of the previous solution).
The reasoning here is not rigorous, inasmuch as the existence of the limit
of which we made use has not been proved. However, a rigorous proof can
be given by more advanced mathematics.
171. We have
X + 3 - Wx - 1 = X - 1 - 4-l/x- 1 + 4
{Vx ~\f- AVx- 1 + 4 = {Vx - 1 -2Y
and, analogously,
X + 8 - ^Vx - 1 = X - 1 - Wx -1+9
= {Vx-\ - 3)^ .
Hence, the equation can be written in the form
{^/{Vx - 1 - 2)^ + V{Vx - 1 - 3)^ = 1
or, since it has been specified that only positive roots are to be
considered

274 Miscellaneous Problems in Algebra
|i/F=T -21 + 1 i/F=T -31 = 1,
where | y \ means the positive numerical value of y.
We consider the several possibilities.
First, if Vx- 1 - 2^0 and Vx-l ~ 3 ^ 0, that is, if Vx- 1^3,
X -1^9, X S 10, then WIT^- 2 | = "i/^ - 1 - 2, |i/x - 1 - 3 | =
x/x — 1 — 3, and the equation takes on the form
-l/F=T"- 2 + Vr^^T- 3=1.
Hence,
2-i/r=T=6
x-1 = 9,
x = 10 .
If V a: - 1 - 2 S 0 and i/x - 1 -3 g 0, that is, if \/x~l^2,x^
5, but v/;c- 1 ^ 3,x^ 10. then | -i/F^-2 | = ■i/x-1-2, |-i/x - 1 -
31 = — V'x — 1 + 3, and the equation becomes the identity
"l/^ - 1 - 2 - -i/F=T+ 3=1.
Therefore, the equation is satisfied by all values of x between a:=5
and X = 10.
If Vx^T- 2^0, Vx^nr-S ^ 0, that is, if Vx~l^2,x^ 5,
then |-i/x-l-2| = --i/x-l+2, |-i/x-l-3| = --i/x-l + 3,
and the equation becomes
It follows that
The case Vx-
~Vx- \ +2-Vx-\
2Vx-1=4
x-1=4,
x = 5 .
-1-2^0, -1/X-1-3S
1+3 = 1
3 i 0 , is impossible.
In summary, all values of x between 5 and 10, inclusive, that is,
5 ^ ;t g 10, are solutions of the given equation.
172. We shall first look for the real roots lying in the interval 2
to oo, then in the interval 1 to 2, then 0 to 1, then —1 to 0, and
finally —oo to —1.
Let xS 2. Thenx + 1 > 0, x > 0, x-1 > 0, x - 2 S 0; hence |x+l| =
a:+1, |a:| =a:, |a:—1|=a:— 1;|a: — 2|=a: — 2, and we have the
equation

Solutions {172) 275
x + \~ x + 2,{x~\)~2{x~2) = x + 2 ,
which is an identity.
Accordingly, all real numbers greater than 2, and 2 itself, are
roots of the given equation.
Let \^x <2. Then x + 1 > 0, a: > 0, a: - 1 S 0, and x~2 <0,
which implies
\x + \\=x + \ ,
\x\^ X ,
\x~\\=x~\,
\x-2\ = ~{x-2).
We obtain, for this case, the equation
x+\- x^2{x~\)^2{x-2) = x+2 .
This yields 4a: = 8, or a: = 2. This value lies in the interval
previously considered. Consequently, there is no additional root found
between 1 and 2 for the given equation.
Let 0 g a: < 1. Then | a: + 1 | = a: + 1, | a: | = a:, | a: - 1| = - (a: - 1).
and I a: - 2 I = - (a: - 2). We have
a: + 1 - a: - 3(a: - 1) + 2(a: - 2) = a: + 2.
This yields x = —1, but since this lies outside the interval which
we used to set up the equation, it must be discarded.
There exists no additional root for the equation in the interval
0^ a: < 1.
Let -1 ^ a: g 0. Then |a: + 1|=a: + 1, |a:| = -a:, |a:-1| =
-(a: - 1), and I a: - 2 I = -(a: - 2). We have
a: + 1 + a: - 3(a: - 1) + 2(a: - 2) = a: + 2 .
This equation is contradictory; hence there are no roots between —1
and 0, inclusive.
Finally, let x < -1. Then | a: + 1 | = -(a: + 1), | a: | = -a:, | a: - 1| =
-(a: - 1), and I a: - 2 I = -(a: - 2); We have
-(a: + 1) + a: - 3(a: - 1) + 2(a: - 2) = a: + 2 ,
a:= -2 .
We obtain the root a: = —2 from this interval. Therefore, the
equation is satisfied by —2, by 2, and by all real numbers exceeding 2.
Remark'- The results obtained for this problem become vividly clear if we
graph the function

276
Miscellaneous Problems in Algebra
\x + l
+31
1 I -2 1 a; - 2 I - (a; + 2) .
Figure 11 shows in light lines the functions yi — \ x + I \, yi = — \ x \, ya =
3\x — l\,yi = -2 I a; - 2 I, and y^ = —(x + 2), and in heavy lines the function
y = yi + yi + y» + y* + yi (by "composition" of graphs). It is clear from the
figure that y crosses the axis at a; = — 2 and at a; = +2, and thereafter remains
on the X axis for a; > 2.
(i)
173. From the first equation of the given system we see that
y^ = x^ , y = :+: X .
If we substitute for y^ in the second equation, we obtain
ix-aY + x'=^l,
which, as a quadratic equation, in general yields two possible values
for X. Since each value of x can be associated with two values of
y, the system will have at most four solutions; This will reduce to
at most three solutions if one of the values of x is zero, since this
value will go with only one companion value for y, that is, y =0.
If we substitute a: = 0 into equation (i) we obtain
1,
a = ±l
The system can, and will, have precisely three solutions only for
these values of a.

Solutions (173-174) 277
The number of solutions of the system reduces to two if the
quadratic equation involving x has only one solution (a "double root")-
The quadratic equation
ix-aY + x' = l ,
or,
2^2 -2ax + a' ~l = 0
will have one root if and only if the discriminant (B^ — 4AC)
vanishes; that is, if
a^ - 2{a' - 1) = 0 ,
or, a^ = 2; that is, a = ± V'~2 .
174. (a) Formal solution of the system yields
a' -1
X =
a^ - 1 '
-a^ + a
y= a^-i •
U a + I ^ 0 and a — I ^ 0, then the system has the single solution
a^ + a + 1
'= a+1 '
—a
a + 1
If a = —1, or if a = +1, then the formulas are meaningless; in the
first instance we arrive at the system
(~x + y = l,
^ x-y = l,
which is a contradictory system. In the second instance we have
(x + y = l ,
\x + y = l ,
which has an infinite number of solutions (for example, for x
arbitrary, y = I — x).
(b) Solution of the system yields
a* - 1
* ~ a^ - 1 '
—a' + a

278 Miscellaneous Problems in Algebra
Here, if a^ — 1 9^ 0, the system has the single solution a: = a^ + 1,
y = —a. For a = —1 and a = 1, we obtain the systems
(-x^y= -1 ,
I x-^- = 1
and
{x + y = \,
U + >- = 1 ,
both of which have an infinite number of solutions.
(c) We obtain from the first two equations
y -\- z = \ ~ ax
and
ay -\- z = a ~ X .
If we consider this as a system of two equations in two unknowns,
y and z, we obtain
a ~ x-\ -\- ax (a- 1)(1 + x)
a-1 ~ a-1
a(l — ax) ~ a + X —x{a^ — 1)
a-1 - a-1 - -(l+«)^-
Hence, if a 9^ 1, then y = I + x and 2 = — (1 + a)A:. If these values
are substituted into the third equation, we find
x + il+ x) -a(l + a)x = a^ ,
x{2~a- a') = a^ - 1
-x{a + 2)(a- 1) = a^- 1 .
Therefore, if a — I ^ 0 and a + 2 ^ 0, the system has the single
solution
a^ - 1 a + 1
(fl
y
=
+ 2)(a - 1)
=l+x=-
a
-(a + l)x =
1
+ 2
(fl
a + 2 '
f
1 0 •
For a = 1 and a = — 2, we obtain the systems

Solutions {175)
279
and
(-2x + y + z = \ ,
x-2y + z=-2,
x + y -2z = i ,
The first of these systems has an infinite number of solutions, and
the second has no solution (from the first two equations we obtain
—x — y + 2z = —1, which is inconsistent with the third equation).
175. If we subtract the second equation from the first, and the
sixth from the fifth, and equate the two expressions for Xt — x^, we
obtain
ai(ot2 - oii) = ottiot2 — ati) ,
or,
{a, - oii) {oii - ajj) = 0 .
Similarly, if we obtain the two expressions related by xi — Xi and
also by Xi — Xt, we find two more relationships:
(a!i - a-a) (a!3 - oit) = 0 ,
(ai — 0^3) (0^2 — o^i) = 0 .
The first of these three relationships implies that either ai — at
or a^ = at (possibly both). Let us suppose that ^2 = afa = a. Then,
from the second relationship, a!i = a; or else oit = a:. Either of these
possibilities makes the third equation an identity. Hence, for the
system to be consistent, it is necessary that three of the four
quantities Oil, Oil, oia, oii be equal.
Suppose now that ai = ai = ots = a and that at, = (3. Recalling
those expressions for the differences Xi — Xi, Xi ~ Xa, Xi — Xa, with
the aid of which we obtained the relationships just exploited between
oti, oii, Ui, and ext, we find that
Xi ^= Xi = Xi .
Designating Xi = Xi = x^ by x, and Xi by y, we find that the six
equations in four unknowns reduces to two equations in two
unknowns:
2x = ot^ ,
x-ir y = ixB ,

280 Miscellaneous Problems in Algebra
from which we find that
"(^-f)-
y
Remark: Analogous reasoning shows that the more general system
Xi + Xl + ••■ + Xm~l + Xm = «1«2 • • • «m-iam ,
Xi + X2 + ■ ■■ + Xm-l + Xm + l = «l«2 • • ' "m-iam + l ,
f
^Xn+m-l + Xn + 7n-z + • ' ' + Xn^i + Xn — 071+771-1*^71+m-i ' ' • «7i-l«n t
consisting of Cn equations in n unknowns (n > m + 1), will be solvable only
in the following two cases:
ai = aj — • • • = a7i-i = a, a„ = fi ;
here,
a" / TO - 1 \
Xi = Xi = ■■■ =^ Kn-i = —, x„ = a"-' 10 a ) .
TO ^ TO '
TO — m + 1, or more, of the quantities oi, ai, ■ ■ ■, a„ are zero (here, a;i = 12 =
• • • = a;„ = 0).
176. From the first of the given equations,
x=2-y.
Upon substitution into the second, we obtain
2y-y'-z' = l ,
or
22 _,_ ^2 _ 2^ + 1 = 0 ,
or
2^ + Cy - 1)^ = 0 .
Each of the two terms of the last equation is nonnegative, hence
both must vanish. Hence 2=0 and y = I, which implies a: = 1.
Therefore, the system has precisely one real solution.
177. (a) First we note that if Xo is a root of the given equation,
then —Xo is also a root. Consequently, there are as many negative
roots as there are positive roots. Moreover, the number 0 is clearly
a root of the equation. It suffices then to find how many positive
roots there are. Now if —— = sm x, then

Solutions (176-177)
281
Ul =100|sinx| g 100-1 =100 ,
and so no root can exceed 100 in absolute value.
Let us partition the A:-axis from 0 to 100 into segments each of
length 2/7 (except for the final segment, which will be shorter); we
shall examine each interval separately to find the roots in it. (See
Figure 12).
i^
y ~nM
zs
m\
^^
Figure 12
2n
There exists one positive root in the interval from 0 to 2/7; in
each of the following intervals (excluding the final one) there
are two positive roots. To find how many roots may be
contributed by the final interval, we examine it separately. Now, —— is
/100 inn 2/7 \
a number between 15 and 16 (^=6.666 ■•■ > 2;r;-^= 6.25<2/7) ;
\ 15 16 /
consequently, we have 15 segments each of length 2/7 and one final
segment of length 100 —15-2/7 > 5 > /7. This final segment is long
enough to contain the complete upper half of the sinusoidal period,
and hence it also contributes two roots.
Therefore, in all we have 1 + 14-2 + 2 = 31 positive roots for the
given equation, an equal number of negative roots, and, in addition,
the root 0; therefore, the equation has 63 roots.
(b) The solution is quite similar to that of problem (a). First,
if sin X = log X, then x g 10(inasmuch as sin x g 1), Since 2-2;r>10,
the interval on the A:-axis between a: = 0 and a: = 10 contains one
complete period of the sine curve plus part of a second period. The
Figure 13

282 Miscellaneous Problems in Algebra
graph of log x intersects the first wave of the sine curve at
precisely one point (see Figure 13). Further, since 2/7 + — < 10, then
5/7
at the point x = —— we have sin a: = 1 > log x, which means that
the graph of log x intersects the first half of the second positive wave
of sin X. Since, at a: = 10, log a: = 1 > sin a:, the graph of log x must
intersect this second wave another time. Therefore, we conclude
that the equation sin x = log x has exactly three real roots.
178. It is readily verified that the proposition of the problem is
valid for w = 1 and n = 2;
ATi + ATa = 6
xl + xl = {x, + x^y - 2x,Xi = 6^ - 2-1 = 34 .
(The sum of the roots of a quadratic equation is equal to the negative
of the coefficient of x).
Further, we have
A:r + a:; = (a:, + x,){x:-' + at?"') - xMx'r' + xV')
= 6{xr' + xr') - i-{xr" + xr').
or
x: + xl = 5(:tr-' + xl-')
+ [{x'r' + a:;-') - {xr' + xr')\ (i)
It follows from this formula, first, that if x'~^+ x',"'' and x'~^ + x'~'
are integers, then Xi + x' is also an integer; thus, by mathematical
induction Xi + x' is shown to be an integer for all natural numbers
n.
Now, let n be the least positive integer such that x' + atj" is
divisible by 5. It follows from (!) that, in this case, the difference
(a:?-' + xV) - ixr' + xr')
is also divisible by 5. But if we replace n in (1) by w — 1, we obtain
xr' + a:;-' = 5ixr' + xr')
+ {xr' + xr') - {xr' + xr'),
from which it follows that
x'-' + xr' = 5(A:r' + xr')
- [{x'r' + xr') - (x-r' + xr')]

Solutions {179-180) 283
is also divisible by 5. This contradicts the assumption that n is the
least integer such that xT + Xi is divisible by 5. Hence we must
conclude that there cannot exist a positive integer n such that Arf + x'
is divisible by 5.
179. Let us say that there are n positive numbers (and hence
1000 — n negative numbers) among the numbers Oi, a^,^ ■ -.Oiooo. Then,
in the expansion given, the "mixed products" aiOj of the n positive
numbers there will be —^^^-—- of these products and the mixed
products of the 1000 — n negative numbers [there will be
(1000- w)(1000- w - 1)
2
of these products] will be positive terms, and the product of positive
by negative numbers [there will be w(1000 — n) of these] will be
negative. The condition of the problem requires that
n(n_:^^ (1000-n)(1000-n-l)^^^^^^^_^^^
or.
«' - « + (1000 - «)' - (1000 - n) ....
^ r = lOOOw — n^
2«^-2000« + ^^ = 0,
1000 ± 1/1,000,000 - 999,000 _ 1000 ± "i/lOOO
2 2 '
which is impossible.
For the analogous problem posed, we obtain by similar reasoning
the requirement
^ 10,000 ± V 10,000 ^ 10,000 ± 100
"2 2 •
Here it is possible for the expansion to contain an equal number of
positive and negative mixed products. For this, it suffices if the
initial polynomial contains —'-— = 5050 positive numbers and
10,000 - 100 -oc-o ,. u . . N
= 4950 negative numbers (or vice-versa).
180. First, we have
("l/T - D' = -i/T - 1 ;
{V"2 - 1)^ = 3 - 2-i/T = VT - VT .

284 Miscellaneous Problems in Algebra
The proof will proceed by mathematical induction. Assume that
(l/T - 1)"-' = Bl/T - A = VW" - VA^
can be put into the form i/TT" - VN - 1, that is, that 2B^ - A^ = l.
We shall show that (replacing ife by * + 1)
(i/T - 1)^'+' = B'VY - A'
also comes into such a form, that is, that 2B''' — A" = 1. We can
write
(i/T - 1)2'+' = ("i/T -ly-'iVT - ly
= (BVY - A)j? - 2i/T)
= (3B + 2A)V~2 - {4B + 3A) ;
consequently,
B' = 3B+2A ,
A' =4B + 3A,
and
2B'2 - A" = 2{3B + 2Ay - (4B + 3Ay
= 18B' + 24AB + 8A' - 16B' - 2AAB - Q/l^
= 2B^- A^ = \ ,
which is what we wished to show.
Therefore, if the number (l/T - 1)" = C - DV~2 can_be put into
the form VW - VN - 1, then also the number {V 2 - 1)"+' =
C — Z)'l/2 can be expressed in this form.
The assertion of the problem follows by mathematical induction.
181. If {A + BV^y = C + Z)l/T, then C = A^' + 3B\ D = 2AB,
and
(A - Bl/Ty = A' + 3B' - 2ABVT = C- Z)i/T .
Consequently, if
{A + BV^y = 99,999 + 111,111 l/T ,
then also
{A -Bl/T)2= 99,999 - 111,111 i/T,
which is an impossibility inasmuch as the left member of this
equation is positive and the right member is negative.
182. Assume that V~2 = p + qW {p, q, and r rational). If both
sides are cubed, we obtain

Solutions (182-183) 285
2 = p' + 3p'qVT + 3pq'r + q'rVT ,
or,
2 = p(p' + 3g'r) + g(3p' + q^r)V"7 .
We shall now show that our assumption that V 2 ~ p + q'\/ r
implies that ^ 2 is a rational number. First, if ^ = 0, then V 2 =
p is rational. If ^ =5t 0 and if 3/>' + q'^r ^ 0, then from the last of
the above equations we obtain
^ 2-p(p' + 3<?'r)
^ '' q{3P' + q'r) '
from which we find
which states that VY is rational. If 3/>' + q^r = 0, then
q'r ^ -3p',
2 = p[p' + 3{-3p')] = -8p»,
and ^ 2 = —2p is again a rational number.
It remains to prove that ^ 2 is not a rational number. If VY
were equal to an irreducible fraction — then we would have 2 =
——, or m" — 2n'. In this event m' (and hence m) would have to be
n'
an even number, and therefore would be divisible by 8. We could
then write n' ——^r-, and, since—— is even, then necessarily n" (and
therefore n) would have to be even. This contradicts the assump-
tion that — is irreducible, and the contradiction proves the statement
n
of the problem.
183. (a) Designate 1.00000000004 by a, and 1.00000000002 by (3.
Then it is readily seen that the two numbers of the problem can be
written as ; and -j . Since oi > 0, it is clear that
l+a_l 11 l_l+i3.
a' a^ a i3» (3 (3* '
1+a '•{ a' J ^'■•y 0' J 1 + 0'
1 +« + «'.= 1 + a' > 1 + • ''' 1 + 0 + 0'
1+a 1 + a 1 + 0' 1 +

286 Miscellaneous Problems in Algebra
and, finally,
1+a ^ . . /l + a + a'\ . /I + jS + jS'N ^ 1 + jS
1+a + a^ A 1+a /^ A l + i3 ^ 1 + 0 + 0'-
Therefore, the second number is greater than the first.
(b) If we designate the two expressions given in the problem
by A and B, respectively, we obtain
1 /7"
A='^
1 + a + a^ + ■
1
1 + a + a^ + ■ •
.. +a»-i
• + a"-'
1 + ,,_,_, , r—-r=l +
11 1
a" a" ' a
1
B "
1 , 1
-1+ I 1
b' "^ 6"-' "^ ■
-i
It follows that —>— or B> A .
A B
184. Let AT be an arbitrary number. Consider the difference
{X - ay - {X - ay. We note that
{X - ay - (x - ay = X' ~ X' - 2aiX - x) .
We can now write the difference
[{X - a,y + {X~ a,y + ■■■ +{X- any]
- [{X - a,y + {x- a,y + ■■• +{x- a,y]
= n{X' - X') - 2(a, + a^ + ■ ■ ■ + a,){X - x) .
If in the right member we substitute ——— " for x, then
n
that member will be nonnegative; in fact, we shall have
[{X - a,y + {X- a^y + ■■■ +{X- a„)^]
- {{X - a,y + {x- a^y + ■■■ +{x- a,y]
= n{X' - X')- 2nx{X ~ x) = n{X' - x' - 2Xx + 2x')
= n{X- xy^O .
It follows that the sought-after value of x must be
ai + ai + ■ • ■ + a.
185. (a) We have, in all, only three essentially different
arrangements insofar as <D is concerned;

Solutions (184-185) 287
(1) fli, <72, rts.a*:
<Dy = (rt, - a^y + (at - a,y + (a, - a,)^ + (a, - a,)^ .
(2) ai, a3,a2, a,-.
(»2 = (ai - a3> + (a, - a^f + (aj - a^Y + (a, - a,Y .
(3) ai, Oi, at,Oi:
<D, = (ai - aj)^ + (aj - a,)^ + (a, - aj)^ + (aj - a,)^ .
Now, it is readily seen that
<Di — 01 = — 2a2a4 — 2aia3 + 2a2a3 + 2aia4
= 2(a2 — ai)(a2 - a,) < 0 ;
<Di — 02 = — 2aia2 — 2<73a4 + 2a2a3 + 2aia4
= 2(a3 -a,)(a2-rt0 <0.
Consequently, the arrangement we seek is
ai, ao, a„ Oi .
(b) First Solution. Consider the expression
<D = (a;, - a,-^)^ + {Oi^ - a^y + ■ ■ • + (ai„_, - a; J^ + (a,-„ - a*,)^ ,
where ai|,a,j, ■•-,«;„ are the given numbers in the required order.
Consider two of these numbers «,„ and a.^, where a < 0. We claim
that if a,^ is greater than (or, respectively, less than) a^^, then a,„_,
is greater than (or, respectively, less than) a,p+,. (We assume
If we assumed the contrary, that is, if
then the permutation which reverses the order at^, Oi^^^, at^^^, • • ■, a,p
would decrease the value of the sum <D, since the difference of the
new sum <D' and the initial sum <D would then be
«'-« = - lai^^fli^ - laijii^^^ + 2<7i^_,a,„ + lai^fn^^
= 2(ai„ - ai3)(a,„_, - ai^^,) .
This observation enables us to find the full solution of the problem.
First, since a cyclic permutation of all the given numbers (the
permutation which preserves the relative positions of the numbers—for
example, writing them in a circle and merely rotating the circle)
does not change the value of (5, we can assume that ai^ is the smallest
of the numbers, that is, /'i = 1. It is then possible to assume that

288 Miscellaneous Problems in Algebra
ai^ and «,■„ follow in order of magnitude. In fact, if for example,
flip < flij ((3 ^t n), then we would have (ai^ — ai^iai^ — at^^^) < 0, and
if flip < ai„ ((3 ^t 2), then we would have (at^ — ai^_^)(ai„ — at^) < 0.
Since it is possible to change the order of the "links" of the chain
ai,,aij, flij, • ■ •, a,„, fli, to the reversed order without changing the
value of (5, we can assume that ai^ < ai„, iz = 2, and z„ — 3.
Further, we assert that the numbers ai^, a,„_j follow in this order
in magnitude, within the pattern of the numbers at^, a,j, a,„ already
considered. In fact, if, for example, ai^> a-,^ ((3 ^t l, 2; w — 1, w),
then we would have (af^ — aip)(a,-j — a,-p^.|) < 0. But since we have,
moreover, (a;, - a,„_j)(a,j - aij > 0, it follows that a;, < ai„_,, that
is, ai^ = at and ai„_j = as.
It is similarly shown that ai^ and a,„_3 follow in magnitude after
ai^ < ai„^^ (it = 6, z„-2 = 7), that the numbers a;, and a,„_3 follow in
magnitude after the previously determined a,, < a,-„_3 (it = 8, i„-a = 9),
and so on. Finally, we can set down the following scheme.
If n
2k (even), then
/aj — at
\ai — as
' + 1 (odd), then
/aj — at
ai
\a3 — as
— aa — •
— a, — ■
— as — •
- a, — • •
• • — an-2\
a„
■ • — a„-i/
•• — a„-i
1 .
• — a„
(The schema represents the order of the numbers; for example, for
even n we have the order a,, aj.ai.as, •• •, a„-2, a„, a,-,, • • •, av.as.as).
Second Solution. If the order obtained in the first solution could,
in some manner, have been guessed at, the verification could be
made by mathematical induction. In fact, for w = 4 the proof is
quite simple [see the solution of problem (a)]. Assume now that for
some even n the sum (5„ in the arrangement given by part (a) for
the numbers a, < aj < • • • < a„ is less than the sum H)', corresponding
to any other order. We shall prove that the sum(5„^, corresponding
to the scheme shown in part (a), as it concerns the w + 1 numbers
ai < ai < ■■■ < a„ < a„+i, is less than the sum(5Ui corresponding to
any other ordering of the w + 1 numbers. We have
(9n+i - (9n = (a„ - a^+iY + (a„+i - a^^iY - (a„ - an-iY
= 2al+i — 2a„a„+i — 2a„-ia„+i + 2a„-,a„
= 2(a„+i — a„)(a„+i — a„-i) .

Solutions (185) 289
On the other hand, if in the order answering to a sum(5i+i the
number a„+, were to stand between two numbers a^ and ap, and if
(Pn answers the array of n numbers obtained from the array of w + 1
numbers leading to a sum(5Ui by striking out the number a„+i, then
K+i — (9n = (aa — an+iY + (fln+i — OfiY — (a* — apY
= 2a„+i — 2aa>a„+i ~- 2apa„+i + 2aa>ap
= 2(a„+i - aa,)(a„+i - ap) § (5„+i - (»« .
Thus,
(9,-n - (9n+i = [<Dn - <] + [((9„+i - «„) - (C+i - K)] ^ 0
(the first pair of brackets parentheses encloses a nonpositive number
by the induction hypotheses; the second pair does so by the proof).
Here, if the sum(»U, differs from (»„+i, then either (D, ~ (D, < 0 (and,
consequently, (»„+i - K+i < 0), or ((»n+i - (»») - ((»i+i - C) < 0 (and,
consequently, (5„+i < (Pi+i). The transition from w to w + 1 is carried
out in a similar manner for odd n.
Third Solution. This problem has a less involved geometrical
solution. We represent the numbers a, < aj < aa < • • ■ < a„ by points
Ai, Au Ai, ■ ■ ■, A, on a number axis; we designate the intervals
AiAi, AiAi, ■■■, An-iA,, respectively, by di,di, ■ ■■ ,d^-i. Then the
sum
(9 = (ai. - a<^)' + (a<^ - Oi^Y + ••• + (ai„_, - ajj^ + (ai„ - a^,)^
= >li,>ljj + Ai^A\^ + ■■■ + Ai„Al
is equal to the sum of the squares of interval lengths, or "links"
Ai^Ai^Ai^ ■ ■ ■ Ai„_^Ai„Ai^ [all of which lie on the one straight line;
see Figure 14 (a)].
I——I—I 1 1—I
/), ^i Aj A, a, a. A, a^ ^, ^y a^ a,
a b
Figure 14
Since the closed overlying curve covers the whole segment AiAn,
each of the segments AtAk+i = dt enters at least twice into its com-

290
Miscellaneous Problems in Algebra
position (once in the direction from At to At+i and again in the
reverse direction). Therefore, regardless of the order in which we
take the points, the expanded sum <D when expressed in terms of the
lengths di,di,---,dni must contain all the numbers 2^*; that is,
2dl,2dl,---,241^1. Further, let Ak-iAk = dt-i and AtAt+i = di, be
two adjacent segments. It is clear that if the link of the overlying
curve which covers the segment AkAk+i going from Ak to Ak+i
commences at the point Ak, then the link covering this segment in
the reverse direction cannot terminate at the point Ak. Therefore,
in all cases there must exist a link which simultaneously covers the
segments Ak~iAk and AkAk+i. It follows that the sum (5 must in all
cases contain all the numbers 2dk-idk, that is, 2didi, 2didi,- ■ • ,2dn-zdn-i.
Now we need only note that if the points are ordered as in the
first solution of this problem, then
2d\ + 2dl +
+ 2d\-, + 2d,d., + 2d.,d^ + • • • + 2dn-,dn-i
[see Figure 14 (b)]. It follows from this, and from what has been
said above, that the sum (5 will be least for this ordering.
186. (a) First, we may assume that the numbers ai,a2, •••,a„
and 61,62, ■■■,bn are all positive, since if some of them are negative
it is clear that the inequality will be exaggerated. Consider the
broken line AaAiAt ■■■An in Figure 15, where the lengths of the
4
1
11
'^
,
L^iSi^,
r* '-^0^
iQf^^
u a„ ►
?/»,
%
Figure 15
projections of the segments AoAi, AiAi ■■■,An-iAn onto the A:-axis
are denoted by Oi, 02, • ••, a„, and onto the ^--axis by bi, bi, ■ ■ ■, bn.
Then, by the Pythagorean theorem, we see that

Solutions (186-187) 291
AoA, = Va'i + b\,
A,A, = Va\ + b\ ,
A,-iA,=Val +bi ,
AoAn = Viai + flj + ■ • ■ + OnY + (bo + bi + ■ ■ ■ + b,y ,
from which the inequality given in the problem follows immediately.
The broken line AoAiAi ■■■An can be equal in length to the
segment AaA, only if it is a straight-line segment. This can occur
only if -T" = -T" = ■ ■ • = -r^, and then we have the equality.
Oi Oj On
(b) Let h be the height of the pyramid; let 01,02, ■•■,a„ be
the lengths of the sides of the base (01+02+ ■ ■ • + a„ = P, the base
perimeter); and let 61,621 ••■,6„ be the lengths of the
perpendiculars from the foot of the altitude (the center of the inscribed circle,
for a right pyramid) to each of the base sides, respectively,
(then —Oibi +—aibi + ■ ■ ■ + —a„6„ = S, the base area). Now, the
lateral surface area S of the pyramid is equal to
yfli Vb] + h' + ya2 VWTh" + • ■ ■ + yfl, Vbl + h' .
However, by part (a),
2S = ViaAY + {a,hy + Via^^TJaJif + ■ • ■ + Via^bnY + (a„/j)^
S V{aibi + 0262 + ■ ■ ■ + anOnJ- + {oih + Oih + ■■■ + a^hy
= ViS' + h'P' ,
The equality here holds only if ai6i: 02^2: ■ ■ •: Onb, = Oih: Uih: ■ ■ ■: a„h—
that is, 61 = 62 = ■ • • = bn.
The statement of the problem follows immediately.
187. We shall investigate separately the cases for which n is
even and n is odd.
The integer n is even. Construct the broken line (Figure 16)
connecting points Ai, A2, ■ •-, An, An+i, An+i, forming a "step graph,"
such that the segments AiAi, AiAz, ■• ■, An+iAn+i are of unit length,
and they are successively perpendicular (as shown in Figure 16,
where n = 4). On each segment AiAt+i (z = 1, 2, • • ■, w + 1), or on
its extension, we place a point B; such that the length of the
segment BiAi+i is equal to a; (we shall assume that On+i is equal to a^

292
Miscellaneous Problems in Algebra
Figure 16
that is, B„+i is selected such that B„+iy4„+s = aO. In doing this, we
place Bi to the left of (or below) the point Ai+i if fli > 0, and to the
right of (or above) the point y4,+i if a,- < 0 (in Figure 16, 0 < Oi < 1,
0 < 02 < 1, fla > 1, a* < 0). We now connect the points Bi to form the
broken line B^B^ ■■■ B„+i. By the Pythagorean theorem,
Now, BiAi+i
BiBi+i = y BiA]+i + Bi+iAi+i .
1 — flf+i I; consequently,
fli, and Bi+iAi+i
b^e::, = Vai + (1 - fli,.)'.
Hence the sum in which we are interested,
Va\ + (1 - a^y + Val + (l- a,)'
+ ■■■ + Va\-, + (1 - fl„)' + Va\ + (1 - flO'
is equal to the length of the broken line BiBj • • • Bn+i.
It is obvious that the length of the broken line B^Bi •
•S.+i is
not less than the length of the segment BiB^+i. We shall now find

Solutions {187) 293
the length of this segment. We construct the right triangle B^CBn+i
(Figure 16). Then
BiC = AiAi + ^4^5 + • • • + KTa^i = y .
and
CB„+, = AiAi + AzAk + • • • + An~iAn =
2
(for >liB, = >l„+iB„^i = 11 - a, I). It follows that
BA7. ^ V-(B,C)^ + (CB„.0' = /(f)' + (f)' = ^ •
This proves the inequality sought.
It is not difficult now to determine when the equality holds. In
order to arrive at the equality, all the points B^, B^, ■•■ ,B, must
lie on the line segment BiB„+i (that is, Bj must coincide with the
points of intersection of the line segments BiBn+i and AiAi+i. Because
the segment BiB„+i forms a 45° angle with B^C {BiC = CB,+i), it
follows that
B,A2 = A^B, = B,A, = A,B, = • • • = B,-,A, = AnB, ,
that is, fli = (1 — flj) = fla = (1 — a*) = • • • = fln-i = (1 — fln). Thus for
n even, the equality holds for
fli = fla = • ■ • = fln-i = a ,
ai= ai= •■• = a„ = 1 — a ,
where a is any arbitrary number.
The integer n is odd.^ Let a„+i = ai, a„+2 = a2, ■ ••,a2„ = a„, and
consider the sum
Va\ + (1 - a^Y + Vdk + (1 - aa)^
+ • • • + l/al„-. + (1 - a2„)^ + l/flL + (1 - aO^ ,
which is equal to twice the sum
Va\ + (1 - aj)^ + Vaf+a-^^
+ • • • + l/a^, + (1 - a„)= + l/al + (1 - a.)^
(each term of the last sum is met with twice in the preceding sum-
f Elucidation for n = 3 is left to the reader; the proof for even n does not
apply for odd to.

294 Miscellaneous Problems in Algebra
mation). However, it has already been shown that the first sum is
less than or equal to ^?LV_2_. j^ foUows that
Val + (1 - a^y + Va\ + (1 - a^Y
+ ■ • ■ + l/fl^i + (1 - anY + Va\ + (1 - a,r ^ "^ ;
that is, we obtain the required inequality.
The equality sign holds only if
1
fl, = fla = • ■ ■ = a„ = — .
188. First Solution. Both numbers of the inequality are positive;
hence upon squaring both sides we have
l-xl + l-xl + 2 Va - xl)a - xl) ^ 4 - ixl + 2xa^ + xl) ,
that is.
2 V{1 - x\Xl - xl) ^ 2 - 2x,x, ,
V{1 - ;t^Xl - xl) ^ 1 - xa^ .
If again we square both sides, we have
1 - Xf - ATj + AtJaTj ^ 1 - 2XiX2 + xUl ,
and if all terms are transposed to the right side, we have
0 ^ (a:, - X,)' .
It is clear that the right member of the given inequality dominates
the left member; also, the equality can hold only for Xi = xi.
Second Solution. This problem can also be solved by geometric
means; analogous solutions are possible for many more involved
problems of this sort. Consider in the Cartesian coordinate system
(plane) the unit circle with center at the origin (Figure 17). The
coordinates x,y of points on the circle are related by the equation
x^+y^ = l. (1)
Select two points Mi and Mi on the A:-axis having absicissas x^
and Xi and where | ati | ^ 1 and | atj | ^ 1 (thus both points are within
or else on the circle). Construct perpendiculars from Mi and A/j
intersecting the upper semicircle in the points Ni and Ni, respectively.
It is clear from equation (1) that MiNi = V\ — x\ and MtNz -
V\ - x\.

Solutions (188)
295
Figure 17
Note now that the absicissa
Xi + ATj
will be the midpoint of the
sum
segment A/iA/j.^ We shall designate this point on the A:-axis by M,
and the point above it on the circle by N.
Clearly, the length of MW is -j/l - (^' t^')'- Now, the
MiNi + MzNi is equal to twice the length of the segment MN',
where N' is the point of the trapezoid MiNiNzMz just above M, and
MN' is obviously shorter than MN. The inequality of the problem
follows immediately. The equality holds only if the points Mi and
Ms coincide, that is, if Xi = x^.
Remark: Many interesting inequalities are suggested by this last proof.
For example, consider the unit sphere with center at the origin (Figure 18).
Let Ml and Mi be any two points in the xy-plane within (or on) the sphere,
and let Ni and Ni be the points of intersection, with the sphere, of
perpendiculars to the plane rising from Mi and Mi, respectively. Let M be the
midpoint of segment MiMi, and construct the perpendicular MN in the plane
containing Mi, Mi, Ni, and Ni, where N is the intersection with the sphere.
Obviously, MN will intersect the segment from Ni to Ni, and this intersection
point we label N'. If (a;i, yO and (a;2,1/2) are the coordinates of points Mi and
Mi, then
f This is obvious for positive xi and ^2; it is easily verified that this will
hold even if one of the numbers is (or both are) negative. Also, it suffices to
consider only positive xi and xi, since in any other event the inequality is
emphasized.

296
Miscellaneous Problems in Algebra
MiM=T/1 -xl-yl;
MzNz = Vl-x]- vl;
MN
= /^-(^^)^-(^^) =
MN' =j(M,N, + MiNi) .
And since MN' ^ MN, it follows that
provided, however, that all the expressions under the radical are nonnegative.
Equality here will hold only for xi = xt, j/i = yi, that is, only when points Mi
and Ml are coincident.
Figure 18
Figure 19
A somewhat similar inequality can be produced by using a triangle M1M2M3
in the Xy-plane and letting M be the point of intersection of the medians of
the triangle (Figure 19). We obtain the inequality
vi
Vl-xl-vl+Vl- xl ~v\+V\~:
< 3 /i _(x\. + xi + Xi\^ / 1/1 + 1/2 + 1/3 y ~
(S)

Solutions (189)
297
This results from the fact that segment MN' of the perpendicular from M
does not exceed segment MN. Inequality (S) is valid only when the
expressions under the radicals are nonnegative; the equality holds only for xi = xt =
I3 and yi = yi = y^; that is, when the points Afi, Mu M3 all coincide.
Another inequality arises from the use of a right circular cone having its
vertex at the origin and the a;-axis as its central axis, and having a vertex
angle of 90° (Figure 20):
Vxl + y\ + Vx\ + y\ + Vx\ + y\
^ 3 /(^+^3' + "-)V (^- + ^3' + ^-;
w
X\
This is valid for all x\, x^, xz and 1/1, j/2, j/3. Equality holds only when — =
1/1
— = —^, that is, when Ni, N2, and Ni lie simultaneously on a generator of
yz y»
the cone. Algebraic proofs for inequalities (2), (S), and (i) are very involved.
X # ■''
Figure 20
189. Using the trigonometric identity
cos (A + B) = cos A cos B -- s'm A sin B ,
we have
cos I-^ + cos a: I = cos — cos x
\2 J 2
sin — sin cos x
sin — sin cos x = — sin cos x ,
2

298 Miscellaneous Problems in Algebra
or,
cos (y + cos a: j ,
sin cos X
from which we obtain
cos sin a: — sin cos x = cos sin x + cos (-^ + cos xj (1)
We employ the formula
cos A + cosB = 2cos ^ j" ^ • cos "^ ~ -^
2 2
in the right member of (i) and use the fact that cos a: =cos( —a:) to find
cos sin X — sin cos x
sin a: + — + cos x — sin a: + — + cos x
= 2 cos cos .
Now,
I cos a: + sin a: I = "l/cos^ a: + 2 cos a: sin a: + sin' x
= l/l + sin 2a: ^ "l/ 2 .
(We note that |cosa: + sinA:| = l/2 only if sin 2a: = 1.) In a similar
manner we find that
cos
X — sin XI = i/cos^ a: — 2 cos a: sin a: + sin' x
= l/l - sin 2a: ^ l/ 2
Q 1/1
(and so I cos a: - sin a: I = l/ 2 only if sin 2a: = - 1). Since y ~ —2~
1-57 and i/T^ 1-41, we have
-ij- + cos a: + sin a:
y> ^ >0
and
which means that
-TT + cos X — sin X
Y> 2 >°'
-7T + COS X + sin X
cos

Solutions (190-191) 299
and
-p- + cos a: — sin a:
cos
are always positive. Hence the difference cos sin a: — sin cos a: is
always positive; that is, cos sin a: exceeds sin cos a: for all values of x.
190. (a) Write logj k = a and logs n = b. From the equalities
2" = n and 5'' = ;r we obtain
n'l" = 2 ,
77'/" = 5 ,
^i/..^,/4 = 2-5 = 10 ,
^1/^ + 1/4 _ ;10 .
However, k' ~ (3.14)^ < 10, and therefore we must conclude that
1- 1- > 2, which is what we set out to prove.
a 0
(b) Write logj ;r = a and log^;! = b. Then we have 2" = k
and 77* = 2. Since now 2"' = tz, it follows that 2" = 2'/\ or 6 = —.
a
The left member of the given inequality now is of form
a \la a a
We are required to show that > 2, or, equivalently, that
a
a" + \>2a (note that a > 0). But a^ - 2a + 1 = (a - 1)^ > 0, which
proves the validity of the given inequality.
191. First Solution. We must show that if (3 > a;, then
(a) sin (3 — sin a; < (3 — a; .
However,
sin (3 - Sin a; = 2 sin -i^—— cos -^—~— < 2 -—— • 1 = (3 — a;
(for acute angles, sin a: < a: and cos x < 1).
(b) We have
tan (3 — tan a > 0 — a .
Clearly,
n ^ /n \ tan (3 — tan a ^ . „ ,
^ - a; < tan (^ - a;) = — < tan ^ - tan ac
1 + tan (3 tan a

300
Miscellaneous Problems in Algebra
(for acute angles, tan a: > x).
Second Solution. We consider only part (a) since part (b) is analo
gous.
In Figure 21, let the radius of the circle be unity; then the chord
AE is equal to the radian measure of a, and AF= (3. If EM and
FP are perpendiculars from E and F to OA, then, designating by
S(OEA) the area of the triangle OEA, and so on, we have
S{OEA) = y sin a;,
S{OFA) = 1 sin (3 ,
and if SdOEA) is the area of the sector OEA, and so on, then
1
S,{OEA)
oi,
SIOFA) = \&-
We readily read from the figure that a; — sin a; < (3 — sin (3.
Figure 21
192. Reference is made to Figure 21, and the same terminology
is used as in the second solution of problem 191. The perpendicular

Solutions (192-193) 301
AC is tangent to the circle at A. We read from the figure that
S{OAB) = -i- tan a- , S{OAC) = -|- tan (3 ,
S,{OAE) - Y «!, S,{OAF) = y 13 .
Consequently,
tana; SjOAB)
a ~ Sj,OAE) '
tan 13 SjOAC)
(3 " S^iOAF) •
Also, it is readily seen that
SjOAB) SjOAB)
ScjOAE) ^ SjOEM) '
SjOBC) SjOEC)
ScjOEF) ^ SjOEN) '
and
SjOAB) SjOBC)
SjOEM) ~ SjOEN) •
Thus
SjOAB) SjOBC)
ScjOAE) ^ S^jOEF) •
From the fact that |^ > ^^ , it follows that
that is, that
_^OABl±SjO "C)__ SjOAB)
S^jOAE) + S^jOEF) ^ ScjOAE) '
SjOAC) SjOAB)
S^jOAF) S^jOAE) '
which is what we wished to prove.
193. Let arc sin cos arc sin x = a. The angle a is bounded be-
veen 0 and —; that is, 0 g a; g -^
(—-^ ^ arcsinA: g yj. Further,
tween 0 and —; that is, 0 g a; g —, inasmuch as 0 ^ cos arc sin a: ^ 1

302 Miscellaneous Problems in Algebra
Consequently,
sin a = cos arc sin x
arc sin a:
and
sin
±(-^ — a!j=± cos a
Similarly, if arc cos sin arc cos a: = (3, then 0 g (3 ^ — (for 0 S
sin arc cos a: ^ 1, since 0 S arc cos x ^ ;r), and
cos B = sin arc cos x .
Consequently,
arc cos x = — ^ (3 ,
and
X = cos (y^iSj =±sini3.
Since cos a = sin i3(= ±x), conclude that
oi + 0 = arc sin cos arc sin x + arc cos sin arc cos x = — .
194. Assume that the series
cos 32a: + an cos 31a: + Oso cos 30a: + Oja cos 29a:
+ • • • +02 cos 2a: + fli cos x (!)
is always positive for all values of x. Substituting a: + ;r for a: in
this series, we obtain
cos 32(a: + k) + an cos 31(a: + k) + Oso cos 30(a: + ;r)
+ fljs COS 29(a: + ;r) + • • • + flj cos 2(a: + k) + ai cos {x + k)
= cos 32a: — 031 cos 31a: + Oao cos 30a: — ajg cos 29a:
+ •••+02 COS 2a: — fli cos x , (2)
which must also be positive for all x. Now if the two series (i) and
(2) are added, we obtain
cos 32a: + flso cos 30a: + • ■ ■ + a, cos 4x + Oj cos 2a: , (5)
which also can take on only positive value for any x.
In (3) we now substitute a: + -^ for a: to obtain

S„l„lions (194-195) 303
+ • • • + a, cos 4(x + -^ j + flj cos 2^a: + y )
= cos 32a: — 030 cos 30a: + Oja cos 28a: — • ■ • + a, cos 4a: — a^ cos 2a: .
The sum of (5) and the final series yields the new series
cos 32 + 028 cos 28a: + a^ cos 24a: + • • • + Oa cos 8a: + a, cos 4a: ,
which will have to be positive for all x.
Replacing a: by a: + — in the last sum obtained, and adding the
4
Insulting series to the previous one, we obtain
cos 32a: + On cos 24a: + Oie cos 16a: + Oa cos 8a: .
Replacing in this series, a: by a: + —, and adding the resulting ex-
8
pression to this one, we obtain
cos 32a: + flie cos 16a: .
Finally, in another step, we find that cos 32a: can take on only
positive values for all x. But this is a contradiction, since if a: = ——,
then cos 32a: = cos ;r = —1. This contradiction proves the assertion
of the problem.
195. The well-known half-angle formula of trigonometry can be
written as
at
2 sin -— = ±l/2 — 2 cos a;,
where the plus-or-minus sign is determined by the quadrant in
which
angles
which — lies. We shall use this formula to find the sines of the
fli • 45° ,
(.,+^)-45-.
(^«. + ^- + —^ + ■ • • + 2^ri ) ■
45°

304 Miscellaneous Problems in Algebra
Assume that we have already found the sine of the angle
(^«i + 2 + 4 + • • • + 2^^^ ) *^ •
where Oi, Oj, Oa, •■•,ai, have the individual values +1 or —1. Since
r, („ . gig2 , aiazaj . . aiOz ■ ■ ■ Ok , aiaz ■ ■ ■ gtflt+i \ .ro
H"' + 2 + 4 + ■ ■ ■ + 2^^^ + 2^ j ■
= [±90° ±(az + ^+---+ «.«L:j_^i^i±L^ .45°].
(where the plus sign refers to Oi = +1 and the minus sign refers to
fli = —1), and since
cos[±90° ± (^«, + £p- + ... + £i«3__^^ .45.-J
= -sin («.+ ^+...+ "'%-;:."--)-45°.
we may determine the following:
2sinffl. + ^+ ...+ "'^---"^ + «-«^---«^«^"y45c
V 2 2' ' 2 /
^ ±/2 + 2 sin («. + ^ + ■ ■. + "'"-^V-; "^" ) ■ 45° .
Keeping in mind that all angles are (positively or negatively)
acute, we see that even
(^1 + j + 1+ ...+_!-) .45° =90° - 2^90°
is less than 90°, that the sign of these angles is determined by the
sign of di, and that the square root in the final formula must be
taken with a plus or a minus sign in accordance with the sign of
fli. In brief, we can write
2sin («. + ^ + ..• + ^^^^^ + £l£^J—£l^ . 45°
Now, it is clear that
2sina,45° =ail/Y.

Solutions (196-197) .. 305
From this we obtain
2 sin U + -^) • 45° = fl. 1/2 + a, V'2 ,
2sin U + ^+ aya^\^ 45, ^ ^^ 1/2 + fl, 1/2 + fla l/2",
2sin («. + -^ + ^^ + ^i^) • 45°
= a, "•^2 + flj 1/2 + 031/^ a, V"2,
.■..■■■■■.■■■•• • • ............ .. ^
o .;„ /^ 1 Q'Qj , gigjgj , , aig2g3 ■ ■ ■ fln \
45°
= a, "'^2 + flj v'2 + 03 V2+ ••• +a„-i/2',
which is what we wished to show.
196. The expansion of the given expression will take on the form
(1 - 3x + 3x2)'"(l + 3x - 3x^)'"
= A^ + A,x + A2X^ + ■■■ + A,x' , (I)
where Ao, Ai, Az, ■■•, An are the coefficients whose sum we wish to
find, and the degree n of this polynomial is 743-2 + 744-2 = 2974.
In equation (i) let a: = 1; we then have
The sum we seek is equal to 1.
197. Assume that we have expanded the two expressions, obtaining
two polynomials in x. Now let us replace x by —a: in each
polynomial and rewrite them; the coefficients of odd powers of x change
sign, and the coefficients of even powers do not. In particular, the
coefficient of x^" in each of the expansions remains unchanged.
Hence, insofar as the coefficient of a:'" is concerned, we may as well
compare the coefficients of x'" in the two expressions (1 + a:^ + x^y""
and (1 — a:^ — x^y"", which are obtained, respectively, from the given
expressions, by replacing x by —x.
Now it is easily shown that the first of these new polynomials has
the larger coefficient for x^". In fact, the expansion of (l -^ x^ + x^y""
contributes only positive terms to the sum which makes up the
coefficient of x^"; the expansion of (1 — a:^ — x'Y'""' cannot produce as

306 The Algebra of Polynomials
large a coefficient for a:", since the sum making up that coefficient
is comprised of like terms having coefficients of the same absolute
values as those of the first expansion, but some of them are negative.
Therefore, the coefficient of x'^" in (1 + a:^ — at^)"""" is greater than
that in (1 - jc^ + a:^)"""'.
198. The proof of the problem follows from the following:
(1 - a: + a:^ - a:^ + • • • - jc"' + a:""')(1 + a: + .r^ + a:^ + • • • + a:»» + a:'"")
= [(1 + a:^ + jc* + • • • + JC'"") - a:(1 + a:^ + a:* + ■ ■ • + a:'")]
X [(1 + a:^ + a:* + • • • + a:'"") + a:(1 + a:^ + a:* + • • • + a:»«)]
= (1 + a:^ + a:* + • • • + a:""')^ - a:^! + ^' + ^* + • • • + a:''')^ .
199. (a) Using the formulas for the sum of a geometric
progression, and the binomial theorem, we obtain
(1 + a:)"""" + a:(1 + xT^ + Ai^l + a:)''" + • • ■ + a:"""'
ylOOl
— fl + a:")""""
\ -\- X ^ ' ' v-iooi _ n + a:")"""
— '■ ~ -^ _ _± v-^ ~ -^z = (1 + JtV"" — x'""^
X . a: — 1 — a:
1 +x
1000
= 1 + 1001a: + C'fooiA:^ + Cl,,,x^ + ■■■ + 1001a:
Therefore, the coefficient we seek is equal to
lOOl!
L-iooi - 50! 951! •
(b) Designate the given series by P{x). Then we can write
(1 + x)P(x) - P{x)
= [(1 + xY + 2(1 + xy + ■■■ + 999(1 + a:)'""" + 1000(1 + a:)"""]
- [(1 + a:) + 2(1 + a:^) + 3(1 + a:^) + • • • + 1000(1 + a:)'"""]
= 1000(1 + a:)""" - [(1 + a:) + (1 + a:)^ + (1 + a:)^ + • • • + (1 + a:)'"""]
= 1000(1 + a:)""" - (1 +-t)""" -(1 + a:) ^ ^^^^^ ^ ^y,,,
1 + a: — 1
_ (1 + a:)""" - (1 + a:)
X
It follows that
p,. ^ 1000(1 + a:)""" _ (1 + a:)""" - (1 + a:)
X x'
= 1000[1001 + CIooiA: f C?oo.a:^ + • • • + 1001a:««« + a:'"""]
- [C?ooi + CJoo.A: + C\ooiX' + ■■■ + lOOlAT''" + X'^'] .

Solutions (198-200) 307
Therefore, the coefficient sought is equal to
51! • 950! 52! • 950!
10011 f.o ,^ ^^, 51,050 • 1001!
= ^r^.^^^-^^-^^^- 52!. 950! •
200. We shall first determine the constant term obtained by ex-
l)anding
{••■{{X- 2y -2y ~ ■■■ - 2)2
^__ ^ ^
k times
and collecting like terms. Clearly, this term is equal to what is
obtained if we set a: = 0; that is,
(
...(((_ 2)2-2)2
k times
= (•••((4-2)2.
-2)2 = (•••((4-2)2 _2)2- •.
k — \ times
- 2)2 - . • • - 2)2
• -2y
k — 2 times
= • • • + ((4 - 2)2 - 2)2 = (4 - 2)2 = 4 .
Designate by Ak the coefficient of x, by Bk the coefficient of x^,
and by PkX" the sum of all the terms containing higher powers of
X (this is x" times a polynomial in x). We then have
(• • -{{x - 2)2 - 2)2 2)2 = P^x" + BiA:2 + AkX + ^ .
^ ^, ^
k times
However,
(•••((x-2)2- 2)2-2)2- ••• -2)2
k times
= [(^••((x-2)2-2)2 2)2 - 2]2
ife — 1 times
= [(P*-.a:» + Bi-.A:2 + Ak-,x + 4) - 2]2
= (Pi-.A:" + Bk-vx^ + >li-,A: + 2)2
= Pl-a^ + 2Pu-A-a' + {2Pk-,Ak-,Bl-,)x*
+ (4P*-, + 2B^-,Au-,)x' + (4Bi-. + >1L.)a:2 + ^A^-,x + 4
= [PUx' + 2Pt-,Bt-a' + {2P,-,A,-, + Bl-dx
+ (4Pi_, + 2B^-,At-d]x<' + (4Bi_. + >1L,)a:' + 'iAt-,x + 4 .

308 The Algebra of Polynomials
From this we obtain
Ak = 4Ak-i ,
B, = Al, + 4B,-. .
Since (x — 2y = a:^ — 4a: + 4, we have Ai = —4. Consequently,
>l2 = —4 • 4 = —4S Ai = —4^ • • •, and, in general, At = —4*.
We shall now find B,,:
B, = Al-, + 4B*-, = Al-, + 4(>l|-2 + 'IB,-,)
= Al-, + 4AU + ^Al-i + 4B,-3)
= Al-, + iAlz + 4X^1^3 + i'iAl-, + AB,-d
= ■■■ = Al-, + ^AU + 4M?-3
+ • • • + 4''M2 + 4'-M' + 4'''B, .
If now we substitute
Bi = 1 , >l3 = -4\
^■=4, ,
A^ = -4^ , A,-, = -4'-'
we arrive at
Bi, = 4"-'' + 4-4"-* + 4''-4"'« + ••• + 4'-2-4'' + 4'-'-l
= 42«:-2 _j_ 424-3 _j_ 42J:-< _j_ . . . _j_ /^k-H _j_ 4J: _j_ 4«:-l
= 4'-'(l + 4 + 4^ + 4^ + • • • + 4'-^ + 4'-')
= 4t-i 4*^- 1 ^ 4"^-' - 4*^-'
4-1 3
201. (a) First solution. Since jc' — 1 is divisible by a: — 1, for all
natural numbers k, and since we can write
a: + a:^ + a:« + a:" + Jc"' + a:^" = (a: - 1) + (a:^ - 1)
+ (a:« - 1) + (a:" - 1) + (a:"' - 1) + (a:'" - 1) + 6 ,
we see that the given polynomial gives a remainder of 6 upon
division by a: — 1.
Second Solution. Let q{x) be the quotient resulting from division
of the given polynomial by at — 1, and let r be the remainder. Then
a: + a:^ + a:« + a:" + a:"' + a:"^ = ^(a:)(a: - 1) + r .
The substitution a: = 1 into this identity yields r = 6.
(b) Let q{x) be the quotient and let r^x + r^ be the remainder
obtained by dividing the given polynomial by a:^ — 1. Then

Solutions (201-203) " 309
X + x^ + x^ + x" + x"' + x''" = g{x){x' - 1) + rix + ri .
If we substitute, first, a: = 1 into this identity, and then x= —1, we
derive the two equations (both of which must hold):
6 = r, + rj
and
—6 = -r, + rj .
Solution of this system yields ri = 6 and r-i = 0.
Therefore, the remainder we seek is 6jc.
202. Designate the unknown polynomial by p{x), and let q{x)
designate the quotient and r{x) = ax + b the remainder resulting from
division P{x) by (jc - l)(x - 2). Then
P{x) = ix- \)ix - 2)q{x) + ax + b . ( i )
By the conditions of the problem,
p(x) = (a: - \)q.(x) + 2 ,
whence />(1) = 2; ■•
Pix) = {x- 2)q,{x) + 1 ,
whence p{2) = 1.
If we substitute a: = 1 and x = 2, successively, in (i), we obtain
the two equations
and
from which we obtain
2 = p{l) = a+b ,
1 =r p{2) = 2a+b ,
a=-l ,
6 = 3.
Therefore, the remainder sought is —x + 3.
203. The polynomial x* + x^ + 2x' + x + 1 is factorable into
(x^ + \){x^ + jtr + 1). It follows that this polynomial is a divisor of
X^^-\= {X' - 1)(JC« + 1)
= ix' - l)(jc^ + IXx' + l)(jc* - x' + \) ,
and, specifically, that

310 The Algebra of Polynomials
X" -1
~ x" - X' - x' + 2x' -2x^ + x^ + x-l ■
Dividing a:''*' — 1 by a:* + a:' + 2a:' + a: + 1 is equivalent to dividing
a:''*' — 1 first by a:'^ — 1 and then multiplying the result by
;^ - a:' - a:« + 2a:= - 2a:3 + a:' + a: - 1 .
However, it is readily found that
Vl951 _ 1 r' — 1
- a:'»3» + a:'»" + a:'»'' + x'^"^ + ■■ ■ + x'^ + x'' +
X'' - 1 a:'^ - 1
(this is conveniently found if we note that
and use the well-known formula for dividing the difference of two
even powers by the difference of the bases). It follows that the
coefficient we seek coincides with the coefficient of a:'' in the product
/^1939 _,_ ^.927 _|_ ... _^ x^^ + X'^ + X^ + ^ ~ )
V X" - \/
X (a:" - a:' - a:« + 2a:' - 2a:3 + a:^ + a: - 1) ,
and this coefficient is equal to 1.
204. (a) Write a: = i/T+"l/T. Then
a:^ = 2 + 21/T- V~3 + 3 = 5 + 2l/'6 ,
from which we obtain
a:^-5 = 2i/'6,
X* - \0x^ + 25 = 24 ,
X' - IOa:^ + 1=0.
This equation satisfies the condition of the problem.
(b) Let X = i/'2"+ ^T. Then we can write
a: = -i/2"+|/T,
a:2 = 2 + 2-i/T- ^T+ ^"9,
x^ = 21/2"+3 • 2- ^T+3--l/T- V^+3 .

Solutions (204-206) 311
Two of the three irrational numbers can be readily eliminated
from these three equations, namely, 1/2, -^3, and ^9, by finding
their corresponding expressions in terms of x, x'', and x^. In fact,
from the first and second equations we obtain
•^T = X - i/T,
= x'-2- 2\/'2{x - "i/T) = x^ + 2 - lV~2x .
If these substitutions are made in the third equation, we obtain
X' = 2l/'2"+ 6(x - l/y) + 3v^{x' + 2 - 2V^x) + 3 ,
from which we find
x^ + 6x - 3 = v^{3x' + 2) .
Now we may eliminate the radical by squaring and transposing all
terms to the left side:
x' + 36^2 + 9 + 12x* - 6x' - 36x = 18x* + 24x' + 8 ;
x« - 6x' - 6x' + \2x' - 36x + 1 = 0 .
This equation satisfies the condition of the problem.
205. Using the well-known relations between roots and coefficients
of a quadratic equation, we obtain
a + 0 = -p , a0 = l ;
r + 8= -g , rS=l .
Therefore,
{a - r)(i3 - r)(a + 5)(i3 + d)
= [(a - r)(i3 + d)W - rXa + 5)]
= {aB + aS- Br - rSX^& + 03- acr - rS)
= {aS - 0r){0S - ecr) = ot0d^ - a^rS - &''rS + ecBr"-
= 8^~ a^- 0' + r' = [{S + rY + 25r] - [{a + &y - 2ixB]
= {Q'-2)-{P'-2) = g'-p'.
206. If a; and (3 are roots of the equation
X' + px + Q = 0 ,
then (x — ci:){x - 0) = x^ + px + q. Consequently,

312 The Algebra of Polynomials
{a - r)(i3 - r){a - 5)(i3 - 8)
= [(r - «!)(r - i3)][(5 - a){8 - i3)]
= ir' + Pr + Q)(S' + ps + q).
However,
r + 8=-p,
which means that
(a - r)(i3 - rXa -5)(i3 - 5) = (r^ + />r + ^X^^ + ps + q)
= r'S' + Pr'S + qr' + PrS' + p'rS + pqr + qS' + PqS + q'
= irsy + prSir + 8) + q[{r + 8y - 2r8] + p^rS + Mr + S) + cf-
= Q^ - pPQ + 9(P^ - 2Q) + p'^Q - pqP + q^
= Q' + q'- PP{Q + q) + qP' + P'Q - 2qQ .
207. First Solution. We solve for the constant a in the second
equation and substitute into the first:
a = -(^2 + X) ,
X' - (x^ + x)x+ I =0 ,
x'~ \=0 ,
(x - \)ix' + x+\) = 0.
We obtain the roots
a:, = 1 ,
and
_ -1 ± it/y
and, consequently, since a = —{x^ + x),
fli = -2,
and
02.3 = 1 .
Second Solution. Using the results of problem 206, we can assert
that the necessary and sufficient condition for the given equations
to have a common root is the vanishing of the following expression:
a^ + 1 - a • l(a + 1) + a^ - 2a = a' - 3a + 2
= (a - l)(a2 + a - 2) = (a - ma + 2) .

Solutions (207-209) 313
This implies that
fli = -2 ,
and
02,3 = 1 .
208. Let (x - a){x - \0) + I = (x + b){x + c). If we make the
substitution X = ~b in this identity we obtain
(-6 - a)(-6 - 10) + 1 = i-b + b){-b + c) = 0 .
Thus, necessarily,
(b + a)(b+\0)= -1 .
Since a and b are to be integers, b + a and 6+10 must also be
integers. However, —1 can be the product of two integers only if
one of the integers is +1 and the other is —1. Therefore, there
are only two possibilities:
(1) b+ IQ=1, b= -9; then b + a= -9 + a= ~\, that is, a = 8.
In this case,
{X - S)(x -10)+\ ={x- 9y .
(2) b + lO= -I, b= -11; then b + a = -11 + a = 1, that is, a =
12. In this case,
{X- \2){x- io) + \ = {x- uy .
209. A polynomial of degree four can be represented as a product
of two polynomial factors in two ways; a first-degree and a third-
degree polynomial, or two quadratic polynomials. We investigate
each case separately.
For the first case we have
x{x - a){x - b){x - c) + \ = {X + p){x' + qx^ + rx + s) . (1)
[The coefficient of x in the first factor on the right side and of x'
in the second factor are both either 1 or — 1, since the coefficient of
X* on the left is 1, However, the equation x(x — a)(x — b)(x — c) + 1 =
( — a: + pi){—x^ + Qix^ + ra + Si) can be written in form (i) by using
— 1 as a factor on both sides.]
If in identity (i) we substitute, in turn, a: = 0, x = a, x = b, and
X = c, and note that 1 can be expressed as the product of two factors
in only two ways, 1 = 1-1 or 1 = ( —1)'(—1), we see that the four
distinct numbers

314 The Algebra of Polynomials
0+p=p,
a + P ,
b + P ,
c + p
(distinct since, by hypothesis, a, b, and c are distinct) can have only
two values, +1 or —1. This is a contradiction.
For the second case we have
x{x - a){x - b){x - c) + \ = (x^ + px + q){x'^ + rx + s) .
Substituting, successively, a: = 0, x = a, x = b, and x = c, we find
that both the polynomials x' + px + q and x^ + rx + s can take on
only values of +1 or —1, Now, the quadratic trinomial x^ + px + q
cannot have the same value a for three distinct values of x
(otherwise the quadradic equation x' + px + q — a = 0 would have three
distinct roots), and so for two of the four distinct values x = 0, x = a,
X = b, and x = c this trinomial has value 1, and for the other two
it has value —1. Supppse that 0'^ + p-0 + q = q=\, and let a: = a
be the other value among the numbers x = a, x = b, and x = c for
which this trinomial has value 1, Then for x = b and for a: = c this
trinomial has value —1. This yields the equations
a' + pa + \ = \ ,
b' + pb + 1 = -1 ,
d + pc + 1 = -1 .
From a^ + pa = a{a + p) = 0 we find that a + p = 0 and p = —a
(by hypothesis a ^ 0), Then the last two equations take on the form
b' -ab = b{b - a) = -2 ,
c'' — ac = c{c — a) = —2 ,
If we subtract the first equation from the second, we obtain
b'' - ab- c'' + ac = {b- c){b + c) - a{b - c)
= (6 - c)(b + c - a) = 0 ,
which yields (since b =f= c)
b + c- a = 0,
a = b + c ,
b — a = —c ,
c — a = —b .

Solutions {209) 315
Now, from the equation
b{b - a) = -be = -2
we find the following values for b, c, and a:
b=\ ,
c = 2 ,
a = b + c = 3 ,
x{x - a){x - b){x -c)+l = x{x- 3)(x - l)(x - 2) + 1
= {x' -3x + ly ,
and
b= -1 ,
c= -2 ,
a = b + c = —3 ,
x(x - a){x - b){x - c) + \=x{x + 3){x + \){x + 2) + 1
= (x^ -3x + \y .
Analogously, if x' + px + q assumes the value —1 for a: = 0 and
X = a, and hence the value +1 for x = b and x ~ c, we have
Q= -1 ,
a^ + />a - 1 = -1 ,
b' +pc-l = 1 ,
c^ + pc- I = I ,
from which we obtain
p = —a , a = b + c ,
b{b — a) = c{c — a) = 2 , b — a = —c ,
b^ - ab-c^+ ac = 0 , -be = 2 .
{b - cXb + c-a) = 0 ,
In this way we obtain two additional systems from which to obtain
values for a, b, and c:
6 = 2 ,
c= -1 ,
a = b + c = \ ,
x{x - a){x - b){x - c) = x{x - l)(x - 2)(x + 1) + 1
= (x^ - X - 1)2 ;

316 The Algebra of Polynomidi-
b=\ ,
c= -2 ,
a = b + c = -I ,
x(x - a){x - b){x - c) = x{x + 1)(a: - \){x + 2) + 1
= {x'' + X- \y.
Remark: Another solution of this problem is given in the final part of tlic
solution of problem 210 (b).
210. (a) Assume that
{x - a,Xx - a^Xx - fla) • • • (a: - a„) - 1 = P{x)q{x) ,
where p(x) and q(x) are both polynomials of degree ^ 1 with integral
coefficients, and that the sum of their degrees is n. We may assume
that the leading coefficient in each polynomial is 1 (compare with
the preceding problem). If we make the successive substitutions
X = Oi, X = az, X = Oi, •••, X = a„, and take into consideration that —1
is essentially factorable only as — 1 = 1 • (—1), we see that, for each
of these values of x, either p{x) = 1 and q{x') = — 1, or vice-versa.
Therefore, the sum p{x) + q{x) vanishes for x = Oi, Ui, •••, a„, and the
equation p{x) + q{x) = 0 has as its roots Xi = Oi, Xi = a^, •••, Xn = On.
It follows that p{x) + q{x) is divisible hy x — a^ x — a^, ■■■, x — a^,
and hence by the product {x — a^x — a^) ■■■(x — a„). However, the
degree of the polynomial p{x) + q{x) is only the larger of the degrees
of p{x) or q{x), which is less than n [n is the degree of {x — UiXx — Ui)
••• (a: — a„) — 1]. Therefore, p{x) + q{x) cannot be divisible by the
product {x — a^Xx — Oz) ••■ (x — a„), and because of this contradiction
we must conclude that the factorization assumed at the beginning of
this proof is not possible.
(b) Assume that
(x - a,Xx - a^Xx - fla) • • • (a: - a„) - 1 = P{x)q{x) ,
where p{x) and q(x) are polynomials of degree ^ 1, and whose leading
coefficients are each 1. If in this identity we substitute, successively,
X = Oi, X = Oi, X = a^, •• ■, X = a„, then we find that for each of these
values of x, p(x) = 1, q(x) = 1, or else p{x) = — 1, q{x) = — 1.
Since p{x) — q{x) vanishes for n distinct values of x, we must
conclude that p{x) — q{x) = 0, or p{x) = q{x) [compare with fhe solution
of problem (a)]; also, the integer n must be even, say n — 2k, where
k is the common degree of the identical polynomials p{x) and q{x).
We can rewrite the identity in the form

•itii»^wis (210) 317
(a: - ai){x - OiXx - Oa) • • ■ (a: - an,) = p\x) - 1 ,
C Ia: - x,){x - a^){x - a,) ■ ■ ■ (x - Ou) = [p{x) + 1] [p{x) - 1] .
N">w , the prcxiuct of the two polynomials p{x) + 1 and p{x) — 1
mish.»es for x = ai, x = 02, •••, x = Oik. Consequently, for each of
llii-se ^-values of x at least one of these polynomials vanishes, which
iiw:ins that either p{x) + 1 or else p{x) — 1 (or both) is divisible by
^i and this conclusion holds also for divisibility hy x — a^ x — a^,
lul SQ3 on. Since a polynomial of degree k cannot be divisible by
llic pr-oduct of more than k factors of form x — a;, and since the
|M)lyncr)mial p{x) + 1 of degree k, with leading coefficient 1, is divisi-
lilc. b-^ k factors of form x — Oi, it follows that this polynomial is
iilcnti^ally equal to this product. That is, p{x) + 1 is the product
I'f k of the factors x — Oi, x — a^, •••, a: — Ojt, and p{x) — \ is the
l)rodu.ct of the remaining k factors.
We may assume, with generality, that
p{x) + 1 = (a: - OiXa: - 03) ■ ■ • (a: - fljt-i) ,
p{x) - 1 = (a: - a^Xx - a,) • • • (a: - fljt) .
If the second equation is subtracted from the first, we obtain
2 = (a: - a,Xx - 03) • • • (a: - Oit-i) — {x — a.^{x — a,) • • • (a: - fljt) .
Noav, to consider a specific case, if we let x = Oj, we obtain the
factorization of the integer 2 as the product of k integral factors:
2 = (flj - fliXflj - 03) • • • {Oi - fljt-i) . (i)
Since the integer 2 cannot be expressed as a product of more than
three distinct integers [for example, 2 = 1 - (—1) • (—2)] it follows that
* = 3. But the condition ife = 3 is impossible in (i). Assume, for
example, that * = 3 and that oi < 03 < a^; then 2 = (oj - OiXaj — a^Xai — as),
where Oj — Oi > Oj — 03 > Oj — as, and hence 02 — Oi = 1, Oj — 03 = —1,
and flj — fls = —2. If we substitute x = Oi in the formula
2 = (a: - a,Xx - a^Xx - as) - {x - a^Xx ~ a^Xx - a^) ,
we arrive at the other representation of the integer 2 as a product
of three "polynomials":
2 = (a, - aiXa, - a3)(a, - a^) ,
where also a, — ai > a, — ^3 > a, — a-,. It follows that a, — ai = 1,
a, ~ fla = — 1, and a, — aj = —2, which implies that a, = a^, which

318 The Algebra of Polynomials
contradicts the conditions of the problem.
Hence only two cases are possible: k = 2 and * = 1.
If * = 1, we have
2 = (a: - a,) - (a: - Oj) ,
which implies that 02 = 01+ 2, and if we designate Oj simply by a,
we have
{X - ad{x - flj) + 1 = (a: - a){x - a - 2) + 1
= {x-a-\y
(compare with the solution of problem 208).
If k = 2, we have
2 = (a: - ai){x — a^) - (a: - ai){x - a,) ,
where we will consider Oi < a^ and az < a,. If we substitute x = a^
in this equation, and then substitute x = a,, (thus obtaining two
equations) we have
2 = (aj — ai)(aj — a^) , a^ — a^ > ai — a^ ,
2 = (a, - ai)(ai — as) , a, - ai > a, - as .
However, the integer 2 can be expressed (in diminishing order)
only in two ways: 2 = 2-1 and 2 = ( —1) • ( — 2). Since, moreover,
aj — ai < a, — ai, we obtain
az — ai= -1 , aj — aa = -2 ,
a, - ai = 2 , a, — as = 1 ,
from which, replacing ai by a, we find
a2 = a — 1 ,
aa = a + 1 ,
a, = a + 2 ,
and
{X - ai){x - az){x - a^Xx - a,) + 1
= (a: - a){x - a + 1)(a: - a - 1)(a: - a - 2) + 1
- [x' - (2a - Da: + a^ + a - 1]^
(see the solution of problem 209).
211. As in the solution of the preceding problem, assume that
{X - a,)\x - az)\x - a^y ■■■{x- a^Y + 1 = p(x)qix) , (i)

Solutions {211) 319
where p{x) and q{x) are certain polynomials with integral coefficients
(each with leading coefficient 1). In this event, either p{x) = 1 and
q{x) = 1, or else p{x) = — 1 and q{x) = — 1, for each of the values
X = Qi, X = Qi, X = a^, •••, a: = a„. We shall show that the
polynomial p{x) [and, of course, ^(a:)] will be, for all values x = a^, x = Oj,
•••, X = On, either equal to 1, or for all these values of x equal to
-1.
In fact, if (for example) the polynomial p{x) takes on the value 1
for X = Ui but assumes the value —1 for x = «,■ (i 4= j), then for some
intermediate value of x between «< and Oj it must become zero [the
polynomial p{x) is continuous; its graph will go from the —1 value
for X = di to the value +1 for x = Uj, thus crossing the A:-axis for
some X such that Oi < x < a,]. However, this is impossible, since
the left side of equation (i) is always greater than 1 and therefore
cannot become zero.
Let us assume that p{x) and q{x) both take on the value 1 for
X = Ui X = Ui, ■■■, X = On. In this case, both p{x) — 1, and q{x) — 1
become zero for x = ai,,x = 02, • • •, a: = a„, and, consequently, p{x) — 1
and q{x) — 1 are divisible by the product {x — Oi) ■ {x — a^) ■ • -{x — a„).
Since the sum of the degrees of the polynomials p{x) and q{x) must
be equal to the degree of {x — aiYix — a^Y • • • (a: — aO^ + 1, that is,
2w, it follows that />(a:) — 1 = (a: — aO • • • (a: — a„) and ^(a:) — 1 =
{x — Qi) ■ • ■ {x — a„) (compare with the solution of the preceding
problem). We also have the identity
{X - a,y{x - a,y ■•■{X- OnY + 1 = P{x)q{x)
= [{X - a,) • • • (a: - a„) + 1] {{x - a,) • • • (a: - a„) + 1]
= (a: - a,y{x - a,y ■ ■ ■ (x - a„y
+ 2{x - ad{x - aj) • • • (a: - a„) + 1 ,
from which we must conclude that
{x — ai)(A: — aj) • • • (a: — a„) = 0 .
This is impossible; hence we must conclude that neither p{x) nor
q{x) can take on the value 1 for all the x = Oi. It can be shown in
exactly the same way that neither p{x) nor q{x) can assume the value
— 1 at the points a: = ai, a: = aj, • • •, a: = a„ (if they could, we would
obtain p{x) = q{x) ■= {x - ai){x - a^) ■ ■ ■ (x - a„) -1).
Therefore, the proposed factorization of
(x - a,y{x - a^y ■■■{X- a„y + 1

320 The Algebra of Polynomials
as the product of two polynomials with integral coefficients is
impossible.
212. Let the polynomial P{x) be equal to 7 for a: = a, x = b, x = c,
and X = d, where a, b, c, and d are integers. Then the equation
P(x) — 7 has four integral roots a, b, c, and d. This means that the
polynomial P{x) — 7 is divisible by x — a, x — b, x — c, and x — d,^
that is,
P(x) -7 = (x- aXx - bXx - c)ix - d)p(x) ,
where p(x) is the remaining factor (it may be constant).
Now let us suppose that the polynomial P{x) takes the value 14
for the integral value x = A. Upon substituting x = A into the
preceding identity, we obtain, since P(A) = 14,
7 = {A- a)(A - bXA - cXA - d)p{A) ,
which is impossible, since the integers A — a, A — b, A — c, and
A — d are all distinct, and 7 cannot be expressed as a product of
five factors of which at least four are distinct.
213. If a polynomial of seventh degree is factorable as the product
of two polynomials p(x) and q{x) with integral coefficients, then the
degree of one of these factors does not exceed 3. Let us assume
that p{x) is such a factor. If P{x) has the value +1 or else —1 for
seven integral values of x, then p{x) has the value +1 or —1, for
those same values of x [since all coefficients are assumed to be
integers, and since p{x)q{x) = P(a:)]. Among the seven integral values
of X for which p{x) has the value +1 or —1, there must be at least
four for which p{x) will have the value 1 or else four for which p{x)
will have the value —1. In the first instance the third-degree
equation p{x) — 1 = 0 has four roots, and in the second instance the
equation p(a:) + 1=0 has four roots. No such polynomial p{x) of
third degree can exist, since neither p{x) —1=0 nor p{x) +1 = 0
can have four roots [They would have to be divisible by a polynomial
of fourth degree. Compare with the solution of problem 210 (a).]
214. Let p and q be two integers which are either both even or
both odd. Then the difference P{p) — P{q) is even, since the value
t Assume that P{x) — 7 has a remainder r when divided by a; — o. Then
P(x) - 7 = (a; - a)Q(x) + r .
If we set a; = a in this equality, we obtain 7 — 7 = 0 + r (that is, r = 0), and
this means that P(x) — 7 = (x — a)Q(x) is divisible by x — a.

Solutionis (212-215) 321
P{p) - Piq) = aoip' - g") + a,{p-' - q'-')
+ • • • + a„-2(/)2 - q'') + On-iiP - Q)
IS divisi^ble by the even number p — q.
In pa^rticular, for even p the difference P{p) — P(0) is even. But
by hyp^othesis P(0) is odd; consequently, P{p) must also be odd,
and therefore P{p) ^ 0. Analogously, for odd p the difference
Pip) — P(l) is even. Since by hypothesis P(l) is odd, it must follow,
by the same reasoning used above, that P(p) ^ 0.
Consequently, P{x) cannot become zero for any integral value of
X (either even or odd); that is, the polynomial P{x) does not have
integral roots.
215. Let us assume that the equation P(x) = 0 has the rational
root a: = A_ that is, /'(y) = 0. Let us write the polynomial P{x)
in pov^ers of x — p; we shall express it as
P{x) = Ux - p)' + c,{x - /))»-'
+ C^{X - P)'-' + ■■■ + Cn-,{X - p) + Cn,
where ca.Ci.d, •••,c„ are certain integers which are readily found
in terms of at [ca is equal to the leading coefficient Oo of the
polynomial P{x), Ci is equal to the leading coefficient of the polynomial
f{x) — Ca(x — p)' of degree w — 1, C2 is equal to the leading coefficient
of the polynomial P{x) - Co{x - p)" — Ci{x — p)"'^ of degree w — 2,
and So on.] If in the last expression for P{x) we set x = p, we
obtain Cn = PiP) = ±\.
If in the same expression we set a: = y and multiply the result
by /", we obtain
I'pCj) = ^"(^ - ^')" + ^''(* - ^')""'
+ cj\k - pi)'-' + ■■■ + Cn-J'-'ik - pi) + cj' = 0 ,
from which it follows that if ^(y) =0, then
cj" _ ±/»
k~pl " k-pl
= -Coik - pi)'-' - Cj{k - pi)'-''
- Cn-J'-\k - pi) - C„-,/»-'
is an integer. But since pi is divisible by /, and k is relatively

322 The Algebra of Polynomials
k
prime to / (we assume, of course, that the fraction — is in lowesi
terms), then k — pi is relatively prime to /, and, consequently, k — pi
±/"
is also relatively prime to /". It follows that — can be an
k — pi
integer only if k — pi = ±\. We may show, in exactly the same
manner, that * — ^/ = ±1.
Subtracting the equality k — pi = ±\ from the equality k — ql =
±\, we obtain {p - q)l = 0 or {p - q)l = ±2. But {p - q)l > 0, since
p > q and / > 0, and, consequently, (p — q)l = 2, k — pi = —\, and
k-ql=\.
Hence, ii p — q > 2, then the equation P{x) = 0 cannot have any
rational root. If, however, p — q = 2 or p — q = 1, then a rational
root — may exist.
Upon adding the equations
k-pl=-l,
k-ql=\,
we obtain
2k-{p + q)l = Q,
k__ p + q
I 2 '
which is what we sought to prove.
216. (a) Let us assume that the polynomial can be expressed as
a product of two polynomial factors having integral coefficients:
^2222 ^ 2x"" + 4x"'» + • • • + 2220^2 + 2222
= {anX' + a„-,A:"-' + an-jA:"-^ + • • • + Oo)
X (6„a:"* + 6„-,a:"-' + 6„-2a:"*-2 + ■ ■ ■ + bo) ,
where m + n = 2222. Here, aabo = 2222, and therefore one of the
two integers Oo and ba will be even and the other will be odd. Let
us assume that oo is the even integer and ba is odd. We shall show
that all the coefficients of the polynomial a^x" + a„_iA:"~' + • • • + Oo
must be even. Indeed, suppose that at is the first odd coefficient of
this polynomial to appear, reading from right to left. Then the
coefficient of x'' in the product
(OnX" + a„-iA:»-' + • • • + aa){b„x'^ + 6„-iA:"*-' + • • • + 6o)
will be equal to
Okba + Ok-ibi + Ok-ibi + • • • + Oabk ( 1 )

Solutions (216-217) 323
(for k > m, this sum ends with the term at_„6„). This coefficient
is equal to the corresponding coefficient of x'' in the initial
polynomial. That is, it is equal to zero if k is odd, and even if k is
even (since all the coefficients of the polynomial, except the first,
by hypothesis, are even, and k S^n < 2222). But since, by assumption,
all the numbers ot-i, at-2, at-3, ■■■,aa are even, then in sum (i) all
the terms other than the first must be even, and, therefore, the
product Oicba must also be even, which cannot be since a^ and ba are
both odd.
Therefore, all the coefficients of the polynomial
anX" + a„_iA:"~' + • • • + ao
must be even, which contradicts the fact that a„6„ must be equal
to 1. Our assumption that it is possible to write the given
polynomial as the product of two polynomial with integral coefficients is
therefore untenable.
(b) Let us set x = y + I. We then have
x"" + x^" + x2*» + • • • + X + 1
= {y + 1)"' + {y + lY*' + ••• + (>- + 1) + 1
(>- + 1) - 1 y'^"^
= y"" + 251y'*' + CLi^ + Cl,y'" + ■■■ + Cl,y + 251 .
Further, since all the coefficients of the last-written polynomial,
except the first, are divisible by the prime number 251 inasmuch as
^,^^^251.250.249.-(251-^+l)1 ^^^ ^.^^^ ^,^ ^^^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^
1-2-3 ■ ■ ■ k J
the polynomial is 251, which is not divisible by 25P, we can, by
using reasoning almost identical to that used in problem (a) and
merely replacing eveness and oddness of coefficients with divisibility
by 251, conclude that a necessary condition for the given polyomial
to be expressed as the product of two factors is that all the
coefficients of one of the factors be divisible by 251. However, this is
impossible, since the first coefficient of the given polynomial is 1.
217. Let us write the polynomials in the forms
A = Oa + a,X + OiX' + • • • + flnAT" ,
B = ba + b,x + biX' + ■ ■ ■ + 6„a:"* .
Since by hypothesis not all the coefficients in the product are divisi-

324 The Algebra of Polynomials
ble by 4, not all the coefficients in both polynomials can be even.
Consequently, in one of them (say, polynomial B) not all the
coefficients will be even. Now assume that polynomial A also contains
some odd coefficient. Let us examine the first of these to appear
(that with the smallest subscript), and let us assume that this is the
coefficient a.. Further, let the first odd coefficient of polynomial B
be bk, and consider the coefficient of x''^' in the product of the
polynomials A and B. The term x'+' in this product can be obtained
only from those powers of x the sum of whose exponents is equal
to * + s; consequently, this coefficient is equal to
aabki^. + aibk+,-i + • • • + a,-i6n-i + aA + a.+fit-i + ■■ ■ +a.+t6o .
In this sum all the products appearing before aA are even, since
all the numbers ao, ai, •••,a.-i are even. All the products appearing
after aA are also even, since all the numbers bk-u hi, ■■■,ba are
even. But the product a,bk is odd, since both a. and bi, are odd
numbers. Consequently, the sum is also odd, and this contradicts
the requirement that all the product coefficients be even. Therefore,
the assumption that polynomial A has odd coefficients is untenable.
Therefore, all the coefficients of A must be even, as was to be proved.
218. We shall prove that for an arbitrary rational, but not
integral, value of X, the polynomial P{x) cannot be an integer, (nor zero,
which we consider an integer).
Let X = —, where p and q are relatively prime (that is, this
fraction is in lowest terms). Then
Fix) = x' + a,A:»-' + a^x"-'' + • • • + a„-,x + a„
p" /)»-' 6»-2 p
q" q'-^ q'-' q
^ P" + aip'-'q + a^p^-^q"- + • • • + a„-i/)g"-' + a„g"
^ P" + qjaip"-' + aip'-'q + • • • + a„-i/)g""' + a„g"-')
The number p", as well as p, is relatively prime to q; consequently,
p" + q{aip"-^ + ••• + a^q"-^) is also relatively prime to q, hence also
to q". Therefore P{x) becomes an irreducible fraction which cannot
be an integer.^
f It is as easy to prove the more general theorem that if -*- (in lowest terms)
9
IS a zero of P(,x), then p divides a„ and q divides the leading coefficient [Editor\.

Solutions (218-220) 325
219. Let Nhe a certain integer and let P{N) = M. For any
integer k,
P{N + kM) - P{N) = aA{N + kMY - //"]
+ a\{N + kMY-' - //»-'] + • • • + a,-\{N + kM) - N]
is divisible by yfeM—since {N + kM)' — N' is divisible by [{N + kM) —
N = kM]~ar\d hence also by M. Therefore, for any integer k,
P{N + kM) is divisible by M.
Thus, if we prove that among the values P(N + kM) {k = 0,\,2,---)
there are integers distinct from ±M, then this will prove that not
all of them can be prime. But the polynomial P{x) of nth degree
assumes a given value A for at most n distinct values of x (since
otherwise the «th degree equation P{x) — A = 0 would have more
than n roots). Hence, among the first 2w + 1 values of P(N + kM)
(k = 0,\,2, -■■, 2n) there must be at least one which is distinct from
M or —M.
220. First we show that every polynomial P{x) of degree n can
be expressed in terms of (as "a linear combination" of) polynomials
of the form
Po(x) =
PM =
Pzix) =
1,
X ,
x{x
1
-1)
•2
P (r\ - a:(a: - 1)(a: - 2) • • • (a: - « + 1)
each supplied with suitable numerical coefficients bi, namely,
P(x) = b^P^x) + 6„-,P„-.(a:) + • • • + b,P,{x) + boPo{x) .
To prove this, we note that if b„ is chosen such that the number
-^ is equal to the leading coefficient of the polynomial P{x), then
P{x) and b„P„{x) + b„-iPn-i{x) + • • • + baPa{x) have identical coefficients
for x". If bn-i is chosen such that -—""' . is equal to the leading
(w - 1)!
coefficient of the new polynomial P{x) — bnPn{x), then P{x) and
bnPn(x) + b„-iPn-i(x) + ••■ + baPa{x) have identical coefficients for
both x" and a:"~'. If, in addition, -—"~' . is equal to the leading
(n - 2)[
coefficient of the polynomial P{x) — b„P„{x) — bn-iPn-i{x), then P(x)

326 The Algebra of Polynomials
and b„Pn{x) + 6„-iP„-i(a:) + b^-zPn-iix) + • • • + boPo{x) have identical
coefficients for x", x''~\x"~^, and so on. Thus, we can determine
bn, bn-i, •••,61,60 in such a way that the polynomials P{x) and
bnPn{x) + b„-iP„-i{x) + • • • + biPi{x) + baPa{x) completely coincide.
Express the given polynomial P{x) of degree n, which has the
property that P(0), P(\), ■■■,P(n) are integers, in the form (as
outlined above)
P{x) = b,P,{x) + b,P,{x) + biP^ix) + ■■■ + b„P„{x) .
We see that
P>(0) = P,{0) = ■■■ = P„(0)
= A(l) = P,i\) =■■■= P„(l) = P,(2) = ■■■ = P„(2)
= • • • = P„-,(« - 2) = P„(« - 2) = P„(« - 1) = 0 ,
Po(0) = P.(l) = P2(2) = • • • = P„_,(« - 1) = P„(«) = 1 .
Therefore,
P(0) = 6„P„(0) ,
whence 60 = /'(O);
P(l) = 6oPo(l) + 6.P.(1) ,
whence 6, = P(l) - 6oPo(l);
P(2) = 6oPo(2) + b,P,{2) + b,P,{2) ,
from which it follows that
62 = P(2) - 6oPo(2) - b,P,{2) .
Pin) = boP,{n) + b,P,{n) +■■■+ b.-,Pn-,{n) + b„P„{n) ,
and so
bn = P{n) - ftoPoCn) - b,P,{n) b„-,Pn-,{n) .
Thus, all the coefficients 60,61,62, •••,6„ are integers.
221. (a) It was shown in the solution of problem 220 that a
polynomial of degree n can be expressed as a linear combination
of polynomials of form Pa{x), Pi{x), ■■■, P„{x) (see problem 220), where
the coefficients of P, in the linear combination (series) are integers,
and provided that P{k) is an integer for all integers k. The proof
needed only the fact that P(x) had integral values for * = 0,1, 2, • • •, w.
Hence the polynomial of the present problem can, under the given

Solutions (221-222) 327
conditions, be so represented. It is clear that the linear combination
b„Pnix) + ■•■ baPo{x) must have integral value for all integers, hence,
so must P{x).
(b) If the polynomial P{x) = a^x" + On-a"'' + an-iX'-^ + • • •
+ fliA: + flo has integral values for x = k, k + \,k + 2, ■■■,k + n,
then the polynomial
Q{x) = P{x - k) = Unix - k)' + a„-i(jc - *)»-' + • • • + a,{x - k) + Oo
has integral values for a: = 0,1, 2, 3, • • •, w. It follows from problem
(a) that Q{x) has integral values for every integer x. Therefore we
must conclude that the polynomial P(x) = Q(x — k) also has integral
values for every integer x.
(c) Let the polynomial P{x) = UnX' + a„-iAr"^' + • • • + Oia: + oo
have integral values for a: = 0, 1,4, 9, ■■■,n}. Then the polynomial
Q{x) = P{x'^) = a„{x'^Y + a„+i(x2)"-' + • • • + flix^ + flo of degree 2w has
integral values for 2w + 1 consecutive values of x, that is, for
x= -n, -(« - 1), -(w-2), •••, -1,0, 1, •••, w- 1, w. In fact, it
is obvious that
Q(0) = P(0) , Q(3) = Q(-3) = P(9) ,
Q(1) = Q(-1) = P(1), ,
Q{2) = Q(-2) = P(4) , Q{n) = Q{-n) = P{n') ,
and all these numbers, by hypothesis, are integers. Consequently,
basing our reasoning on problem (b), we may say that the
polynomial Q{x) has integral values for every integral value of x. This
also means that P(k^) = Q(k) is, for any integer k, an integer.
x(x — 1)
As an example, we may use P{x) = —^^—-—-, for which
Q(^) = p(^2) = XKX' - 1) ^ X'(X - 1)(X + 1)
^2 (X + 2Xx + l)x{x - 1) ix + \)x{x - 1)
1-2-3-4 1-2-3
222. (a) Using De Moivre's formula and the binomial theorem,
we have
cos 5a + i sin 5a = (cos a + i sin aY
= cos' a + 5 cos* a • z sin a + 10 cos' a • (f sin aY
+ 10 cos^ a • (z sin aY + 5 cos a • (i sin a)* + (z sin aY
= (cos' a — 10 cos' a • sin^ a + 5 cos a • sin* a)
+ f(5 cos* a • sin a — 10 cos- a • sin' a + sin' a) .

328 Complex Numbers
Equating the real and imaginary parts of the left and right sides,
we obtain the required formulas.
(b) As in the solution of problem (a), we have
cos na + i sin na = (cos a + i sin a)"
= cos" a + Ci cos""' a • z sin a + Ci cos""^ a • (i sin aY
+ Cl cos""' a • (/ sin af + C'„ cos""* a • (z sin a)* + ■ ■ ■
= (cos" a — Cl cos""^ a • sin^ a + Ci cos""* a • sin* a — • • •)
+ i{Ci cos""' a • sin a — C^ cos""' a • sin' a + • • •) •
Verification of the desired identities is immediate.
223. Using the formulas of problem 222 (b) we have
sin 6a 6 cos* a sin a — 20 cos' a sin' a + 6 cos a sin' a
tan 6a =
cos 6a cos' a — 15 cos* a sin^ a + 15 cos^ a sin* a — sin' a
Dividing the numerator and denominator of the last fraction by
cos'a;, we obtain the desired formula:
. c 6 tan a — 20 tan' a + 6 tan' a
tan 6a =
1 - 15 tan^ a + 15 tan* a - tan' a
224. We may rewrite the equation x -\ = 2 cos a in the form
X
a:^ + 1 = 2a: cos a
or
x^ — 2x cos a + 1 = 0 .
Thus,
X = cos a ± i/cos^ a — 1 = cos a ±i sin a .
It follows from De Moivre's theorem that
x" = cos na ± i sin na ;
1 1
= cos na -+-1 sm na .
x" cos na ± i sm na
By addition we obtain
x" -\ = 2 cos na .
a:"
225. Let us consider the sum
[cos <p + i sin <p\ + [cos {<p + a) + i sin {<p + a)\
+ [cos {(p + 2a!) + / sin {<p + 2a!)] + • • •
+ [cos {<p + na) + i sin )<p + na)] .

Solutions (223-226) 329
We have now only to compute the coefficients for the imaginary
mid real parts of this sum. By designating cos^ + zsin^ as a and
CDS a + i sin a as x, and applying the formula for the multiplication
I if complex numbers, and De Moivre's formula, we find that the
Hum under consideration is equal to
ax"^^ — a
a + ax + ax^ + ■ ■ ■ + ax" =
= (cos <p + z sin <p)
= (cos <p + i sin <p)
X- 1
cos (« + \)ot + i sin (n + l)ot — 1
cos a; + zsina; — 1
[(cos (n + Dot ~ 1)] + i[s'm (n + l)a]
[(cos a; — 1) + zsina;]
= (cos <p + i sin <p ■
.2sin^ ^?4^ a + 2zsin «^^cos^^ ^
-2sm^ — +2t sm — cos —
„..« + ! r w+1 ,.. n + \ 1
2zsm—-— a\ cos —-—a + zsin —-—a
(cos <p + i sin <p) — = —
2i sm — cos — + z sm —
. M + 1
sm —-—a
. at
sm —
2
■ (cos <p + i sin <p)
(^cos ^ a + is\n ^a) (cos | - isin |)
, at , . , at
cos^ — + sm^ —
. w + 1
sm —-—a
sm —
2
^-[cos (^+!«;)+z sin (^+!«;)],
Here we have again used the formula for the multiplication of
complex numbers and also the fact that cos — — 2 sin — = cos i — — i -(-
/sin( ——) I The required identities follow immediately.
226. Employing the identity cos^ x = ^ + ^"^ ^^- and the result of
the preceding problem, we obtain

330 Complex Numbers
cos' ac + cos' 2a + ■ ■ ■ + cos' na
= — [cos 2a! + cos 4a + • ■ ■ + cos 2na + n]
1 r sin (w + Da; cos wa; ."] n_
~ 2 L sin a; J "^ 2
_ sin (w + Da; cos na w — 1
2 sin a; 2 *
But since sin' a: = 1 — cos' x, we have
sin' a + sin' 2a; + • • • + sin' na
sin (n + \)a cos na n — \
= n ^
2 sin a; 2
_ w + 1 sin(w + D^cos wa;
~ 2 2 sin a;
227. We must compute the real part and the coefficient for the
imaginary part of the sum
(cos a + i sin a) + Ci(cos 2a + i sin 2a)
+ C^(cos 3a + i sin 3a) + • • • + [cos (n + \)a + i sin (w + Da] .
Designating cos a + i sin a as x, and using De Moivre's formula
and the binomial formula, we can transform the sum into the
following form:
X + Clx' + lx^ + ■■■ + a:»+' = xix + 1)»
= (cos a + i sin a)(cos a + 1 + / sin a)"
la a a \"
= (cos a + z sin a)( 2 cos' — + 2z cos — sm — J
o, ■ a / , • • \l na , ■ . na\
= 2" cos" — (cos a + z sm a)( cos ——|- z sin —— 1
o« ««/ w + 2 ,..w + 2\
= 2" cos" — I cos —-— a + z sm —-— a 1 .
It follows that
cos a + Cl cos 2a + Cl cos 3a + • • • + cos (n + l)a
o» » a w+2
= 2" cos" — cos —-— a ,
sin a + Ci sin 2a + C^ sin 3a + • • • + sin (w + l)a
o« „ a . w + 2
= 2" cos" —- sin —-— a .

Solutions (227-229) 331
228. We use the trigonometric identity
sin AsinB= ^ [cos (A - B) - cos (A + B)]
for the terms of the sum, obtaining
+ cos
(m — n)K , 2(m — n)K , 3(>m — n)K
„ , cos -^^ h cos —^^ —\- cos -5^ —
21 p p p
ip - \){m -
\[
P
n)n "I
im + n)n , 2(m + n)K , 3(m + n)n
cos -^^ ■ \- cos -^^ \- cos —^^ —
P P P
+ • • • + cos ^^ ■^^-
P
The sum
+ wVj
cos 1- cos 1- cos 1- • • • + cos -^^—-^—
P P P P
is equal to p — 1 ii k is divisible by 2p (here, every summand of
the sum is equal to 1). In the event k is not divisible by 2p,
however, this sum, according to problem 225, is equal to
. pkK ip - \)k7Z
sm-^— cos ^'^ „ cos
2p 2p ^ ■ u^
1 = sm * -;r •
('2-t)
. kK 2 . kK
Sin —: sin ——
2p 2p
^ rO, if k is odd ,
\ —1, if k is even .
Both of the numbers m + n and m — n will be simultaneously even
or odd; in particular, if either of >w + w or >m — w is divisible by 2p,
then both m + n and m — n are even. The equation sought follows
immediately.
229. Consider the equation a:^"^' — 1 = 0, which has roots
1 ,
2k , . . 2k
cos + I sin
2w + 1 2w + 1 '
4;r , . . Ak
COS — + I sin
2w + 1 2w + 1 '
4w;r , . . 4w;r
cos + I sin
2w + 1 2w + 1

332 Complex Numbers
Since the coefficient of the absent term x^" in this equation may
be taken as 0, the sum of all these roots is equal to zero:
1 + cos + cos + • • • + cos
V 2w + 1 2« + 1 2w + 1 /
.(.2k . \k . \nK \ n
+ z I sm + sin h • • • + sin = 0.
V 2« + 1 2« + 1 2« + 1 /
Consequently, the expression inside each set of parenthesis is equal
to zero; in particular,
2k , Ak , iriK ,
cos + cos + • • • + cos = -1 .
2« + 1 2« + 1 2w + 1
However,
2k 4nK
cos — = cos
2w + 1 2w + 1 '
iK (4w - 2)k
cos — = COS ^— 7 ,
2w + 1 2w + 1 '
and so on, which implies that
„/ 2k , 4;r , , 2nK \
2 cos + cos + • • • + cos = -1 .
V 2w + 1 2w + 1 2« + 1 /
That is,
2;r , 4;r , , 2nK 1
cos — + cos — + • • • + cos = — — .
2« + 1 2« + 1 2w + 1 2
Remark: It is also possible to prove this result by using the results of
problem 225.
230. (a) From the result of problem 222 (b) we have
sin (2« + l)a = Cl„+i(l — sin^ a)" sin a
- Cln+i{l - sin^a)"-' sin^ a +•••+(-1)*= sin^-'+'a ,
whence it follows that the numbers
0,
K
Sin ,
2« + 1 '
2k
sin ,
2w + 1 '

Solutions {230) 333
2w + 1
Sin I ) = sin ,
V 2« + 1 / 2« + 1 '
. / 2;r \
sin = —
V 2n + \)
2n
sin
2« + 1 '
• f nn \ ■ nn
sin — = - sin -
V 2w + 1 / 2w + 1
are the roots of the following equation of degree (2w + 1):
Ck-^.(1 - x'Yx - C.L-^.(1 - x'Y"x' + ■■■ + (-1)»a:^»^' = 0
Consequently, the numbers
sin'
sin''
2«+ 1 '
2«+ 1 '
. , HK
Sin'
2«+ 1
are roots of an equation of degree n, such as
c5n+.(i -x)'- cL-.i(i - xY-'x + ■■■ + i-iyx' = 0 .
(b) Let us replace n with 2w + 1 in the formula of problem
222 (b) and write it in the following form:
sin (2w + \)a = sin'»+'a(C5„+i cot'-a - CL+i cot'»-'a
+ dn+. cot'"-*a ).
Whence it follows that for
a —
2n + l '
2k
2n + l '
3k
2n + l '
»
2m + 1

334 Complex Numbers
the following equation holds:
CL4-. cot^»a - CL4-1 cot^»-^a + CL+, cot^'-'a = 0 ,
Therefore, the numbers
cot^
cot^
cot^
K
2« + 1 '
2k
2« + 1 '
2n + 1
are roots of the following equation of degree n:
CL^.x' - CL^.x'-' + Cl^a'-' = 0 .
231. (a) The sum of the roots of the nth degree equation
x" - -^N^ a:"-' + -^^ x"-' = 0
[see the solution of problem 230 (6)] is equal to the coefficient of a:""'taken
with the opposite sign (see the remarks preceding problem 222); that is,
cot^ tHH- + cot^ TT^^ + cot^ TT^^ + • • •
2w + 1 ^ 2w + 1 2w + 1
_L rnt^ »"• _ Cl„^i _ n{2n - 1)
^ 2« + l ~ CL^, - 3
(b) Since csc^a; = cot^a; + 1, the formula of part (a) implies
CSC^ 1- CSC^ 1- CSC^ ■
2« + 1 2w + 1 2w + 1
+ ... + csc^ »^ = »(2« - 1) ^ 2nin + 1)
2w + 1 3 3 *
232. (a) First Solution. The numbers
Sin'
sin^
sin'
2« + 1 '
2k
2« + 1 '
nn
2n + 1

S:olutions (231-232) 335
ii re the roots of the nth degree equation obtained in the solution of
l>roblem 230 (a). The coefficient of the highest-degree term x", of
Itiis equation is equal to
(-i)»(cUi + cL-n + • • • + cirA +1).
biut the sum in the parentheses is half the sum of the binomial
coefficients
vvhich is equal to (1 + 1)^"+' = 2^"+'. Consequently, the coefficient of
x" in the equation is equal to (-1)"2^". Furthermore, the constant
term of this equation is
CU, = 2n + l .
Now, the product of the roots of a polynomial equation of degree n
with leading coefficient 1 is equal to (—1)" times the constant term
lif the polynomial has leading coefficient Oo ^ 1, then the constant
term a„ is equal to (—1)" times the product divided by oo].
Therefore, we have
(-l)"sm^-- sin^ ; sin^ = ( —1)"—— ,
2w + 1 2w + 1 2w + 1 22» '
and, consequently,
sm sin • • • sm = "^ " ^ .
2w + 1 2w + 1 2w + 1 2»
It can be proved, in an analogous manner, that
K . 2n , (n — 1)k t/17
sm —— sm — sin -^^—-—-— = *; .
2w 2w 2w 2»-'
Second Solution. The roots of the equation a:^" — 1 = 0 are 1,
, K , . . K 2k , . . 2k 3k , . ■ 3k
— 1, cos l-zsin—, cos 1-2sin , cos 1-;sin , •••,
www WW W
(2w - l);r . . (2w - l);r „, ,
cos ^ — + z sin -^^ —. Therefore, we can write
w w
x^" — 1 = (x — \){x + 1)( a: — cos -— / sin — )
\ w w /
/ 2k . . 2k\ r (w - l);r
X I a: — cos zsin ) ■ •• \ x """ -^^ —
\ n w / L
r (2w- \)k , , (2w- \)k1
X — cos -^^ I sin ^^ — .
L w w J
cos
w
(w - l);r "ir (w + l);r . . (w + l);r
I Sin -^^ — II a: — cos -^^—■— z sin -^^—■—'-—
w w

336 Complex Numbers
However,
„ (2w - k)K kK
cos -i^ — = cos ,
, (2w - k)n . kK
sin ^^ = — sin ;
whence it follows that
X — COS z sin
I n
K\r (2«- Ik . . (2«- l);r"l
— ]\ X — cos ^^ tsin ^^ —
w/L w w J
= x^ - 2x cos — + 1 ,
f' 2;r . . 2;r\r (2« - 2);r . . (2« - 2);rn
a: — cos z sin ) M^ — cos -^^ z sin -^^
I, n w/L w wj
a:^ — 2a: cos 1- 1 ,
r (« - l);r . . (« - l);r I
X — cos -^ — — I sin -^^ —
L n n }
r (w + l);r . . (n + \)k "1
X \x — COS -i I sin -^^—■—-—
L n n A
JO in — \)k , ,
= x' — 2x COS -5^ 1- 1 .
n
Therefore, the decomposition of the polynomial x^" — 1 into factors
can be written:
x^"- \ = (x^ - l)(x^ - 2x cos — + iVa:^ - 2a: cos — + I'j x • • •
/ , „ (w — l);r , A
X [x^ — 2x cos -^ 1- 1) •
It follows that
v2n _ 1
-j.2n-2 _^ x^n-, ^ . . . ^ x^ + 1
X' - 1
= (x' - 2x cos — + l) (x^ - 2.r cos — + l") X • •
x[x'-2xcos>-^^^ +l].

Solutions {232) 337
If here we set a: = 1 and use the identity
2 — 2 cos a = 4 sin^ — ,
we obtain
n = 4»-i sin^ —— sin^ — sin^ -^^—-—-— ,
2w 2w 2w
from which it follows that
K ■ 2n . (n — 1)k -i/«
sin sin — sin -^^—-—-— = ^ " .
2w 2w 2w 2»-'
It is proved in the same manner that
sin -^^ sin -^ sin ^^^ = V^^±l_ .
2« + 1 2« + 1 2« + 1 2»
(b) We can obtain the required result by reference to either
the first or the second solution of problem (a). We shall not repeat
those solutions here, but we shall derive the formulas we need from
the formulas of problem (a).
Since
K ■ 2n7z
sin = sin
2w + 1 2w + 1 '
3k . (2w - 2)k
sin = sin -^^t; 7-
2w + 1 2w + 1
5;r . (2w - 4);r
sin = sin -^^- 7-
2w + 1 2w + 1
it follows that
2;r . 4;r . 6;r . 2nK
sin sin sin • • • sin •
2« + 1 2w + 1 2w + 1 2w + 1
;r . 2;r . 3;r ■ tiK t/2« + 1
= sin sin sin 7; sin =JL±E.±J-
2n + \ 2n + 1 2n + \ 2n + \ 2"
[see problem (a)]. If we divide this formula by
7Z ■ 2k ^. HK t/2m + 1
sin sin • • • Sin = ^^ ^" ^ ^
2n + \ 2w + 1 2w + 1 2»
and use the identities

338 Complex Numbers
sin = 2 sin cos
2w + 1 2w + 1 2w + 1 '
4;r „ . 2;r 2;r
sin = 2 sin — cos -
2w + 1 2w + 1 2w + 1
Sin r = 2 sin cos
2w + 1 2w + 1 2w + 1 '
we obtain
K 2n 3;r hk 1
cos — COS COS — • • • COS — = --.
2w + 1 2w + 1 2w + 1 2w + 1 2»
Similarly, we have
r n 2n (w - l);r "ir . 77 . 2;r . (w - l);r "I
COS —— COS — COS -^^— sin —— sin — sin -^^—-—-—
L 2w 2n 2« JL 2w 2« 2w J
1 ■ n . 2k . {n- \)k
-— sin — sin • • sin -^^ —
But
K ■ (n — Dtt
sin — = sin -^^ —
n n
.2k . (w - 2)k
sin = sin -^^ —
n n
K .
sin- = l.
Therefore, for odd n (n = 2k + 1):
K ■ 2k . (n — 1)k
sin — sin sin -^^ —
n n ft
- /'sin ^ sin ^^ ... sin ^^ V- (VHHX- ^?-
- I''" 2k + 1 '•" 2/^ + 1 '•" 2/^ + 1 j - i 2^ ) - 2-'
For even ti (n = 2k):
. K . 2k . (« — l);r
Sin — sin ... sin -^^ —
n n n
V ■ K . 2k , (* - l);r T /VTV n
= sin -—- sin -— sin -^^^—-^— = ( "^ ^ ) = —^^—
L 2k 2k 2k J V2'-'/ 2»-'
[see solution (a)]. Whence we obtain

Solutions {233)
339
n 2n
COS —— COS ——
2w 2«
cos
(« - Ik
2«
1 2^-' ^ i/lT
Remark: If we divide the formulas of problem (a) by the corresponding
formulas of problem (b), we arrive at
2n
tan
tan
2TO + 1 '^""2to + 1
2n
tan
2to + 1
= k'^2to + 1 ;
2to 2to
2to
Moreover, the second of these equalities is obvious, since
. n (w - ly
, 2n , (w - 2)n
tan—— tan —^^
2to 2to
tan -— = 1 .
4to
tan-— cot
2to 2to
1
. (w - l>n: . (w + l)n
tan -—;; tan -— = 1 ,
4to in
From this equality and from the second formula of problem 232 (a) we may
readily derive the formula
(W - 1)71 /V
n 2n
cos — COS —— X
2to 2to
■■ X cos
2n
2»-'
These solutions can also be obtained in a manner analogous to that used in
the first solution of problem 232 (a).
233. We first show that if a (in radians) is an acute angle, then
c
Figfure 22

340 Complex Numbers
sin a < a < tan a .
We have (see Figure 22; S is area and the circle has radius 1)
SjAOB = — sin a;,
JSeclor AOB =^ "o"^ >
SjAoc = — tan a .
But since
We have
Sjaob < Sseeior AOB < Saoc ,
Sin at < at < tan a; .
This double inequality implies that
cot a < — < CSC a .
Therefore, it follows from the formulas of problems 231 (a) and (b)
that
n(2n — 1) ^, ^ . .., 2;r
—^^— = cot^ T- + cot^ •
2« + 1 2« + 1
+ cot^ + • • • + cot^
2« + 1 2« + 1
2n + \y
<(^)'+(^)'-(^y—(^)
< csc^ — + csc^ •
2« + 1 2« + 1
, 3;r , , . riK 2n(n + 1)
+ csc^ + • • • + csc^ = —^-!—- .
2« + 1 2« + 1 3
If we divide all the terms of the last double inequality by
(2« + 1)^ , , .
-^^ , we obtam
77"
2» 2»- 1 _e1 ^ (._ _J__Vi _ 2 \ K^
2« + 1 ■ 2« + 1 ■ 6 ~ V 2« + 1 A 2« + 2 A 6
1 1 1

Solutions {234) 341
2n 2n +2 n^
"^ 2« + 1 ■ 2« + 1 ■ 6
V 2n + \)\ ^ 2n + \) 6 '
as was to be proved.
234. (a) Assume that the point M is on the arc A^A, of the circle
(Figure 23). Designate arc MAi as a; then the arcs M/lz, MA^, ■■-,
MAn are equal, respectively, to
, 2;r
a+ —- ,
n
, 4;r
a+ ,
n
, 2(« - l);r
n
But the length of a chord AB of a circle with radius R is equal to
2R sin —-. (This is readily discerned from the equilateral triangle
AOB, where O is the center of the circle.) It is clear, then, that
the sum which interests us is equal to
We shall now evaluate the expression in the brackets. Using the
1 — cos 2x
half-angle formula, sin^ x = , we find that the bracketed
expression is equal to
S = — - •icosa + cos/a H j + cos (a + j + •• •
But, by the identity in problem 225, we have
;« + cos(a + ^)+--- +cos[a+^»-^^^]
COSi

342
Complex Numbers
r , («- ivi
sin K cos a + —
n
Sin —
n
0,
consequently, S = —. The assertion of the problem follows.
fimtl
Figrure 23
Remark: For even n = 2m (Figure 24) the assertion of the problem is
obvious, since, by the Pythagorean theorem.
MA\ + MAl^, = MA\ + MAi,,
MAl + MAL = iR'
(b) Let AiBi, A2B2, •••, AnBn be perpendiculars drawn from
points Ai, Ai, ■■■,An to the line OM [Figure 25 (a)]. Then it is
readily found (from the law of cosines and consideration of the
triangle OAkBk) that
MAl = MO^ + OAl - 2M0 0B, = P + R'- 21 OB,
ik = \,2, ••■,«),
where the segments OBi, are taken with the plus or minus sign
depending upon whether the point B, is located on the segment OM
or on its extension.
Consequently,
MA: + MAl + ■■■ + MAl = n{l^ + R^) - 21{0B, + OB, +
But if <MOAi =a, then
OB, = OA, cos < A,OM = Rcosa ,
+ OBJ .

Solutions {234)
343
OB2 = i? cos I
OB, = R cos (a + —) ,
' ' ' >
^o D r , 2(« - l);r'l
0B„ = i? cos a + -^^ '— .
However, it was shown in the solution of problem (a) that
cos a + cos I a H j + • • • + cos a + -^^ — = 0 ,
and so OB, + OB2 + • • • + 0B„ = 0.
The assertion of the problem follows.
Remark: For even n = 2m the assertion of the problem is obvious from
Figure 25 (b). In this case
OBi + OBm+l = OB2 + OBm+2 = ■■■ = OBm + OBzm = 0 .
Figure 25
(c) Let Ml be the projection of point M onto the plane of
an >M-sided polygon (Figure 26). We have
MAl = M,Al + MM^ {k=\,2,---,n),
and, consequently,
MA\ + MAl + ■■■ + MAl = M,A] + M,Al + ■■■ + M^Al + n-MM^ .

344
But
Complex Numbers
M,Al + M,Al+ ■■■ + MAl= n(R' + OMh
[see problem (b)], and
whence follows the assertion of the problem.
Figure 26
235. (a) The solution of this problem follows directly from the
theorem of problem 234 (a), if we take into account that for an even n,
the even (and odd) vertices of the «-sided polygon are also the vertices
of those regular —-gons (abbreviation for polygons with — sides)
inscribed in the circle.
(b) Let n =2m + I. We deduce from the solution of problem
234 (a) that it is sufficient to prove equality of the following two
sums:
.fa 2n \ , . (a An \
/ a 2mK \
\2 ^ 2m + \ J '
S.
sm ■
+ sm
+ sm I
and
S2 = sm —- + — ;- + sm —- + — —
\2 2m + \ J \2 2m + \ J
+ sm
/a_ (2m - l);r \
\2 ^ 2m + I J

Solutions (235-237) 345
Hut, by problem 225, we have
sin -S;—■—7— sin —- + — ;-
2m + 1 V 2 2m + \ )
S
K
Sin
sin
2m + 1
mn
2m+\ '" L 2 ^2m + \^2m + \\_
236. In problem 234 (a) we found that the sum of the squares of
the distances from a point on a circle circumscribed about a regular
«-sided polygon to all of its vertices is equal to 2nR^. If we assume
that M coincides with Ai, then the sum of all sides and diagonals
of the «-gon emanating from one vertex is equal to 2nR^. If we
multiply this sum by n (the number of vertices of the «-gon) then
we obtain double the sum of all the sides and diagonals of the «-gon
(since every side or diagonal has two ends, it counts twice in the
sum). The sum we seek is therefore equal to ^•2nR^ = n^R^ .
(b) For a regular polygon, the sum of all the sides and
diagonals which emanate from one vertex Ai is equal to
2i?rsin ^ + sin ^ + • • • + sin("-HillL]
K . (n — 1)k
sin —sin ^^—-—'—
= 2R 2 2n ^ 2R cot -^
. K 2«
sin——
2«
[compare with the solution of problem 235 (b)]. When we multiply
this sum by n and halve it we obtain the required result: i?n cot—— .
2«
(c) The product of all the sides and all the diagonals of the
«-gon emanating from one vertex is equal to
2"-'i?»-' sin — sin — • • • sin ^" ~ ^^"^ = 2»-'i?»-
2»-'
[see the solution of problem 232 (a)]. By raising this product to the
«th power and extracting the square root, we obtain the required
result.
237. Let us compute the sum of the 50th powers of the sides and

346 Complex Numbers
diagonals emanating from one of the vertices, say Ai. This problem
reduces to finding the sum
[compare with the solution of problem 234(a)]. Thus we must make
a summation of the 50th powers of the sines of several angles. But
. ,„ r (cos a + z" sin a) - (cos a — z sin a) "1°°
sm" a = -^^ ^—7-^^
L 2i J
-2" 2'" V X J '
where we write cos a + z sina = x; in this case, cos a — zsina = —.
X
Therefore,
sin" a = ^(^x'" - Ci,x'^^ + C^x'^j^^
I /^2<v28 P24v"_ -1- r"2Sv2<
_(_ r"48y2_i r«r -1- —1
J.
2'
= -:^2 cos SOa; - 2CJo cos 48a!
+ 2C?o cos 46a! - • • • + 2C" cos 2a! + C")
[here we make use of the fact that a:' H = (cos ka + i sin Aa) +
a:*
(cos ka — i sin ka) = 2 cos Aa I .
Hence the sum S may be expressed in the following way.
I = -R^\2 (cos 50^ + cos 50^ + ... + cos 50^)
-2CJo(cos483^ + cos48^ + ...+cos48^)

Solutions {238) 347
00/
+ 2CL(cos46^+cos46|L + ...+eos46^^
+ 2C?j(cos 2^ + cos 2^ + ... + cos 2^) - 99CS]
= —K^ [2si — ^Cfio^z + 2C50S3 • • • + ^Cfio^zs yy^Roj»
where Si.Sa, •••,S25 replace the sums in the parentheses. But from
the formula in problem 225 it follows that Si = sj = • •. = Sjj = — 1.
Therefore we have
1 = W\2 - 2C[, + 2CU + 2CT, + 99CS)
= K'''{\ — C50 + Cjo — C50 + • • • + Cm ~ Cjo
+ C?? + CJS - C^' + 1 - lOOCal)
= ie^o^i - 1)^" + loocL'] = looc^Si?^".
From this we immediately obtain the result that the sum of the
50th powers of all the sides and diagonals of a 100-sided polygon is
equal to
100-^ _ 5000C^';?^» - 5000-50!
2 -5000Cao^ - ^25!). ^ ■
238. We make use of the fact that in a triangle with integral
^2 _1_ ^2 _ ^2
sides a, b, and c the number 2 cos A = -. (law of cosines,
DC
where A is the angle between b and c) is rational. Further, \i A =
—180°, where m and n are integers, then cos «y4 =cos(w-180°) —
n
(-l)".
We shall now show that 2 cos nA for an arbitrary integer n can
be expressed as a polynomial of degree n in terms of 2cosy4 with
integral coefficients and having leading coefficient 1; that is, that
2 cos nA = (2 cos A)" + ai(2 cos AY''^ + 02(2 cos A)"'* + • • • ,
where 01,02, •• are integers. This assertion may by deduced from
the first formula of problem 222 (a), or else proven by mathematical
induction. Indeed, it is true for « = 1 and « = 2, since
2 cos A =2 cos A ,
2cos2>l =(2cos>l)^ -2.
But from the known product-to-sum identity we have
cos (« + 2)A + cos nA =2 cos A cos (« + \)A ,

348 Complex Numbers
and so
cos (« + 2) A = 2 cos A cos (« + \)A — cos «y4 ,
from which it immediately follows that if the assertion is true for
the values n and « + 1, then it is also true for n + 2. Since the
assertion is valid for « = 1 and « = 2, it follows that it is true for
all values of n.
By setting 2 cos A = x and cos mA = ( — 1)" in the resulting formula
we obtain the following equation with respect to the unknown x:
x" + oyx"-'^ + OiX"-* + ■.. - 2{-\Y = 0 .
Thus a: is a rational root (since, here, x = 2cosA is rational) of
an equation with integral coefficients whose highest-degree term has
coefficient unity. But all the rational roots of such an equation must
be integers (see problem 218); therefore, x = 2 cos A must be an
integer. Since 0 ^ cos A £ \, the only possibilities are cos A = 0 or else
cos A = ±—; that is, A may be 60°, 90°, or 120° (these are the only
angles greater than zero but less than k = 180° for which 2 cos A is
an integer).
The existence of 60°, 90°, and 120° angles in triangles with integral
sides may be shown by simple examples. A triangle with sides
(3, 4, 5) is a right triangle—it has a 90° angle. In a triangle with
sides (1, 1, 1) all the angles are 60°. Finally, we cen verify (by the
law of cosines, for example) that a triangle with sides (3, 8, 7) will
have a 60° angle (between side 3 and side 8) and a (3, 5, 7) triangle
will have a 120° angle (see also problem 128).
239. (a) Let us assume that the ratio of ^ = arc cos — to 180° is
m ^
a rational number, that is, that d= —180°, where m and n are
n
integers (which will be considered relatively prime). From the second
formula of problem 222 (b) we have
sin nd = Ci cos"'^ sin d - Cl cos"-^ 0 sin' 0 + Ci cos"-^ 0 sin^ 0 - ■■■ .
In the case of interest to us we have
1
cos 0 = — ,
p
sin 0 = \/l- cos^ 0 = '^P'- 1 ,
P
and sin w*? = sin 180°w = 0. Substituting these values into the last
equality, we obtain

Solutions {239) 349
0 = VWEl\n - n{n-l)in-2) _
, «(« - 1)(« - 2)(« - 3)(« - 4)
5!
-ip'-iy-
]•
Since p ^ I, -we have i-£ i :^ 0, and therefore the sum within
brackets must be equal to zero. Since all the terms of this sum,
except the first, are even integers (p'^ — 1 is even, since p is odd),
the first term must also be even. Hence n is even, n = 2k, and
therefore m is odd.
Since m is odd, it follows that
cos kd = cos —— = cos —K = 0 .
From the first formula of problem 222 (b) we have
cos k0 = cos* 0 -Cl cos*-^ 0 sin^ 0 + C* cos*'" 0 sin* 0 - ■■■ .
By setting cos 0 = —, sin ^ = ^^ ~ , and cos A^ = 0 we obtain
P P
0 = hl~ Clip' - 1) + CtiP' -lY ] .
P
Here all the summands in the brackets, except the first, are even
integers, and the first is equal to unity, that is, is odd. Therefore,
the resulting equality is impossible. This contradiction proves that
the ratio of ^ = arc cos — to 180° cannot be a rational number.
(b) Let us assume that 0 = arc tan ■^— contains a rational
Q m
number of degrees, that is, that 0 can be expressed as 0 = —180°,
n
where m and n are integers. We shall consider p and q relatively
prime, which is permissible, since we are interested only in the
ratio — We shall use the DeMoivre formulas
Q
(cos 0 + i sin 0)" = cos n0 + i sin n0
and
(cos 0 — i sin 0^ = cos n0 — i sin n0 .
Since 0 = —180°, we have sin n0 = sin 180°>m = 0, and, consequently,
n
(cos 0 + i sin 0)" = (cos 0 — i sin (?)'' .

350 Some Problems in Number Theorv
Dividing both sides of this equality by cos" 0 (cos 0^0, since tan 0
sm0 p , ^ n\ , ^ . ^
—, where q ^0], we obtain
Q I
(1 + z tan 0Y = (1 - z" tan (?)» ,
cos^
that is,
('-■f)"=(-fr
or, after multiplying by 9",
{q + ipY = {q- ipY .
We shall now show that this equality is impossible when p and q
are integers, relatively prime, p ^ 0, q ^ 0, and p and q are not
simultaneously equal to ±1. To this end we express the equality as
(q - ipY = \{q - ip) + 2ipY
= {q- ipY + CUq -ipY''2ip + Cl{q - ipY-\2ipY + ■■■
+ CT\q - ip){2ipY" + {2ipY .
Eliminating the term {q — ipY from the left and the right sides,
dividing by 2ip, and transposing {2ipY'^ to the left side, we obtain
-(2z»»-' ={q- ip)[Cl{q - ipY'' +
Cl{q - ipY''2ip + • • ■ + CT\2ipY''\ .
Each side of this equality is a complex number; by equating the
moduli of these complex numbers and taking into account the fact
that the modulus of the product equals the product of the moduli of
the factors, we find
{2pf-^ = {q^ + p^)B ,
where B is the modulus of the expression within the brackets on the
right side of the preceding equality. Thus B is equal to the sum of
the squares of the real and imaginary parts of the number,
C\{q - ipY'' + Cl{q - ipY-'2ip + ■■■ + c:-\2ipY~' ,
and is therefore an integer. Thus {2py''-' is divisible by p^ + q^.
But since p and q are relatively prime, p' + q' does not have common
factors with p and q; that is, 2^"-^ must be divisible by p^ + q^. The
numbers p and q are either both odd, or one is even and the other
odd. If one is even and the other odd, then p^ + q'' will be odd, but
a p = 2r +\ and 9 = 2s + 1 (both odd), then

Solutions (240) 351
p' + q' = 2(2r' + 2r + 2s' + 2s + 1)
will be even, but it will contain the odd factor 2(r^ + r + s' + s) + \.
This odd factor becomes unity only for p = ±1, ^ = ±1. Therefore
for all remaining cases 2^"-^ cannot be divisible by p' + q'. That is,
0 = arc tan — cannot contain a rational number of degrees.
240. First Solution. Assume that a is not divisible by p. Then
the integers a, 2a, 3a, ••■,(/>— l)a will also fail to be divisible by p,
and they will yield different remainders when divided by p [if ka
and la (p—\^k>l) produced identical remainders when divided
by p, then the difference ka — la = (k — l)a would be divisible by p,
which is impossible, since p is prime, a is not divisible by p, and
k — I \s less than p.] But since, upon division by p, all possible
remainders are exhausted by the /> — 1 numbers 1, 2, 3, ••■,/' — 1, it
necessarily follows that
a = qip + fli ,
2a = qip + ai ,
3« = q^p + flj ,
{p - \)a = q^-ip + flp-i ,
where Oi, ai, • • •, Op^i are the positive integers 1, 2, •••,/) — 1, taken
in some order. Multiplying together all these equalities, we obtain
[1 •2-••(/>- l)]a''-' = A/'/> + a,a2---ap-, ,
[l-2---(/.-l)](a''-'-l) = A/-/..
Therefore it follows that a""' — 1 is divisible by p, and a" — a is
also divisible by p. (If a is initially divisible by p, then the
assertion of Fermat's theorem is obvious.)
Second Solution. The theorem is obvious for a = 1, since in that
case a" — a=l — 1=0. We shall now apply mathematical induction
to the positive integer a, and show that if a'' — a is divisible by p,
then it will follow that (a + 1)" — (a + 1) is divisible by p.
By use of the binomial theorem we find that
(a + 1)" - (a + 1) = a" + pa'-' + Cla"-' + Cla"'' +---+pa+l-a-l
= (a" - a) + pa"-' + CW'' + • • ■ + C^'a' + pa .
But all the binomial coefficients
r' - P{P-i){P-2)---{p-k + l)
^"^ 1-2-3--/.-

352 Some Problems in Number Theory
are divisible by the prime number p, since C' is an integer and since
the numerator of the above expression for C' contains the factor p
whereas the denominator does not contain this factor. But since, by
the induction hypothesis, a" — a is also divisible by p, it follows that
(a + 1)" - (a + 1) is divisible by p.
We shall detail a more elegant variation of the same proof.
Because all the binomial coefficients C' are divisible by p, the difference
{A + B)" - A"- B"
= pAo-'B + ClAo-^B' + ■■■ + Cl'^A^B^-^ + pAB<"^
where A and B are any integers, is always divisible by p. If we
apply this result, we find that
{A + B + €)"- A"- B"- C"
= {[{A + B) + CY -{A + By - C} + {A + By - A"- B"
is always divisible by p; that
{A + B + C + Dy - A' - B' - C - D"
= {[{A + B + c) + D]" - (A + B + cy - D-y
+ {A + B + Cy- A''- B'-C'
is always divisible by p; and that, in general,
{A + B + C + ■ ■ ■ + Ky ~ A' - B' - C' - ■ ■ ■ - K'
is always divisible by p.
If in the last expression we now set A = B = C = ■•• = K = I,
and if we let the number of these terms be equal to a, we arrive at
Fermat's theorem: a" — a is divisible by p.
241. The proof of Euler's theorem is completely analogous to the
first proof of Fermat's theorem. Let ki,k2, ■ ■ ■ ,kr be the set of natural
numbers which are less than, and relatively prime to, the integer A^.
We consider the r numbers kia,kia, ■■■,kM. All of these are
relatively prime to N (since a is by hypothesis also relatively prime to
N), and all of them, when divided by N, will yield different
remainders (this is proven exactly as in problem 240). We may write
kia = QiN + ai ,
krO = QrN + Or

Solutions (241-242) 353
where Oi, 02, ■ ■ ■,ar must be the same numbers as Ai, ^2, ■ ■ •, kr, though
in different order (since clearly the Ui are distinct, all less than N,
and if a; were not relatively prime to A^, then neither would be ^0-
If we multiply together all the equalities, we obtain
^1^2-• •^r«'' = NM + aia2- • -flr ,
k,k^■■■K{a-- 1) = NM,
whence it follows that the integer a'' — 1 is divisible by N.
242. We shall prove this by mathematical induction. First, it is
evident that for >m = 1 the proposition of the problem is correct:
2' - 1 = 1 ,
2^ - 1 = 3 ,
2' - 1 = 7
are not divisible by 5. We shall show that the proposition holds also
for « = 2. Let 2' be the smallest power of the number 2 which will
produce a remainder of 1 when divided by 5^ = 25. (That is, k is
least such that 2' — 1 is divisible by 25.) Now, assume that k <
5^ - 5 = 25 - 5 = 20. If 20 is not divisible by k (that is, 20 = qk + r,
where Q < r < k), then we obtain
220 _ 1 ^ 2'''+'- - 1 = 2^(2"' - 1) + (2^ - 1) .
But 22" - 1 is divisible by 25 (by Euler's theorem), and 2"' - 1 =
(2*)'' — l' is divisible by 2' — 1, which, by assumption, is also divisible
by 25; therefore 2'' — 1 must be divisible by 25, which is a
contradiction of the assumption that k is the smallest number for which
2' — 1 is divisible by 25. Therefore, k must be a divisor of the
number 20; that is, k can be equal to only 2, 4, 5, or 10. But 2^ — 1 = 3,
2^-1=31, and 2'" - 1 = 1023 are not divisible by 5, whereas
2* — 1 = 15 is divisible by 5, but is not divisible by 25. Thus, the
proposition of the problem holds also for « = 2.
Let us now assume that the proposition of the problem holds for
some n, but is invalid for « + 1, that is, that the least k such that
2' - 1 is divisible by 5"+' is less than 5"+' — 5" = 4-5''. We can show,
exactly as above (for n = 2), that k must be a divisor of the number
4-5''. But, moreover, we can show analogously that the number
5"— 5"~' = 4-5''"-' must be the divisor of the number k. If it were
true that k = ^•4-5''~' + r, where 0 < r < 4-5''-', then 5'' — 1 would
be divisible by 5", which contradicts the hypothesis that the propo-

354 Some Problems in Number Theory
sition of the problem is valid for the number n. Thus k has only
one possible value: k = 4-5''""'.
Since the number
is divisible by 5"'' (from Euler's theorem) and is not divisible by 5"
(otherwise the hypothesis would not be true for «), then
2'-""' = 9-5»-' + 1 ,
where q is not divisible by 5. From the expansion
(a + by = a' + 5a*b + lOa^b' + lOaV + Sab* + b'
we obtain
24.5-1 _ 1 ^ (2^-5»-2)5 _ 1 ^ (^.5-1 + 1)5-1
= 5"+'(9'-5*"-« + q'-d^'-'' + 2^3-S^"-* + 2q'^-5''~') + q-S' ,
whence it is clear that 2*"'"'' — 1 is not divisible by 5"+'. Hence,
the truth of the proposition for n implies that it is also true for
« + 1, whence the statement holds for all integers.
243. According to Euler's theorem (see problem 241), the number
25"'-5' J — 2*"'' 1 = 2''"2-5'"' 1
is divisible by 5'"; therefore, for « g 10 the difference
27.812.500 + It 2" = 2"(2''"'-5°'' 1)
is divisible by 10'". That is, the last ten digits of the number
27.612.500+n coincide with 2". This means that the last ten digits of
the numbers of the sequence 2', 2^ 2', ■••,2", ••• will repeat after
every 7,812,500 numbers. Moreover, this periodicity begins with the
tenth number of this sequence, that is, with 2'".
It follows from the result of problem 242 that the period is,
actually not less than 7,812,500.
Remark: It can be proven analogously that the last n digits of the numbers
in the sequence under consideration will repeat every 4-5''-i numbers,
beginning with the nth number of this sequence (for example, the last two digits
would repeat, beginning with the second number, every 20 numbers).
244. We shall prove an even more general theorem, namely, that
for any integer N there is always a power of 2 whose last N digits
will always be ones and twos. Since 2^ = 32 and 2' = 512, the
proposition is valid for N=\ and N = 2. We shall carry out the proof
by mathematical induction.

Solutions {243-245) 355
Assume that for some natural number N the final N digits of the
number 2" are ones and twos. We are to show that there is a power
of 2 whose last N + \ digits will be ones and twos.
According to the induction hypothesis, 2" = a 10'^' + b, where b is
an //-digit integer whose digits are all ones or twos. Let us designate
the number 5^ — 5'^""' = 4-5'^' ' by the letter r; then by Euler's
theorem (problem 241), the difference 2'' — 1 will be divisible by 5'^. It
follows that if the integer k is divisible by 2^+', then the difference
2^k- k = k{2^ - 1) will be divisible by 2-10'^. That is, the final N
digits of 2'^k and k will coincide, and the (N + l)st digit from the
end of each will be both odd or both even.
Let us now consider the following five powers of 2:
2",
2n + r = 2^-2'' ,
2n+2r _ 2^-2" + ^ ,
2n + 3r _ 2''•2" + ^'^
2n + 4r — 2''•2"^"'
From what we have shown, the final A^ digits of all of these numbers
will coincide (each of the numbers, as well as 2", will terminate in
the same number, b, which consists entirely of one and twos), but
the digits in the (N + l)st place from the end of all of them will be
simultaneously even or odd. We shall now prove that the digits in
the (N + l)st place from the end cannot be identical for any two of the
five numbers. In fact, the difference of any two of the numbers
can be expressed as 2"+"'i'' (2"'2''— 1), where Wi = 0,1,2, or 3, but
W2 = l,2,3, or 4. If this difference is divisible by 10'^^', then
2'"2'- — 1 must be divisible by 5"^'+'; but since
ni2r = >M2-(5^ - 5'^'"') < 5-(5'^ - 5'^^') = 5'^+' - 5'^ ,
this contradicts the result of problem 242.
Therefore, the digits standing in the (N + l)st place from the end
of the above five integers must be either 1,3,5,7, and 9 (all
appearing) or else 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8 (in what order, we do not know). In
either event, in one of these integers the (N + l)st digit from the
end must be 1 or else 2. This means that, in any event, there exists
a power of 2 whose final N + \ digits can comprise only the digits
1 and 2. This induction proves the proposition of the problem.
245. Let a be one of the numbers of thexsequence 2, 3, •••,/> — 2.
Consider the integers

356 Some Problems in Number Theory
a, 2a, ■••,(/>- \)a .
Clearly, no two of these integers can yield the same remainder
upon division by p; therefore those remainders will be the positive
integers 1, 2, 3, •••,/>— 1 (all appearing, but in what order is unknown
and not important). (Compare with the solution of problem 240.) In
particular, there will be an integer b in the sequence 1,2, ••■,/>— 1
such that ba, when divided by p, will have a remainder of 1. Now,
b ^ I and h ^ p — 1, since 2 ^ a ^ p — 2, and were 6 = 1 then the
number ba = a when divided by p would yield remainder a ^ \; and
were 6 = /> — 1 the number ba = {p — \)a = pa — a when divided by
p would yield the remainder p — a 4=1. Moreover, b ^ a, since if d^
yielded a remainder of 1 when divided by p, then a^ — 1 = (a + l)(a — 1)
would be divisible by p, which is possible only for a = 1 and a =
p — \. Therefore, 2 < 6 g /> — 2, and b ^ a, which means that each
of the numbers 2, 3, •■•,/>— 2 can be paired with one other distinct
integer of this set such that the product of this pair yields a remainder
of 1 upon division by p. Accordingly, the product 2-3-4-/>— 2
itself yields a remainder of 1 when divided by p.
Now the number /> — 1 may be thought of as yielding the remainder
— 1 upon division by p. It follows that
(/. - 1)! = 1-2-3- • •(/. - 2){p - 1) = [2-3- ■ •(/. - 2)\-{p - 1)
has the remainder —1 when divided by p. That is,
(/.-D! = /:/.-1;
(/. - 1)! + 1 = -fe/. ,
which says that (/> — 1)! + 1 is divisible by p.
If p is not prime, it must have a prime divisor q < p. Then
{p — 1)! is divisible by q, since q is one of the factors in {p — 1)!.
But then q cannot divide (/> — 1)! + 1; hence neither can p.
246. Let /> = 4« + 1 be a prime number. By Wilson's theorem
(problem 245), the number (/> - 1)! + 1 = (1-2-3- ••4«) + 1 is divisible
by p. Now in (4«)! we shall replace each factor exceeding 2« by the
identical number expressed in terms of p and n. For example, since
/, = 4« + 1, we may write 2n + \ = p - 2n, 2« + 2 = /> - (2« - 1),
and so on, until, finally, 4« = /> — 1. Then {p — 1)! = (4«)! = 1-2-3-
• • • (2« - \)2n{p - 2n)[p - (2« - 1)] •••(/>- 1).
It is readily seen that if the right side is expanded, then every
term will have /> as a factor, except a final term which will be equal
to [{2n)\Y. Therefore, {p - \)\ + \ = Ap + [{2n)\Y + 1, where A repre-

Solutions (246-247) 357
sents an expression unimportant to us. Since this number is
divisible by p, and the term Ap is divisible by p, it follows that
[(2«)!]^ + 1 is also divisible by p. Therefore, the number x = (2«)! =
satisfies the conditions of the problem.
(V)'
Remark: We note that if the integer x has the remainder xi when divided
by p, then since
x^ + l = {kp + xi)' + 1 = (k'p + 2kxi)P + xl + l ,
it follows that xl + l is divisible by p. Therefore we might stipulate, as an
additional condition of the problem, that \ < p, since such an a; = a;i does exist.
247. (a) The assertion of the problem follows immediately from
the identity
(a' + b'){al + b\) = {aa, + bb,Y + {ab, - ba,Y .
(b) First, it is easily shown that no number of the form
4« + 3 can be expressed as the sum of two squares. In fact, the
square of every even number may b)e expressed as \k, and the square
of an odd number may be expressed as 4^ + 1, since
(2a + 1)^ = 4(a2 + a) + 1 .
Accordingly, the sum of the squares of two even numbers may have
the form 4«; the sum of the squares of two odd numbers may have
the form 4« + 2; and finally, the sum of the squares of an even and
an odd number may have the form 4« + 1. Thus, an integer which
can be written as 4« + 3 cannot be the sum of two squares.
It is a more involved matter to show that every prime number of
the form 4« + 1 may be expressed as the sum of the squares of two
integers. Let /> be a prime of form 4« + 1. We know from problem
246 that some multiple of p can be expressed as the sum of two
squares; in fact, since there exists an integer x such that p divides
a:^ + 1, there is an m such that
mp = x^ + \ . (1)
From the remark following problem 246 we may find x < p, whence
a:^ + 1 < p', and so in (i) we may assume that, because of the suitable
choice of x, m < p. If w = 1, the proof is completed. Hence we
shall assume that m ^ \.
Now, if ni is even, then x'^ + \ is even, whence x must be odd.
Then we can write
^-(^)'-(^)'

358 Some Problems in Number Theory
That is, there exists an »«' = — such that
»«'/> = xl + yl .
If w' is again even, then either Xi and jvi are both even, or else both
are odd. In either event, we can easily determine (reasoning as
above) that there exists an integer m"( = -^) such that
>K"/) = Xl + >'2 .
Now, if m is a power of 2, then the proof concludes in an obvious
way. Hence we need consider only the case in which m is odd (to
which the problem reduces if m fails to be a power of 2) and that
we have
mp = x^ + y'^
(whether v^ = 1 or not is not important in the sequel).
Let xi and ^-i be the least remainders in absolute value which can
result when x and y, respectively, are divided by m:
X = mr + jCi ,
y = ms + 3'i
(either of Xi or jv'i, or both, may be negative integers). Then | Xi \ and
I Vil are both less than — (equality cannot hold, since m is odd),
and we can write
mp = x"- + y"- = (w^r^ + 2wrx, + a:?) + {mh"- + 2msyi + y\) .
It is clear that x\ + y[ is divisible by m:
x?i+ yl = mn
(it is readily found that n = p — mr^ — 2rjc, — msi — 2syi)-
W
that
We note that n < —; indeed, since Xi < — and yi < —, it follows
(f)'-(f)' =
2 , 2 /my I my m'-
mn = x\ + y,<( — ] +( —) = —
In addition, n ^Q, since otherwise x and y would both be divisible
by m and mp = x'^ + y^ would be divisible by w^^ which is impossible
since p is prime and m is distinct from 1 and less than p.
We shall now show that np may be expressed as the sum of the
squares of two integers. From the identity in problem (a) we have

Solutions {247) 359
mnmp = m^np = (x^ + y^Xx] + 3'?) = (xxi + yyiY + (xyi — yxiY .
But since x = mr + xi and y = ms + yi, the numbers
xxi + yyi = mrxi + xl + msyi + yl
= mrxi + msyi + (a:? + yi) = m{rxi + syi + n) ,
xyi - yxi = mryi + Xiyi - msxi - Xiyi = m(ryi - sxi)
are divisible by m. Thus we obtain
»' = (^^^)' + (^^^^)''
which displays np as the sum of squares.
If, now, « = 1, we are finished. If « 9^ 1, we can, by using exactly
the same method, decrease this number, that is, find an «i < « such
that riip can be expressed as the sum of the squares of two integers.
If «i fails to be 1, we can find an «2 < «i such that tizp may be
expressed as the sum of the squares of two integers. Continuation of
this process produces a strictly decreasing sequence of positive
integers for Hi, which must terminate with 1. Therefore, the number
1 -p can be expressed as the sum of the squares of two integers:
p = X'+ Y\
as was to be shown.
(c) First, it follows almost immediately from the theorems
in problems (a) and (b) that if a composite number N contains prime
factors of the form 4« + 3, but only even powers of them, then N
can be expressed as the sum of the squares of two integers. Indeed,
in that case the number N can be expressed as a product P^Q,
where all the prime factors of P are of form 4« + 3, whereas all
the odd prime factors of Q are of form 4« + 1. Since 2 = P + P,
then, from the theorems of problem (b), all the prime factors of Q
can be expressed as the sum of the squares of two integers. In that
event, it follows from the theorem in problem (a) that even Q may
be expressed as Q = x^ -\- y^. But since this is so,
N=p^-Q = {pxY + {PyY
may also be expressed as the sum of the squares of two integers.
This proves one part of problem (c).
Let the composite number N, now, contain a prime factor p of the
form 4« + 3 to an odd power: N = p^''*^-m (where m is not now
divisible by p). We shall prove that N cannot be expressed as the
sum of the squares of two integers. Indeed, assume that

360 Some Problems in Number Theory
N = x^ + y\
where x and y are integers. Then upon dividing x^, y^, and N by the
square of the greatest common factor of x and y, we must arrive at
the equality
where M is still divisible hyp: M = Mip. By substituting for Xi
and Yi their remainders Xi and jVi upon division by p, we obtain the
equality mp = xl + yl, where m < p [compare with the remarks after
problem (246)]. But here, as in solution (b), p can be written as
the sum of the squares of two integers, which is impossible [see the
beginning of the solution of part (b)]. This completes the proof.
248. For p = 2 we have, trivially, 2 = P + 0^ + 1. For an odd
prime p we shall give a constructive method for finding two numbers
X and y, both less than ^, which satisfy the condition of the
problem.
Consider the ■^—-— integers 0, 1, 2, •• •, ^^^—. The squares of
any two of these numbers, when divided by p, will yield different
remainders. In fact, the equations
x\ = kip + r ,
xl = kzp + r
would imply that
ATi - xl = (a:, - XiXXi + Xi) = (*i - k2)p .
That is,
(a:, - XzXxi + Xi)
would be divisible by p, which is impossible since Xt < — and Xz <
^, and so
Xl + X2 < P ,
\X, - Xil < P
(remember that p is a prime number). Hence the numbers of the set
0^ P, 2S ■•-, ( ^ ~ ) yield ^ ~j~ distinct (nonnegative) remainders
\ 2 / 2 t> + \
when divided by p. This implies that the ■'^—— (negative) numbers
-1, -P - 1, -2' - 1, ■■■, -('^ ~ ^^ -1 when divided by p also
yield ^-—-— different (nonnegative) remainders (if — x? — 1 and —xl—1

Solutions (248-249) 361
yield identical remainders, then xl and xl also yield identical re-
imaindersO. But since there are only p distinct (nonnegative)
remainders possible after division by p (namely, 0, 1, 2, •■•,/> — 1), it
is clear that of the/> + 1 numbers OS P, 2S ••■, (^ ~ M', -1, -P - 1,
/ i) — W \2/
— 2^ — 1, • • •, — (^^-—— J — 1 at least two of them must yield the same
remainder when divided by p. From what has been shown above
for pairs of this kind, one number must be of the form x' and the
other of the form —y — 1. But if
x' = kp + r ,
-y'-\ = lp + r ,
then
x^ + y' = (k - Dp - \ = mp - \ ;
that is, x^ + y^ + \ = mp is divisible by p.
Remark: The problem could have required that neither of the integers x or
y is to exceed p/2, that is, that the sum x^ + y^ + I be less than p^ and the
quotient m resulting from the division o{ x^ + y^ + I by p be less than p.
249. (a) The assertion of the problem follows from the following
identity:
(xl + xl + xl + xlXyl + yl+ yl + y])
= (xiy: + Xiyi + Xjya + x^ytY + (xiyi - Xzy^ + Xjyt - Xty^Y
+ ix,y3 - Xiyi + x,yi - X2y,y + (xiy, - x,yi + Xiy, - xayiY ,
the validity of which can readily be verified.
Remark: Since the identity just displayed is rather involved, let us note its
relationship to the simpler identity in problem 247 (a). The identity in problem
247 (a) may be generalized in the following manner:
(aa' + bb'Xa:a[ + bib[) = {aa[ + bb[)(aia' + b:b') + (ahi - ba:)(a'b[ - b'a[) .
If in the last identity we now set
a = Xl + ix2 , ai = yi + iyi ,
a' = Xl — ixi , a[ = yi — iyz ,
b = Xi + ixi , bi = ya + iy* ,
b' = X3 - iXi , 61 = 1/3 — iy* ,
where i =y' —1, then we arrive at the identity of the present problem.
t The quotient q and the (nonnegative) remainder r resulting upon the
division of a positive or a negative integer a by p are determined by the formula
a = qp + r, where 0 g r < p, and the quotient q is negative for negative a.

362 Some Problems in Number Theory
(b) Since each integer may be expressed as a product of
prime numbers, the result of problem (a) reduces this problem to
showing that every prime number p may be expressed as the sum
of the squares of four integers.
The proof of this proposition is completely analogous to the
solution of problem 247 (b). We know, from the result of problem 248,
that there exists a number m such that mp may be expressed as the
sum of the squares of at most four integers:
mp = xl + xl+ xl + x]
(we can consider x, = I and Xt = 0, although we do not need that
information). We can further consider m < p (see the remarks on
the solution of problem 248). We shall show that if m> \, then m
can be reduced; that is, we can always find some number n < m such
that np can also be expressed as the sum of at most four squares.
This proof is straightforward if m is even, since in that case
mp = x\ + x\ + xl + x\
is even, and either all Xk {k = \,2, 3, 4) are even, or two of them are
odd and the other two even, or they are all odd. In every case the
four numbers Xi, Xi, x^, and Xi can be grouped into two pairs (say,
Xi; xi and Xz, x^, each pair consisting of two even or two odd
numbers. Then the numbers
ATi
ATi
+
2
-
X2
X2
Xi
Xi
+
2
-
Xi
Xi
2
will be integers, and we will have
m
2
■'=(^T^y+(^f^y+(^^y+(^^y
That is, the number -^--P can also be expressed as the sum of the
squares of at most four integers.
The case where m is odd is more involved. Let us substitute y^
(^ = 1,2, 3,4) for the remainder, smallest in absolute value, which
can appear when Xk is divided by m (if when Xk is divided by m
m
there is a positive remainder greater than —, then we increase the

Solutions {249) 363
ly ]
quotient by 1 and show a negative remainder, whose magnitude is
4-1, ^ '«'
then < —
Xk = mqk + Vk (A = 1, 2, 3, 4) ,
)H I
where jv't is a positive or negative mteger and \yk\ < — I none of the
integersjvt can have magnitude —, since m is odd).
We now have
xl = yn^ql + 2mqkyk + yl = mQ^ ^ yl (A = 1, 2, 3, 4) ,
where Qk = mq\ + 2qkyk is an integer. Therefore,
mp = ATi + a:' + a:' + a:! = mq -^ y\^ y\ + y\ +y\
(here ? = Oi + O2 + O3 + 0.) and
3'i + 3'2 + 3'3 + 3'4 = '««
(here n = p — q). In this connection n < m, since
m'
moreover, « 95= 0, since otherwise all Xk would be divisible by m and
3^i + xi + xl + x\ = mp would necessarily be divisible by >«S which
is impossible, since p is prime and m is different from 1 and less
than p.
We now show that the number np also can be expressed as the
sum of not more than four squares. We shall see that each of the
numbers mp and mn can be expressed as the sum of not more than
four squares. From the identity proven in problem (a), it follows
that the product
mp-mn = ni^np
may also be expressed as the sum of the squares of four numbers:
m'^np = {xiyi + x^y-z + x-iy^ + x^y^Y
+ (JCi>'2 - xzyi + x^yt - Xty^Y
+ (xo'i - JC3 vi + Xiy, - x,y2Y
+ (j;iy< - x,yi + ATajs - XiViY .
We shall show that both sides of the last equality may be divided
by m'. Let us substitute on the right side of the equality mqk + yk
for all Xk. We see that all the expressions in parentheses on the

364 Some Problems in Number Theory
right side of the equality are divisible by m: the expression in the
first set of parentheses is divisible by m, since v? + yl + yl + yl = mn
is divisible by m, and the expressions in the remaining three sets
of parentheses are divisible by m because after the substitution
Xk = mqk + yk all the products of the form yiy^, and so on, cancel.
Now if we divide the last equality by ;«^ we obtain
np = z\+ zl + zl + z\ ,
as was to be shown.
Thus, if the number m in the equation
mp = xi + x'i + xl + x'',
is not equal to 1, it can always be decreased; that is, there will
always be a positive n < m for which a similar equality exists. If
n ^ \, we can still decrease the number n. In this way we obtain
a strictly decreasing sequence of positive integers ;«>«>«,> • • •
until in at most a finite number of steps we obtain
P = x^ + X.; + XI + x:.
250. Let us assume that 4*'(8yfe -- \) = X^ + Y^ + Z\ where X, Y,
and Z are integers (one or even two of which may be zero). For
« > 0, the numbers X, Y, and Z must all be even, for if precisely
one is odd (and the other two even), then the sum X^ + Y- + Z- will
be odd, and if two are odd (for example, X = 2k + \ and Y = 21 + \)
and the other (for example, Z= 2m) is even, then the sum
X' + Y' + Z' = {2k + \y + {21 + \y + {2my
= 4(yfe2 + k + l'' + 1+ m') + 2
is not divisible by 4. Now if we set
X _ y Z _
y - A, , --Z,
^-Y
we arrive at the equation
4—(8yfe - 1) = X,' + Y? + Zl.
If « > 1 (« — 1 > 0), it can be shown, exactly as before, that all three
of the numbers Xx, Y^ and Z, also must be even, from which we
obtain the equation
4»-^(8yfe - 1) = X/+ Yl + Zl ,

Solutions {250-251) 365
where Xi, Y^, Zj are integers. Continuing to reason in exactly the
same way, we are finally led to the conclusion that the number
8^ — 1 also must be expressible as the sum of three integers:
9,k-\= x^ +y^ + z^ . (1)
Either one, or else all three, of the numbers x,y,z must be odd;
in any other case the sum x^ + y^ + z' would be even. But the square
of an odd number 2« + 1,
(2« + ly = 4n' + 4« + 1 = 4«(« + 1) + 1 ,
always has a remainder of 1 when divided by 8 [since one of the
consecutive numbers n and « + 1 must be even, which means that
4«(« + 1) is divisible by 8]. The square of an even number has a
remainder of 0 when divided by 8 (if the number itself is divisible
by 4) or else a remainder of 4 (if the number itself is not divisible
by 4). This implies that if all the numbers x, y, z are odd, then the
sum x' + y' + z^ has a remainder of 3 when divided by 8, and if two
of them are even, and one is odd, then when x^ + y''- + z^ is divided
by 8 there must be a remainder of 1 or 5. Thus, the sum of the
squares of three integers can never yield a remainder of 7 when it
is divided by 8. This contradiction of (i) proves the theorem.
251. We employ the identity
(a + by + (a - by = 2a* + \2aW + 2b* ,
which follows from the expansions
(a + by = a* + 4a'6 + Ga^fi^ + Aab^ + b* ,
(a - by = a* - ia'b + &aV - iab' + b* .
It follows from this identity that
[(a + by + (a - by] + [(a + cy + (a - cy]
+ [(a + dy + (a - dy] + [(b + cy + ib- cy]
+ [{b + dy + ib- dy] + [{c + dy + {c- dy]
= 6a* + 6b* + 6c* + 6d* + \2a^b' + \2aV + \2aH^
+ Yiifc^ + \2bH^ + \2cH'- = 6(a^ + 6^ + c^ + d^^y .
Thus
6(a' + 6^ + c^ + d'^y
= (a + by + (a - by + (a + c)* + (a - c)* + (a + dy + (a - dy
+ (6 + cy + ib- cy + ib + dy + ib~ dy + {c + dy + {c- dy

366 Some Problems in Number Theory
or, expressed in words: if a number can be expressed as the sum of
four squares, then six times its square can be expressed as the sum of
twelve integers, each raised to the fourth power. But, from the result
of problem 250, each integer can be expressed as the sum of four
squared integers (some of which may be zero); this implies that six
times the square of each integer can be expressed as the sum of
twelve integers, each raised to the fourth power (some of these may
be zeros).
An arbitrary integer N divided by 6 has a remainder of 0,1,2,3,
4, or 5; that is,
N = &n + r ,
where r = 0, 1,2, 3, 4, or 5. Further, from the theorem of problem
249 (b), the number n may be expressed as the sum of four squares
of integers (some of which may be zeros):
n = x"- + y'' + z^ + t^ .
By what has been shown above, each of the numbers 6A:^ 6jy^ 62^
and 6/^ (which are expressed as six times the squares of integers)
can be expressed as the sum of twelve integers each raised to the
fourth power (some of which may be zeros). Thus the number
6« = 6x^ + 63'^ + 62^ +6/2
can be expressed as the sum of 4-12 = 48 integers, each raised to
the fourth power. But since r = 0,1,2, 3, 4, or 5, that is.
or
or
or
or
or
r =
r -
r -
r -
r =
r -
= 0* + 0* + 0* + 0* + 0\
= P + 0* + 0* + 0* + 0* ,
= P + P + 0* + 0* + 0\
= P + P + P + 0* + 0^
= P + P + P + P + 0* ,
- r + 1* + p + p + r ,
the integer N = &n + r can be expressed in the form of the sum of
48 + 5 = 53 fourth powers of integers (zeros allowed).
252. Set
a = x^ + y^ + z^ .
From the identity in the solution of problem 162 (b) we have

Solutions {252) 367
{x + y + zY — a = {x + y + zY — x'^ — y^ — z^
= 2,{x+y){x + z){y + z)
or
a = {x + y + zY-^{x+ y){x + z){y + z)
(see the hint for the present problem). This brings us to the new
unknowns, x + y+z = Z, x+y= Y, and x. We have y = Y — x and
z = Z— Y, and, therefore,
a = {x + y + zY-?,{x+ y){x + z){y + z)
= Z^ -^Y{x + Z- Y){Y- x + Z- Y)
= Z'-^Y{Z+x- Y){Z- x)
= Z' - 2,Y{Z^ - x^) + ^Y\Z- x) .
We can now simplify the equation considerably by supposing that
the unknowns x, Y, Z are related by
Z' = 2,Y{Z^- x^) ,
or the equivalent
^='4^-(f)l
(see the hint for this problem). In this case our equation will take
the form
or, smce
the form
a = 3Y\Z-x) = 3Y'z(l - -j
«=973(1-1^(1+^;
Let us introduce, together with the unknown x, a new unknown,
= -^. We then obtain
a = 9Y\\ - XYil +X) ;
Z=3Y{\ - X') .

368 Some Problems in Number Theory
Finally, le_t us introduce, together with the unknown Y, a new
unknown, Y= 37(1 — X). Then the relation concerning the unknowns
will take the form
Z=Y{\+X),
and the equation will be in the form
3 1
We are now at the end of the solution. Indeed, from the last
equation X is expressed rationally in a (and Y):
X. 3«-^^
3a + Y'
3« — V
Thus if A'= ^ L- and Z = Y(l + X), then
M + Y^
a = x^ + y^ -\- z^ ,
where x,y, and z are as in the following formulas:
x^ZX,
^=^-^=3(An-^^'
Y
z=Z-Y=Z "
3(1 - X)
From these formulas it follows, in particular, that x,y, and z are
rational, if only the unknown Y is rational. We may choose any
desired Y in the formulas. (This circumstance is analogous to that
where we simplify the equation x^ + y^ -\- z^ = a using the relation
y = —z; then the unknown z may be chosen arbitrarily. See the
hints for this problem).
We have thus found the solution to the equation
x' + y^ + z^ = a
in rational numbers (and even as many solutions as are desired which
are related to the chosen distinct rational values of Y). We have
only to show that Y may be so chosen that x,y, and z will be positive
(here we may employ the positive number a, which we have not
used as yet). Let us express Z = x + y + z, Y = x + y, and Z — x =
3' + 2 in terms of X and Y,

Solutici,„s {252) 369
x + y + z = Z= Y{\ + X) ,
y + z-=Z-x = {\ ~ X)Z= Y{\ -X^) ,
and ir> these formulas let us set
3a - Y' 2Y'
\- X=\-
1+^=1 +
3a + Y' 3a + Y'
3a - Y' 6a
3a + r» 3a + Y'
We obtain
6a F
X
+ y + z =
X + y =
3a + r» '
3a + r'
6^2 '
12a r*
(3a + Y^ '
In these formulas let us set Y = V^a, that is
3a = Y'
(this value of Y may, of course, be irrational). We obtain
X + y + z= Y ,
that is.
X -
y ■■
z
X + y =
y + z =
= 0,
-¥-
-¥^
1
3
= f
1
3
2
3
■Y,
'
V3^,
V3^.
Let us choose a Y such that it will be rational and sufficiently
close to V^ (it is possible to find a rational Y as close as we wish
to v'3a). In that case y and z remain close to J VSa and to | \/3a^,
respectively (they remain positive). Further, from the formulas we
find

X
370 Some Problems in Number Theory
X + y + z _ 3a + Y^
y + z ~ 2Y' ■
Therefore, if it is still necessary thatthe chosen value of F be less
than ^3a (so that 3a > Y' and 3a + Y > 2Y'), then we have
x + y + z ^ 3a +_Y'
y + z 2Y' '
and therefore x will also be positive. This cancludes the proof of
the theorem.
For example, consider the case a = j. By setting F=l in the
formulas we can easily obtain
9 •
1
^=18'
5
in fact,
(I)' - iiJ - (I)' = I ■
253. It follows from the result of problem 159 that there must be
an infinite number of prime numbers. (That problem implies that
prime numbers occur in the sequence of integers sufficiently "often";
for example, they occur "more often than" squares. See the remark
to that problem). Also, from problem 65 we see that there must be
an infinite number of prime numbers: if there existed only n prime
numbers, then there would be no more than n number-pairs relatively
prime to each other.
A much simpler and more direct proof of the theorem of the
infinitude of prime numbers, ascribed to Euclid, is the following one.
Let us suppose that in all there are n prime numbers 2,3,5,7, 11,
•••,/>„. Let us form the number //= 2-3-5-7-11 •••/)„ +1. The
number N is greater than all the prime numbers 2, 3, 5, •••,/>„ and
must therefore be composite. But since N — \ is divisible by 2,3,
5, 7, • • •, pn, it follows that N is relatively prime to all prime numbers.
This contradiction proves the theorem.
254. (a) The proof given here will be quite similar to Euclid's
proof of the existence of an infinite number of primes. The integers

Solutions (253-254) 371
comprising the first sequence given in the problem are all those of
form 4^ — 1. Assume that only a finite number of primes appear in
the sequence, that is, 3,7,11,19,23, ■ ■ ■, p„. Consider the number
//= 4(3-7-11 •19-23-••/.„)- 1 .
This integer exceeds every prime which appears in the given
progression, and so, being a number of form 4^—1 (hence belonging
to the progression), it must be composite. Factor N into its prime
factors, none of these factors can be of form 4^ — 1, since N +1 =
4(3-7-ll-15-19-• •/)„) is divisible by all primes of form 4yfe — 1, and,
consequently, N is relatively prime to all these numbers. Since N
is odd, it must then be representable as the product of primes of
form 4^ + 1. This is impossible, since the product of numbers of
form 4^ + 1 is again a number of this same form,
(ik, + l)(4yfe2 + 1) = \6k,k2 + 4k, + 4yfe2 + 1
= 4(4yfeiyfe2 + k, + k2) + I = 4k, + \ ,
and N is of form 4^ — 1.
Thus the assumption that there is a finite number of integers of
form 4^—1 produces a contradiction. Hence the number of primes
in the given sequence must be infinite.
The proof for the second sequence, which contains all the integers
of form 6^ — 1, is quite analogous.
(b) The proof of this problem is based on the same idea as
that just presented in part (a). Assume that the sequence 5, 9, 13,
17, 21, 25, • • • contains only a finite number of primes: 5,13,17, • • •,
pn. Consider the number
N=i5-13-\7---p„y + l .
The number N is clearly not a perfect square (it is one more than
a square). However, N is the sum of two squares; from problem
247 (b) it follows that N can only be of form 4^ + 1 (no number of
form 4^—1 can be expressed as the sum of two squares). From
this point the method of proof is analogous to that used in problem
253 or 254 (a).
(c) The proof is somewhat more complicated than the proofs
of parts (a) and (b), although it is still based on the same idea.
Assume that in the sequence 11, 21, 31, 41, 51, 61, •• • there exists
only a finite number of primes:
11,31,41,61, •••,/.„ .

372 Same Problems in Number Theory
Consider the integer //= (11-31-41-61-•-/(n)^ — 1. This number is
relatively prime to all the integers 11,31,41, •••,/>„, since N + I is
divisible by all these integers. We shall designate the product
ll-31-41-/.„ by a. Then
N=a'-\ ={a- \)ia* + a' + a' + a + I) .
Let us investigate what factorization of N can produce a factor of
a' + a" + a' + a + 1. Clearly, a* + a^ + a'' + a + 1 is not divisible by
2 (it is the sum of five odd numbers). Further, a* + a^ + a^ + a + 1
is divisible by 5, inasmuch as a itself terminates in the digit 1 (a is
a product of numbers all ending with 1; a',a^, and a' each end with
the digit 1, and so the sum a* + a' + a^ + a + 1 ends with the digit
5). Now let p he a prime divisor of a* + a' + a^ + a + 1 differing from
5. Here, a — 1 cannot be divisible by p, since otherwise a would be
of form kp + 1, and so a^,a\ and a* (which are equal, respectively,
to (kp + l)^ (kp + l)^ and (kp + l)*) would be of the same form, and
the number
a' +a' + a' + a + l =(kp + iy + {kp + \y + {kp + \y + {kp + \) + \
would yield a remainder of 5 upon division by p. It follows that
p — \ must be divisible by 5; in fact, suppose that /> — 1 yields the
remainder 4 when divided by 5:
p- \=5k + 4 .
We note (Fermat's theorem, problem 240) that a""' — 1 is divisible
by p. But in this case
flp-i - 1 = as*+< - 1 = a^fls* - 1) + {a* - 1) ,
and since a^' — 1 = (a^)' — 1' is divisible by a^ — 1, which means that
it is divisible also by p, it follows that a* — 1 is divisible by p.
However,
a^ - 1 = a{a' - 1) + (a - 1) ;
consequently, if a^ — 1 and a' — \ are divisible by p, then a — 1 also
must be divisible by p. This, as shown above, is impossible. It
may be shown, in analogous fashion, that /> — 1 cannot yield the
remainders 1,2, or 3 upon division by 5.
Thus, /> — 1 is divisible by 5 and is an even number {p being odd).
Consequently, /> — 1 is divisible by 10, which means that p is of form
\0k + 1; that is, it belongs to the given progression. Therefore, it is
established that the prime divisors of the number a' + a^ + a^ + a + 1
can be only 5 and prime numbers of form lOA + 1.

Solutions (255-256) 373
However, the number a* + a" + a' + a + \ is obviously larger than
5, and it is not divisible by 5^ = 25. In fact, the integer a ends with
the digit 1 and is consequently of form 5^ + 1. Further, by the
binomial theorem, we have
a* + a^ + a^ + a + \
= {5k + ly + {5k + \y + (5yfe + 1)^ + 5* + 1 + 1
= 625yfe* + 4-\25k' + 6-25yfe'' + i-5k + 1
+ 125yfe-^ + 3-25yfe^ + 3-5yfe + 1
+ 25yfe^ + 2-5yfe + 1 + 5yfe + 1 + 1
= 625yfe* + 5-125yfe' + 10-25yfe^ + 10-5yfe + 5
= 5[5(25yfe* + 25yfe» + \0k' + 2k} + \] .
It follows that this number, and, consequently, N=a'' — \, must
have at least one prime divisor of form 10'' + 1. But, as noted above,
N is relatively prime to all prime numbers of form \0k + 1. This
contradiction proves the theorem.
Remark: We note that this proof, almost as it stands, will allow us to
prove that any infinite arithmetic progression consisting of integers of form
2pk + 1, where p is an odd prime, contains an infinite number of primes.
255. (a) Let a and b be adjacent sides of a rectangle; then its
perimeter is P= 2{a + b) and its area is S = ab. From the so-called
theorem of the geometric and arithmetic means [that is, ab g (^
see the discussion of Section 11 (Problems)], we have
a + bV /'PV
^'-<H^)'<i
It is obvious that the area S will be maximal when ^ in this
expression represents equality; this happens only for a = b. Therefore,
of all rectangles having the given perimeter P, the rectangle of
greatest area will be a square.
(b) The solution is analogous to that of part (a), except here
S is fixed and P becomes least when a = b.
256. Let a and b be the lengths of the legs of our right triangle, and
let c be its hypotenuse. Then
c^ = a^ + 6^ .
Let d= a + b be the sum of the legs. From equation {!') of the
discussion of Section 11 (Problems), we have

374 Inequalities
a + b
that is,
= 7T^«^ + ^^
d < C
2 =1/2 •
or,
257. In view of equation (i) of the discussion of Section 11
(Problems), we may write
tan a + cotot^ 2i/tan a;cot a; = 2 .
The equality holds only when tan a = cot a;, that is, for a = 45°.
258. We shall rewrite the inequality
2
using X = a -\ and y = b + -r-. Then
a b
The fraction —: is least when ab is greatest; hence by inequality
ab
(1) of the discussion in Section 11 (Problems), we have
'a + bV 1
+ y\ (x +
2 -\ 2
ab^
{'
Thus, ^ s 4 and 1 + -\- g 5. It follows that
ab ab
which was to be shown. The equality is attained only for a=b=—.
259. In view of inequality (i) of the discussion of Section 11
(Problems), we have

Solutions (257-261) 375
a + b
2
b + c
2
c + a
S Vab .
^VbF ,
S l/ca .
2
If these three inequalities are multiplied together, we obtain
{a + b)(b + C)(C + a) ^ y-~r-rr .
Equality takes place only if all three inequalities are equalities,
that is, for a = 6 = c.
260. By inequality (i) of the discussion of Section 11 (Problems),
we have
a + bx* __
x'
Equality holds only if
^ + 6a:^S2-^A.6;,2 =2-i/a6 .
-^,= bx^
x^
/i-
261. Let the lengths of the two beams of the scale be a and b,
respectively. Then in order to balance a weight of 1 pound placed
in one of the pans—say on the pan hung from the beam of length
a—the butcher must place in the other pan an amount of meat
weighing actually a: =-— pounds (since the moments al and bx
b
must be equal in order to produce equilibrium). Similarly, if a one-
pound weight is placed on the other pan, it will be balanced by
— pounds of meat. Therefore, the butcher gives out -— + — pounds
a b a
of meat, and this is weighed out as 2 pounds. However, — + —> 2
b a
a b „ a^ - 2a6 + 6^ (a - 6)^ ^
smce -— + — — 2 = ; = ^^ r-^ ^ 0, and equality can
b a ab ab
hold only if a = 6 . This means that the butcher gives out more
meat than he charges for.
[

376 Inequalities
On the other hand, suppose the butcher sells his meat in the following way:
A given piece is divided into two equal parts, and each part is weighed on a
different pan. Let us assume (since other cases can be easily handled by
similar reasoning) that the true weight of the whole is exactly 2 pounds; thus,
each piece has true weight, by assumption, of 1 pound. When one piece of
meat is placed on one of the pans, the total of the weights needed to balance
it comes to — pounds, and when the other piece is placed on the other pan,
b
the total of the weights needed to balance that piece comes to — pounds.
a
Thus in this case, the sum of the markings on the weights exceeds the total
weight of the meat—that Is the butcher Is short-weighing his customers.
Thus, whether the customer gains or the butcher gains depends upon the
procedure used. The reader is Invited to answer the equestion: Is a paradox
involved here? [Editor.]
262. (a) The harmonic mean H of two numbers a and b is defined
by
J_= a ^ b ^a + b _
H 2 2ab '
thus //=^^ . We see that
a + b
/a + b 2ab y-r
(b) The result called for follows from part (a) and from
inequality (i) of the discussion in Section 11 (Problems).
263. It is to be shown that
a + 6 + c - 3 Vabc g 0 .
If we refer to problem 162 (a), we find
fl + 6 + c - 3 V^ = {VT +VT ^VT)
+ VF -2VbF+ V^ + VW-- 2Vm ^Wd^)
\{V~E +Tb +VT)
X [( ^T - VTf + (-Tft - T^r + ( yr - VliY\ ^ 0

Solutions (262-266) 377
The equality sign is obtained only if all three differences
^T - ^T,
VT-VT,
are zero, which happens only when a = b = c.
264. By Heron's formula, the area of a triangle having sides a, b, c,
is equal to
S = Vp(J} - a){p - b){p - c)
= VT-ViP - a){p - b){p - c) ,
where p = is the semi-perimeter. In view of problem 263,
(^^)"^(|h-
Since the sides of an equilateral triangle havmg perimeter 2p are
2
each equal to -—p, we have
P - a){p - b)ip -^)={p-jf>J = {j^J '
which yields the greatest possible area for the triangle.
265. The volume of the pyramid is
6 ■
However, from problem 263 we see that
xvz ^ ( —-~-^— ) = —- .
V 3 / 27
Since the number— is independent of x,y, and z, the condition for
maximal volume is
a
x = y = z^-.
266. It suffices to prove that
(a, + 6,((a2 + 62)(a3 + 63) ^ ( ^/a^a^ + VbMTy

378 Inequalities
We have
(a, + 6,) (02 + bzJioa + 63)
= 0,0203 + 616263 + (010263 + O1O362 + O2O361)
+ (016263 + O26163 + O36162) .
However,
( ^Oi0203+ ^6,6263)'
= O1O2O3 + 616263 + 3 v'o?o^^i6263 + 3 v'o,02036?626'3 .
In view of the inequality of problem 263, we obtain
O1O263 + O1O362 + O2O361 g,
3 S \ atatatbibzbi >
aibibi + O26361 + O36162 , 3, 5-r-^
3 g \ OiaiQiblbibi ■
A comparison of the last three formulas yields the result sought.
267. The inequality of the problem may be written in the form
^ /Oi + 02 H +a2'»\''"
0,02 • ■ ■ 02". ^ (^ ^j .
From inequality (i) of the discussion on of Section 11 (Problems), it
follows that
and we also have
0,02 ^
03O4
V 2
(1)
from which we obtain
. fOi + O2 O3 + O4T ^
a^aiaiUi g ^ ^ J ^
_ /oi + 02 + 03 + OtV
We find, in an analogous manner, that
, /fls+fls + a^ + a«\'
and from this we obtain
fli + a2 Oa + a* ' ^'
2 "^ 2

Solutiotis (267-268) 379
Pfli -I \-at Oj -{ hasT
fl,fl2- • -fle g [ J J J
fli -I h flt fls + • ■ • + a«
2
Repetition of this process finally yields
^ /a, + flz + ■ ■ ■ + a2"\""
fliflz-■ •flz" ^ I ^ 1 ,
which is what we wished to show. We note that in (i) the equality
is obtained for a, = Oj. If this fact is employed repeatedly, we find
that the equality holds for (2) only for
(2)
a, = a.
268. There exist many proofs of this theorem, some of them not
elementary. In view of the importance of this theorem, three different
elementary proofs will be given. The first will be based on the
result of problem 267, and the second and third will use mathematical
induction.
First Proof. We show first that if the statement of the theorem
concerning arithmetic and geometric means holds for w + 1 positive
numbers, then it holds for n positive numbers. Assume that for
any set of « + 1 positive numbers Oi.Oz,- ■ -.a,, an+,
or.
fli + 02 H \- a„ + a„+, , ,
——-j 2 VatOi-- a^an+i ,
n + i
/a, +a; +---+a„ + a„+l\''^' ^
\^ ^^'^ ) S aia2- anan+i .
If we substitute into this inequality
Oi + az -\ +a„
then we obtain
a, + az -\ |-a„
„ I „ I 1 I „ a, + a2 H \- a„ +■
a, + az -{ \-a„ + a„+i
w + 1 n + \
n + \
-{a, + az -\ a„)
n Qi + Oz +■ ■ ■ + at
n + \ n

380 Inequalities
Consequently, we have
[ ) ^ «.«^- ■ •«» ( ) .
If we cancel ^ "^ on both sides and take the «th root,
n
we arrive at the desired result.
fli + 02 H \-a„
S "l/fliflz-- ■a„
But in view of the result of the preceding problem we know that
the theorem of arithmetic and geometric means holds for arbitrarily
large integers, in particular, for integers of form 2". Therefore, the
theorem holds for arbitrary n, since given any n it is dominated by
some number 2", and, by what has just been shown, the theorem
holds for 2" - 1, 2" — 2, and so on, and thus for n.
Also, if for « + 1 numbers equality holds only if all the numbers
are equal, then the same condition must clearly hold for n numbers.
Since this condition for equality was shown necessary in problem
267 for « = 2"", it also applies in this problem.
Remark- This method of proof, which somewhat resembles that of
mathematical induction, is sometimes called transfinite induction. It may be stated
as follows: if the truth of the theorem for w = fc + 1 implies that it holds for
M = fc, and if, no matter what positive integer n is chosen, the theorem can
always be demonstrated for some integer exceeding n, then the theorem holds
for all natural numbers n.
Second Proof (mathematical induction). For n = 2, we have
a, + g2 ., y
—^ fe "l/ai«2
Assume that the inequality of the problem has been proved for some
number n of positive numbers; we shall show that it must hold for
« + l positive numbers. Let Oi, <72, ••,«», a«+i be n + \ positive
numbers, arranged such that a„+i is the largest. Since
fln+i S a, ,
it follows that
.^ fll + «2 -I |-«n
"n+1 =

Solutions {268) 381
We shall write
fll + 02 H \- On __ .
— /In ,
n
fll + 02 H l-fln + a„+l
•^n+1 .
n + 1
Then
^"^' " « + 1 •
But since a„+i S ^„, we can write a„+i = ^„ + 6, where 6 § 0, then
w^„ + ^n + 6 6
W + 1 W + 1
If both members of the last equation are raised to the (w + l)st
power we have
W + 1
k (^„)"+' + (^„)"6 = (^„)"(^„ + 6) = (^n)"an+l .
Since, by the induction assumption, the inequality holds for n
numbers, that is,
it follows that
(^„+i)"+' ^ (^n)"a„+i ^ ai«2- • -a^fln+i ,
and, consequently,
^,+1 S "+'-i/a,a2- -an+i . •
Now, if not all the numbers are equal, then 6 > 0, and the strict
inequality holds.
Third Solution {mathematical induction). Designate ai by 61", and so
on; then the inequality whose proof we seek takes on the form
b: + b'^+- ■ ■ +11-^ nb.bz- ■ -K .
Suppose that this inequality is assumed to hold for any n positive
numbers; we shall show that it holds for w + 1 numbers:
bV + bV'+ ■■■+ bV + b:i\ ^{n + 1)6.62- • -ftn+i •

382 Inequalities
Dividing both members of this inequality by blX\, and designating
—^ by d, and so on, yields
On+l
or,
cr' + cr' +■■■ +cr's(« + i)c,c2---c„-i.
But by the induction hypothesis,
cr' + cr' +■■■+ cV fe n{c,c^■ • •c„/»+'>/» .
Hence it suffices to show that
(n + l)c,C2---c„- 1 g w(c,C2---c„)^"-""/" ,
or, designating "i/c.ca-• • c„ by k, that
(w + l)yfe» - 1 S wyfe»+' .
The last inequality follows from the following computation:
(w + l)yfe» - 1 - wyfe»+' = -nk'ik - 1) + (yfe" - 1)
= {k - l)(-wyfe» + yfe»-' + k'-^ +■■■+ k + 1)
^ ~(k- l)[(yfe» - k'-') + {k' - k'-') + • • • + (yfe» - 1)]
= ~{k- lyik"-' + yfe»-^(yfe +!) + ■■.
+ kik'-' + k'-' +---+k + \) + ik'-' + k"^ + ... +yfe + 1)] g 0
(for ky 0, the expression in brackets is clearly positive).
The final inequality shown reduces to equality for k = \.
Mathematical induction may be employed to show that equality will hold
only if
C\ ^ Ci =^ ■ • • ^ Cb =^ 1 J
that is, if
b\ = 62 = ■ ■ ■ = 6» = 6»+1 .
Remark: Other proofs may be found in the volumes referred to at the
beginning of Section 11 (Problems); see, for examples, the volume by Hardy,
Littlewood, and Polya. Moreover, the inequality of this problem is easily
established from the results of problem 269 (a) and (b) and problem 270, provided
problem 268 is not used to establish it. (See, for example, the second proof
of problem 269 (a) and (b).
269. (a) First Solution. Designate the n positive numbers by
Xi,X2, ■ ■ ■, Xn. By the imposed conditions, the sum a:, + Xi -\- ■ ■ ■ -\- Xn
is given, and hence so is the arithmetic mean

Solutions {269) 383
Xi + Xi + ■ ■ ■ + Xn _
n
By the theorem of arithmetic and geometric means
for which the equality is obtained only for
Xi =^ X2 ^^ ' ' ' ^^ Xn ^= ^ .
Therefore, this product assumes its maximal value A" for
Xi ^=^ X2 ^ ' ' ' =^ Xn
Second Solution. Arrange the n positive numbers in increasing
(non-decreasing) order:
A:i ^ A:2 ^ ATa g ■ ■ • ^ X„ .
If all the numbers are equal, we have
/'Xi+ Xi+---+ X„Y
Xa2-Xn=[ - j .
Assume that not all these numbers are equal. We shall show, under
this assumption, that there exists another set of n numbers having
the same sum but whose product exceeds XiXz-Xn.
Let A be the arithmetic mean of the numbers x,,x2, ■■•,a:„. We
have, from our assumptions,
X, < Xn ;
a:, < ^ ;
Xn> A .
Replace the numbers x^ and x„, respectively, by new numbers x\ and
x'„ which preserve the arithmetic mean:
X', + Xj + Xi -\ hATn-i + X'n _ .
n
To do this, we can set
Xn ^ A y
X{ = Xi + {Xn - X'„) .
In the product a:ia:2--x„ all the factors except the first and last are
left unchanged; we shall show that the product x[xi exceeds xix^:

384 Inequalities
We designate x„ - x'„ by /; then x'„ = x„ - t and x[ = x^ + t. We
have
XnX[ = {X„ - t){Xi + t) = ATnATi + {x, - X,) t - t^ .
But since x'„ = A > Xi, we have
Xn Xi J> Xn Xn ^ t ,
from which we obtain
(a:„ - a:,) - / > 0 ,
(a:„ - x,)t -t'>0,
and, consequently,
x'nxi = a:„a:, + (a:„ - x,)t - t^ > XnX, .
If the new set x',,X2,X3, ■ ■ ■, x„-i, A is now not yet composed of
equal numbers, then, arranging them again in increasing order, we
may repeat the previous procedure to find a new set whose sum is
the same but whose product is greater: In this new sequence at
least two of the numbers will be equal to A. Repetition of this
reasoning must finally produce a set all of whose elements are the
number A.
(b) First Solution. Set
fll
— Xz ,
— = Xi ,
On
On _
The geometric mean of the n numbers ati, a:2, a:2-■-, a:„ is equal to 1.
Hence, by problem 268, we have
Xi + Xz-\ \-X^ ^
n
that is,
Xi + Xz-\ \- Xn'^n .
Second Solution. The given inequality is readily proved by
mathematical induction, without recourse to the theorem of arithmetic and
geometric means. Assume the inequality valid for w — 1 positive
numbers, that is.

Solutions (270-271) 385
We shall show that the inequality is then implied for n positive
numbers.
Let a„ be the least of the n numbers Oi, 02, ■ ■ ■, an. Then
fli - a„ S 0 ,
fln-i S a„ .
Hence, a„-i{ai — a„) ^ a„(ai — a„), and then
a,a„-, + al — a„a„-i fe a„a, .
Division by a„ai yields
an-i^ a;_ a^^^ J 2)
a„ a, a,
If inequalities (i) and (2) are added, we obtain
_ai a_2 ^ a„-2 a,-! a,-, , ^ _ a,-,
a2 Oi a„_, a, a„ a, a,
= — + — H 1- + — S(w-l) + l = w;
a2 aa a„ a,
the inequality holds for the n numbers ai,a2, ■ ■ ■,a„. Therefore, the
inequality holds for all natural numbers n.
270. By the theorem of the arithmetic and geometric means
(problem 268), we have
1 1 1
— + — +■■•+— n—i i—
ai a2 an_ ^ «/J_ J_ J_
n — a, a2 ' a„ '
from which we obtain
«:(— + —+•••+—) g Va,a2-a„ .
V a, a2 a,/
The equality holds only if a, = Oi =--=a„.
Remark: The inequality here can be proven in many other ways,
independently of problem 268 (it is recommended that the reader try to find such a
proof). Then this result may be used to ffnd a new proof for problem 268.
271. By problem 268, we can write

386 Inequalities
"^ V^6^= "' Vabb-b
a + b + b -\ \- b a + nb
~ n + 1 ~ n + 1 '
The equals sign holds only if a = 6.
272. Since the arithmetic mean of n positive numbers exceeds
the geometric mean, and the harmonic mean is less than the
geometric mean, we have
A{a) g Hia) ,
or
a, + Oz -\ hfln n
n - 1 1 1 •
— + — +■■■+ —
fli 02 a„
which yields the required result.
Equality is attained only if a, = Oa = ■ • -^fln.
273. Use the theorem of the arithmetic and geometric means,
making the following substitutions:
a, = 1 ,
02 = 2,
an = n .
We obtain
1 +2 + ---+«
V«! = Vl-2-n ^
n
n{n + 1) w + 1
2« ~ 2
If the first and last members shown are raised to the power n, the
statement of the problem follows.
274. By the theorem of the arithmetic and geometric means, we
have
aiaiOiat = aiazazaia^asatatatai
f a, + 02 + aj + az + aa + 03 + a* + a* + a* + aiY"
= \ 10 ;
/fli + 2a2 + 3a3 + ^*
~\ 10

Solutions {272-276) 387
Equality holds only for a, = 02 = fla = a*.
275. (a) We first note that the left side of the given inequality
contains two factors —, three factors — and so on, and finally n
factors —; in all, there are 1+2 + 3+-- +«= " —- such fac-
" n(n + 1)
tors. The geometric mean of these factors is equal to the —-
root of this product; the arithmetic mean is
«(« + 1) ~ nhi±Vi „ + i •
2 ^
The validity of the given inequality follows immediately from the
theorem of the arithmetic and geometric means (problem 268).
(b) The solution here is analogous to that of part (a). The
arithmetic mean of the factors of the left member is equal to
1-1 +2-2+ 3-3 +---+WW1 p + 2' + 3' +■■■+«'
w(w + 1) ~ w(w + 1)
2 2
_ w(w + l)(2w + 1) . n{n + 1) _ 2w + 1
6 ■ 2 3
[see the solution of problem 134 (a)].
276. By the theorem of the arithmetic and geometric means we
have
/I , \/i , \ /I , ^^/w^-al^-a2^—■+a»i\''
(1 + a,)(l + ai)- ■ ■{! + an) ^ ( ^ ' ^ ^ ^ \
where the last equality is an application of the binomial theorem.
We note that the coefficient of s"" will be
w! 1
ml{n — m)\ w"
However, (w — >«)! «"■ fe «!, whence
«! 1 ^ «'■ _ 1
m\{n — m)l w" ^ mini m\

388 Inequalities
from which the assertion of the problem follows directly.
The inequality reduces to equality only for w = 1.
277. Rewrite the left member of the inequality in the form
where a is an arbitrary integer.
Now the solution of this problem is analogous to that of problem
275 (a) and (b). It follows from the theorem of the arithmetic and
geometric means that
l«/2»2'/2(22)'/2^.. .(2'')'/2"ri<»2^""'(2^)^""^' ■ ■(2")1^'/^'"
^r/a; + 2-2"-' + 2'-2"-'H -^2"-l\''+'""'+ ■ +' "1J_
= LV a+ 2'-' +2»-^+--+ \ ) J2 "
= (
a + w2» N'^-'"-'
2n
a; + 2» - 1
If a; = 1, the last exponent shown above is 1, and the expression on
the right becomes
1
The statement of the problem immediately follows.
278. The expression (1 - a:^(1 + a:)(1 + 2x)y is negative for |a:|>1,
and is positive for | a: | < 1. In fact,
(1 - xy{i + ^)(i + 2xy = (1 - xy{\ - x'){\ + 2xy .
The first and third factors on the right are always positive for
X ^ \, and the second factor is positive or negative, respectively,
depending upon whether |A:|<lor |a:|>1. Accordingly, we shall
consider only values of x such that | a: | < 1. We now use the
theorem of arithmetic and geometric means on the five factors 1 — a:, the
single factor 1 + a:, and the two factors 1 + 2a::
(1 -xYH +x){l +2xy
< 5(1 -a:) + (1 +a:)+2(1 + 2a:)Y^'-^'
5+1+2 ;
'5 + 1 +2V*-'+^_ J
V5 + 1 +2y
The right side of this inequality is independent of the value assigned
to X. Hence, the left side will be maximal for that value of x which
makes all the factors equal. The only value of x which will accom-

Solutions (277-279)
389
plish this is a: = 0. Then for this value of x the given product
reaches its maximal value 1.
279. Let r be the radius of the circle; designate the known length
OM by a, and the unknown length ON by x (Figure 27). Then we
can write:
MN =x-a,
NQ = i/r^ - x^ ,
and, consequently, the squared area of the rectangle is equal to
i(x~ayir'- x') .
Figrure 27
We must determine for which value of x this expression is
maximal. We rewrite our product in the form
4
—[(a: - a)-(x - a)-oi{r ~ x)-B{r + x)] ,
where ot and (3 are chosen such that the sum of the factors in the
brackets, that is,
{x- a) + {x- a) + air - x) + &{r + x)
= {2-a + &)x + {a+B)r-2a,
will be independent of x (such that a; — (3 = 2).
The product (1) attains its maximal value if
oi{r ~ x) = 0{r + x) — X — a
[see the solution of problem 269 (a)]. But the equation oi(r — a:) =
i3(r + x) implies that
a + p =
(tf - i3)r 2r
X X
From this, and from the condition a; — ^ = 2, it is readily found that

390 Inequalities
oi = — +1
X X
Substituting this value of a in the equation a{r ~ x) = x — a, we
obtain
r^ - x"
= X - a\
X
2x' - ax- r^ = 0 ,
from which we have
a + Va' + 8r'
4
(the positive sign is taken for the root, since x > 0).
The segment of length x, and hence the rectangle sought, can be
constructed using ruler and compass.
280. The volume of the box is equal to
i2a-2by-b = 4b{a - bf .
We can write the right member of this equality in the form
^^[b-a{a-b)-a{a-b)\,
and we shall select a such that the sum of the factors within the
brackets, that is,
b + 2a(a - 6) = 2aa + (1 - 2a)b ,
does not depend upon 6(we take " = "5") •
The maximal value of the product (1) [see the solution of problem
269 (a)] is obtained when
b = a{a-b) .
Thus, we find
J_
_ aa _ 2^ £_
^- 1 +a" A " 3 •
2

Solutions (280-281) 391
281. (a) The inequality of this problem has the same relationship
to inequality {!') in the discussion of § 11 (problems) as does the
theorem of arithmetic and geometric means (problem 268) to inequality
(i) of that discussion. A proof of this is possible in any one of
several ways, all of them analogous to the proofs given for problem
268.
The solution here will be analogous to the first solution of problem
268. Inasmuch as
fli + aA < ai + a-i
and
we have
■fla + OiV . a\ + a\
a\ + ai + ai + a.
' fll
1
2
+ Oi
2
/7.\2
'
+
2
03 + at'
2
^^ ^n^.
/ a, + OzV / fla + atV fli + fla fla + Oj
Also, since
and
a1 + al + al + al
4
'a, + 02 + fla + atY ^ al + al + al + a]
\ 4
we can conclude that
' fls + fls + a? + asY ^ al + al + al + al
a, +^a2 +^ ■ +asY < «i t«2 +12 ' +««
V 8 ; = 8
Continuation of this process enables us to prove the theorem for 2"
numbers, where m is any arbitrary natural number.
We now shall show that if the theorem is valid for w + 1 positive
numbers, that is, if
/ fli + fla -I \-an + a^^ t y al + al -\ ha' + «»+1 ,,,
^ « + l ) - n+\ . M)

392 Inequalities
then it holds for n numbers. Substituting in (1)
Qi + a2 -I hfln
n
we obtain
2,2, , 2 , /fli + a2 H ha»
\ n J = w + 1
(compare with the first solution of problem 268), from which we
conclude that
'Oi + a^ -{ \- anY ^ a^i + al-\ \- a^
The remainder of the proof does not differ significantly from that
of the first solution of problem 268.
It is easily established that equality holds only if Oi = Oa = • • • = a».
(b) The validity of the inequality will first be established
for two numbers; that is, we shall establish that
'^^4^. (i)
fli + aiY ^fli +02
For k = 2 this inequality has already been proved [see (iO of the
discussion of Section 11 (Problems)]. Assume now that the inequality
holds for some given k. We have
/a, + ajV*' _/ai + aiV a, + g; a,* + a* a, + a;
\ 2 ) V27 2^2'2
_ a^' + a5+' _ a?"' + a^' - ata2 - a,al
_ a, + a2 _ (ai - a2)(ai - a2) <a]__+_£2_
2 4=2'
from which it follows that the inequality holds for k + \. By the
principle of mathematical induction, the proposition holds for all
natural numbers. The remainder of the proof follows as in (a).
282. Let a > 0. Using the theorem of arithmetic and geometric
means, we have
V aia2
2- • a,
<
«! + a2 H 1- a.

Solutions {282-283) 393
Taking the — > 0 power of both sides produces the desired result,
a
The case in which a < 0 is proved in a similar manner (see the
solution to problem 270).
283. If a and (3 are of different sign, the theorem of power means
follows from the result of problem 282. Hence we shall investigate
only the case in which a and (3 have the same sign. Assume now
that 0 < a < (3. Designate Sf,{a) by K, and divide both sides of the
investigated inequality by K; designate (^ by 6,; and so on. The
inequality assumes the form
Here we have
n K» n K» '
b\ -\- bi -\ \-bn = n .
Assume now that b, - \ + x,, bi - \ + Xi, ■ ■ ■, bn = \ + Xn, then the
equality 6, + 62 H \-bn = n becomes
Xl + X2 ^ \-Xn = 0 .
Suppose that — = — (a rational number). Then we have
6"/^ = V(l + a:,)' = V(l +a:.)(1 +x,)---{\ +a:.)M---1
k times (l ~ k) times
^k(l+xd + {l-k)-\ ,^A, l^^r
- / = 1 + ^ a:, = 1 + ^ a:, ,
for which the equality holds only if 1 + a:, = 1 and 6 = 1. Using a
limiting process we find that for an irrational ratio —
Equality holds only if a:, = 0 and 6, = 1.'
6f'^ = (1 + x.y/^ = ((1 + a;,)«'/P)/'-l'- g [1 + -^a;iT g 1 + r ■ ^x.
f Let xi =^ 0, and let r be rational, so that —■ < r < 1
p

394
Similarly, we have
As a result, we find
Inequalities
(l+|^,)+(l + ^^,)+...+(l + |.
" i/«
-[} , a X, + X2+--- + XnV"
V^ 0 n )
which concludes the proof.
Equality holds only if 6, = 62=-■ ■ =6n = l, that is, if a,=aj='
Proof of the case in which a < (3 < 0 is quite analogous.
284. (a) Since S, = 2, we have
a? + 02 + a\
{S,y ^ (S,)' = 4 ;
a'\ + a\ + a\^\2 .
Equality holds only for a, = 02 = fla = 2.
Similarly,
fli + 02 + fla
{S^Y ^ (S,)' = 8 ;
fli + 02 + 03 ^ 24
■=an
T8_,/-r
(b) Proceeding as in part (a), we obtain Sj = -j/^ = l/ 6 ,
from which we obtain
'^' + 'f + '^^ = (Ss)^ ^ (S,)» = 6 i/T;
al + al + al^ 18 i/T
and
fll + ^2 + Oi
= S, ^ S2 = 1/ 6 ;
a, + flj + fla g 3i/ 6 .
Equality in both cases is obtained only a, = Oa = Oa = 1/ 6

Solutions (284-285) 395
285. A proof by induction will be given. It will be convenient to
introduce a special designation for (St)' (the arithmetic mean of all
possible products of the n numbers Oi, 02, ■■■,an taken A at a time);
this summation will be designated as Pi,. The inequality we wish
to prove may then be written
Pi ^ P;.+ r Pi.-^ ■
For convenience we also introduce the notation Po(a), which will be
taken equal to 1.
The inequality is obviously true if there are only two numbers, a,
and 02- In fact, in this case there are only three expressions Pkia):
PM = 1 ,
fli + az
PAa) = —y- ,
Pi{a) = a,a2 ,
and the inequality assumes the form
P,{ay > Pz{a)Po(a) = P,(a) ,
or
a, + azW
> aia-2
(which we have already encountered).
Assume now that the inequality has been established for « — 1
positive numbers ai,a2, ■■■.an-,; we shall show that the inequality
must also be valid for n positive numbers ai,a2, ■■■,an. Designate
the sum of all the possible products of the n numbers, taken k at a
time, by S^ia), and the sum of the products of the « — 1 numbers
a,,a2 ■■■,a„_,, taken k at a time, by Stia). If we factor a„ out of
each term of Sk{a) which contains this number, we derive the
identity
St{a) = St{a) + a^St-i{a) .
Further, let us write Pk to designate the Pt-expressions for the
w — 1 numbers ai,ai, ■ ■ ■, a„-i. We have
p _ St(a) _ St(a) St-i(a)
■St(a) St-.(a) _n~k— k_

396 Inequalities
We now consider the difference
Pk — Pk + lPlc-l
Tn-k— k -—J [n-k-l-f^— k + 1 —1
=[-7r-^' +^«"M -L~"v—^- +-;r-«"^'J
= ^{[(« - *)'^* -(«-/;- 1)(« - yfe + DP^^rn
n^
+ a„[2k{n - k)P,P,-, -{k- \){n -k- l)Pi.^,Pi.-2
-ik+ 1)(« -k + l)FiAT] + allk'T^:,'
--(k + \){k- l)A?r^} = \{A + fl„B + a^C) ,
n'
where A, B, and C designate, respectively, the expressions enclosed
by brackets.
The induction hypothesis implies that
Pk > Pk+\Pk-\, Pk-\ > PkPk-2 ,
from which, by multiplying these two inequalities, we obtain
PkPk-l > Pk + tPk-2 ■
Therefore, in the expression for Pi — Pk+iPk-i we have
A = {n- kfPl - [(« - kf - \\Pk,,Pk-.
= Pi + [(« - kf - 1] [Pi - 'KT^P^] > Pi
B = 2k{n - k)P,P,^, -{k-\){n-k -\)P,^,Pk-2
{k+\){n-k + \)P,P,-, = - 2PkPk-
+ {k-\){n-k- 1)[P*P*_, - Pk^^Pk-i] > 2PkPk-^ ,
c = k'p;:^;' - (yfe^ - i)aK72
= Pk-,^ + ik' - i)[Pk-,' - PkPk-,] > Pk-'.
As a result,
Pi - P*+iP*-, > Pi - 2anPkK^, + a»Pr.
which proves the theorem.
286. Excluding as obvious the case in which Oi = 02 = ■ • • =a„, we
shall show that S* < 2,. First, since Po(a) = 1, it follows from
problem 285 that

Solutions (286-288) 397
Pf > P2P0 = Pz ;
I] > II or 2", > 2*2 .
Further, by multiplying the inequalities 2", > i'a, 2*2 > il-i",, we
obtain 2*2 > ll, 2*2 > 2'3. Similarly, taking the products of the
inequalities I, > l2, II > ll-I,, llyllll, we arrive at ll>li I^y.^*.
Similar procedures show, finally, that
287. We have, 2*2 = J^ = 2 Further, by the theorem of the
symmetric mean, we have
^•.(fl) S 2-2(0) = 2 ,
fli + 02 + fla + ^4 ^ 4-2 = 8
and
I,ia) ^ Ma) = 2 ,
aiOiaaat g 2^ = 16 .
In both cases, equality holds only if Oi = 02 = fla = «4 = 2.
288. Since the sum of the angles a + (3 + 7- = tt, tan " 't = cot
f.or
tan — + tan— j
1 - tan Y tan |- tan -|-
from which we obtain, after simplification,
tan Y tan y + y tan Y + tan y tan y = 1
We write
a
tan y = a, ,
(3
tan y = 02 ,
r
tan y = fla .

398 Inequalities
Then we see that_the symmetric mean Ii of tliKnumbers 01,02, and
03 is equal to i/-i- = „ ■ It follows, by reasoning analogous to
that used for problem 287, that
(a) tany+tan|-+tanYS3i^ =l/T;
In both cases, equality holds only if a = j3 = 7- = 60°.
289. The Cauchy-Buniakowski inequality is of sufficient importance
to justify the giving of four proofs of its validity.
First Proof. We can write
(ATfl, + b,Y + (xaz + hf +■■■ + (xa„ + b„Y
= {x^a\ + 2xa,b, + b\)
+ {x'al + 2xajbi + 62) H ■^{x'al + 2xa„6„ + bl)
= Ax' + 2Bx + C ,
where
A = al + al + ■ ■ ■ +al ,
B = a,bi + Oibi +■ ■ ■ +a„b„ ,
C = 6? + ^!+■■■+6^
The left member of this equation is, as a sum of squares, non-
negative for all x; in particular, it is non-negative for x = —- .
Substitution of this value for x in the equation yields
Since A>0,AC - B'^0, or B' ^ AC.
We obtain the inequality sought by substituting for A, B, and C
their expressions in terms of a; and 6,-.
The equality sign is possible only if
xat + b, = xaz + bz = xa3 + bi = ■ ■ ■ = xa„ + b„ = 0 ,
from which we find
bl 62^ ^_ ^/__ \
fli az fla a„
Second Proof. Given two numbers a and b, we have (a — bf fe 0,
or a^ + 6^ ^ 2a6, and so

Solutions {289) 399
ab
^-fl^ + ^6'.
Now let
2 ' 2
A=Va\ + ---+al ,
then,
a^=^,
b.=-^
_l;;2
• ■ ■ +au —
{i =
al+--
1,2,-
■+ flu
.n);
fli H l-flu = -T-9 = 1 '
Ol H 1- On = ^^ = 1 ■
We can write the n inequalities
aibi^—d\+-x-b\,---,dj)n^'^a„+ -^bu .
If we add these together, we arrive at
-I - Z ^ 1 1
fllOl H l-flnOn - "2" "*" "2" ^
Substitution of the appropriate quantities for di and bi yields
AB^'"^ AB~^'
aA +---+a„b„ ^ AB ,
{a,b, +--- + anb.f ^{a\+■■ ■ + al){b\+■ ■■+bl) ,
which is what we wished to prove.
Equality holds only if
di — bi = dz — bz =■ ■ ■ =d„ — b„ = 0 ,
which implies
K^h^. - bnf _ B:
fli Oz
Third Proof. The inequality holds, trivially, for w = 1; that is,
{aA? ^ a\b\.
a\ A

400 Inequalities
We shall show that if the inequality is assumed to hold for n pairs
of numbers, that is,
C < AB.
where
A = al + al -\ +al ,
B = bl + bl+---+bl,
C = ai6, + 0262 H + a„6„ ,
then it must hold also for w + 1 pairs of numbers:
(C + fl„+,6„+,)' ^iA+ aU,){B + bU,) .
In fact, we can write
{A + flL.)(B + 6L.) - (C + fl„+,6„„)^
= AB+ Abl+, + BaU, + al+,bU> - O - ICa^^^bn^,
= {AB - C) + {Ab\^, + Bal^, - 2Ca,^,bn^,)
= {AB - C) + (i/T6„+, - -l/Ffl„+,y
+ 2(1/AS- -i/C">„+i6„+i S 0
(since each of the three terms is equal to or greater than zero).
Therefore, by the principle of mathematical induction, the inequality
is valid for all natural numbers n.
The equality sign holds only if
bi 62 bn '
Fourth Proof. It can be proved by mathematical induction that
The right member of this inequality is nonnegative and vanishes
only in the event of equality of the ratios Uk.bk. If this expression
is not zero, we have
(.?,"*)(.?.''')^(§'"'")'>»'
which proves the theorem.
290. By the Cauchy-Buniakowski inequality we have

Solutions (290-293) 401
(fli + fla + ■ • ■ +a„) —+—+...+ —
= [(i/^)^ + ivW)' + ■■■ + iV^f]
X [iVW^y + iVW^y + ■■■ +(i/i7^)^]
^ (l/aT l/l/al +-l/ar l/l/a^ + • ■ ■ + l/aTl/T/aily = «' ,
which yields the result sought. The equality sign holds only if Oi
02 = • ■ ■ fln.
291. By the Cauchy-Buniakowski inequality we have
(fli-l +02-1 +---+an-\Y
^{al + al + ---+al)il + 1 +...+ 1),
from which we obtain
f'fli + flz H 1- a„y ^ a^i + al-\ \- al
\ n J n
The equality holds only for Oi = Oa = • ■ • = a„ .
292. In the solution of problem 288 it was shown that
tan (f) tan (|) + tan (f) tan (f) + tan (f) tan (f ^
By the Cauchy-Buniakowski inequality, we can write
[.a„.(f) . .a„.(|) . .a„.(X)][.a„.(f)+ .a„.(X), „„.(X)]
a [ tan (f) tan (|)+ tan (|) tan (f) + tan (f) tan (f )]'= 1,
from which the desired result follows.
Equality can hold only for a = (3 = 7- = 60°.
293. We can write the following expansion:
(ati + y,y- + • • • + (a:„ + ynf = (ati + y,)x,
-\ +{xn + yn)x, + (ati + y,)yi -\ +(a:„ + yn)yn ■
Let us make the following substitutions in the Cauchy-Buniakowski
inequality:
xi + yi = Oi, ■ ■ ■, x„ + y„ = a„ ,
Xi =^ Oly * • • , Xb = Ob .
The following inequality is then valid:

402 Inequalities
(xi + yi)xi -\ +(x„+ y„)x„
^ [{x, + y^Y +--- + {xn+ ynYV"[x', +■■■ + xlV'.
Analogously, we have
(xi + yi)yi H +ix„ + yn)y„
^ [ixy + y,Y +---+ixn + y„Yy^'[yl +■■■ +yl]"' .
If we combine these two inequalities, we obtain
(ATi + y^y +--- + (Xn+ ynf
^l{x,+yJ+--- + ix. + ynYV''
x[ixl + --- + xly'' + {y',+---+ylr'].
If both members of this last inequality are divided by
[(a:, + 3'!^ + • • • + (a:„ + 3'-)']'/^ ,
we obtain
V{x, + y,f +--- + {x„+ ynf
£Vx^+--- +x^ + Vy\ + • • • + 3'n .
which is what we set out to prove.
The equality can hold only if — = -^ =... = —^^ .
y^ y- y.
294. The Cauchy-Buniakowski inequality yields
^ (a? + 02 + a? + • • • + a\:){a\ + af + a' + • • • + a'-O
= («-l)P-(«- 1)P,
from which the result immediately follows.
We have equality only if ai = aa = ■ • -an.
295. From the Cauchy-Buniakowski inequality, we can write
{VYi ■ VTiXi +1/^ • V PiXi H— +-\/K ■ VJIxnf
^ iVfi + v/^ + • • • + VJ,){VJ,x\
+ Vfixl + ■■■ + V^xl).
The equality sign can be used only ii xi = X2 = ■ ■ ■ = x„.
296. We make the following substitutions in the inequality of
problem 295:

Solutions (294-299) 403
P.=Y'
/-a^g .
J.
3
1
We then have
/I 1 1 \' / 1 1 1\/ 1 2 1 2 1 2
It^' + -3-^2 + yATsj ^[y + Y + TJlY^' + T^^ + T^^
The equality can hold only for equality of the ratios
*'■*'•*'" 2 • 3 ■ 6 •
297. This inequality is merely a restatement, in another notation,
of the Cauchy-Buniakowski inequality. In fact, if we substitute in
the latter al = xt and bl = y^, and take the square root of both sides,
we obtain the inequality of the problem.
298. By two applications of the Cauchy-Buniakowski inequality,
first to the pairs aibi, aibi, ■ ■ •, a„6„ and Cidi, c^di, • • •, c„dn, and then
to the squares of the numbers 01,02, • • •, a„, 61, 62, • • •, 6„; Ci, Cj, • • •,
Cn, di, di, • • •, dn, we obtain
(aibiCidi + OibiCidi -\ 1- anb„c„d„y
g (ay, + a\b\ + • • • +alb\)\c\d\ + c\d\ + • • • ^ddlf
^ (flj + flj + • • • ^a\)(b\ + 65 + ■. ■ + 6i)
X (c| + c5 + ■ • • + ci)(rf| + </J + • • • +rfi) .
Equality holds only if
fli: 6r. Cy. dy = flj: 62: C2: d^ = ■ ■ ■ = On. bn. c„: d„ .
299. We shall rearrange the a< in nondecreasing order, assuming
(renumbering if necessary) that
fli ^ flj ^ fla ^ • • • ^ fln .
Now we may consider the bi to be in nonincreasing order; that is,
we assume that
61 ^ 62 ^ 63 ^ • • • ^ bn .
[Once we have rearranged the a; and written the given fraction

404 Inequalities
{a\ + a\ + .-- +al){bl + 6,' + ■ ■ ■ + 65
{oibi + flj^j H \-anbnY
if bi < bj, for i <j, for any i, an interchange of these two b within
the fraction can only increase its value, inasmuch as the value of the
numerator will remain unaltered, but the denominator will become
less (we will have supplied a greater at with a lesser bi factor;
consider the difference
(aibj + Ujbi) - {Oibi + ajbj) = (a; - aj){bj - bt) < 0)] .
Now, in the event that all a; are equal and all bi are equal, the
fraction has a value of 1. Hence we may assume that either not
all the aj are equal or else not all the bi are the same (or both).
Let us write the system:
a; = atai + 0ia„ ,
b\ = aib^, + 0ibl (z = 2,3, •••,«-1).
This system may be solved for a, and i3(:
_ a„Oi — ajbn
'^' ~ „2l2 11,2 1
2l,2 2fc2
^ ajOi - Oibi
iX-
a„&i - aiO„
The denominators of these fractions are positive,
alb] - aX > 0 ,
or
On b^
„' -^ U^ '
ai Oi
and for the numerators we have
alb] - albl ^ 0 ,
or
^ ^ .
a; &i
and also
a]b] - alb] S 0 .
or
2 1,2
Oi ^ bi
a] = b]
I •

Solutions {299) 405
Accordingly, a; S 0, and (3; ^ 0 . Now, aj = 0 only If
fli = a« ,
6i = 6n ,
i3i = l.
and, analogously.
3. = 0
If fli = fli, 6i = bi, at = 1.
We introduce the terminology
1 + ai + a, -\ 1- a„-i = A ,
(32 + (33 + ■ ■ ■ + i3„-. + \ = B.
Then the numerator of the fraction of the problem can be rewritten
in the form
(/la? + Bal){Ab^, + Bbl) .
As for the denominator of the given fraction, we shall use the
CauchyBuniakowski inequality (aibi + oabif g (a\ + a^) {b\ + 62) (see
the discussion immediately following problem 288) to obtain
Oibi = -l/(i/ai a,y + {V0i a.f ■ V{Vai b.f + iV&i b.f
S aiOibi + &ianbn . (1)
If the inequalities of (i) are added, for z = 1, 2, 3, ■ • •, w - 1, w (here
we assume ai = 1, i3i = 0 and a„ = 0, i3„ = 1), we obtain
Oibi + aibi + 1- anbn S Aoibi + Ba„b„ .
Thus, the given fraction does not exceed
(Aaj + Bal){Ab1 + Bbl)
{Aoibi + Ba^bnf
However,
{Aa\ + Bal){Ab\ + Bbl) ^ 1 , j „ {a.b, - a A)'
(AaA + Ba„b„y "^ {AaA + Ba^bnY '
In view of the theorem of arithmetic and geometric means, we have
AaA + Banbn ^ 2-\/Aa^brBanbn . (2)
Finally, we obtain

406 Inequalities
{al + al+-.. + al)(b'i + bl + ■ ■ ■ + bl)
(a A + ajbi -\ \-aJ)ny
< 1 , 4 p {onbi - aib„y < 1 , J „ janby - a.bnf
- ^ {AaA + Banbnf = {2\/ABaAanbny
which is what we wished to show.
Inequality (i) cannot become an equality for positive numbers,
since —^=^—^. Hence this possibility exists only if all a; are zero or
a„ o„
1 (in the latter case, (3; = 0), that is, if
fli = fla = ■ ■ ■ =ai < fli+i = fli+a = ■ ■ ■ = a„ ,
bl = bi =• ■ ■= bk > 6i+i = 6i+i = ■ ■ ■ =bn .
Then for (2) to become an equality it is necessary that
Aaibi = Ba„bn ,
that is,
koibi = (w — k)a„bn ,
or,
^ . _6n_ n - k
On' bl k
This determines a condition for the equality
(a? + a' + ■ ■ ■ +a^)(6? + b\+--- +bl)
(oibi + atbi H 1- anbnf
^V 2
300. We can write
w(ai6i + az^z -I 1- a„bn)
- (fli + 02 H + an)ibi + 62 H +6„)
= -5- [(«i - 02)(61 - 62) + (fli - a3){bi - bl)
+ •■•+ (a„-i - a„)(bn-i - bn)] S 0 ,
from which the required inequality immediately follows.
301. The condition — + —= 1 implies that p + q — pq, and so
P Q

Solutions (300-302) 407
ft P+Q />! +gl
n- P + 1 />!+?!
^' P " P. '
where />i and ^i may be any positive integers proportional to p and
q (ii p =:—-andq =—, where a, (3,7- and 8 are integers, then we
\ p o
may use, for example, pi = a8 and qi = t-jS).
Accordingly, the inequality we seek to prove may be rewritten in
the form
xy < -^ —^^ .
P + Q
We now set
Xi = ;f(Pl+«l'/«i
Vi = jy(Pi+«il/Pi
Then, using the theorem of arithmetic and geometric means
(problem 268), we obtain
xy = x«i/<pi+«i'jy{>i/(pi+«ii = (xiXi-- -Xiyiyr ■ ■jyi)'/<pi+«i'
qi times pi times
9 + />
.r/£i£i_fA2iY'^'"l"'
= " " jf (Pi +«i) /«i _j_ i- y (Pi +«i) /Pi = X'' + — V'
9 P+Q P Q '
We have equality only if x" = y .
302. We shall use the designations
fli + fla H l-a« = a ,
61 + 62 H + 6n = 6
and divide the given inequality by a'b^. This yields the following
inequality, which is equivalent to that of the problem:
(f )W - (f)•(!)'--(t)'(-
f)'-^-
From the theorem of arithmetic and geometric means (problem
268) it is possible to derive the result that, for every k = l,2,---,w,

408 Inequalities
(t)'(t:
\ a + 0 / a b
(compare with the solution of problem 301).
If these inequalities are added for ife = 1,2, ••-,«, we have
(f)'(t)'-(f)"(t)'—©'(t:
p
^S^oi^ &bi_ aoi Bbi_ aa^ ^b„
-a^b^a^b +""+ a ^ b
= -^(fli + flj H + a„) + y(6i + 6zH + 6„)
= ^ + f = „ + ;3 = l.
a 0
which is what we set out to prove.
Equality holds only if Oi: 6, = 02: 62 = • • • =a„: 6„.
Remark: This result can be derived from the inequality of Cauchy-Bunia-
kowski, but the proof is more complicated.
303. Two proofs will be given for this inequality, which has frequent
application in analysis.
First Proof. If we substitute into the inequality of problem 302
1
" = !'
-I
and, further.
a, = ATf, a2 = xi, • • •, a„ = a:;
6, = yl b^=yi...b^=yi^
we obtain Holder's inequality.
We arrive at equality only if Xuyi = x^■.y^=■■ ■ = a:„:jy„ .
Second Proof. We write
{xl + xl +■■■ +xlY'^ = X ,
{y\+y\+--- + ylY'' = Y,
and divide both members of the inequality by XY. If we use the
terminology.

Solutions (303-304) 409
Xk
f = t, (* = 1,2, ■••,«),
then the inequality we are considering becomes equivalent to
Zlt, + Ziti + ■ • • + Zjn ^ 1 . ( 1 )
where the following conditions are to hold:
z1 + zl+--- + zl = \,
t\+tl+---+tl = \. (2)
By using the inequality of problem 301, we can write the n
inequalities:
zj, ^ \z1 + —t\ ,
P Q
z,h^\zl+\t\,
P Q
P Q
The sum of all these inequalities yields
Zltl + Ziti H 1- Zjn
g ^(2f + Z',+---+Z'.) + Mt' + tl+--- +tl)
Now, using condition (2), and the fact that 1- — = 1 , we obtain
P Q
inequality (1), which is equivalent to that of the problem.
The equality holds only if
X,:3'i = ATj: 3'z = • • • =a:„:y, .
304. The proof is analogous to that of problem 302. We write
fli + flz H 1- a„ = a ,
6. + 62 + • • ■ + 6„ = 6 ,
h + k+--'+ln = l
If the inequality of the problem is divided by a'b^' • -Z^, an equivalent
inequality is found:

410 Inequalities
(f)"(i)'-(iy--(t)'(i-)'-(ty=='-
From the theorem of arithmetic and geometric means we obtain
(compare with the solutions of problems 301 and 302)
(f)'(t)'-(tr-
a—+ (3—H +^-r
a 0 l_
a + 0+---+X
I fp+...+x
= a— + ^—^ \-X-T- .
a 0 I
The sum of these inequalitites for * = 1, 2, • • ■, n yields
(^)-(A)'...(|)V...,(^)-(Ay...(^y
: —(a, + 02 + • ■ • + a„) + -f-(6> +bi+---+bn)
a 0
X ,, , , . aa 8b
+ ••• +-7-('l + '2 +---+ln) = — + — + ■
I a 0
which is what we wished to show.
Equality results only if
a,: 6,: ■ • • : /i = as: 62:: • ■ • : /2 = • • • = a„: 6„:
Remark: If we write
a=—, & = — ,•■■,*■= — ,
P Q t
+ ^=1
^ I
'.U
and
ai = Xi,h - y], ■■ -.U = Mi {i= 1,2, •••,«),
we derive a new form of Holder's inequality: If —■-\ 1 1 = 1 then
P Q u
for arbitrary sets of positive numbers Xi, ■■■,Xn,Vi, ■■■,yn; •■•;«!, •••,««; we
have
Xxy\ ■ ■ ■ Ml + A:23'2 • • • M2 + Xnyn • • • «„
^{xl + xl+--.+xl)'"'(y\ + yl+... + ylf''
X ■ • • X (m! + M2 + • • • +«'„)'" .
305. Use, in the inequality of problem 304, the n (two-number)
sequences

Solutions (305-307) 411
l.fli; 1, Oi, •■ •; l,a„;
and in that problem let a = (3 = • • ■ = —. We then have
n
(1 + fl,)'/»(l + a.y'"- ■ ■{! + fl„)'/" § 1 + fl'.'V"- • ■ fll'" ,
which proves the inequality of this problem.
We have equality only for Oi = 02 = • • •«„.
306. The inequality here is a special case of problem 304, with
j3 = a=--- = A= — .
w
Equality holds only if
a,: 6,: • • • : /i = • • • = a„: 6„: • • • : /„ .
307. In the inequality of problem 304 set
a, = 6, = Ci = 1 ,
1
a. = -,
1
C2 = — .
z
Then we have
(a, + a2)'/X6, + 62)'/»(c. + cY'' ^ a\"b\"c\" + al'V^YJ' ,
or
By the theorem of arithmetic and geometric means (see problem
263), we have
8/ ^ x + y + z 1
Vxyz S 3 = -3- .
from which we obtain
1
^xyz
> 3

412 Difference Sequences
Therefore,
If both sides of this inequality are cubed, the required inequality
ensues.
308. Designate by S the right member of the inequality. We then
have
S^ = (a, + 61 + • • • + l,f + (02 + 62 + ■ • ■+kf
+ ■■■ +(a„ + 6„ + • • • + Lf = [a,{a^. + b, + ■ ■ ■ + h)
+ 02(02 + 62 + • • • +/2) + • • • + GniOn + bn+---+ln)\
+ [6i(ai + 61 +•••+/,) + 62(02 + 62 + • • • + ^2)
+ • • • + Wa„ + 6„ + • • • + /„)] + • • • + [/,(a, + 61 + • • • + /,)
+ ^2(02 + 62 + • • • + ^2) + • • • + /»(a„ + 6„ + • • • + L)] .
Application of Holder's inequality (problem 303) for p = q = 2 to
each of the expressions in brackets produces the inequality
S ^ ^ l/flf + 02' +••• + fllS +1/6! + «+••• + 6i S
The required result follows immediately.
We have equality only if ai.hi: ■■■ : /, = a%.h%. ■■ ■ :U=--- =a„: 6„;
309. (a) We have Mn+,-?/»=ao[(w + D'- «'J+ai[(« + l)'"'- «*"'] +
1- flt-i [(« + 1) — «]. However, for arbitrary a and b the following
identity holds:
ai- - b^ :={a - b){a'-' + a''-^b +■■■ +a6'-^ + 6*^') .
If this identity is applied to the difference (« + 1)' — «', we have
(« + D' - H* = (« + 1)'-' + (« + !)'-'«
H + (« + l)w'-' + «'-' = k-n'"' H ,
where the dots designate only terms of less than {k — 1) st degree in
n. These terms can not increase the order of the sequence; it
follows that the order of the sequence «»" = «„+, — u„ is equal to k-1:
wi" =ao*-w'"' + --- .

Solutions (308-310) 413
(b) Upon transition from the sequence ««" to the sequence
un"", the order of the sequence is decreased by 1. Therefore wi" is a
sequence of zero order; that is, all the elements of the sequence m!i"
are the same number. This means that wi'^" = 0 for all n, which is
what we wished to show.
Remark: It also follows from the solution of this problem that a sequence
of order k has sequences of first-order, second-order, and so on, differences,
up to the fcth order, which do not include a sequence all of whose terms vanish
[that is. 111 ^" is the first difference sequence comprising all zeros). In fact,
a sequence of differences of s-order of the sequence, where s < k, is a sequence
of order k — s whose terms cannot all reduce to 0 (a polynomial of degree k — s
can have value 0 for not more than k — s values of its variable). See problem
310 for the sequence of differences of order k.
310. First Solution. In the solution of problem 309 (a) we saw
that if Un = flow* + fliw'"' H 1- a* is a sequence of order k, then ul"
is a sequence of order k — \ oi form un" = Ooifew*'' H • It follows
that the sequence ul^' has the form
«;," =aokik- l)«*-^+ ••■,
the sequence Un^ has the form
u'n' =aok{k- l){k-2)n'-'+---;
and so on. Finally, the sequence wi'"" has the form
aok{k- l)---2-n+ ■■■,
where the final dots indicate only a constant. The assertion of the
problem follows at once.
Second Solution. By problem 309 (a), the sequence of differences of
ifeth order of the sequence of degree k is of zero order, that is, all
terms are the same, independent of «. Hence it suffices to determine
(il
Mo .
For u„ we have the formula
M„ = Mo + cUo" + • • ■ + ciuil'^
(see problem 313). Equating this with the given polynomial, we have
flow' + a.w'"' + • • • + a* = Mo + Cluo^ +■■■ +Ctuo''^ .
The two members of this equation represent the same polynomial
in w; but it is necessary to expand the C's on the right to enable
comparison of the coefficients of like-degree terms. The term Oow',
however, can be obtained from the term Ctuo''^ alone:

414 Difference Sequences
, ,*, _ «(«-l)(«-2)---(«-^+l) ,„
*^n»0 — . I Un .
The coefficient of w' is equal to uT\k\. Equating the coefficients for
Wi on both sides, we obtain
Mo
from which we obtain
«;" =flo-*! .
311. (a) We shall write the sum-sequence in the triangular form
explained in the introduction preceding problem 309; each u will be
the sum of the two elements flanking it in the previous line:
Mo li\ Hi ti^ * * * lin Wn+t ' * '
«r
U\
Uo
«1^'
5i"
«r'
«i"
«1"
M3
77 <"
M2
«^"
«i"
«f
si'l,
;?
..77<"
...
(21
n + 1 ■ ■
77<"
»n + l
Note that «!" depends only upon «„, m„+i, • ■ ■, «„+* and not upon any
other numbers of the initial sequence comprising the first row. We
shall now show by mathematical induction that
The formula is valid for ife = 1, since here it assumes the form
-(t) y^Q , /^l ,
M„ — *^lMn + *^lMn+l — Mn + Mn + 1 ,
which, by definition, is obvious. Now, assume the formula is valid
for * — 1; we shall show that validity for k is implied:
Un — Un + Mn + 1
= (Ci-i«„ + Ck-\Un'rl + Ci|-iM„ + 2 + • • • + Ci-lM„+i-i)
+ (Ci-iM„+i + Ci-iM„+2 + Ci-iM„+3 H + Ci-iM„+i)
= Ct-lUn + (Ci-i + Ci-i)Mn+l + (Ci-i + Ci-i)M„ + 2
+ ■ • • + (Cl,-l + Ck-l)U„+k-l + Cl,-\U„+i, .
From the definition of the symbol C", it follows that
Co /~tO
Ck-t + Ck-i = Ck ,
Ci_i + Ck-i = Ck ,

Solutions {311-313) 415
and so on. Therefore,
which is what we set out to prove.
(b) The proof here is entirely analogous to that of problem
(a) and is left for the reader.
312. The proof will be given by mathematical induction. (Refer
to the terminology of the Pascal Triangle in the introduction to this
series of problems.). The proposition holds for * = 1; that is, C\ =
— in the first row of the triangular array.
Assume validity for the (w — 1) st row; we must show that this
holds for the nth row. From the definition of the Pascal triangle,
we have
C„ = C„-i + C„_i .
Therefore, for * > 1, we have
t (n - Din - 2)- • •(« - ^ + 1) (« - !)(« - 2)- • •(« - k)
^" "" (k- 1)! k[
We can write this in the form
. («-l)(«-2)---(«-^ + l)
(*-l)!
c =
(■-^)
_w(w- l)(w- 2)---{n-k + 1)
k[
which is the desired result.
If k = I, then we have
C: = CL, + Cl-, = 1 + (« - 1) = „ .
Remark: It follows from this formula that the numbers standing in the
(fc + 1) St row of Pascal's triangle, are of degree k in n. In fact, if we take
k fixed and let n vary, then
i _ n(n - 1) • ■ • (w - fc + 1)
^" ~ fc!
is a polynomial in n of degree fc.
313. It suffices here to note that the number triangle

416 Difference Sequences
Un Uq Mo ' • • Uq Uq
„(n-l) „(''-21 ,/<»-3l . . . ,/
Ml Ml Ul ' ' Ml
Wz M2 ' ' M2
is an arithmetic triangle. That is, it can be written in the form
Vo Vi Vi ■ ■ ■ t;„_i Vn
i;'" i^ci ^<" r,("
^0 ^1 Vi • ■ ■ V„-i
h'" ;1'^' . . . »l'^'
J'o £/i ■ • • fn-a
on which we can now use the result of problem 311 (a).
314. If all the numbers of the ifeth (and higher) sequence of
differences are zeros, then the members of the {k — l)st row of
successive differences are all the same number (which is not zero, according
to the conditions of the problem). Further, since
«<*+» = «<'+^' =..- = 0,
ui," ^ 0 ,
we have
u„ = Uo + Ciwo" + CWo"' H + Ciwo" = «o + wMo"
n{n - 1) ,2, w(w- l)---(w- ^+ 1) ,4,
+ n -Uo ~r -r Uo
(see problem 313). But this formula expresses «„ as a polynomial in
n of degree k, and this proves the assertion of the problem.
315. We consider the series
M„ = 1* + 2* + 3* + 4* + 5* + • • • + «*
and compute the first five difference sequences:

Sol^utions (314-316) 417
0 Ml Ui «3 U, Ms • • •
1 16 81 256 625 •• •
15 65 175 369 •• •
50 110 194 •• •
60 84 • • •
24 • • •
We note that mI" = (w + 1)* is a fourth-degree polynomial; therefore,
Mo*=' = 0, if only k>5 [see problem 309 (b)]:
M^" = 1; Mr=60;
M^^' = 15; ui," = 24 ;
M^^' = 50 .
Therefore, in view of problem 313, we have
u„ = 0 + n+ 15i?^«f^+ 50 «(«-!)(«-2)
1 6
gQ«(«- l)(«-2)(«-3) g «(«- l)(«-2)(«-3)(«-4)
24 "^ 120
This is the formula we seek. Simplification yields
P + 2* + 3* + 4* + • • • + «* = «(« + 1)(2«+ l)(3«' + 3«-l)
Remark: Analogous reasoning enables computation of the sum
1* + 2* + 3* + • ■ • + TO* ,
where k is any positive integer.
316. (a) The first row of differences of the sequence
f/n = 1* + 2* + 3' + • ■ ■ + «' ,
such that all members of the (k + l)st row vanish, is the sequence
of *th degree polynomials (w + 1)*. This means that mI'^" = 0. If
tne initial sequence provides k + I sequences of differences before
the zero row is reached, then it must have been of (k + l)st order,
that is, of (k + l)st degree in w(see problem 314).
(b) Set
M„ = 1' + 2' + 3' + • ■ ■ + w' = Aon''*' + A.n'- +■■■ .
Then mI'"^" = Ao{k + 1)!. (See problem 310.) But m1'^" is the *th

418 Difference Sequences
row of differences of the sequence wi" of *th degree: wi," = («+!)' =
w* H . It follows from problem 310 that m1'*" = kl. Hence, we
have kl = Aoik + 1)!; ^o = t r '^ the coefficient of «*+' in the
K + 1
summation of
Mi = 1' + 2* + 3* + • ■ • + w* .
Determining the coefficient of w* is more involved. We refer to
the formula derived in problem 313:
u„ = flow* + fliw'"' H 1- a*
— Mo + <^nMo + + C„ Mo + *^nMo .
Equating the coefficients of «*"' from both sides, we obtain
_ 1 + 2 + • • • + (^ - 1) ,„ 1 „,*-u
_ _ (k — l)k ,,., ___i__ (*-i)
2/fe! "» +(yfe_l)!«<'
1 1
2(^^-2)!"" '^{k-\)l'
(compare with the second solution of problem 310). Now, applying
this formula to (w + 1)* = w* + Ctw*"' + 1- 1, we obtain
r,' - _ i fc' H J „<*-" ■
^' ~ 2(k - 2)! (* - 1)!"" '
, jfe(jfe + 1) _ (jfe + 1)!
«<*-" = (yfe _ D! [* + -^^^^] = (* - 1
Going over to the series
«„ = 1' + 2* + 3* H +w* = /loM*+' + ^iM* H ^„+i ,
of which the sequence of (w + 1)* is the first difference sequence, we
obtain
1
Mo + TT Mo '
2{k - 1)! "" ^ kl
= 1 ^. I 1 (^ + 1)! _ ^ , ^+1 _ 1
2(* - 1)! *! 2 2 "^ 2 2 •
[Here, m^'*" and mo" designate the quantities described above by m*
and m!,'"", respectively.]
Therefore, the coefficient /l, of w* is — .
Remark: In the solution of problems 134 (a, b), we now have, in agreement
with the above problem,

Solutio,
For k =
ns (317)
12 + 22 +••■
P + 23 + • •
1* + 2*+--
1, we obtain
1 +
■+ n^
■+ n^
■ + n*
2+..
n(n
nKn
■+n =
+ l)(2n
6
1 + 1)2
4
+ l)(2n
71(71 +
2
+ 1)
= —71* +
4
+ l)(Sn'
30
+ ^7.3
1) 1
2
^7.3 +
1-7.3 +
2 + 371-
1
-35"-
i-
!-■
■1)
71^ + -T-71 .
+
.
1
6'
419
In the same manner we obtain, for example,
1100 + 2>oo + ...+„ioo ^ -^7i'<" +-^ 71""'+ ■ • ■ ,
100 ^
liooo + 2'»oo+..._,_„iooo = j^7i'<'»' +—n"'<"'+--- .
317. If flo = 1, the problem has a simple solution. It was shown
in problem 310 that in this case the integers of the ifeth row of
differences were equal to k\. If all the numbers of a given row are
divisible by d, then the numbers of all successive rows are divisible
by d. Therefore, kl is divisible by d.
Consider now the more general case, Qq ^ \. We have, from pro-
blem 313,
,„ n{n + 1)- •■{n — k + I) ,m
Mn = Mo + nuo + 1- 7;^ Mo ■
Since the integers m„ are all divisible by d, all the numbers Mo , Mo , ■ ■ ',
M^" are also divisible by d. If d is factored out and placed as a
multiplier, we have
Un = d\vo+ nvo'-{ H—^^ '—j^ ^t;<" ,
where t'o, t'o", ■■.fo*' designate the quotients obtained upon dividing
Mo, «o", ■■■,Mo" respectively, by d. These v's are integers.
We have above, in the brackets, only Pascal numbers: —-, • • ■,
w(w — 1)-■■(« — * +1) „., ■ ^u J ■ ^
rr . When we give these a common denominator
k'.
and add, we arrive at the following form:

420 Difference Sequences
"'='^1 ^! )•
The numbers 60,61, •■,6* are integers, and we have
dh _ dbi _ dbi,
We divide d and ife! by their greatest common divisor and write
-r, = —^, where ds. and >m have no common factor:
k\ m
dibo dtbi d,bi,
Ok,
ny It I, rn
or.
dA
= flo ,
m
, aotn
bo - ,-
di
dA
= fli ,
m
, aim
bx = -J-, ■
di
dfik
m
, ai,m
■ ■, 6* - .
ffi
It follows that the integers Oo, fli, • • •, a* are all divisible by di. Now,
assume that the integers Oo, fli, ■■■,ai, do not have a nontrivial
common divisor. This means that di - \,—-. —— , or—^ = >m; that is,
k\ m d
k\ is divisible by d. This completes the proof.
318. We construct the sum triangle for the sequence Ci, C„, Cl,
CO y-» 1 /~ti y-tB
B *^B «^B ••. \^n
Cl /"tZ /~*^ y-»B
B+1 ^B+1 ^B+1 '*• t^B+1
C2 >^3 *^B
B-f-2 ^B+2 • ' • l^B + 2
CB —1 /~*n
2b-1 ^2b-1
C2B
We have at the apex C"b, inasmuch as we are dealing with Pascal
triangles as elements.
On the other hand, using the general addition formula for these
elements [see problem 311 (a)], we arrive at the following expression
for the apex element:
(CnY + {ciy + {c'nY +■■■+ {c:y .
Thus, we have
icy + (ciY + (ciY +■■■ + {c:y = c:.

Solutions (318-319) 421
319. Consider the sequence l."f"."^."f" . "■. for which we
construct the sum triangle
1 A ^ ^
b b^ b' '"
^ b b ^ b^ b^ ~^¥ '"
Let «„ designate the nth terms of the given sequence: u„ — -—. We
b"
then have
By induction, we can conclude that
This means that "i*' = M + -^ j . However,
si" = Cluo + Ci«, + CiM2 + • ■ ■ + Ciuit
a k(k-\) a' k(k--iy--2-\ a"
'^^ b^ 2 6^ "^ ■ ■ ■ "^ yfet 6* ■
k
Un .
Hence, we have
(-f)
* a m-V) a-" ^ ^ k{k~\)---2-\ a"
^^'^ b^ 2 b' ^'"^ k\ b"
If both members of the above equality are multiplied by 6*, we
obtain
(a + by
,.. t. ^t , , kjk - 1) „, , , , k(k~ l)---2-l ,
= b^ + kab''-' + -^^-^—- a^b^ ^ H + r^ a*
V ,. t ,;- k(k - 1) , ,., , , jfe(^- l)---2-U,
= a* + *a*-'6 + -="-^—^a''V +•■■ + -^ 6* ,
which proves the formula.

422 Difference Sequence:
320. Consider the following triangle:
1111
Co 2C1 oC 2 4C 3
1 1 1
2C? 2€\ 40? ■ ■ ■
1 1
?€i 4cr ■ ■
1
4cr ■ ■
(The minus sign appears in the second, fourth, sixth, ■ • ■ rows.)
We shall prove that this is the difference triangle for the sequence
1,-r , —, ■ • ■. It suffices to show that for any k ^ n — \ the fol-
Z n
lowing equation holds:
1 1 1
«c*-, («+ i)cr' in + i)c* •
We have
_[ 1
^ k\ ik + 1)!
n{n- l)(«-2)---(« - k) (n + 1)«(« - l)---(«-/fe)
k\
)V n+\J
n{n- \){n-2)---{n-ky
k\ n- k 1
n{n-\){n-2)---{n-k) n + \ (« + 1)C* '
Now, having shown that the triangle is the difference triangle of the
sequence 1, —, ■ ■ ■, —, ■ • ■, we may carry out on it all the operations
2 n
indicated by the conditions of the problem. The result is a Pascal
triangle.

ANSWERS AND HINTS
1. First show that the total of all handshakes made up to any
time is an even number.
2. Calculate the number of moves which the knight must make in
order to arrive at every square exactly once (this number is odd.)
3. (a) Use mathematical induction.
Answer: k = 2' — \.
(b) Designate by k{n) the number of moves needed to remove
n rings from the loop, and express k{n) in terms of k{n — 2).
''i-(2»+> _2), if n is even ;
|^i.(2»+. _ 1)^ if „ is odd .
Answer: k(n) =
4. (a) For a first weighing, put 27 coins on each pan.
(b) The number k, which we seek, can be determined from the
inequality 3'"' < w ^ 3*.
5. First, place one block on each pan of the balance. Then put
both of these blocks on one pan, and put pairs of remaining blocks,
successively, on the other pan.
423

424 Ansivers {6-14)
6. (a) For a first weighing, put four coins on each pan.
(b) k = 7. Prove that if the number n of coins does not exceed
3" — 3
—-—, then it is always possible to detect the counterfeit by w
weighings and simultaneously to determine whether it is light or
3" — 3
heavy (of course, « > 2 is understood.) If w >—r—, then « weight
trials may not suffice. Then proceed by mathematical induction, in
several stages. Specifically, prove the following propositions:
(A) Divide N coins into two sets, X ana Y' it is understood that
the counterfeit coin is in one of these sets. If this coin is in set X,
it is light; and if it is in set Y, it is heavy. Then li N ^ 3", the
counterfeit can be detected by N weight trials; and li N > 3", there
is no procedure which can guarantee success in N trials.
(B) Given N coins, among which there is one counterfeit which
differs in weight from the others (although it is not known whether
it is lighter or heavier than a genuine coin), then we know we have
3" — 1
at least one genuine coin. Now, ii N ^ —-—, then by N weight
trials we can detect the counterfeit and know whether it is light or
3" — 1
heavy. But ii N > —-—, then this number of weighings may not
suffice.
(C) See the suggestion given at the beginning of this hint.
7. (a) One link, (b) Seven links.
8. The second.
9. Prove first that all the weights are even or odd.
10. The evenness or oddness of the first four numbeic of each
row of the number triangle depends only upon the evenness or the
oddness of the first four numbers of the preceding row.
11. Change the order of the squares themselves in such a way
that the problem becomes one of moving chips from one square to
an adjoining one.
12. 15,621.
13. 2 roubles.
14. (a) The rule for the alternation of the number of days in the
year is as follows; Each year whose total number of days is
divisible by 4 is a leap year (has an extra day), with the exception of
those years divisible by 100 but not by 400. It is easy to see that

Ansivers (15-24) 425
400 years contain an integral number of weeks. Consequently, it
remains to prove whether the new year begins most often with a
Saturday or a Sunday for any 400-year period,
Atistver: With Sunday.
(b) On Saturday.
15. All numbers ending in 0, and also the two-digit numbers 11,
22, 33, 44, 55, 66, 77, 88, 99, 12, 24, 36, 48, 13, 26, 39, 14, 28, 15, 16, 17, 18,
19.
16. (a) 6250--0,« = 0,1,2, ■■■.
n times
(b) Try to solve the following: Find an integer beginning
with a given digit and which is reduced to s its original value if
the initial digit is deleted.
17. (a) Prove the number can be reduced to s^ its value only
on deleting the digit zero, which must stand in the second position.
(b) 10,125, 2025, 30,375, 405, 50,625, 6075, 70,875 (to each of
these numbers may be attached, at the end, an arbitrary number of
zeros).
18. (a) Numbers in which all but the first two digits are zeros.
(b) Investigate separately the cases in which the first digit of
the number sought is: 1, 2, 3, ■ ■ ■, 9. There is a total of 104 numbers
satisfying the conditions of the problem. To each may be attached
(at the end) an arbitrary number of zeros.
19. (a) The smallest possible number is 142,857.
(b) The digits 1 or 2. The smallest number beginning with
2 is 285,714.
20. Recall that numbers which are divisible by 5 must end in 0
or 5, numbers divisible by 6 or 8 in an even number.
21. Try to solve the following problem: Find a number with a
given initial digit which is doubled upon transferring the initial
digit to the end.
22. This solution is analogous to that of problem 21.
23. The smallest number satisfying the conditions of the problem
is 7, 241, 379, 310, 344, 827, 586, 206, 896, 551.
24. (a) A number whose inversion exceeds it by a factor of 5, 6,
7, or 8 must necessarily have 1 as its first digit; a number whose

426 Anstvers (25-35)
inversion exceeds it by a factor of 2 or 3 can begin only with digits
1,2,3,4, or, respectively, 1,2, or 3.
(b) Some numbers which are i of their inversions are: 0, 2178;
21,978; 2,199,978, ■■■ (*). All other such numbers are of form
where Pi, Pi, ■■■,P„ represent numbers given by the (*)-display.
25. (a) 142,857.
(b) Set up the equations to be satisfied by an eight-digit
number which is multiplied by 6 if we transfer the final four digits to
the front (maintaining the same order for these).
26. 142,857.
27. Factor the given polynomials. See what remainders are
possible upon dividing w by 3 (and, respectively, by 4, 5, 7, and so on).
28. (a) Use the fact that the difference a" — b^" is divisible by
a + b.
(b) See the hint to problem 27.
(c) 56,786,730 = 2-3-5-7-1113-31-61. Further, use the
propositions of problem 27 (a-d) and also the results of Fermat's theorem
(problem 240).
29. Note that w^ + 3w + 5 = (w + 7)(w - 4) + 33.
30. Factor the given expression and compare the number of
factors with the number of factors of 33.
31. Use the fact that every integer not divisible by 5 can be
represented in the form 5ife =t 1 or else 5k ± 2.
Answer: 0 or 1.
32. Use the result of the problem 31.
33. 625 and 376.
34. Find the last two digits of ti^"; and the three final digits of
„200_
Answer: 7; 3.
35. l+2 + 3+-+w= "^" "^ ^^. Grouping separate terms of
the sum 1' + 2' + 3' H 1- w', show that this sum is divisible by
Y and by in + 1), or by n and -??-^ .

Anstvers (36-47) 427
36. The sum of alternate digits of the second, fourth, and so on,
places minus the sum of the alternate digits of the first, third, fifth,
and so on, places must be a number divisible by 11.
37. The number is divisible by 7.
38. It is always possible to find an integer with first two digits
1,0 and divisible by k. If the difference of this number and its
inversion is again divisible by k, then it can be shown that 9 is
divisible by k.
39. 26,460 = 2^-3^■5-7^ Show that the given expression is divisible
by 5-7' and also by 2^-3^
40. Use the identity
11'" - 1 =(11 - i)(ip + IP + ir + ■■■ + 11 + 1).
41. Write the given number in the form
(2222"" + 4"") + (5555"" - 4"") - (4"" - 4"") .
42. Use mathematical induction.
43. Use the facts that 10« - 1 = 999,999 is divisible by 7, and that
any power of 10 yields a remainder of 4 when divided by 6.
Atistver: 5.
44. (a) 9; 2. (b) 88; 67. (c) Find the final two digits of 7'""=
and 2<""i.
Answer: 36.
45. (a) 7; 07. (b) 3; 43.
46. Investigate the numbers
Z. = 9, Zj = 9^>, Za = 9^2, • • •, Z.ooi = 9^1000 = N
and determine the final digit of the number Zi, the final two digits
of Zi, the final three digits of Z3, the final four digits of Z,, the final
five digits of Zi, and the final five digits of Zc, Z7, ■ ■ -, Ziooi = A^-
Answer: 45,289.
47. The 1000 digits sought will be pPP ■■■ P, where
23 times
P = 020408163265306122448979591836734693877551
is the periodic part of the fraction 1/49, and p is the number
comprising the final 34 digits of the periodic part of P. For the proof, use
the fact that

428 Answers (48-59)
50"""' - 1 50"""' - 1
50 - 1 ~ 49
48. 24.
49. (a) Compare the powers of any prime p in the product a! and
in the product (/ + 1)(/ + 2)- ■ ■(/ + a).
(b, c) Use the results of part (a).
(d) First prove the existence of a number k such that kd, where
d is the common difference of a progression, yields a remainder of
1 upon division by «!.
50. Not divisible.
51. (a) (w — 1)! is not divisible by w if w is a prime number or if
w = 4.
(b) (« — 1)! is not divisible by «^ if w is a prime or twice a
prime, or if w = 8 or w = 9.
52. Prove that all such numbers are less than 7^ = 49.
Answer: 24, 12, 8, 6, 4, and 2.
53. (a) Show that the sum of the squares of five consecutive
integers is divisible by 5 but not by 25.
(b) Determine the remainder obtained when the sum of the
even powers of the three consecutive integers is divided by 3.
(c) Find the remainder obtained when the sum of the same
even power of nine consecutive integers is divided by 9.
54. (a) Find the remainders upon division of each of the numbers
A and B by 9.
(b) 192, 384, 576; or 273, 546, 819; or 327, 654, 981; or 219,
438, 657.
55. The square must end with four zeros.
56. Use the Pythagorean theorem. Prove, separately, that the
area of the rectangle is divisible by 3 and 4.
57. Investigate what remainders are possible if b^ — iac is divided
by 8.
58. Note that after the addition and reduction to lowest terms the
denominator is divisible by 3 and by 2.
59. To show that M and N cannot be integers, it would suffice to
show that after the indicated addition is made the denominator is

A nswers (60-65) 429
divisible by a higher power of 2 than is the numerator. For the
fr-action K, use 3 instead of 2.
60. (a) The denominator of the sum of the fractions is (p — 1)!.
T'he numerator is the sum of all possible products of the first (/>—1)
ir^itegers taken (P — 2) at a time. Designate the sum of all possible
PToducts of n numbers 1,2, ■■•,«, taken k at a time, by nt It is
to be shown that nlZ\, where /> is a natural number, is divisible by
Using the formula (relation between roots and coefficients)
(x- \)ix-2)ix-3)---(x-p+ 1)
= x'-' - nl-.x"-'' +■■■ + nlJ,
and
[{X - l){x ~2){x-3)---{x-p+ \)]{x - p)
= {x~ l)[(x - 2)(x ~ 3)- ■■ix-p + l){x - p)] ,
prove that the two polynomials, whose coefficients depend upon
7?p_i,/7p_i, • ■-,/zji'i are equal. Equating coefficients of like powers
of the two polynomials produces a set of relationships between the
values ffp-i, from which the result asked for in the problem emerges.
(b) When the fractions are added we have the denominator
[ip - \y.Y and the numerator (ff?:;/ - 2{p ~ ly.npZl. Refer to the hint
for part (a).
61. Use the fact that the fraction p/q is reducible to lower terms
if and only if gip is.
62. Prove that for any integer b the number of differences a*—Oi
which are divisible by b is not less than the number of differences
k — I which are divisible by b. Investigate first the case in which
« is a multiple of b.
63. Prove, first, the following equality:
(1 + 10' + 10«+---+ 10")-101
= (1 + 10^ + 10* + ■ ■ ■ + 10")(10"^^ + 1) .
64. (a) a-b. (b) a - b.
65. Show that (2^" + 1) — 2 is divisible by all the preceding
numbers of the given sequence. It then follows that 2^" + 1 and those
preceding numbers cannot have a common factor differing from 2.

430 Answers (66-79)
66. Investigate what remainders are possible upon division of 2"—1
and 2" + 1 by 3.
67. (a) Investigate what remainders are possible Up, 8p ~ \, and
8p + 1 are divided by 3.
(b) Consider the possible remainders if p,8p^ + 1, and 8p^ — 1
are divided by 3.
68. Show that p' - I is divisible by 12.
69. Consider the possible remainders upon division by 6.
70. (a) Prove that the common difference of the progression must
be divisible by 2-3-5-7 = 210.
Ansiver: 199, 409, 619, ■ ■ ■, 2089.
(b) Prove that if the first number of the progression is not 11,
then the common difference must be divisible by 2-3-5-7-11 = 2310;
if the first number is 11, then the common difference is divisible by
210.
For problems like problem 70 (a, b) it is convenient to refer to a
table of prime numbers.
71. (a) This will be an odd number not divisible by 3.
(b) It suffices to find a number not having a common factor
of 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, or 13 with respect to the other fifteen numbers of the
sequence.
72. The product is equal to 22 ■ ■ ■ 2177 ■ ■ ■ 78.
665 times 665 times
73. The quotient is 777 000 777 000 •• ■ 777 000 77 (there are 166
repetitions of 777 000); the remainder is 700.
74. 222,222,674,025 = 471,405^
75. Prove that if i/« < 1 - (^ j , then a < 1 - ( ^j .
76. 523,152 and 523,656.
77. 1946.
78. (a) Consider the sum of the arithmetic progression whose
common difference is 1 and whose first term is 10" ' and whose last
term is 10" — 1.
(b) 1,769,580.
79. Consider, first, all the integers from 0 to 99,999,999, putting

Answers (80-93) 431
enough zeros before all those integers having fewer than eight digits
to make them eight-digit "numbers".
80. 7.
81. No.
82. Use the fact that nine weights of magnitude wS (w + 1)S • • •,
(w + 8)^ can be divided into three groups, the first two of which
total the same weight and the third set is lighter by 18 units.
83. 240.
84. (a) 147,258,369. (b) 941,852,763.
85-86. Use the formula for the sum of an arithmetic progression.
87. Put the expression n{n + l)(w + 2)(w + 3) + 1 into the form of
a quadratic polynomial.
88. Show that among the considered numbers there cannot be
more than four which are pairwise distinct.
89. Prove, first, that no matter what numbers we begin with,
after at most four steps we arrive at four even numbers.
90. (b) Having made some arrangement of the numbers from 1 to
101, choose the longest increasing sequence starting with the first
term of this arrangement. If fewer than eleven numbers can be
found to make up such an increasing sequence, then cross out these
numbers from the arrangement, and start over, beginning with the
first remaining number. If again there are fewer than eleven
numbers, then cross out also these numbers, and start over as before.
Every sequence which has been deleted consists of fewer than eleven
numbers, and, unless the problem is solved for this arrangement, we
will obtain no less than eleven sequences. This circumstance will
allow the construction of the desired sequence.
91. Factor out of each of the selected numbers the greatest power
of 2 contained as a factor.
92. (a) Consider that number which when divided by 100 yields
the remainder of least absolute value.
(b) let ai,a2, ■•■,aioo be the given numbers. Investigate the
remainders, upon division by 100, of the numbers a,, at + at, at + 02 +
03, • ■•■
93. Assume that the player, on some day, has played a, matches.

432 Answers (94-100)
and at the end of the following day he has played, along with the
previous day's games, 02 matches, and for three consecutive days
he has played a total of 03 matches, and so on. Consider the 154
numbers at, at, ■ ■ •, 077, fli + 20, 02 + 20, ■ ■ ■, a^^ + 20.
94. Investigate the remainders, upon division by N, of the
numbers 1,11,111, ••-.
95. The final digit of the difference of two successive numbers
of the sequence yields the final digit of the number which precedes
those two. Show that there exist natural numbers n and k such that
the final four digits of the (w + ife)th and (n + k + l)st terms of the
Fibonacci sequence are the same, respectively, as the final four digits
of the ifeth and (k + l)st terms. Then the last four digits of the
(n + k — l)st term will be the same as those last four digits of the
(k — l)st term of the sequence, and so on. In this way it may be
shown that it is possible to find a term of the Fibonacci sequence
whose last four digits coincide with the first term, that is, zero.
96. Investigate the fractional parts of the numbers 0, a,2a, ■■ ■,
1000 a.
97. Prove that an interval (0, A) of the number axis (where A is
an arbitrary natural number less than m + n) contains exactly A — \
of these fractions.
98. Designate by *i(j = 1, 2, 3, ■ • •) those of the numbers which
are included between —:— and -. -, and select those numbers (less
I t + \
than 1000) which are multiples of at least one of the numbers Oi Oi,
■ ■ ■, an.
99. The length k of the period of—can be determined as the least
power k for which 10* — 1 is divisible by g. It k = 21, then it
follows that 10'+ 1 is divisible by q; that is, is an integer. From
this, it is possible to show that in the period Oiflz-• ■, fli, fli+i, fli+z, ■ ■ a*
of the fraction— we have
Q
a, + fli+i = 02 + fli+z = ■ • • = fli + flzi = 9 .
100. Use the fact that the number of digits in the period of each
of the fractions —^ and ''^'- is equal to the smallest of the natural
numbers k and / such that 10* — 1 is divisible by p' and, respectively,

Ansivers (101-115) 433
10' - 1 is divisible by />»+'.
101. Every number x can be represented in the form [x] + a, where
0 ga < 1.
102. Investigate all points in the plane, with integer coordinates,
located inside the rectangle 0 < x < q,0 < y < p, (where x, y are
coordinates of points in the plane) and under the diagonal, excepting
the point (0, 0).
103. Use mathematical induction. (The problem can also be solved
geometrically. To do this, investigate all points of the first quadrant
with integer coordinates under the hyperbola xy = n.)
104-106. In solving problem 104, we must use the fact that
[(2 + l/T)"] = (2 + l/T)" + (2 - i/T)" - 1 .
Similar comment holds for problems 105 (a, b) and 106.
107. In the set of p consecutive integers, «, w — 1, w — 2, •• •,
w —/> + 1, one (and only one) is divisible by p. If this integer is
N, then — = —. Then the difference CJ — — can be written
n(n-l)---{N+l)N{N-\)---{n-p+1) N
p\ p •
108. Prove, first, that if the number n of elements in the sequence
[a], [2a], [3a],-■ does not exceed N, then wa=//+/, where 1 —ag/<l.
109. Prove that (^) is equal to the number of integers, not
exceeding N, which are divisible by 2'"' but not by 2*.
110. (a) 7744. (b) 29, 38, 47, 56, 65, 74, 83, 92.
HI. If a is the number mpde up of the first two digits of the
number sought, and if b is the number made up of the last two
digits, then 99a = {a + bY - {a + b) = {a + b){a + b - 1).
Answer: 9801, 3025, 2025.
112. (a) 4624, 6084, 6400, 8464. (b) There are no such numbers.
113. (a) 145. (b) Only the number 1.
114. (a) 1,81. (b) 1,8, 17, 18,26,27.
115. (a) X cannot be greater than 4.
Answer: x = \,y — ±\;x = ^,y = ±^.
(b) a: = 1,3' = ± 1, 2 is any even number; x — 2,y =±3, 2=2;

434 Answers (116-120)
X = 1, y = 1, z is any odd number; x is any positive integer,
V = U + 21 + ■ ■ ■ + x[, z = [ .
116. Find out by what powers of 2 it is possible to divide the
four numbers sought.
Ansiver: For odd n, the representation is not possible. For even
n, there exists just one representation:
2" = [2'"/'^'-']'^ + [2"'/^'"']2 + [2'"/■'' ■']'
+ [2"'/^i-'P .
117. See the hint to problem 116. In part (b), the solution of
which is analogous to that of part (a), there is only the answer
x=y=:z = v = (i.
118. (a) It is possible to show that if x, y, and z satisfy the given
kxv
equality, and if 2 > ——-, then these numbers can be reduced in such
kyz kxz
a way as to continue to satisfy the equality. \i x ^ -~, y^—r-,
z g -^, and x^y ^z, then it must follow that 2^kx ^2,.
Answer: k = \ and k = 2>.
(b) All such triples of integers can be obtained by using
substitutions of the form Xi — a:, jv, = jy, 2, = kxy — 2 in one of the triples
1,1,1 and 3,3,3. In all, there are (considering integers less than
1000) 23 number triples satisfying the conditions of the problem.
119. Let X and jy be a pair of numbers satisfying the conditions
r^ + 125 v' + 125
of the problem. Then = u and ^—— = v, where u and
.V X
V are integers. Show that the number pairs {x, 11) and (jy, v) also
satisfy the condition that the square of one number when increased
by 125 is divisible by the other. It follows that if one pair of prime
numbers is found to satisfy the condition, it is possible to construct
an infinite chain of numbers in which adjacent numbers have this
property. To find all such chains, prove that every chain contains
a number not exceeding \/125 < 12 .
There are 31 number pairs which satisfy the conditions of the
problem.
120. Investigate the cases in which all four numbers are different,
two numbers are the same but the other two are different, two pairs
of equal numbers appear, and so on.
Answers: 96, 96, 57, 40; 11, 11, 6, 6; *(3* ± 2), ki'ik ± 2), k{2,k ± 2), 1,

Ansivers (121-128) 435
[k is an arbitrary integer, but such that *(3* zt 2) is positive]; 1,1,
1,1.
121. 2, 2 and 0, 0.
,oo 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
122. l=_ + _ + _ = _ + _ + _ = - + _ + -.
123. (a) Reduce the problem to the following: To find two
numbers whose product is a multiple of their sum.
(b) X = m{ni + n)t,y = n{m + n)t, z — mnt, where wz, n, and y
are arbitrary whole numbers.
124. (a) Let y > x; prove that then y is divisible by x.
Answer: x = 2,y = 4.
(b) X = I — 1 ,3' = ( — ) , where p is an arbitrary in-
. p r^ \ p
teger differing from 0 and —1.
125. 7 or 14.
126. By comparing the number of points won by the ninth graders
with the number of games played by them, it is possible to conclude
that all the ninth grade students won every match played by them.
It follows from this that only one ninth-grade student could have
participated in the tournament.
127. Use Heron's formula for the area of a triangle. Let p—a —
X, p — b = y, and p — c = z, where a, b, and c are the sides of the
triangle and p is its semi-perimeter. Then the problem reduces to
4v + 42
the solution in integers of xyz = 4{x + y + z),or x =^ . Assum-
yz — 4
ing X s^ y, we can investigate the squared inequality in y (with
coefficients in terms of z); this enables us to found bounds for z and y.
Answer: The sides of the triangle can be equal to 6, 25, 29; 7, 15,
20; 9,10, 17; 5,12,13; or 6, 8, 10 (all five solutions).
128. (a) The problems lead to the solution of the equation x^+y^=
z^. If X, y, and z are not relatively prime, then the equation can be
divided through by the greatest common factor; hence we may
consider the case for which x, y, and z are pairwise relatively prime.
Then z is odd, and one of a: or jy is even and the other odd. Write
the equation in the form (— | = ——^ ——^ and use the fact that
Z + V Z — V \ ^ / ^ ^
——^- and ——^- are relatively prime.
Answer: x = 2tab, y = t{a' — b'), z = t{a' + b^), where a and b are

436 Answers (129-135)
arbitrary relatively prime numbers (a > b), and / is any natural
number.
(b) The problem leads to the solution in integers of the
equation z' = x' +y^ - xy, or [42 + (x + y)Y = [2x + 2{x + y)Y + [3(^-3')]'.
Now use the result of problem (a).
Answer: x=^tb{2a -b),y ^\ta(2b - a),z=^ tia' + b^ - ab) ,
•ij \J \J
where a and b are relatively prime (^< b < 2a\, and at least one
of the numbers / or a + 6 is divisible by 3; otherwise, / is arbitrary.
(c) The solution is analogous to that of problem (b).
Answer: x = ta{a - 2b), y = tb{2a — b), z = t{a'^ + b^ — ab), where a
and b are relatively prime (a > 2b), and at least one of the numbers
/ or a + 6 is divisible by 3.
inn D ■ -i-i, ..1, f 1 6 sinnA c sinin + l)A, ,
129. Begin with the formulas — = —:——, — = ^:—' ' (angle
a sin A a sin A
B = nA), where n = 2,5, or 6. The right members of these equations
can be expressed in terms of 2 cos A; use the fact that 2 cos A is
rational.
Answers: (a) a = 4, 6 = 6, c = 5. (b) a = 1024, b = 1220, c =
231. (c) a = 46,656, b = 72,930, c = 30,421.
130. Use the results of problem 128 (a) to show that if x*+y* = z^,
where x,y, and z are natural numbers, then there must exist positive
integers Xt,yt,Zt, where 2, < z, such that x\ + yt = z\. But this
allows us to prove the impossible equation x* -\-y* = \, where x and y
are positive integers.
131. Multiply both sides of the equation by «! (factorial n; see
note to problem 28).
132. (a) 1-^. (b)^ri--—-L-1.
n 2 L 2 n{n — 1)J
(c) J-fJ- \ 1
^' 3 [6 «(«-1)(«-2)J"
133. Use mathematical induction.
134. (a) n{n+\){2n + \) ,^. n\n + 1)^ _
6 ■ 4 '
(c) n{n + \){2n + \){'in^ + 2n~\) ^ ^^^ n\2n^ ~ \) .
135. Transfer the 1 to the left side.

Ansivers (136-152) 437
136. (a) («+ 1)!- 1. (b) Ci,^,^, -1.
137. Use the fact that —^— = log„6 .
logifl
138. ^- .
139. (a) y(l-^. (b) 2^77-^.
140. 31.
141. (a) Compare the given product with -^--r—— -^, or
square the given inequalities.
(b) Prove by mathematical induction that
13 5 2«-l 1
2 4 6 2« i/3n + 1 '
142. Use the inequalities of problem 141 (a).
143. 99" + 100" exceeds 101" if « ^ 48 and is less than 101" if
n >48.
144. 300!
145. Prove, first, that for any positive integer k ^ n
1+—^1+ —1 ^1+ —+ —.
n \ n I n n^
146-147. Use the results of problem 145.
148. Use mathematical induction.
149. Use the binomial theorem.
150. Use mathematical induction.
151. Use the inequalities
(k + l)x'-{x - 1) > x'*' - l>(k+ l)(.r - 1) ,
from which it is possible to derive the following result for all
positive integers p:
(p + 1)'+' - />*^' >{k + l)/>* > /.'+' - (/> - 1)«^+' .
152. These inequalities may be obtained by using "majorizing
series"—that is, by replacing terms by larger (or, respectively,
smaller) terms, and possibly using convenient new groupings, and
comparing the sums of the new series with the bounding values.

438 Ansivers (153-162)
153. Prove first that
2l/w + 1 - 2\/n'<-7= < 2-i/ir - 2Vn- 1 .
V w
Answers: (a) 1998. (b) 1800.
154. First show that
Y [ Vin + \y - ^^] < y7< |-[ ^^ - ^(n - 1)^ ].
>l«S2fer: 14,996.
155. (a) 0.105.
(b) Use the fact that
J_ J_ J_ 1 J_/_9_ JO, iL
10! "^ 11! + 12! + ■ ■ ■ + 1000! '^ 9 UO! "^ H! "^ 12! + ''' +
999
1000!
Answer: 0.00000029.
156. Use the result of problem 152 (a).
157. First determine the sum of the undeleted terms between
TT^r and
10* io*+> •
158. (a) Solve in a manner analogous to that used for problem 156.
(b) Use the result of problem 132 a).
159. Prove that for all integers k and primes /> ^ 2
1 J_ J_ J_\ 2 log 3
p+ p^+ p^+--- + p>.)< p
Using this result, deduce that
log(l+y
1 1 J_ 1 J.
4 +■■■+«- 1 + K
111 1
^21og3(| + y + y+---+-^),
where pi is the greatest prime between 1 and n.
160. 9.
161. If a + b + c = 0, then 0 = (a + b + cf = a' + b' + c' - 3abc.
162. (a) a' + b^ + c^ - 3abc = (a + b + c){a^ +h^ + c^ - ab-ac - be).
(b) {a + b + cf - a' - h^ - c^ = 3(fl + b){a + c){b + c).

Ansivers (163-170) 439
163. Use the result of problem 162 (a).
164. Use the result of problem 162 (b).
165. Use the facts that a"> + a^ + 1 = ^^'^' ~. \ and that a'^- 1 =
fl^ — 1
(a^y - 1.
Answer: a'" + a' + 1 = (a" + fl + l)(fl' - a' + a' - a' + a' - a + 1).
166. Prove that the difference (a:™" + x"^"' + • ■ ■ + a:"" + 1) - (a:' +
x^ -\ 1- a: + 1) is divisible by a:' + a:« + 1- a: + 1.
167. ,,^-a-b,x.=^+--^/^ ,-,,^=JL±A^a-bV3.
y 2 ^V A + 2T y 2 y 4 ^ 27
168. Square to eliminate radicals and solve the resulting equation
for X in terms of a.
Answer:
AT,., = y±-,/a+ J .
169. Use the fact that if a:^ + 2aA: + ^^ = y, then
16
and investigate the graphs of the functions y = x' + 2ax + — and
/ r ^^
3'. = -« +y a^ +x -^-
170. (a) Prove that, necessarily, 3a: = x'
Answer: Xi = 3, atz = 0.
(b) Prove that, necessarily, = x.
Answer: a:, = ^ '^ Y ^ , x^ = ^ ^Y ^ .

440 Answers (171-182)
171. The roots of the equation are all the numbers between 5 and
10 (5 ^ X g 10).
172. The roots are —2 and all numbers not less than 2 (a: = —2
and X ^ 2).
173. For a = ±1, the system has three solutions; if a = ±\/ 2 ,
the system has two solutions.
174. (a) If a = - 1, the system has no solutions; if a = \, the
system has an infinite number of solutions.
(b) If a = ±1, the system has an infinite number of solutions.
(c) If a = 1, the system has infinitely many solutions; if a =
—2, there are no solutions.
175. For the system to have solutions it is necessary that three
of the four numbers ai,«2, «3,«4 be equal to each other. If ai=a2 =
as = a, and a, = (3, then x, = X2 = x, = — and Xt = alp — —
176. The only real solution is a: = 1, 3' = 1,2 = 0.
177. (a) The number of real roots of the equation is the number
X
of points of intersection of the straight line y = -—— and the curve
y = sin a:.
Answer: 63 roots.
(b) The number of points at which 3' = sin a: and y = log a:
will meet is 3.
178. That x" + x" is a whole number can be shown by
mathematical induction. Show, further, that if Xi + Xi is divisible by 5, then
also xi"' + a:2~' is divisible by 5.
179. The square of the first polynomial cannot contain the same
number of positive and negative terms which are products OiOj, but
the second polynomial can.
180. Use mathematical induction; investigate separately the even
and odd cases.
181. If 99,999 + 111,111 "i/T = {A + BV^f, then
99,999 - 111,111-i/T = {A- B\/^f ■
182. Prove that if VT = p + qVT, then ^/T would have to be
rational.

Answers (183 193) 441
183. The second number is the larger.
184. x= ^■ + «^+---+«n
n
185. (a) Oi, 02, at, a^.
(b) Prove that if c;^ and ai^ are any two of the given
numbers (a < (3) and fli^_,, fli^ ^j are numbers standing in the desired
positions before a,^ and after Oi^, then
Y4«s;<;er: Oi, 02, Ot, a^ ■ ■ ■, a^^2, a„, a^^u a„-3, a,^-;, ■ ■ ■, a^, 03 if w is
even; a,, 02,0,, a^, ■ ■ •, a„-i, a„, fl„-2, fln-4, ••■,05,^3, if « is odd.
186. (a) Investigate in the plane the broken li ne A^Air\2 ■•* /In
such that the projections of AaAi, AiA2, ■ ■ ■, A„-iAn on the A:-axis
are, respectively, equal to ^1,^2, ■■■,(1%, and on the 3'-axis are,
respectively, equal to bi,b2, ■ ■ ■ ,b„. The equality holds \i -^ =-r =
bi 02
_ On
'" ' bn'
(b) Use the inequality of problem 186(a).
187. For even n, the problem can be solved geometrically, in a
manner analogous to that used for problem 186 (a). The case in
which n is odd can be reduced to the case for even n. The equality
holds, for even n, if Ci = 1 — Cj = fl^ = 1 — fli = • • • = fln-i = 1 — fln,
and for odd n, only if a, = ^2 = ■ ■ ■ = fln = —.
188. Square both sides of the inequality.
189. For all x, cos sin a: exceeds sin cos a:.
190. (a) If log2 7r = a and log^Tr = b, then 7r"/"' + "/" = 10.
(b) If log2 TT = a and log;t2 = b, then 6 = —.
a
191. (a) Use the facts that for every angle x in the first quadrant
six a: < X, cos a: < 1.
(b) Use the fact that for every angle x in the first quadrant
tan X > X.
192. Employ the geometric construction of the tangent concept as
the ratio of two line segments on the "trigonometric circle"; also,
there is a construction in which the tangent is the doubled area of
a certain triangle.
193. arc sin [cos(arc sin x)] + arc cos [sin (arc cos x)] = —.

442 Answers (194-205)
194. Substitute for x, in cos 32a: + ^3, cos 31a: h + a, cos x, the
angle x + k, and add the resulting expression to the original
expression.
195. Calculate, successively,
2 sin a,-45° ,
2sin(«,+^)-45°
2sin(«. + ^ + '-^)-45°,
2sin(«,+^ + --- + ^i^;^)-45°,
using the formula
2sinY= ±v^2- 2cosa .
196. 1.
197. Use the fact that the given polynomials have the same
coefficients for x^" as does (1 +x'+x^)"""' and {l-x'-x^y'"', respectively.
198. Employ the identity (a + b){a - V) = a" - b\
l»». {a) Coo. - 50! 951! •
ih) 1000C™ -C" -SLMliOOl!
200. Designate the given expression by Ilk.
42*-! _ 4*-!
Answer: .
201. (a) 6. (b) 6a:.
202. -X + 3.
203. Use the fact that the polynomial a:' + jc^ + 2jc2 + a: + 1 divides
the binomial a:'^ — 1.
Answer: 1.
204. (a) X* - IOa:^ + 1=0.
(b) x^ - &x* - &x^ + 12a:= - 36jc + 1 = 0 .
205. Transform the expression (a — r)((3 — r)(« + S){& + S), using
the facts that a + i3 = -/>, ai3 = 1; 7- + 5 = -9, r^ = 1.

Ansiuers {206-216) 443
206. Q^ +q^ - pP{Q + q) + qP^ + Qp^ - 2Qq.
207. fl= 1, fl== - 2.
208. a = 8, a = 12.
209. 6= l,c = 2, fl = 3;6= -l,c=-2, fl= -3;6 = 2, c=-lfl=l;
6= l,c= -2,fl= -1.
210. (a) Never.
(b) Only if w = 2, Cz = fli + 2 and w = 4, Cz = fli —1, ^3 = fli + 1,
a, = fli + 2.
211. Use the fact that if
{x - a,f{x - a,f- --{x- a„y + 1 = p{x)q{x) ,
then p{x) and q{x), as well as {x — aif{x--Oif-■-{x — a^f + \, will
not vanish (become zero) for any x, and therefore cannot change
sign. For the rest, the solution is similar to that of problem 210 (a).
212. Use the fact that 14 - 7 = 7 cannot be factored in integers.
213. If a polynomial is expressible as a product of two polynomial
factors with integral coefficients, then for those values of x for which
the polynomial takes on value ±1 the factors also have value ±1.
Also use the fact that a third-degree polynomial cannot take on the
same value for more than three values of x.
214. If p and q are distinct integers, then P(p) ~ P{q) is divisible
hy p- q.
215. Prove that if ^(-j) = 0, then yfe - />/ = ±1 and yfe - ql =±1.
216. (a) Equate coefficients of like powers of x from both
members of the equation
(flo + a^x + a-ix:^ -\ + a„x"){ba + biX + bzX^ H 1- bmX'")
^^ ^0 + t^lX + CzX + * * * + Cn^mX'^
and use the resulting relations to show that if the polynomial is
factored into the product of two polynomial factors, then all the
coefficients of one of these factors must be even (but this is impossible
because the leading coefficient—the coefficient of the greatest power
of jc—of the first polynomial is 1).
(b) Make the substitutions x = y + \ and then, as in part (a), show
that if the new polynomial is factored into two polynomial factors,
all the coefficients of one of these factors are divisible by the prime
number 251.

444 Answers (217-229)
217. Use the same formula as in problem 216 (a) (see the hint to
that problem).
218. Prove that P( — ], where — is in lowest terms, cannot be
\Q J Q
an integer.
219. Let P{N) = M; prove that P{N + kM) - P(N) is divisible by
M for all k.
220. Represent the polynomial P{x), which takes on integral values
for integral x, in the form of a sum P(jc)=6oPoW + 6iPi(jc)h \-bnPn{x),
where the coefficients 6o,6i, ■■■,b„ are to be determined, and find
these coefficients by successively substituting in the latter equation
x = 0, 1,2, ••-,«.
221. (a) See the hint to problem 220.
(b) Make the substitution y = x ~ k.
(c) Investigate the polynomial Q{x) = P{x'^).
222. Use De Moivre's formula.
223. Use the results of problem 222 (b).
224. If X -\ = 2 cos a, then x = cos a ±i sin a.
x
225. Use De Moivre's formula.
226. Use the result of problem 225.
Anstver: cos^a + cos^2a + • • • + cos^wa
w — 1 sin in + l)a cos na
2 2 sin a
sin^a + sin^2a -\ 1- sin^wa
_ « + 1 sin(w + Dacos na
^ 2 ~ 2 sin a
227. Use De Moivre's formula and Newton's binomial theorem.
Answer: The given expressions are, respectively, equal to
2" cos"—cos—-—a, and 2''cos'' —sin —-—a.
Ct dt Li ^
228. Use the identity sin ^ sin B = — [cos {A - B) - cos {A + B)
and the result of problem 225.
229. Investigate the roots of the equation a:^"' '-1=0.

Ansivers (230-241) 445
230. Use the formulas of problem 222 (b).
231. Use the result of problem 230 (b).
Answer: (a) i?(2^. (b) 2«(ZL±il.
232. Use the result of problem 230 (a).
Answer: (a) ^^» + ^ and }^.
^ ' 2» 2"-'
(b) 1 andl/^
2» 2» '
233. Use the fact that if a is an angle in the first quadrant, then
sin a < a <i tan a.
234. (a, h) Use the formula of problem 225.
(c) Use the result of problem (b).
235. (a) Use the proposition of problem 234(a).
(b) Use the formula of problem 225.
236. (a) Use the proposition of problem 234 (a).
(b) See the hint to problem 235 (b).
(c) Use the result of problem 232 (a).
237. Use De Moivre's formula, representing sin^"a in the form
of a sum of cosines of angles (multiples of a) with suitable
coefficients.
Answer: 5000 C^i?" = ^tH?!^^"'-
238. Use the fact that 2 cos >1 = ^' "^ f ~ ^\ rational, and 2 cos nA
be
is, for any «, a polynomial of degree w in 2 cos A; also use the
theorem of problem 218.
239. (a) In the second formula of problem 222 (b) substitute 0 =
^180°,cos^ = ^,sin^=K^lEr.
n p p
(b) If (? = —180°, then (1 + /tan*?)" = (1 - /tan*?)".
n
Putting here tan 0 = —, p + q, leads to an impossible equality.
Q
240. Use the fact that if a is not divisible by p, then the numbers
a,2a,'ia, ■■ ■, {p— \)a all yield different remainders when divided
by p.
241. Use the fact that if k^ki, ■■■,kr are integers less than N,

446 Anstvers (242-251)
and are relatively prime to N, then the integers kio, kza, ■ ■ ■, krU yield
different remainders when divided by N.
242. Use mathematical induction.
243. Use Euler's theorem (problem 241).
244. Prove by induction that, no matter what the integer N is,
there exists a power of 2 whose last N digits are all ones or twos.
To prove this, use Euler's theorem (problem 241) and the proposition
of problem 242.
245. See the hint to problem 240.
246. Use Wilson's theorem (problem 245). The conditions of the
problem are satisfied by the number x = (^~—)!.
247. (a) Show that the product (a^ + b'){al + bi) can be represented
as the sum of the squares of two polynomials.
(b) Prove that if the product mp, where /> is a prime number,
and »i is not 1 and is less than p, can be represented as a sum of
squares of two integers, then m can be reduced by some factor. That
is, a number n < m can be found such that np also can be
represented as a sum of squares of two integers. Also, use the proposition
of problem 246.
(c) Use the results of parts (a) and (b) and the proposition
given in the hint to part (b).
248. Prove that for every odd prime number p it is possible to
find two numbers ,r and 3', each less than—, such that jc^ and —jy^—1
Q
yield the same remainder upon division by p.
249. (a) Show that the product
(x] + xi + xl + x\){y\ + 3-2 + yl + y"^
can be represented as a sum of squares of four polynomials.
(b) The solution is similar to that of problem 247 (see the
hint to that problem). Instead of using the proposition of problem
246 in that solution, we must use that of problem 248.
250. Investigate what remainders can be obtained when the sum
of three squares is divided by 8.
251. First, show that if a number is representable as the sum of
four squares of integers, then six times its square can be represent-

Answers (252-259) 447
ed as the sum of twelve fourth powers of integers. Further, use
the fact that every integer yields a remainder of at most 5 when
divided by 6, and apply twice the theorem of problem 249 (b).
252. The idea of the solution is as follows. It is necessary to
find some solution in positive rational numbers for the equation
x'' + y^ + z^ = a ,
where a is a given rational number. We have here one equation and
three unknowns. If we assume that two of these unknowns are
functionally related in some way, then the equation may be greatly
simplified—for example, if we let 3' = —2, then we have simply x^ = a.
From the simplified equation it is sometimes possible to express one
of the unknowns in terms of a; in this instance, for example, we
obtained x — \^ a . Here x is irrational, which will generally be the
case with such a procedure. We must try to find a functional
dependence between two of the unknowns such that the third unknown
comes out of the simplified equation with rational value (without the
radical). If this can be done, it remains only to find suitable rational
solutions for the two other unknowns, and these are related by the
function which was set up between them. To do this, it is
convenient to change the unknowns x,y, and z to new unknowns. For the
determination of the new variables, it is useful to begin with the
identity of problem 162 (b).
253. Let Pi,p2, ■■■,p„ be n primes. Find an integer not divisible
by any of these primes and larger than any of them.
254. (a) Let pi, pi, ■ ■ ■, pn be n primes of form 4^—1 (or &k — 1).
Find an integer of form An — 1 (or 6« — 1) which is not divisible by
any of the primes puPi, ■•■,Pn and is larger than any of them.
(b) The idea of the solution is somewhat similar to that of
problem (a). The proof involves the result of problem 247 (c).
(c) The proof is quite similar to that of problem (a).
255. Apply the inequality \/ab ^ ^^—■ (See Section 11.)
256. Use the inequality (^-^^-^y ^-^'y-^. (See Section 11.)
257. Use the inequality of the hint to problem 255.
258. See the hints to problems 255 and 256.
259. See the hint to problem 255.

448 Answers (260-276)
260. See the hint to problem 255.
Answer: x = Va/b .
261. See the hint to problem 255.
262. (a) Apply the expressions for the arithmetic, geometric, and
harmonic means to the numbers. (See Section 11.)
(b) This follows from part (a).
263. Use the result of problem 162 (a).
264. Apply the inequality of problem 263.
265. Apply the inequality of problem 263.
Answer, x = y — z — —.
266. Use the inequality of problem 263.
267. Apply the inequality of the hint to problem 255 {m times).
268. First Proof. Prove that if the proposition holds for w + 1
numbers, then it is valid also for n numbers; further, use the result
of problem 267.
Second Proof. Use mathematical induction, using the fact that if
fl„+i is the greatest of the n + \ numbers ci, flz, ■ ■ ■, a„+t, then
■> g| + Ii2 + hfln
fln + 1 = .
n
Third Proof. Prove, by mathematical induction, that
bt+bi-\ \-bl S nbibi- ■ -bn
is equivalent to the theorem of the arithmetic and geometric means.
(See Section 11.)
269. Use the theorem of the arithmetic and geometric means
(problem 268).
270. See the hint to problem 269.
271. Use the inequality of problem 268.
272. Use problems 268 and 270.
273-275. Use inequality of problem 268.
276. Put the left side of the inequality into the form

Answers (277-289) 449
277-278. Use the inequality of problem 268.
Ansiver. To problem 278: If a: = 0 .
279. Use the proposition of problem 269 (a).
280. See the hint to problem 279.
Answer: b = —.
281. (a) Proof is similar to that of the theorem of arithmetic and
geometric means (problem 268).
(b) For n = 2 the inequality is proven by induction. The
proof is analogous to the solution of problem (a).
282. Apply the theorem of arithmetic and geometric means
(problem 268).
283. For rational —-, the problem reduces to the theorem of ari-
^ a
thmetic and geometric means (problem 268). If — is an irrational
number then a limiting process is required.
284. Use the theorem of the power means (problem 283).
Answers: (a) 12, 24. (b) IEVT, W~& ■
285. Use mathematical induction.
286. Use the result of the preceding problem.
287. Apply the theorem of symmetric means (problem 286).
Ansiver: 8, 16.
288. Use the theorem of symmetric means.
Ansiver: (a) V^■ i^n-a —
289. First Proof. Use the inequality
(ATfl, + b,y + {xa^ + 62)^ + • • • + {xa„ + bnY S 0 ,
which holds for all real numbers x, and in particular if
a,b, + Uibi -\— ■ + anb„
Second proof. T^rite
■iti
fli
6.
=
A'
bi
B
2
+ al +
(i=h
2,
■ +
al
,n).

450 Answers (290-298)
where
B = Vbl + ■ • ■ + 6n ,
and use the obvious inequality
aibi^^a\ + ^b\ (/= 1,2, ■•■,«).
Prove, first, that
fli6i H 1- a„bn ^ 1 .
Third Proof. Use mathematical induction.
Fourth Proof. Prove, first, the equality
290. Use the Cauchy-Buniakowski inequality on the two sets
Vai , Va2 , ■ ■ ■, Van
and
/i' yi'---' /z-
fl2 r fl,
291. Substitute into the Cauchy-Buniakowski inequality
bi = 62 = ■ • -=6,1 = 1 .
292. Use the Cauchy-Buniakowski inequality.
293. Substitute into the Cauchy-Buniakowski inequality
a, = a:, + ,v,, a.= Xi- X2 + y'l, ■ • ■, fl„ = a:„ + >'„ ;
61 = Xi, b2 = X2, ■ ■ -.bn = X„ ,
and,
Oi = Xt + >',, 02 = X2 + y^i, ■ ■ ■,a„ = Xn + v„ ;
bl = y„b2 =3'2, --^ftn =3'n .
294-296. Use the Cauchy-Buniakowski inequality.
297. Compare the given inequality with that of Cauchy-Buniakow
ski.
298. Apply the Cauchy-Buniakowski inequality twice.

Answers {299-316) 451
299. If the sequence of numbers a; is an increasing sequence,
fli ^ flz ^ ■ • ■ ^ Un, then the relationship being examined is maximal
when the sequence of bj is decreasing; 6, ^ 62 ^ • • ■ S ftn- Write
2 2 , „ 2
fli = ditti + PiOn
;,2 0.0 t2 (/ = 2, 3, ■ ■ •, « - 1)
Oi = aibt + i9ib„
and use inequalities (2), after problem 288, and (1) of Section 11-
300. Consider the difference
«(fl,6, + ^262 + ■ ■ ■ + a^bn) - (fli + flz + ■ ■ ■ + flj(6i + 62 H \- h„) .
301. Use the theorem of arithmetic and geometric means (problem
268).
302. See the hint to problem 301.
303. First Solution. Use the inequality of problem 302.
Second Solution. Use the inequality of problem 301.
304. The solution is analogous to that of problem 302.
305. Use the inequality of problem 304.
306. Compare the given inequality with that of problem 304.
307. Use the inequality of problem 304 and the theorem of
arithmetic and geometric means (problem 263).
308. Use Holder's inequality (problem 303).
309. (a) Use the formula
a* _ 6* = (a - h)(a'-' + a'^'^b + a^^W + • • • + ai* ^ + 6'-') .
(b) Apply the result of problem (a).
310. First calculate the greatest coefficient of the series ?<,!" =
6,«'-' + ••• [see problem 309 (a)l.
311. Use mathematical induction.
312. See the hint to problem 311.
313. Use the formula of problem 311 (a).
314. Use the formula of problem 313.
315. See the hint to problem 314.
Answer: ^ + 2^ + 3- + • • • + h- ^ ^^" + ^^^^^^ + ^^^''' + ^^' ' ^\
316. (a) Investigate the series

452 Ans2vers (317-320)
Un^l" + 2" + 3" +■■■+ n" ,
and use the results of problems 309 (b) and 314.
(b) Apply the result of problem 310 to the series «„ = 1' +
2' + 3' H + «*, and to the series m^' = (n + 1)'. Using the formula
of problem 313, determine the numbers of the (k — l)st difference
of the Ath degree sequence.
Answer: The coefficient of «'+' is equal to -; the coefficient
1 * + 1
of «* is —.
317. Use the formula of problem 313.
318. Construct an addition triangle for the numbers Cl, Cn, €„,■■■, CI.
Answer. Cin.
319. Investigate the addition triangle for the numbers of the se-
quencel,-,-,■•■,-.
320. Prove that the difference triangle of the sequence 1, —, —,
-1 Z O
■■■,—, • ■ ■ has the form
n
J_ J_ J_ J
_ 1 _ 1 _ 1
2CJ 3a ^Cl
1 1
2,Cl 4C5 ■ ■ ■
1
4cr ■ ■

A CATALOG OF SELECTED
DOVER BOOKS
IN ALL FIELDS OF INTEREST

A CATALOG OF SELECTED DOVER
BOOKS IN ALL FIELDS OF INTEREST
CONCERNING THE SPIRITUAL IN ART, Wassily Kandinsky. Pioneering
work by father of abstract art. Thoughts on color theory, nature of art. Analysis of
earlier masters. 12 illustrations. 80pp. of text. 5H x 8!4. 234II-8 Pa. $3.95
ANIMALS: 1,419 Copyright-Free Illustrations of Mammals, Birds, Fish, Insects,
etc., Jim Harter (ed.). Clear wood engravings present, in extremely lifelike poses,
over 1,000 species of animals. One of the most extensive pictorial sourcebooks of its
kind. Captions. Index. 284pp. 9x12. 23766-4 Pa. $11.95
CELTIC" ART: The Methods of Construction, George Bain. Simple geometric
techniques for making Celtic interlacements, spirals, Kells-type initials, animals,
humans, etc. Over 500 illustrations. 160pp. 9 x 12. (USO) 22923-8 Pa. $8.95
AN ATLAS OF ANATOMY FOR ARTISTS, Frit? Schider. Most thorough
reference work on art anatomy in the world. Hundreds of illustrations, including
selections from works by Vesalius, Leonardo, Goya, Ingres, Michelangelo, others.
593 illustrations. 192pp. 7H x lO'i. 20241-0 Pa. $8.95
CELTIC HAND STROKE-BY-STROKE (Irish Half-Uncial from "The Book of
Kells"): An Arthur Baker Calligraphy Manual, Arthur Baker. Complete guide to
creating each letter of the alphabet in distinctive Celtic manner. Covers hand
position, strokes, pens, inks, paper, more. Illustrated. 48pp. 8'.4 x 11.
24336-2 Pa. $3.95
EASY ORIGAMI, John MontioU. Charming collection of 32 projects (hat, cup,
pelican, piano, swan, many more) specially designed for the novice origami
hobbyist. Clearly illustrated easy-to-follow instructions insure that even beginning
papercrafters will achieve successful results. 48pp. 8!'. x U. 27298-2 Pa. $2.95
THE COMPLETE BOOK OF BIRDHOUSE CONSTRUCTION FOR
WOODWORKERS, Scott n. Campbell. Detailed instructions, illustrations, tables. Also
data on bird habitat and instinct patterns. Bibliography, 3 tables. 63 illustrations in
15 figures. 48pp. 5V, x 8!i 24407-5 Pa. $1.95
BLOOMINGDALES ILLUSTRATED 1886 CATALOG: Fashions, Dry Goods
and Housewares, Bloomingdale Brothers. Famed merchants'extremely rare catalog
depicting about 1,700 products: clothing, housewares, firearms, dry goods, jewelry,
more. Invaluable for dating, identifying vintage items. Also, copyright-free
graphics for artists, designers. Co-published with Henry Ford Museum Sc
Greenfield Village, 160pp. 8'4 x H. 25780-0 Pa. $9,95
HISTORIC COSTUME IN PICTURES, Braun&r Schneider. Over 1.450 costumed
figures in clearly detailed engravings—from dawn of civilization to end of 19th
century. Captions. Many folk costumes. 256pp. 8H x ll'i. 23150-X Pa. $10.95

CATALOG OF DOVER BOOKS
STICKLEY CRAFTSMAN FURNITURE CATALOGS, Gustav Siickley and L. &
J. G. Siickley. Beautiful, functional furniture in two authentic catalogs from 1910.
594 illustrations, including 277 photos, show settles, rockers, armchairs, reclining
chairs, bookcases, desks, tables. 183pp. 6H x 9«. 23838-5 Pa. $8.95
AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVES IN HISTORIC PHOTOGRAPHS: 1858 to 1949,
Ron Ziel (ed.). A rare collection of 126 meticulously detailed official photographs,
called "builder portraits," of American locomotives that majestically chronicle the
rise of steam locomotive power in America. Introduction. Detailed captions, xi +
129pp. 9 X 12. 27393-8 Pa. $ 12.95
AMERICA'S LIGHTHOUSES: An Illustrated History, Francis Ross Holland, Jr.
Delightfully written, profusely illustrated fact-filled survey of over 200 American
lighthouses since 1716. History, anecdotes, technological advances, more. 240pp.
8xlWt. 25576-X Pa. $11.95
TOWARDS A NEW ARCHITECTURE, Le Corbusier. Pioneering manifesto by
founder of "International School." Technical and aesthetic theories, views of
industry, economics, relation of form to function, "mass-production split" and
much more. Profusely illustrated. 320pp. 6H x 9«. (USO) 25023-7 Pa. $8.95
HOW THE OTHER HALF LIVES, Jacob Riis. Famous journalistic record,
exposing poverty and degradation of New York slums around 1900, by major social
reformer. 100 striking and influential photographs. 233pp. 10 x ^\,
22012-5 Pa $10.95
FRUIT KEY AND TWIG KEY TO TREES AND SHRUBS, William M. Harlow.
One of the handiest and most widely used identification aids. Fruit key covers 120
deciduous and evergreen species; twig key 160 deciduous species. Easily used. Over
300 photographs. 126pp. 5H x 8)4. 20511-8 Pa. $3.95
COMMON BIRD SONGS, Dr. Donald J. Borror. Songs of 60 most common U.S.
birds: robins, sparrows, cardinals, bluejays, finches, more—arranged in order of
increasing complexity. Up to 9 variations of songs of each species.
Cassette and manual 99911-4 $8.95
ORCHIDS AS HOUSE PLANTS, Rebecca Tyson Northen. Grow cattleyas and
many other kinds of orchids—in a window, in a case, or under artificial light. 63
illustrations. 148pp. 5H x 8)4. 23261-1 Pa. $3.95
MONSTER MAZES, Dave Phillips. Masterful mazes at four levels of difficulty.
Avoid deadly perils and evil creatures to find magical treasures. Solutions for all 32
exciting illustrated puzzles. 48pp. 8« x 11. 26005-4 Pa. $2.95
MOZART'S DON GIOVANNI (DOVER OPERA LIBRETTO SERIES),
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Introduced and translated by Ellen H. Bleiler, Standard
Italian libretto, with complete English translation. Convenient and thoroughly
portable—an ideal companion for reading along with a recording or the
performance itself. Introduction. List of characters. Plot summary. 121pp. 5!< x 8)4.
24944-1 Pa. $2.95
TECHNICAL MANUAL AND DICTIONARY OF CLASSICAL BALLET, Gail
Grant. Defines, explains, comments on steps, movements, poses and concepts.
15-page pictorial section. Basic book for student, viewer. 127pp. 5H x 8)4.
21843-0 Pa. $3.95

CATALOG OF DOVER BOOKS
BRASS INSTRUMENTS: Their History and Development, Anthony Baines.
Authoritative, updated survey of the evolution of trumpets, trombones, bugles,
cornets, French horns, tubas and other brass wind instruments. Over 140
illustrations and 48 music examples. Corrected and updated by author. New preface.
Bibliography. 320pp. 5% x gVi. 27574-4 Pa. $9.95
HOLLYWOOD GLAMOR PORTRAITS, John Kobal (ed.). 145 photos from
1926-49. Harlow, Gable, Bogart, Bacall; 94 stars in all. Full background on
photographers, technical aspects. 160pp. 8% x 11!4. 23352-9 Pa. $9.95
MAX AND MORITZ, Wilhelm Busch. Great humor classic in both German and
English. Also 10 other works: "Cat and Mouse," "Pliscli and Plumm," etc. 216pp.
5%^m. 20181-3 Pa. $5.95
THE RAVEN AND OTHER FAVORITE POEMS, Edgar Allan Poe. Over 40 of
the author's most memorable poems: "The Bells," "Ulalume," "Israfel," "To
Helen," "The Conqueror Worm," "Eldorado," "Annabel Lee," many more.
Alphabetic lists of titles and first lines. 64pp. b'As x 8W. 26685-0 Pa. $1.00
SEVEN SCIENCE FICTION NOVELS, H. G. Wells. The standard collection of
the great novels. Complete, unabridged. First Men in the Moon, Island of Dr.
Moreau, War of the Worlds, Food of the Gods, Invisible Man, Time Machine, In the
Days of the Comet. Total of 1,015pp. 5% x 8!4. (USO) 20264-X Clothbd. $29.95
AMULETS AND SUPERSTITIONS, E. A. Wallis Budge. Comprehensive
discourse on origin, powers of amulets in many ancient cultures: Arab, Persian,
Babylonian, Assyrian, Egyptian, Gnostic, Hebrew, Phoenician, Syriac, etc. Covers
cross, swastika, crucifix, seals, rings, stones, etc. 584pp. 554 x 8J4. 23573-4 Pa. $12.95
RUSSIAN STORIE.S/PYCCKNE PACCKA3bl: A Dual-Language Book, edited by
Gleb Struve. Twelve tales by such masters as Chekhov, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky,
Pushkin, others. Excellent word-for-word English translations on facing pages,
plus teaching and study aids, Russian/English vocabulary, biographical/critical
introductions, more. 416pp. 5% x 8J4. 26244-8 Pa. $8.95
PHILADELPHIA THEN AND NOW: 60 Sites Photographed in the Past and
Present, Kenneth Finkel and Susan Oyama. Rare photographs of City Hall, Logan
Square, Independence Hall, Betsy Ross House, other landmarks juxtaposed with
contemporary views. Captures changing face of historic city. Introduction.
Captions. 128pp. 8!4 x n, 25790-8 Pa. $9.95
AIA ARCHITECTURAL GUIDE TO NASSAU AND SUFFOLK COUNTIES,
LONG ISLAND, The American Institute of Architects, Long Island Chapter, and
the Society for the Preservation of Long Island Antiquities. Comprehensive, well-
researched and generously illustrated volume brings to life over three centuries of
Long Island's great architectural heritage. More than 240 photographs with
authoritative, extensively detailed captions. 176pp. 8H x 11. 26946-9 Pa. $14.95
NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN LIFE: Customs and Traditions of 23 Tribes, Elsie
Clews Parsons (ed.). 27 fictionalized essays by noted anthropologists examine
religion, customs, government, additional facets of life among the Winnebago,
Crow, Zuni, Eskimo, other tribes. 480pp. m x 9!4. 27377-6 Pa. $10.95

CATALOG OF DOVER BOOKS
FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT'S HOLLYHOCK HOUSE, Donald Hoffmann.
Lavishly illustrated, carefully documented study of one of Wright's most controversial
residential designs. Over 120 photographs, floor plans, elevations, etc. Detailed
perceptive text by noted Wright scholar. Index. 128pp. 9W x 1(W.
27133-1 Pa. $11.95
THE MALE AND FEMALE FIGURE IN MOTION; 60 Classic Photographic
Sequences, Eadweard Muybridge. 60 true-action photographs of men and women
walking, running, climbing, bending, turning, etc., reproduced from rare 19th-
century masterpiece, vi + 121pp. 9 x 12. 24745-7 Pa. $10.95
1001 QUESTIONS ANSWERED ABOUT THE SEASHORE, N. J. Berrill and
Jacquelyn Berrill. Queries answered about dolphins, sea snails, sponges, starfish,
fishes, shore birds, many others. Covers appearance, breeding, growth, feeding,
much more. 305pp. 5% x 8'A. 23366-9 Pa. $7.95
GUIDE TO OWL WATCHING IN NORTH AMERICA, Donald S. Heinizelman.
Superb guide offers complete data and descriptions of 19 species: barn owl, screech
owl, snowy owl, many more. Expert coverage of owl-watrhing equipment,
conservation, migrations and invasions, etc. Guide to observing sites. 84
illustrations, xiii + 193pp. 554 x 8S4. 27344-X Pa. $7.95
MEDICINAL AND OTHER USES OF NORTH AMERICAN PLANTS; A
Historical Survey with Special Reference to the Eastern Indian Tribes, Charlotte
Erichsen-Brown. Chronological historical citations document 500 years of usage of
plants, trees, shrubs native to eastern Canada, northeastern U.S. Also complete
identifying information. 343 illustrations. 544pp. 6S4x 9W. 25951-X Pa. $12.95
STORYBOOK MAZES, Dave Phillips. 23 stories and mazes on two-page spreads:
Wizard of Oz, Treasure Island, Robin Hood, etc. Solutions. 64pp. 8'/4 x 11.
23628-5 Pa. $2.95
NEGRO FOLK MUSIC, U.S.A., Harold Courlander. Noted folklorisfs scholarly
yet readable analysis of rich and varied musical tradition. Includes authentic
versions of over 40 folk songs. Valuable bibliography and discography. xi + 324pp.
5% X 8S4. 27350-4 Pa. $7.95
MOVIE-STAR PORTRAITS OF THE FORTIES, John Kobal (ed.). 163 glamor,
studio photos of 106 stars of the 1940s; Rita Hayworth, Ava Gardner, Marlon
Brando. Clark Gable, many more. 176pp. 854 x 1 [%, 23546-7 Pa. $10.95
BENCHLE Y LOST AND FOUND, Robert Benchley. Finest humor from early 30s,
about pet peeves, child psychologists, post office and others. Mostly unavailable
elsewhere. 73 illustrations by Peter Arno and others. 183pp. 5% x SH.
22410-4 Pa. $5.95
YEKL and THE IMPORTED BRIDEGROOM AND OTHER STORIES OF
YIDDISH NEW YORK, Abraham Cahan. Film Hester Street based on Yekl (1896).
Novel, other stories among first about Jewish immigrants on N.Y.'s East Side.
240pp. 554 X m, 22427-9 Pa. $5.95
SELECTED POEMS, Walt Whitman. Generous sampling from Leaves of Grass.
Twenty-four poems include "I Hear America Singing," "Song of the Open Road,"
"I Sing the Body Electric," "When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd," "O
CaptainI My Captainl"—all reprinted from an authoritative edition. Lists of titles
and first lines. 128pp. b'As x 8'4. 26878-0 Pa. $1.00

CATALOG OF DOVER BOOKS
THE BESTTALES OF HOFFMANN, E. T. A, Hoffmann. lOof Hoffmann's most
important stories: "Nutcracker and the King of Mice," "The Golden Flowerpot,"
etc. 458pp. 5% X 8!4. 21793-0 Pa. $8.95
FROM FETISH TO GOD IN ANCIENT EGYPT, E. A. Wallis Budge. Rich
detailed survey of Egyptian conception of "God" and gods, magic, cult of animals,
Osiris, more. Also, superb English translations of hymns and legends. 240
illustrations. 545pp. 5H x m. 25803-3 Pa. $11.95
FRENCH STORIES/CONTES FRANfAIS: A Dual-Language Book, Wallace
Fowlie. Ten stories by French masters, Voltaire to Camus: "Micromegas" by
Voltaire; "The Atheist's Mass" by Balzac; "Minuet" by de Maupassant; "The
Guest" by Camus, six more. Excellent English translations on facing pages. Also
French-English vocabulary list, exercises, more. 352pp. 554 x 8S4. 26443-2 Pa. $8.95
CHICAGO AT THE TURN OF THE CENTURY IN PHOTOGRAPHS: 122
Historic Views from the Collections of the Chicago Historical Society, Larry A.
Viskochil. Rare large-format prints offer detailed views of City Hall, State Street,
the Loop, Hull House, Union Station, many other landmarks, circa 1904-1913.
Introduction. Captions. Maps. 144pp. 9« x 12!4. 24656-6 Pa. $12.95
OLD BROOKLYN IN EARLY PHOTOGRAPHS, 1865-1929, William Lee
Younger. Luna Park, Gravesend race track, construction of Grand Army Plaza,
moving of Hotel Brighton, etc. 157 previously unpublished photographs. I65pp.
854X1P4, 23587-4 Pa. $12.95
THE MYTHS OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS, Lewis Spence. Rich
anthology of the myths and legends of the Algonquins, Iroquois, Pawnees and
Sioux, prefaced by an extensive historical and ethnological commentary. 36
illustrations. 480pp. 5% x 8!4. 25967-6 Pa. $8.95
AN ENCYCLOPEDIA OF BATTLES: Accounts of Over 1,560 Battles from 1479
Bc to the Present, David Eggenberger. Essential details of every major battle in
recorded history from the first battle of Megiddo in 1479 bc: toGrenadain 1984. List
of Battle Maps. New Appendix covering the years 1967-1984. Index. 99 illustrations.
544pp. 6S4x9'/(. 24913-1 Pa. $14.95
SAILING ALONE AROUND THE WORLD, Captain Joshua Slocum. First man
to sail around the world, alone, in small boat. Oneof great feats of seamanship told
in delightful manner. 67 illustrations. 294pp. 5% x 8'! 20326-3 Pa. $5.95
ANARCHISM AND OTHER ESSAYS, Emma Goldman. Powerful, penetrating,
prophetic essays on direct action, role of minorities, prison reform, puritan
hypocrisy, violence, etc. 271pp. 5% x 8!4. 22484-8 Pa. $5.95
MYTHS OF THE HINDUS AND BUDDHISTS, Ananda K. Coomaraswamy and
Sister Nivedita. Great stories of the epics; deeds of Krishna, Shiva, taken from
puranas, Vedas, folk tales; etc. 32 illustrations. 400pp. 5% x 8!4. 21759-0 Pa. $9.95
BEYOND PSYCHOLOGY, Otto Rank. Fear of death, desire of immortality,
nature of sexuality, social organization, creativity, according to Rankian system.
291pp. 5% X 8!4. 20485-5 Pa. $7.95
A THEOLOGICO-POLITICAL TREATISE, Benedict Spinoza. Also contains
unfinished Political Treatise. Great classic on religious liberty, theory of
government on common consent. R. Elwes translation. Total of 421pp. 554 x 8!4.
20249-6 Pa. $7.95

CATALOG OF DOVER BOOKS
ANATOMY: A Complete Guide for Aitists. Joseph Sheppard. A master of figure
drawing shows artists how to render human anatomy convincingly. Over 460
illustrations. 224pp. 8H x 11'i. 27279-6 Pa. $9.95
iVIEDIEVAL CALLIGRAPHY; Its History and Technique, Marc Drogin. Spirited
history, comprehensive instruction manual covers 13 styles (ca. 4th century thru
15th). Excellent photogiaphs; direction.s for duplicating medieval techniques with
modern tools. 224pp. 8% x ll'i. ' 26142-5 Pa. SI 1.95
DRIED FLOWERS: How to Prepare Them, Sarah Whitlock and Martha Rankin.
Complete instructions on how to use silica gel, meal and borax, perlite aggregate,
sand and borax, glycerine and water to create attractive permanent flower
arrangements, 12 illustrations. 32pp. 5% x aii. 21802-3 Pa. $1.00
EASY-TO-MAKE BIRD FEEDERS FOR WOODWORKERS, Scott D. Campbell.
Detailed, simple-to-use guide for designing, constructing, caring for and using
feeders. Text, illustrations for 12 classic and contemporary designs. 96pp. 5% x 8!4.
25847-5 Pa. $2.95
OLD-TIME CRAFTS AND TRADES, Petci Stockham. An 1807 book created to
teach children about crafts and trades open to them as future careers. It describes in
detailed, nontechnical terms 24 different occupations, among them coachmaker,
gardener, hairdresser, lacemaker, shoemaker, wheelwright, copper-plate printer,
milliner, trunkmaker, merchant and brewer. Finely detailed engravings illustrate
each occupation. 192pp, 454 x 6. 27398-9 Pa. $4.95
THE HISTORY OF UNDERCLOTHES, C. Willett Cunnington and Phyllis
Cunnington. Fascinating, well-documented survey covering six centuries of
English undergarments, enhanced with over 100 illustrations: 12th-century laced-
up bodice, footed long drawers (1795), 19th-century bustles, 19th-century lorsetsfoi
men. Victorian "bust improvers," much more. 272pp. 5^8 x 8',i. 27124-2 Pa. J9.95
ARTS AND CRAFTS FURNITURE: The Complete Brooks Catalog of 1912.
Brooks Manufacturing Co. Photos and detailed descriptions of more than 150 now
very collectible furniture designs from the Arts and Crafts movement depi( t
davenports, settees, buffets, desks, tables, chairs, bedsteads, dressers and more, all
built of solid, quarter-sawed oak. Invaluable for students and enthusiasts of
antiques, Americana and the decorative arts. 80pp. 6',i x 9!i. 27471-3 Pa. $7.95
HOW WE INVENTEDTHE AIRPLANE: An Illustrated History, Orville Wright.
Fascinating firsthand account covers early experiments, construction of planes and
motors, first flights, much more. Introduction and commentary by FredC. Kelly. 76
photographs. 96pp. 8'i x H, 25662-6 Pa. $7.95
THE ARTS OFTHE SAILOR: Knotting. Splicing and Ropework, Hervey Garrett
Smith. Indispensable shipboard reference covers tools, basic knots and useful
hitches; handsewing and canvas work, more. Over 100 illustrations. Delightful
reading for sea lovers. 256pp. b% x 8S4. 26440-8 Pa. $7.95
FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT'S FALLlNGWATER: The House and Its History,
Second, Revised Edition, Donald Hoffmann. A total revision—both in text and
illustrations—of the standard document on Fallingwater. the boldest, most
personal architectural statement of Wright's mature years, updated with valuable
new material from the recently opened Frank Lloyd Wright Archives.
"Fascinating"— The New York Times. 116 illustrations. 128pp. 9% x 10!;.
27430-6 Pa. $10.95

CATALOG OF DOVER BOOKS
PHOTOGRAPHIC SKETCHBOOK OF THE CIVIL WAR, Alexander Gardner.
100 photos taken on field during the Civil War. Famous shots of Manassas,
Harper's Ferry, Lincoln, Richmond, slave pens, etc. 244pp. 10?^ x 8!4.
22731-6 Pa. $9.95
FIVE ACRES AND INDEPENDENCE, Maurice G. Kains. Great back-to-the-Iand
classic explains basics of self-sufficient farming. The one book to get, 95
illustrations. 397pp. 5% x 8!4, 20974-1 Pa, $6.95
SONGS OF EASTERN BIRDS, Dr. Donald J. Borror. Songs and calls of 60 species
most common to eastern U.S.; warblers, woodpeckers, flycatchers, thrushes, larks,
many more in high-quality recording. Cassette and manual 99912-2 $8.95
A MODERN HERBAL, Margaret Grieve. Much the fullest, most exact, most useful
compilation of herbal material. Gigantic alphabetical encyclopedia, from aconite
to zedoary, gives botanical information, medical properties, folklore, economic
uses, much else. Indispensable to serious reader. 161 illustrations. 888pp. 6S4 x 9!4.
2-vol. set. (USO) Vol. I: 22798-7 Pa. $9.95
Vol. II: 22799-5 Pa. $9.95
HIDDEN TREASURE MAZE BOOK, Dave Phillips. Solve 34 challenging mazes
accompanied by heroic tales of adventure. Evil dragons, people-eating plants,
bloodthirsty giants, many more dangerous adversaries lurk at every twist and turn.
34 mazes, stories, solutions. 48pp. 8'/4 x 11. 24566-7 Pa. $2.95
LETTERS OF W. A. MOZART, Wolfgang A. Mozart. Remarkable letters show
bawdy wit, humor, imagination, musical insights, contemporary musical world;
includes some letters from Leopold Mozart. 276pp. 5% x 8!4. 22859-2 Pa. $6.95
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL BALLET, Agrippina Vaganova. Great
Russian theoretician, teacher explains methods for teaching classical ballet. 118
illustrations. 175pp. 5% x 8!4. 22036-2 Pa. $4.95
THE JUMPING FROG, Mark Twain. Revenge edition. The original story of The
Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County, a hapless French translation, and
Twain's hilarious "retranslation" from the French. 12 illustrations. 66pp. 5% x 8S4.
22686-7 Pa. $3.50
BEST REMEMBERED POEMS, Martin Gardner (ed.). The 126 poems in this
superb collection of 19th- and 20th-century British and American verse range from
Shelley's "To a Skylark" to the impassioned "Renascence" of Edna St. Vincent
Millay and to Edward Lear's whimsical "The Owl and the Pussycat." 224pp. 5% x 8S4.
27165-XPa.$4.95
COMPLETE SONNETS, William Shakespeare. Over 150 exquisite poems deal
with love, friendship, the tyranny of time, beauty's evanescence, death and other
themes in language of remarkable power, precision and beauty. Glossary of archaic
terms. 80pp. 5Vi6 x 8'4. 26686-9 Pa. $1.00
BODIES IN A BOOKSHOP, R. T. Campbell. Challenging mystery of blackmail
and murder with ingenious plot and superbly drawn characters. In the best
tradition of British suspense fiction. 192pp. 5% x 8!4. 24720-1 Pa. $5.95

CATALOG OF DOVER BOOKS
THE WIT AND HUMOR OF OSCAR WILDE, Alvin Redman (ed.). More than
1,000 ripostes, paradoxes, wisecracks; Work is ihe curse of ihe drinking classes; I can
resist everything except lempialion; eic, 258pp, 5% x 8!4. 20602-5 Pa. $4.95
SHAKESPEARE LEXICON AND QUOTATION DICTIONARY, Alexander
Schmidt. Full definitions, locations, shades of meaning in every word in plays and
poems. More ihan 50,000 exact quotations. I,485pp, 6!4 x 9!4, 2-voI, set.
Vol. I; 22726-X Pa. $15.95
Vol. 2: 22727-8 Pa. $15.95
SELECTED POEMS, Emily Dickinson. Over 100 best-known, best-loved poems by
one of America's foremost poet.s, reprinted from authoritative early editions. No
comparable edition at this price. Index of first lines. 64pp. 5Vi6 x 8!4.
26466-1 Pa. $1.00
CELEBRATED CASES OF JUDGE DEE (DEE GOONG AN), translated by
Robert van Gulik. Authentic 18th-century Chinese detective novel; Dee and
associates solve three interlocked cases. Led to van Gulik's own stories with same
characters. Extensive introduction. 9 illustrations. 237pp. 554 x 8!4.
23337-5 Pa. $5.95
THE MALLEUS MALEFICARUM OF KRAMER AND SPRENGER, translated
by Montague Summers. Full text of most important witchhunter's "bible," usedby
both Catholics and Protestants. 278pp. 6% x 10. 22802-9 Pa. $10.95
SPANISH STORIES/CUENTOS ESPASIOLES: A Dual-Language Book, Angel
Flores (ed.). Unique format offers 13 great stories in Spanish by Cervantes, Borges,
others. Faithful English translations on facing pages. 352pp. 554 x 8!4.
25399-6 Pa. $8.95
THE CHICAGO WORLD'S FAIR OF 1893: A Photographic Record, Stanley
Appelbaum (ed.). 128 rare photos show 200 buildings, Beaux-Arts architecture,
Midway, original Ferris Wheel, Edison's kinetoscope, more, .'\rchitectural
emphasis; full text. I I6pp. 8!4 X 11. 23990-X Pa. $9.95
OLD QUEENS, N.Y., IN EARLY PHOTOGRAPHS, Vincent F. Scylrinl and
William Asadorian. Over 160 rare photographs of Maspeth, Jamaica, Jack.sou
Heights, and other areas. Vintage views of DeWitt Clinton mansion, 1939 World's
Fair and more. Captions. I92pp. 8^x11. 26358-4 Pa. $12.9.5
CAPTURED BY THE INDIANS: 15 Firsthand Accounts, I750-I870, Frederitk
Drimmer. Astounding true historical accounts of grisly torture, bloody conflicts,
relentless pursuits, miraculous escapes and more, by people who lived to tell the
tale. 384pp. 5% x 8!4. 24901-8 Pa. $7.95
THE WORLD'S GREAT SPEECHES, Lewis Copeland and Lawrence \V. Lamm
(eds.). Vast collection of 278 speeches of Greeks to 1970. Powerful and effective
models; unique look at history. 842pp. 5% x 8!4. 20468-5 Pa. $13.95
THE BOOK OFTHE SWORD, Sir Richard F. Burton. Great Victorian
scholar/adventurer's eloquent, erudite history of the "queen of weapons"—from prehistory to
early Roman Empire. Evolution and development of early swords, variations (sabre,
broadsword, cutlass, scimitar, etc.), much more. 336pp. 6% x 9%. 25434-8 Pa. $8.95

CATALOG OF DOVER BOOKS
AUTOBIOGRAPHY: The Story of My Experiments with Truth, Mohandas K,
Gandhi. Boyhood, legal studies, purification, the growth of the Satyagraha
(nonviolent protest) movement. Critical, inspiring work of the man responsible for
the freedom of India. 480pp. 5H ^ 8H. (USO) 24593-4 Pa. $7.95
CELTIC MYTHS AND LEGENDS, T. W. RoUeston. Masterful retelling of Irish
and Welsh stories and tales. Cuchulain, King Arthur, Deirdre, the Grail, many
more. First paperback edition. 58 full-page illustrations. 512pp. 5% ^ 8!4.
26507-2 Pa. $9.95
THE PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGY, William James. Famous long course
complete, unabridged. Stream of thought, time perception, memory, experimental
methods; great work decades ahead of its time. 94 figures. 1,391pp. 554x8!4. 2-vol.set.
Vol. I: 20381-6 Pa. $12.95
Vol. II: 20382-4 Pa. $12.95
THE WORLD AS WILL AND REPRESENTATION, Arthur Schopenhauer.
Definitive English translation of Schopenhauer's life work, correcting more than
1,000 errors, omissions in earlier translations. Translated by E. F. J. Payne. Total of
1,269pp. 5% X 8!4. 2-vol. set. Vol. 1: 21761-2 Pa. $10.95
Vol. 2: 21762-0 Pa. SI 1.95
MAGIC AND MYSTERY IN TIBET, Madame Alexandra David-Neel. Experiences
among lamas, magicians, sages, sorcerers, Bonpa wizards. A true psychic discovery.
32 illustrations. 321pp. 5?> x 8!4. (USO) 22682-4 Pa. $8.95
THE EGYPTIAN BOOK OF THE DEAD, E. A. Wallis Budge. Complete
reproduction of Ani's papyrus, finest ever found. Full hieroglyphic text, interlinear
transliteration, word-for-word translation, smooth translation. 533pp. 6S4x 9!4.
21866-XPa. $9.95
MATHEMATICS FOR THE NONMATHEMATICIAN, Morris Kline. Detailed,
college-level treatment of mathematics in cultural and historical context, with
numerous exercises. Recommended Reading Lists. Tables. Numerous figures.
641pp. 554x8(4. 24823-2 Pa. $11.95
THEORY OF WING SECTIONS: Including a Summary of Airfoil Data, Ira H.
Abbott and A. E. von Doenhoff. Concise compilation of subsonic aerodynamic
characteristics of NACA wing sections, plus description of theory. 350pp. of tables.
693pp. 5% X m. 60586-8 Pa. $13.95
THE RIME OF THE ANCIENT MARINER, Gusiave Dore, S. T. Coleridge.
Dora's finest work; 34 plates capture moods, subtleties of poem. Flawless full-size
reproductions printed on facing pages with authoritative text of poem. "Beautiful.
Simply beautiful."—Pu6/ii/i<?r'i Weekly. 77pp. 9'/. x 12. 22305-1 Pa. $5.9.5
NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN DESIGNS FOR ARTISTS AND
CRAFTSPEOPLE, Eva Wilson. Over 360 authentic copyright-free designs adapted from
Navajo blankets, Hopi pottery, Sioux buffalo hides, more. Geometries, symbolic
figures, plant and animal motifs, etc. 128pp. 854 x H. (EUK) 25341-4 Pa. $7.95
SCULPTURE: Principles and Practice, Louis Slobodkin. Step-by-step approach
to clay, plaster, metals, stone; classical and modern. 253 drawings, photos. 255pp.
8!<xll. 22960-2 Pa. $9.95

CATALOG OF DOVER BOOKS
THE INFLUENCE OF SEA POWER UPON HISTORY, I660-I783, A. T,
Mahan, Influential classic of naval history and tactics still used as text in war
colleges. First paperback edition, 4 maps, 2-1 battle plans, 640pp, 5H x SH.
25509-3 Pa, S 12,95
THE STORY OF THE TITANIC AS TOLD BY ITS SURVIVORS, Jack
Winocour (ed,). What it was really like. Panic, despair, shocking inefficiency, and a
little heroism. More thrilling than any fictional account, 26 illustrations, 320pp,
554x8(4, 20610-6 Pa. $7,95
FAIRY AND FOLK TALES OFTHE IRISH PEASANTRY, William Butler Yeats
(ed,). Treasury of 64 tales from the twilight world of Celtic myih and legend; "The
Soul Cages," "The Kildare Pooka," "King O'TooIe and his Goose," many more.
Introduction and Notes by W, B, Yeats, 352pp, 5% x 8%. 26941-8 Pa, $7,95
BUDDHIST MAHAYANA TEXTS, E, B, Cowell and Others (eds.). Superb,
accurate translations of basic documents in Mahayana Buddhism, highly important
in history of religions. The Buddha-karitaof Asvaghosha, Larger Sukhavativyuha,
more, 448pp, 5H x 8'^., 25552-2 Pa, $9,95
ONE TWO THREE , , , INFINITY: Facts and Speculations of Science, George
Gamow. Great physicist's fascinating, readable overview of contemporary science:
number theory, relativity, fourth dimension, entropy, genes, atomic structure,
much more, 128 illustrations. Index, 352pp. 5H x 8!^. 25664-2 Pa, $8,95
ENGINEERING IN HISTORY, RichardSheItonKirby,etal. Broad, nontechnical
survey of history's major technological advances: birth of Greek science, industrial
revolution, electricity and applied science, 20th-century automation, much more,
181 illustrations. ", , . excellent . . ."—Isis, Bibliography, vii + 530pp, 5H x 8'4,
26412-2 Pa. $14.95
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^L\TKICES AND LINEAR ALGEBRA, Hans Schneider and George Phillip
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Modern Algebr..\, Seth Warner. (66341-8) $17.95
Adv,\nced Calculus, David V. Widder. (66103-2) $11.95
LiN-EAR Programming and Economic Analysis, Robert Dorfman, Paul A.
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An Introduction to the Calculus of Variations, Charles Fox.
(65499-0) $7.95
Applied Analysis, Cornelius Lanczos. (65656-X) $13.95
Topology, George McCarty. (65G33-0) $8.95
Lectures on Classical Differentij\l Geometry (Second Edition), Dirk
J. Struik. (65609-8) $8.95
Challenging Mathematical Problems with Elementary Solutions,
A.M. Yaglom and LM. Yaglom. (65536-9, 65537-7) Two-volume
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AsY^rpTOTIC E.xpansions of Integral.s, Norman Bleistein and Richard A,
Handelsman. (65082-0) $12.95
Some Theory OF S,\MPLING, W. Edwards Deming. (64684-X) $15,95
Statistical AamsTMENT OF Data, W, Edwards Deming. (64685-8) $8.9.5
Introduction TO Lints^xr Algebra and Differential Equations, John W.
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C.iLCULUs OF Variations with Applications, George M. Ewing.
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Introduction TO Difference Equations, Samuel Goldberg.
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Probabiuty: An Introduction, Samuel Goldberg. (65252-1) $8.95
Group Theory, W. R. Scott. (65377-3) $12.95
An Introduction to Linear Algebra ant) Tensors, M. A. Akivis and V.V.
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Foundations of Modern Analysis, Avner Friedman. (64062-0) $7.95
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